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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">vvRfLkkNwT48F834y4WgBmC</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008001300009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09100109</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008001300009</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica em fase cl&#237;nica e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>Beatriz Piva e</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Torres</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Antonio Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Freitas</surname>
            <given-names>Val&#233;ria Centeno de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>91</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>55</fpage>
      <lpage>62</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica &#233; uma doen&#231;a de origem gen&#233;tica e car&#225;ter familiar, causada por muta&#231;&#245;es em genes codificantes de prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero. Determina hipertrofia ventricular esquerda de grau vari&#225;vel, geralmente difusa, com predominante acometimento do septo interventricular. A ocorr&#234;ncia de formas assintom&#225;ticas com hipertrofia segmentar, de grau leve ou ausente, dificulta o diagn&#243;stico e o rastreamento de formas familiares. A penetr&#226;ncia elevada costuma ser incompleta, o que faz com que 20% a 30% dos adultos carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas n&#227;o expressem o fen&#243;tipo. A suscetibilidade &#224; morte s&#250;bita e a possibilidade de express&#227;o tardia tornam relevante o diagn&#243;stico em fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica. A investiga&#231;&#227;o por meio do ecocardiograma Doppler e da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica adicionada &#224; an&#225;lise detalhada do eletrocardiograma pode contribuir nesse processo. O diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular identifica muta&#231;&#245;es em 60% a 80% dos casos. A complexidade, a demora e o elevado custo, aliados &#224; insuficiente avalia&#231;&#227;o das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo restringem sua aplica&#231;&#227;o de rotina. O aprimoramento dos m&#233;todos de imagem e a introdu&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas moleculares mais simplificadas devem favorecer o diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e possibilitar a futura introdu&#231;&#227;o de medidas terap&#234;uticas que possam impedir ou retardar o desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica familiar</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>25</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica em fase cl&#237;nica e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Beatriz Piva e Mattos; Marco Antonio Rodrigues Torres; Val&#233;ria Centeno de Freitas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Faculdade de Medicina - Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nt">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica &#233; uma doen&#231;a de origem gen&#233;tica e car&#225;ter familiar, causada por muta&#231;&#245;es em genes codificantes de prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero. Determina hipertrofia ventricular esquerda de grau vari&#225;vel, geralmente difusa, com predominante acometimento do septo interventricular. A ocorr&#234;ncia de formas assintom&#225;ticas com hipertrofia segmentar, de grau leve ou ausente, dificulta o diagn&#243;stico e o rastreamento de formas familiares. A penetr&#226;ncia elevada costuma ser incompleta, o que faz com que 20% a 30% dos adultos carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas n&#227;o expressem o fen&#243;tipo. A suscetibilidade &#224; morte s&#250;bita e a possibilidade de express&#227;o tardia tornam relevante o diagn&#243;stico em fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica. A investiga&#231;&#227;o por meio do ecocardiograma Doppler e da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica adicionada &#224; an&#225;lise detalhada do eletrocardiograma pode contribuir nesse processo. O diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular identifica muta&#231;&#245;es em 60% a 80% dos casos. A complexidade, a demora e o elevado custo, aliados &#224; insuficiente avalia&#231;&#227;o das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo restringem sua aplica&#231;&#227;o de rotina. O aprimoramento dos m&#233;todos de imagem e a introdu&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas moleculares mais simplificadas devem favorecer o diagn&#243;stico cl&#237;nico e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e possibilitar a futura introdu&#231;&#227;o de medidas terap&#234;uticas que possam impedir ou retardar o desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica familiar, cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica/diagn&#243;stico.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) caracteriza-se por hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE), identificada na aus&#234;ncia de dilata&#231;&#227;o da c&#226;mara e de qualquer processo cardiovascular ou sist&#234;mico capaz de produzir altera&#231;&#245;es semelhantes<sup>1</sup>. A presen&#231;a de desarranjo celular, fibrose e hipertrofia do mi&#243;cito favorece o desenvolvimento de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e arritmias, fatores que constituem o substrato das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas determinadas pela doen&#231;a<sup>2,3</sup>.</p>
    <p>A CMH representa tema de intensa e prof&#237;cua investiga&#231;&#227;o desde sua descri&#231;&#227;o, h&#225; mais de quatro d&#233;cadas<sup>4</sup>. Constitui a afec&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular de origem gen&#233;tica mais prevalente, acometendo um em cada 500 indiv&#237;duos<sup>5</sup>. Apresenta car&#225;ter familiar, sendo predominante a transmiss&#227;o atrav&#233;s de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica dominante<sup>6</sup>. Mais de 400 muta&#231;&#245;es envolvendo genes que codificam prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero j&#225; foram individualizadas<sup>6,7</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tab. 1</xref>). Os genes mutantes da cadeia pesada da &#946; miosina card&#237;aca e prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina s&#227;o aparentemente respons&#225;veis por 60% a 80% dos casos<sup>6</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-01-0055-00009-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A marcada heterogeneidade molecular, patol&#243;gica e cl&#237;nica confere complexidade ao diagn&#243;stico da CMH. Esse fundamenta-se na demonstra&#231;&#227;o por meio do ecocardiograma Doppler bidimensional ou da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica de HVE predominantemente assim&#233;trica, associada &#224; cavidade normal ou reduzida<sup>1-3</sup>. Formas at&#237;picas com HVE leve, localizada ou n&#227;o-detect&#225;vel, costumam representar desafio, dificultando o rastreamento dos indiv&#237;duos acometidos em fam&#237;lias com a doen&#231;a.</p>
    <p>A CMH constitui a principal causa de morte s&#250;bita entre jovens e atletas, vitimando, entre outros, pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio ou sinais de HVE<sup>2,3</sup>. A suscetibilidade a complica&#231;&#245;es de car&#225;ter devastador, como a morte s&#250;bita, e a possibilidade de progress&#227;o a estados incapacitantes, como a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, t&#234;m motivado a busca por indicadores capazes de identificar a doen&#231;a em est&#225;gios evolutivos iniciais. A introdu&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular trouxe decisiva contribui&#231;&#227;o ao possibilitar a detec&#231;&#227;o de carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas sem doen&#231;a aparente. Por ser a penetr&#226;ncia do fen&#243;tipo incompleta, a HVE deixa de ser documentada por meio do ecocardiograma Doppler em 20% a 30% dos indiv&#237;duos adultos geneticamente acometidos<sup>6,8,9</sup>. Esses poder&#227;o evidenciar predisposi&#231;&#227;o prematura &#224; morte s&#250;bita ou exteriorizar o fen&#243;tipo em etapas tardias, como sucede, respectivamente, nas muta&#231;&#245;es da troponina T e prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina<sup>10,11</sup>. O aprimoramento dos m&#233;todos de imagem para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e a aplica&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular em maior escala dever&#227;o contribuir sensivelmente para a identifica&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a em fase cl&#237;nica e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A CMH afeta ambos os sexos, ocorrendo em distintos grupos raciais e m&#250;ltiplas &#225;reas geogr&#225;ficas<sup>3</sup>. Expressa-se comumente na adolesc&#234;ncia, embora a exterioriza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica possa ser mais precoce ou tardia, ap&#243;s a quinta d&#233;cada<sup>12</sup>. A HVE desenvolve-se habitualmente entre os 13 e os 17 anos, em carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas para a doen&#231;a. O quadro morfol&#243;gico costuma completar-se aos 18 anos, n&#227;o ocorrendo geralmente progress&#227;o da hipertrofia ap&#243;s essa idade<sup>13</sup>. Idosos representam 25% dos casos, dos quais 40% a 50% exibem formas obstrutivas<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>A HVE pode, ocasionalmente, ser evidenciada em neonatos e durante a inf&#226;ncia. Em lactentes, associa-se a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e mortalidade elevada<sup>14</sup>. O diagn&#243;stico diferencial deve ser estabelecido em rela&#231;&#227;o a s&#237;ndromes neuromusculares e metab&#243;licas que podem simular a CMH, como a ataxia de Friedreich, as miopatias mitocondriais, as express&#245;es incompletas das s&#237;ndromes de Noonan e LEOPARD e os rec&#233;m-nascidos de m&#227;es diab&#233;ticas<sup>3</sup>. Em fam&#237;lias com a doen&#231;a, &#233; poss&#237;vel identificar crian&#231;as com idade entre quatro e 12 anos com espessuras parietais do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) aumentadas. Podem corresponder ou n&#227;o a formas malignas, com maior potencial evolutivo e propens&#227;o precoce a morte s&#250;bita<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na CMH, a penetr&#226;ncia do fen&#243;tipo costuma ser elevada, mas &#233; idade e gene-dependente<sup>6</sup>. O desenvolvimento de HVE pode ser observado em adultos carreadores do gene mutante, entre 30 e 60 anos<sup>11,15</sup>. A ocorr&#234;ncia de sintomas e de obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE n&#227;o &#233; freq&#252;ente entre esses indiv&#237;duos<sup>12</sup>. O significado progn&#243;stico dessas condi&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o &#233; ainda bem conhecido, embora assinalada a suscetibilidade a morte s&#250;bita e evolu&#231;&#227;o para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico da CMH &#233; suspeitado pelo surgimento de sintomas, detec&#231;&#227;o de sopros card&#237;acos e anomalias eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas ou, ainda, mediante avalia&#231;&#227;o de fam&#237;lias acometidas. O car&#225;ter familiar &#233; identificado em ao menos 50% dos casos<sup>2,6</sup>. Os crit&#233;rios aplicados para o diagn&#243;stico em fase cl&#237;nica das formas com e sem componente familiar s&#227;o superpon&#237;veis. A aus&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria familiar n&#227;o exclui processo gen&#233;tico. &#201; atribu&#237;da &#224; penetr&#226;ncia incompleta do fen&#243;tipo e &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de muta&#231;&#245;es <italic>de novo</italic>, as quais poder&#227;o ser transmitidas a descendentes<sup>12,16</sup>. Altera&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas registradas ao eletrocardiograma e em m&#233;todos de imagem s&#227;o adotadas como crit&#233;rio para o diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico de adultos com formas familiares (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tab. 2</xref>)<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-01-0055-00009-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A maior parte dos pacientes exibe poucos sintomas ou &#233; verdadeiramente assintom&#225;tica. Outros apresentam grave limita&#231;&#227;o e evoluem para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou desenvolvem morte prematura. A morte s&#250;bita constitui a forma de &#243;bito em 50% a 70% dos casos. Acomete predominantemente adolescentes e adultos com menos de 35 anos, embora possa ocorrer em qualquer faixa et&#225;ria<sup>17</sup>. A incid&#234;ncia anual &#233; de aproximadamente 1% em adultos<sup>18</sup> e 4% em crian&#231;as<sup>19</sup>. O desarranjo celular e a fibrose reparativa adicionados &#224; presen&#231;a de obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE, doen&#231;a da microcircula&#231;&#227;o e exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico produzem instabilidade eletrofisiol&#243;gica e favorecem a g&#234;nese de arritmias fatais, de car&#225;ter prim&#225;rio ou secund&#225;rio &#224; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica<sup>2,14,20</sup>. Em jovens e nas muta&#231;&#245;es do gene da troponina T, com maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; morte s&#250;bita prematura, o desarranjo celular e a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica s&#227;o postulados como fatores determinantes do desenvolvimento de arritmias<sup>10</sup>. Em muta&#231;&#245;es de outros genes, o grau de fibrose &#233; relacionado ao registro de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada e constitui importante substrato arritmog&#234;nico<sup>10,21</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Eletrocardiograma</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O eletrocardiograma &#233; anormal em 75% a 95% dos casos<sup>14</sup>. Altera-se precocemente, antes mesmo da adolesc&#234;ncia, fase em que o ecocardiograma Doppler costuma ser normal<sup>22</sup>. Anomalias eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas tamb&#233;m s&#227;o evidenci&#225;veis, antecedendo o surgimento de HVE nas formas tardias do adulto<sup>15</sup>. S&#227;o considerados crit&#233;rios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos maiores para o diagn&#243;stico: sobrecarga ventricular esquerda, registro de ondas Q profundas &gt; 40 ms na parede &#237;nfero-lateral do VE e invers&#227;o da onda T <underline>&gt;</underline> 3 mm em V3 a V6, D1 e AVL e <underline>&gt;</underline> 5 mm em D2, D3 e AVF<sup>8</sup>. Ondas T negativas gigantes em deriva&#231;&#245;es precordiais s&#227;o t&#237;picas de formas apicais. Sobrecarga ventricular esquerda incide em cerca de 50% dos casos<sup>22</sup>. N&#227;o &#233; observada rela&#231;&#227;o entre a localiza&#231;&#227;o e a distribui&#231;&#227;o da hipertrofia e o padr&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fico, assim como a presen&#231;a de ondas Q patol&#243;gicas n&#227;o expressa a espessura septal<sup>22</sup>. Empastamento inicial do QRS associado a PR curto pode n&#227;o indicar s&#237;ndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White<sup>3</sup>. </p>
    <p>O eletrocardiograma &#233; considerado de valia para o rastreamento de portadores assintom&#225;ticos da doen&#231;a com ecocardiograma normal em fam&#237;lias acometidas<sup>15</sup>. Altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas s&#227;o evidenci&#225;veis em 20% a 50% desses casos e devem ser convenientemente valorizadas, sobretudo na pr&#233;-adolesc&#234;ncia<sup>8,15</sup>. A avalia&#231;&#227;o de carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas para a CMH, os quais n&#227;o apresentam HVE no ecocardiograma Doppler convencional, demonstra que o registro de uma &#250;nica manifesta&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica considerada crit&#233;rio maior deve ser interpretada como diagn&#243;stica, em raz&#227;o de sua reduzida preval&#234;ncia na popula&#231;&#227;o normal<sup>8</sup>. Ao contr&#225;rio, crit&#233;rios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos menores, tais como dist&#250;rbio de condu&#231;&#227;o intraventricular, altera&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular e ondas S profundas em V2, devem ser valorizados com a ressalva de que podem, ocasionalmente, incidir na aus&#234;ncia de cardiopatia<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o por Holter revela dist&#250;rbios do ritmo em aproximadamente 90% dos adultos portadores da doen&#231;a<sup>2</sup>. Extra-s&#237;stoles ventriculares e taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada s&#227;o observadas em 20% a 30% dos casos<sup>23,24</sup>. Bradiarritmias, taquicardias supraventriculares e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial podem preceder o registro de taquicardia ventricular<sup>2</sup>. Epis&#243;dios de car&#225;ter mais repetitivo e prolongado de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada predisp&#245;em &#224; fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular, particularmente antes dos 30 anos<sup>25</sup>. Arritmias ventriculares s&#227;o raras na inf&#226;ncia, adolesc&#234;ncia e entre adultos jovens, mas quando presentes, teriam valor preditivo positivo mais elevado para o desenvolvimento de morte s&#250;bita<sup>26</sup>. Taquicardia ventricular sustentada pode indicar associa&#231;&#227;o com aneurismas apicais do VE ou cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiograma Doppler </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma Doppler tem papel decisivo no diagn&#243;stico da CMH ao possibilitar a identifica&#231;&#227;o das principais anomalias estruturais e funcionais caracter&#237;sticas da doen&#231;a e a marcada diversidade fenot&#237;pica. A HVE varia de leve a grave e de localizada a difusa. N&#227;o h&#225; padr&#227;o morfol&#243;gico verdadeiramente t&#237;pico, embora as formas assim&#233;tricas com predominante envolvimento do septo interventricular e hipertrofia difusa sejam as mais freq&#252;entes<sup>14</sup>. Formas conc&#234;ntricas representariam 1% a 5% dos casos<sup>27,28</sup>. Em casos menos t&#237;picos, a hipertrofia assume outras localiza&#231;&#245;es, restringindo-se a um s&#243; segmento ventricular, tal como a face posterior do septo, a parede livre &#226;ntero-lateral e posterior, ou ainda, &#224;s regi&#245;es apicais do VE<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>O padr&#227;o e a extens&#227;o da HVE guardam rela&#231;&#227;o inversa com a faixa et&#225;ria, mas n&#227;o se associam a g&#234;nero e classe funcional<sup>14</sup>. Adolescentes e adultos jovens costumam demonstrar extrema hipertrofia, com espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas do VE <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm, caracter&#237;stica a qual predisporia &#224; morte s&#250;bita<sup>29</sup>. Medidas entre 15 e 30 mm s&#227;o habituais, configurando distintos graus de acometimento mioc&#225;rdico<sup>14</sup>. Espessuras lim&#237;trofes <underline>&lt;</underline> 15 mm denotam processo incipiente e devem ser distinguidas de estados fisiol&#243;gicos, como a hipertrofia do atleta<sup>2,9,14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Admite-se que qualquer medida possa ser identificada na presen&#231;a do gene mutante, incluindo aquelas consideradas normais<sup>1,8,12</sup>. Em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia, o rastreamento da doen&#231;a em fam&#237;lias acometidas, baseado na determina&#231;&#227;o das espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas do VE, evidencia indubit&#225;vel limita&#231;&#227;o, particularmente na inf&#226;ncia e na pr&#233;-adolesc&#234;ncia. Em investiga&#231;&#227;o recente, escore ecocardiogr&#225;fico calculado pela soma das espessuras parietais em quatro segmentos distintos do VE demonstrou maior acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica, sobretudo entre os mais jovens<sup>30</sup>. Espessuras parietais do VE de 12 mm no septo anterior ou parede posterior ou de 14 mm no septo posterior ou parede livre s&#227;o consideradas crit&#233;rio para o diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico das formas familiares do adulto, quando associadas a moderado movimento anterior sist&#243;lico da valva mitral ou redund&#226;ncia de folhetos<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>H&#225; potencial rela&#231;&#227;o entre o grau de HVE e o gene respons&#225;vel. Muta&#231;&#245;es da cadeia pesada da &#946; miosina card&#237;aca associam-se &#224; doen&#231;a grave e difusa<sup>31</sup>. Nas muta&#231;&#245;es da troponina T, a hipertrofia costuma ser leve ou ausente<sup>10</sup>. As formas causadas pelo gene codificante da prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina expressam-se por espessuras parietais normais do VE em faixa et&#225;ria mais precoce<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma Doppler propicia a distin&#231;&#227;o entre formas obstrutivas e n&#227;o-obstrutivas. A obstru&#231;&#227;o envolve com maior freq&#252;&#234;ncia a via de sa&#237;da do VE, resultando do contato do folheto anterior ou posterior da valva mitral com as por&#231;&#245;es basais do septo interventricular<sup>3,14</sup>. Deformidades associadas da valva mitral podem contribuir para a gera&#231;&#227;o de gradiente suba&#243;rtico. Em 45% dos casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o, o folheto anterior da valva mitral mostra-se alongado ou com inser&#231;&#227;o an&#244;mala, diretamente no m&#250;sculo papilar<sup>27</sup>. O movimento anterior sist&#243;lico da valva mitral, em parte atribu&#237;do ao efeito Venturi, pode determinar insufici&#234;ncia valvular com jato regurgitante posterior<sup>14</sup>. Em menor n&#250;mero de casos, h&#225; obstru&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dio-ventricular por excessiva hipertrofia e mal-alinhamento de m&#250;sculos papilares<sup>27</sup>. </p>
    <p>O grau de obstru&#231;&#227;o, avaliado por meio do Doppler cont&#237;nuo, tem car&#225;ter din&#226;mico, mostrando-se l&#225;bil e vari&#225;vel ante diversos est&#237;mulos e em verifica&#231;&#245;es seriadas. O gradiente sofre altera&#231;&#245;es espont&#226;neas num mesmo indiv&#237;duo e &#233; influenciado pelo volume intravascular, contratilidade e p&#243;s-carga<sup>2,32</sup>. As manobras provocativas carecem de normatiza&#231;&#227;o e incluem Valsalva, inala&#231;&#227;o de nitrito de amilo, potencializa&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-extra-sist&#243;lica, infus&#227;o de dobutamina e exerc&#237;cio<sup>2,28</sup>. Estudo recente, em que pacientes sem obstru&#231;&#227;o suba&#243;rtica em repouso foram avaliados por meio de ecocardiograma Doppler com exerc&#237;cio, demonstrou que formas obstrutivas s&#227;o predominantes e correspondem a 70% dos casos<sup>33</sup>. A presen&#231;a de obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE &#233; considerada preditor independente de evolu&#231;&#227;o &#224; insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. A probabilidade de morte por CMH, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou acidente vascular encef&#225;lico &#233; maior nesses casos<sup>32</sup>. Embora a obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE tenha sido associada a elevado risco de morte s&#250;bita<sup>34</sup>, sua identifica&#231;&#227;o como fator predisponente n&#227;o se encontra plenamente definida<sup>32</sup>. </p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o convencional da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica global do VE, baseada na estimativa da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, revela valores normais ou elevados<sup>3,28</sup>. N&#227;o exclui disfun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til, mais bem documentada pelo Doppler tissular e <italic>strain/strain rate</italic>. Aumento dos di&#226;metros ventriculares com decr&#233;scimo da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e redu&#231;&#227;o das espessuras parietais &#233; evidenciado em 5% a 10% dos pacientes que atingem a maturidade<sup>13,35</sup>. O enchimento diast&#243;lico, analisado pelo Doppler transmitral, demonstra relaxamento anormal do VE, embora quadros restritivos ou padr&#227;o pseudonormal sejam tamb&#233;m registrados<sup>3</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Doppler tissular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma com Doppler tissular &#233; capaz de evidenciar altera&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda que transcendem as informa&#231;&#245;es disponibilizadas pela ecocardiografia Doppler convencional<sup>28,36</sup>. Em pacientes com doen&#231;a manifesta, &#233; poss&#237;vel identificar comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, com velocidades sist&#243;licas (S) inferiores as obtidas em controles normais<sup>37</sup>. Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica longitudinal &#233; observada por meio de retardo e diminui&#231;&#227;o das velocidades precoces (E') e tardias (A'), prolongamento da desacelera&#231;&#227;o regional e de relaxamento isovolum&#233;trico<sup>38</sup>. A rela&#231;&#227;o E mitral/E' anular, capaz de expressar a eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento do VE, &#233; preditora do grau de toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio<sup>39</sup>. &#201; verificada correla&#231;&#227;o entre o E' septal, classe funcional e n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B<sup>40</sup>. </p>
    <p>O Doppler tissular possibilita detectar altera&#231;&#245;es indicativas de assincronia intraventricular esquerda. O &#237;ndice que avalia o retardo sist&#243;lico intraventricular, quando prolongado, denotaria predisposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; taquicardia ventricular<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>O Doppler tissular pode ser aplicado no diagn&#243;stico diferencial com a hipertrofia do atleta. Velocidades sist&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas heterog&#234;neas e reduzidas com assincronia de contra&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o s&#227;o evidenciadas em estados fisiol&#243;gicos, nos quais a fun&#231;&#227;o do VE &#233; normal ou supranormal<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>O m&#233;todo contribui, igualmente, para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de formas pr&#233;-cl&#237;nicas<sup>42-44</sup>. Foi demonstrada redu&#231;&#227;o das velocidades sist&#243;lica (S) e diast&#243;lica precoce (E') em carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas sem HVE em rela&#231;&#227;o a controles normais pareados por idade<sup>42</sup>. O subseq&#252;ente desenvolvimento de HVE em ecocardiogramas seriados demonstra a capacidade do Doppler tissular em identificar indiv&#237;duos geneticamente acometidos com maior propens&#227;o a expressar o fen&#243;tipo<sup>45</sup>. Ainda que os resultados obtidos sejam promissores, o verdadeiro papel do Doppler tissular como preditor do desenvolvimento de HVE somente ser&#225; poss&#237;vel definir por meio de an&#225;lises sistem&#225;ticas abrangendo maior n&#250;mero de fam&#237;lias. Assim como a doen&#231;a pode n&#227;o se exteriorizar tardiamente em raz&#227;o da penetr&#226;ncia incompleta, altera&#231;&#245;es m&#237;nimas da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda podem n&#227;o ser detectadas pelo Doppler tissular<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>
        <italic>Strain e strain rate</italic>
      </bold>
    </p>
    <p>T&#233;cnicas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas mais sens&#237;veis para caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da estrutura e fun&#231;&#227;o do VE compreendem a medida da extens&#227;o e da velocidade de deforma&#231;&#227;o segmentar do mioc&#225;rdio, por meio do <italic>strain</italic> e do <italic>strain rate</italic><sup>46</sup>. A medida do <italic>strain</italic> m&#233;dio-septal longitudinal mostra redu&#231;&#227;o em portadores de CMH, o mesmo sucedendo nas por&#231;&#245;es basais do septo e na parede m&#233;dio-lateral em rela&#231;&#227;o a controles normais<sup>47</sup>. A an&#225;lise do <italic>strain</italic> por meio de imagens bidimensionais demonstra decr&#233;scimo de todos os seus componentes, longitudinal, radial, circunferencial e transversal<sup>48</sup>.</p>
    <p>A determina&#231;&#227;o do <italic>strain/strain rate </italic>teria potencial aplica&#231;&#227;o no diagn&#243;stico de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda em portadores da doen&#231;a e em carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas, fen&#243;tipo-negativos<sup>46</sup>. Sua contribui&#231;&#227;o para a detec&#231;&#227;o da CMH em fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica requer avalia&#231;&#227;o complementar em maior escala. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica possibilita avaliar a morfologia e o desempenho do VE, incluindo a determina&#231;&#227;o da massa e dos volumes ventriculares e a an&#225;lise da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e sist&#243;lica global e regional. A din&#226;mica de fluxo na via de sa&#237;da do VE e o grau de insufici&#234;ncia mitral podem ser, igualmente, aferidos por meio do m&#233;todo<sup>28,49</sup>.</p>
    <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica contribui para a an&#225;lise do padr&#227;o e extens&#227;o da hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, especialmente em casos com envolvimento restrito a um s&#243; segmento do VE<sup>50-52</sup>. Nas formas com hipertrofia apical do VE, mostra n&#237;tida superioridade em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ecocardiograma Doppler<sup>53</sup>. O mesmo acontece em casos com hipertrofia localizada da parede livre &#226;ntero-lateral do VE, em que o ultra-som costuma revelar menor acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica<sup>51</sup>. Na avalia&#231;&#227;o de portadores de HVE maci&#231;a, observa-se maior resolu&#231;&#227;o da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica na determina&#231;&#227;o das espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas em confronto com o ecocardiograma Doppler<sup>51</sup>. Embora apresente inequ&#237;voca contribui&#231;&#227;o na identifica&#231;&#227;o das variantes fenot&#237;picas da CMH, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica n&#227;o substitui o ecocardiograma Doppler na avalia&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica de todos os pacientes com CMH<sup>49,51</sup>.</p>
    <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica permite estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico diferencial com a hipertrofia do atleta mediante a determina&#231;&#227;o de &#237;ndice geom&#233;trico calculado pela rela&#231;&#227;o entre a espessura parietal m&#225;xima do VE e o respectivo &#237;ndice do volume diast&#243;lico final<sup>54</sup>. Mostra-se tamb&#233;m &#250;til na diferencia&#231;&#227;o de formas conc&#234;ntricas com doen&#231;as infiltrativas do mioc&#225;rdio, como a amiloidose card&#237;aca, a qual comparativamente evidencia maior espessamento do septo interatrial e da parede livre do &#225;trio direito e ventr&#237;culo direito<sup>55</sup>. </p>
    <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica avalia a fun&#231;&#227;o segmentar do VE pela determina&#231;&#227;o do espessamento sist&#243;lico e do <italic>strain </italic>circunferencial. Redu&#231;&#227;o do encurtamento circunferencial associada a padr&#227;o anormal de <italic>strain</italic> &#233; observada em segmentos hipertr&#243;ficos<sup>28</sup>. A fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE analisada pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica de contraste poder&#225; ser aplicada na avalia&#231;&#227;o da CMH, mas requer estudos adicionais.</p>
    <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica com gadol&#237;neo possibilita a an&#225;lise do substrato histopatol&#243;gico caracter&#237;stico da doen&#231;a. Evidencia realce tardio em aproximadamente 80% dos casos, envolvendo de 0 a 48% da massa mioc&#225;rdica com distintos padr&#245;es de distribui&#231;&#227;o<sup>56,57</sup>. Guarda rela&#231;&#227;o direta com &#225;reas de fibrose reparativa, em que o col&#225;geno &#233; componente predominante<sup>58</sup>. S&#227;o descritos dois padr&#245;es de distribui&#231;&#227;o: difuso e confluente<sup>56</sup>. O registro de realce tardio tem valor progn&#243;stico na CMH. Sua extens&#227;o relaciona-se a maior predisposi&#231;&#227;o a morte s&#250;bita e dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda progressiva. O padr&#227;o difuso, mais do que o confluente, associa-se &#224; presen&#231;a de dois ou mais fatores de risco para morte s&#250;bita<sup>56</sup>. Quando multifocal, correlaciona-se com maior grau de fibrose e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o mais reduzida<sup>59</sup>. &#193;reas de realce tardio n&#227;o s&#227;o detectadas em carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es g&#234;nicas sem o fen&#243;tipo, sugerindo que a fibrose somente se estabele&#231;a ap&#243;s o surgimento de HVE<sup>57</sup>. Na avalia&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos fen&#243;tipo negativos, evidencia-se em 81% dos casos, imagens compat&#237;veis com anomalias estruturais, de aspecto triangular, car&#225;ter profundo e aspecto brilhante, localizadas nos segmentos basal e m&#233;dio da parede &#237;nfero-septal do VE<sup>60</sup>. Foi observada redu&#231;&#227;o na profundidade dessas imagens, com o aumento das espessuras parietais, o que poderia explicar a aus&#234;ncia de descri&#231;&#227;o correspondente em estudos histopatol&#243;gicos, usualmente restritos a formas com express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica completa. A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica com gadol&#237;neo facilitaria o diagn&#243;stico diferencial com a doen&#231;a de Fabry, equivalente a 4% dos casos diagnosticados como CMH<sup>61</sup>. </p>
    <p>A resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica nuclear com espectroscopia utilizando <sup>31</sup>P seria potencialmente aplic&#225;vel no diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico da CMH. A rela&#231;&#227;o fosfocreatina card&#237;aca/ATP, capaz de expressar anomalias do metabolismo mioc&#225;rdico, mostra redu&#231;&#227;o de 30% em pacientes com CMH, sendo tamb&#233;m documentada na aus&#234;ncia de HVE, ainda que com superposi&#231;&#227;o de resultados em rela&#231;&#227;o a grupo controle normal<sup>62</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica &#233; aplic&#225;vel com o objetivo de identificar o substrato histopatol&#243;gico cujo car&#225;ter menos espec&#237;fico e a distribui&#231;&#227;o focal limitam a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo na investiga&#231;&#227;o de rotina da CMH. Mais recentemente, estudos baseados em necr&#243;psia ou em cora&#231;&#245;es explantados analisaram a inter-rela&#231;&#227;o entre os diversos componentes histopatol&#243;gicos e a sua respectiva associa&#231;&#227;o com desfechos cl&#237;nicos<sup>10,21,63,64</sup>.</p>
    <p>A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica evidencia por meio da microscopia &#243;ptica hipertrofia celular e fibrose em grau vari&#225;vel. &#192; microscopia eletr&#244;nica, as altera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o geralmente inespec&#237;ficas<sup>65</sup>. O desarranjo celular, por sua mais profunda localiza&#231;&#227;o no septo interventricular, com freq&#252;&#234;ncia situa-se em &#225;rea fora do alcance do bi&#243;ptomo<sup>65</sup>. Ocupa em m&#233;dia 30% da parede ventricular esquerda<sup>14</sup>. N&#227;o &#233; patognom&#244;nico, incidindo de forma localizada em cora&#231;&#245;es normais ou em cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas. Sua extens&#227;o &#233; inversamente proporcional &#224; idade<sup>63</sup>. N&#227;o se associa a padr&#245;es espec&#237;ficos de HVE, mas &#233; mais difuso na vig&#234;ncia de espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas <underline>&lt;</underline> 20 mm, fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica preservada e em jovens com morte s&#250;bita prematura<sup>21,63</sup>.</p>
    <p>A fibrose intersticial ou reparativa pode ser focal ou ocupar &#225;reas extensas do mioc&#225;rdio. Apresenta rela&#231;&#227;o direta com a faixa et&#225;ria, espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas do VE e presen&#231;a de dilata&#231;&#227;o da c&#226;mara<sup>63</sup>. &#201; evidenciada em maior grau em pacientes que evoluem para morte s&#250;bita em faixa et&#225;ria mais avan&#231;ada<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>O comprometimento da microcircula&#231;&#227;o caracteriza-se por espessamento parietal por hiperplasia miointimal e conseq&#252;ente redu&#231;&#227;o do l&#250;men das pequenas art&#233;rias intramurais, sendo mais acentuado no septo interventricular<sup>65</sup>. Estaria implicado no desenvolvimento de fibrose reparativa e na evolu&#231;&#227;o &#224; forma dilatada<sup>14</sup>. &#201; achado precoce, incidindo mesmo nos muito jovens<sup>63</sup>. </p>
    <p>A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica pode ser aplicada para o diagn&#243;stico diferencial com HVE de outra etiologia, tumores do septo interventricular e afec&#231;&#245;es infiltrativas, como a amiloidose card&#237;aca. Processos infiltrativos do mioc&#225;rdio podem ser clinicamente indistingu&#237;veis da CMH, como a doen&#231;a de Pompe, que afeta crian&#231;as<sup>1</sup>. Na doen&#231;a de Fabry, dist&#250;rbio recessivo lisoss&#244;mico ligado ao cromossoma <italic>X</italic>, potencialmente cur&#225;vel, a defici&#234;ncia de &#945;-galactosidase A associa-se &#224; deposi&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de glicoesfingol&#237;pides em homens em faixa et&#225;ria tardia<sup>66</sup>. Muta&#231;&#245;es em genes relacionados ao metabolismo celular, recentemente descritas, mimetizam as formas familiares da CMH. O gene mutante da subunidade reguladora y<sup>2</sup> da proteinoquinase AMP-ativada (PRKAG2) d&#225; origem &#224; doen&#231;a de armazenamento em que a s&#237;ndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White e a doen&#231;a precoce do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o aliam-se &#224; pseudo-hipertrofia ventricular esquerda em grau vari&#225;vel<sup>67</sup>. Muta&#231;&#245;es da prote&#237;na-2 associada &#224; membrana lisoss&#244;mica (LAMP-2) resultam na doen&#231;a de Danon com pseudo-hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica maci&#231;a acompanhada por s&#237;ndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White<sup>68</sup>. Em ambas, a an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica revela aus&#234;ncia de desarranjo celular e presen&#231;a de vac&#250;olos contendo glicog&#234;nio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o eletrofisiol&#243;gica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A contribui&#231;&#227;o do estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico com estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular programada para avalia&#231;&#227;o do substrato arritmog&#234;nico da CMH n&#227;o se encontra ainda definida. Embora alguma rela&#231;&#227;o entre indutibilidade e progn&#243;stico tenha sido demonstrada, a acur&#225;cia preditiva &#233; discut&#237;vel<sup>2,14,20</sup>. Seria aplic&#225;vel em pacientes com s&#237;ncope inexplicada<sup>2</sup>. O eletrocardiograma de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o apresenta igualmente reduzida acur&#225;cia preditiva<sup>20</sup>. A altern&#226;ncia da onda T tem sido considerada preditora do desenvolvimento de arritmias ventriculares e morte s&#250;bita. Sua contribui&#231;&#227;o para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco na CMH &#233; possivelmente limitada, necessitando avalia&#231;&#227;o complementar<sup>69</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise do DNA constitui o m&#233;todo mais definitivo para a identifica&#231;&#227;o da CMH em fase cl&#237;nica e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica. O substrato molecular heterog&#234;neo, representado por centenas de muta&#231;&#245;es em m&#250;ltiplos genes, confere complexidade ao diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico e limita sua aplica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de rotina. A marcada heterogeneidade al&#233;lica aliada &#224; baixa preval&#234;ncia individual das muta&#231;&#245;es dificulta a avalia&#231;&#227;o das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo. H&#225; consider&#225;vel varia&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica inter e intrafamiliar, atribu&#237;da &#224; a&#231;&#227;o de agentes modificantes, ambientais ou gen&#233;ticos, e &#224; possibilidade de incidir mais de uma muta&#231;&#227;o em um ou mais genes<sup>6,16</sup>. </p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular tem aplica&#231;&#227;o decisiva na avalia&#231;&#227;o de formas familiares, particularmente naquelas com hist&#243;ria de morte s&#250;bita ou express&#227;o cl&#237;nica tardia<sup>2,6,7</sup>. Possibilita a precoce libera&#231;&#227;o dos membros verdadeiramente normais e o seguimento cl&#237;nico dos carreadores de muta&#231;&#245;es sem doen&#231;a aparente. Estudos prospectivos fazem-se ainda necess&#225;rios com o objetivo de elucidar se esses indiv&#237;duos ir&#227;o necessariamente expressar o fen&#243;tipo. O diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;-cl&#237;nico pode apresentar conseq&#252;&#234;ncias psicol&#243;gicas adversas, particularmente em crian&#231;as e adolescentes. Nesse contexto, o aconselhamento gen&#233;tico multidisciplinar &#233; considerado essencial.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular permite diferenciar outras formas de HVE e fenoc&#243;pias, constitu&#237;das por doen&#231;as metab&#243;licas de armazenamento clinicamente indistingu&#237;veis da verdadeira CMH<sup>66-68</sup>. </p>
    <p>A descri&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es malignas fundamenta a aplica&#231;&#227;o da an&#225;lise g&#234;nica na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita. Estudos iniciais baseados na avalia&#231;&#227;o de grandes <italic>pedigrees</italic>, relacionam aos genes mutantes, determinados fen&#243;tipos e individualizam muta&#231;&#245;es de bom e mau progn&#243;stico<sup>7,10,11</sup>. Investiga&#231;&#245;es mais recentes estabeleceram novas observa&#231;&#245;es sobre o perfil cl&#237;nico-gen&#233;tico da CMH, revelando fen&#243;tipos menos espec&#237;ficos e menor preval&#234;ncia de muta&#231;&#245;es malignas<sup>31,70,71</sup>. Para fins de avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica, &#233; ainda necess&#225;rio ampliar a an&#225;lise das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo, incluindo fam&#237;lias mais numerosas, n&#227;o-relacionadas e com maior n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos acometidos<sup>7,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>O custo elevado e a demora na obten&#231;&#227;o de resultados t&#234;m restringido o diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular a centros de pesquisa. Por meio de <italic>SSCP</italic>, &#233; poss&#237;vel o mapeamento de muta&#231;&#245;es em 60% a 80% dos casos<sup>6</sup>. A introdu&#231;&#227;o de testes automatizados com seq&#252;enciamento direto do DNA favorece a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o em escala cl&#237;nica, ao possibilitar o rastreamento de at&#233; oito genes sarcom&#233;ricos de forma mais r&#225;pida, mas ainda onerosa<sup>7,12</sup>. H&#225; possibilidade de falso-negativos pela ocorr&#234;ncia de muta&#231;&#245;es em genes n&#227;o avaliados.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico-molecular dever&#225; favorecer a implementa&#231;&#227;o de medidas que possam impedir ou retardar a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a, entre as quais a terapia g&#234;nica. A pluralidade dos dist&#250;rbios estruturais e funcionais envolvendo as prote&#237;nas contr&#225;teis tem dificultado a introdu&#231;&#227;o de terap&#234;utica efetiva com esse objetivo. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A CMH constitui doen&#231;a cujo substrato gen&#233;tico-molecular heterog&#234;neo e marcada diversidade fenot&#237;pica conferem complexidade ao diagn&#243;stico em fase cl&#237;nica e pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica. M&#233;todos de imagem mais resolutivos e a assimila&#231;&#227;o &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica de t&#233;cnicas moleculares acess&#237;veis dever&#227;o favorecer o diagn&#243;stico precoce e a futura ado&#231;&#227;o de medidas capazes de interferir com o desenvolvimento de HVE e a evolu&#231;&#227;o a morte s&#250;bita.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="nt" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Beatriz Piva e Mattos </p>
        <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350/2060 </p>
        <p> 90035-903 - Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="bpmattos@cardiol.br">bpmattos@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 26/04/07; revisado recebido em 23/11/07; aceito em 10/01/08.</p>
  </body>
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        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Diagnostic evaluation of hipertrophic cardiomyopathy in its clinical and preclinical phases</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a familial, genetic disease caused by mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins. It is characterized by various deGrees of left ventricular hypertrophy, usually diffuse, predominantly involving the interventricular septum. The asymptomatic forms with mild or no segmental hypertrophy makes it difficult to establish the diagnosis and screening for familial forms. Its high penetrance is often incomplete and, as a result, 20% to 30% of adults who carry disease-causing gene mutations do not express the phenotype. The susceptibility to sudden death and likelihood of late expression makes establishing a preclinical diagnosis all the more important. The use of Doppler echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging, in conjunction with a detailed ECG analysis, may be useful in this process. Molecular genetic studies can identify mutations in 60% to 80% of the cases. However, its complex, time-consuming and costly nature, coupled with an inadequate assessment of genotype-phenotype relationships, limits its routine application. Major advances in imaging methods and the introduction of more simplified molecular techniques may contribute to clinical and preclinical diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, in addition to allowing implementation of therapeutic strategies to prevent or delay the development of the disease.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic, familial</kwd>
        <kwd>hypertrophy, left ventricular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="tx-body2"/>Diagnostic evaluation of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in its clinical and preclinical phases</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Beatriz Piva e Mattos; Marco Antonio Rodrigues Torres; Val&#233;ria Centeno de Freitas</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a familial, genetic disease caused by mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins. It is characterized by various deGrees of left ventricular hypertrophy, usually diffuse, predominantly involving the interventricular septum. The asymptomatic forms with mild or no segmental hypertrophy makes it difficult to establish the diagnosis and screening for familial forms. Its high penetrance is often incomplete and, as a result, 20% to 30% of adults who carry disease-causing gene mutations do not express the phenotype. The susceptibility to sudden death and likelihood of late expression makes establishing a preclinical diagnosis all the more important. The use of Doppler echocardiography and magnetic resonance imaging, in conjunction with a detailed ECG analysis, may be useful in this process. Molecular genetic studies can identify mutations in 60% to 80% of the cases. However, its complex, time-consuming and costly nature, coupled with an inadequate assessment of genotype-phenotype relationships, limits its routine application. Major advances in imaging methods and the introduction of more simplified molecular techniques may contribute to clinical and preclinical diagnosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, in addition to allowing implementation of therapeutic strategies to prevent or delay the development of the disease.</p>
      <p><bold>Key Words:</bold> Cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic/diagnosis; cardiomyopathy, hypertrophic, familial; hypertrophy, left ventricular</p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is characterized by left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) in the absence of chamber dilation and any other cardiovascular or systemic condition capable of producing similar changes<sup>1</sup>. The presence of cellular disarray, fibrosis, and myocyte hypertrophy contributes to the development of diastolic dysfunction, myocardial ischemia, and arrhythmias, which are the substrate of the disease&#146;s clinical manifestations<sup>2,3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Since it was first described, more than four decades ago, HCM has been a subject of intense and fruitful investigation<sup>4</sup>. It is the most prevalent genetic cardiovascular disease, affecting one in every 500 individuals<sup>5</sup>. This is a familial disease with predominantly autosomal dominant pattern of inheritance<sup>6</sup>. More than 400 mutations in genes encoding sarcomeric proteins have already been identified<sup>6,7</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>). Mutations in the &#946;-myosin heavy chain (MYH7) and myosin-binding protein C (MYBPC3) genes seem to account for 60% to 80% of the cases<sup>6</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-01-0055-00009-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The great molecular, pathological, and clinical heterogeneity of HCM complicates its diagnosis. Clinical diagnosis is based on predominantly asymmetric LVH associated with normal or reduced cavity on two-dimensional Doppler echocardiography or magnetic resonance imaging<sup>1-3</sup>. Atypical forms with mild, localized or nondetectable LVH are usually challenging, making screening for affected individuals more difficult in families known to carry the disease.</p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is the most common cause of sudden death in young people and athletes, including asymptomatic patients without prior diagnosis or signs of LVH<sup>2,3</sup>. The susceptibility to devastating complications, such as sudden death, and progression to disabling conditions, such as heart failure, have prompted a search for indicators capable of identifying the disease at earlier stages. The advent of molecular genetic diagnosis has significantly contributed to the detection of gene mutation carriers without evidence of disease. Because of the incomplete phenotypic penetrance of HCM, Doppler echocardiography fails to detect LVH in 20% to 30% of the genetically affected adult patients<sup>6,8,9</sup>. These individuals may show premature predisposition to sudden death or develop the phenotype later in life, as it is the case with mutations in troponin T and cardiac myosin-binding protein-C genes, respectively<sup>10,11</sup>. Improvements in imaging methods for assessing left ventricular function and larger scale use of molecular genetic diagnosis may contribute substantially to the identification of the disease in its clinical and preclinical phases.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical features</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy affects both genders, occurring in patients of different racial backgrounds and in multiple geographic areas<sup>3</sup>. It usually develops during adolescence, although its clinical manifestations may appear earlier or later, after the fifth decade of life<sup>12</sup>. Typically, HCM occurs between the ages 13 and 17 in carriers of HCM-causing gene mutations. Morphological features are usually complete at the age of 18, and there is no progression of left ventricular hypertrophy after this age<sup>13</sup>. The elderly represent 25% of the cases, of which 40% to 50% have obstructive forms of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy<sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>Occasionally, LVH can be present in neonates and children. In infants, it is associated with heart failure and high mortality rates<sup>14</sup>. Differential diagnosis should include neuromuscular and metabolic syndromes, which can simulate HCM, such as Friedreich&#146;s ataxia, mitochondrial myopathies, incomplete expressions of Noonan and LEOPARD syndromes, and infants born to diabetic mothers<sup>3</sup>. In families affected by the disease, it is possible to identify children between 4 and 12 years of age with thickened left ventricular (LV) walls. These may or may not correspond to malignant forms, with greater potential for disease progression and early tendency to sudden death<sup>12</sup>. </p>
      <p>HCM phenotypic penetrance is usually high, but it is age- and gene-dependent<sup>6</sup>. The development of HCM may be observed in adults harboring the mutant gene, between the ages of 30 and 60<sup>11,15</sup>. The presence of symptoms and LV outflow tract obstruction is not frequent among these individuals<sup>12</sup>. The prognostic significance of these conditions remains unclear, despite a marked susceptibility to sudden death and progression to heart failure<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The diagnosis of HCM should be suspected in the presence of symptoms, heart murmurs and ECG abnormalities, or even by family screening. At least 50% of the cases are familial<sup>2,6</sup>. Diagnostic criteria for familial and nonfamilial HCM in its clinical phase overlap. The absence of family history does not rule out a genetic etiology. It is a disease of incomplete phenotypic penetrance, and <italic>de novo </italic>mutations can be transmitted to offspring<sup>12,16</sup>. Minimal changes in electrocardiogram and imaging modalities are adopted as criteria for preclinical diagnosis of adults with familial HCM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">table 2</xref>)<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-91-01-0055-00009-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Most patients are mildly symptomatic or completely asymptomatic. Others have severe limitation and progress to heart failure or die prematurely. Sudden death is reported in 50% to 70% of the patients, especially adolescents and adults younger than 35 years of age, although it may occur at any age<sup>17</sup>. The annual incidence of HCM is approximately 1% in adults<sup>18</sup> and 4% in children<sup>19</sup>. Cellular disarray and reparative fibrosis, together with LV outflow tract obstruction, microcirculatory disease, and physical exercise, produce electrophysiological instability and favor the genesis of fatal arrhythmias, either as a primary disorder or secondary to myocardial ischemia<sup>2,14,20</sup>. In young people and in cardiac troponin T gene mutations, with greater predisposition to premature sudden death, cell disarray and myocardial ischemia are regarded as determinants in the development of fatal arrhythmias<sup>10</sup>. In other gene mutations, the degree of fibrosis is related to nonsustained ventricular tachycardia, being an important arrhythmogenic substrate<sup>10,21</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Electrocardiogram</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The electrocardiogram is abnormal in 75% to 95% of the patients<sup>14</sup>. These changes are seen early, even before adolescence, when Doppler echocardiogram is usually normal<sup>22</sup>. In adult-onset hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, ECG abnormalities may precede the appearance of LV hypertrophy<sup>15</sup>. The following are considered major electrocardiographic diagnostic criteria: left ventricular overload, deep Q-waves &gt; 40 ms in the LV inferolateral wall, and T-wave inversion <underline>&gt;</underline> 3mm in V3-V6, D1 and aVl and <underline>&gt;</underline> 5mm in D2, D3 and aVf<sup>8</sup>. Giant negative T-waves in precordial leads are typical of apical HCM. Left ventricular overload occurs in 50% of the cases<sup>22</sup>. There is no relationship between location and distribution of hypertrophy and the electrocardiographic pattern; likewise, the presence of pathologic Q-waves does not express septal thickness<sup>22</sup>. Initial slurring of the QRS complex associated with a short PR interval may be indicative of Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Electrocardiogram is a valuable tool for screening asymptomatic carriers of the disease without echocardiographic abnormalities in affected families<sup>15</sup>. Electrocardiographic changes are seen in 20% to 50% of these cases and should be appropriately evaluated, particularly during preadolescence<sup>8,15</sup>. Assessment of carriers of HCM-causing mutant genes without LVH on conventional Doppler echocardiogram shows that the presence of a single major electrocardiographic criterion should be interpreted as diagnostic, considering its low prevalence in the general population<sup>8</sup>. On the other hand, it must be kept in mind that minor electrocardiographic criteria, such as interventricular conduction disturbances, minor changes in ventricular repolarization, and deep S-waves in lead V2, may occasionally occur in the absence of heart disease<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p> Holter ECG monitoring shows rhythm disturbances in 90% of the adults affected by the disease<sup>2</sup>. Ventricular extrasystoles and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia are found in 20% to 30% of the patients<sup>23,24</sup>. Bradyarrhythmias, supraventricular tachycardias, and atrial fibrillation may precede the development of ventricular tachycardia<sup>2</sup>. Repetitive, prolonged episodes of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia predispose to ventricular fibrillation, particularly in patients younger than 30<sup>25</sup>. Ventricular arrhythmias are rarely seen in children, adolescents and young adults, but when present they have a higher positive predictive value for sudden death<sup>26</sup>. Sustained ventricular tachycardia may indicate association with LV apical aneurysms or ischemic heart disease<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Doppler echocardiogram </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Doppler echocardiogram plays a decisive role in the diagnosis of HCM, since it identifies major structural and functional changes typical of the disease, as well as a wide phenotypic diversity. Left ventricular hypertrophy ranges from mild to severe, and from localized to diffuse. No morphological pattern of LVH is regarded as truly typical, although asymmetric forms with predominant involvement of the interventricular septum and diffuse hypertrophy are the most frequent<sup>14</sup>. Concentric forms represent 1% to 5% of the cases<sup>27,28</sup>. Less typically, hypertrophy can be confined to a single ventricular segment, such as the posterior portion of the septum or the anterolateral and posterior free walls, or even LV apical regions<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p> The extent and pattern of LVH are inversely correlated with age, and are not associated with gender and functional class<sup>14</sup>. Adolescents and young adults often have extreme hypertrophy, with LV wall thickness <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm, which predisposes to sudden death<sup>29</sup>. Measurements ranging from 15 to 30 mm are common, revealing different degrees of myocardial involvement<sup>14</sup>. Borderline thicknesses <underline>&lt;</underline> 15 mm denote an incipient process and should be differentiated from physiological states, such as athlete&#146;s heart<sup>2,9,14</sup>. </p>
      <p>Any value for LV wall thickness may be identified in the presence of a mutant gene, even those regarded as normal<sup>1,8,12</sup>. Consequently, screening of families affected by HCM based on LV maximal wall thickness is obviously limited, particularly during childhood and preadolescence. In a recent study, an echocardiographic score calculated as the sum of wall thicknesses obtained in four different LV segments has been shown to be more accurate, especially among younger people<sup>30</sup>. Left ventricular wall thicknesses of 12 mm in the anterior septum or posterior wall or 14 mm in the posterior septum or free wall are regarded as criterion for the preclinical diagnosis of adult familial forms, when associated with moderate mitral valve systolic anterior motion (SAM) or redundant valve leaflets<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>There is a potential relationship between the degree of LVH and the responsible gene. Mutations in the gene encoding the &#946;-myosin heavy chain are associated with diffuse, severe disease<sup>31</sup>. In troponin T mutations, hypertrophy is usually mild or absent<sup>10</sup>. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by myosin-binding protein C gene mutations is associated with normal LV wall thickness at a younger age<sup>11</sup>. </p>
      <p>Doppler echocardiogram allows a distinction to be made between obstructive and non-obstructive forms of HCM. Obstruction affects more often LV outflow tract, due to the anterior or posterior mitral valve leaflet making contact with the basal portions of the interventricular septum<sup>3,14</sup>. Mitral valve deformities may contribute to a subaortic gradient. In 45% of the cases of obstructive HCM, the anterior mitral leaflet is elongated or has an anomalous insertion directly into the papillary muscle<sup>27</sup>. The systolic anterior motion (SAM) of the mitral valve, partly attributed to the Venturi effect, may lead to valvular regurgitation, with the regurgitant jet directed posteriorly<sup>14</sup>. Less frequently, there is mid-ventricular obstruction due to excessive papillary muscle hypertrophy and malalignment<sup>27</sup>. </p>
      <p>The degree of obstruction, assessed by continuous Doppler, is dynamic, changing in response to several stimuli and in serial measurements. The gradient changes spontaneously in a same individual, being influenced by intravascular volume, contractility, and afterload<sup>2,32</sup>. Provocative maneuvers lack standardization and include Valsalva, amyl nitrite inhalation, post-extrasystole potentiation, dobutamine infusion, and exercise<sup>2,28</sup>. A recent study, in which patients without subaortic obstruction under rest conditions were assessed by exercise Doppler echocardiography, has shown predominance of obstructive HCM, corresponding to 70% of the patients<sup>33</sup>. The presence of LV outflow tract obstruction is regarded as an independent predictor of progression to heart failure. The likelihood of death from HCM, heart failure, or stroke is higher in these cases<sup>32</sup>. While LV outflow tract obstruction was associated with elevated risk of sudden death<sup>34</sup>, its role as a predisposing factor is not well established yet<sup>32</sup>. </p>
      <p>Conventional assessment of global LV systolic function, based on estimated ejection fraction, shows normal or elevated values<sup>3,28</sup>. It does not exclude contractile dysfunction, which is better documented by tissue Doppler and strain/strain rate imaging. Left ventricular enlargement with decreased ejection fraction and wall thinning occurs in 5% to 10% of patients who reach maturity<sup>13,35</sup>. Assessment of diastolic filling using transmitral Doppler shows abnormal LV relaxation, even though restrictive or pseudonormal filling patterns are also found<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Tissue Doppler </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Tissue Doppler echocardiography is more sensitive than standard Doppler echocardiography for detecting minor changes in left ventricular function<sup>28,36</sup>. In patients with overt hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, it can detect left ventricular functional impairment with systolic velocities (S) lower than that obtained in normal controls<sup>37</sup>. Long-axis diastolic dysfunction is observed by delayed and reduced early (E&#146;) and late (A&#146;) velocities, as well as prolonged regional deceleration and isovolumic relaxation times<sup>38</sup>. </p>
      <p>The E/E&#146; ratio, which can reflect increased LV filling pressure, predicts the degree of exercise tolerance<sup>39</sup>. There is a correlation between septal E&#146;, functional class, and plasma levels of B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP)<sup>40</sup>. </p>
      <p>Tissue Doppler imaging permits the detection of changes indicative of left intraventricular asynchrony. Prolonged intraventricular systolic delay indicates predisposition to ventricular tachycardia<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>Tissue Doppler may be useful in the differential diagnosis between hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and athlete&#146;s heart. Heterogeneous and reduced systolic and diastolic velocities with asynchrony of contraction are not seen in physiologic states, in which LF function is normal or supernormal<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>This method also enables identification of preclinical HCM<sup>42-44</sup>. Systolic (Sa) and early diastolic (Ea) velocities measured by tissue Doppler were reported to be lower in mutation carriers without LVH than in age-matched normal controls<sup>42</sup>. The subsequent development of LVH in serial echocardiography demonstrates that tissue Doppler is effective in identifying genetically affected patients who are more likely to express the HCM phenotype<sup>45</sup>. Despite the promising results obtained so far, only systematic studies involving a larger number of families may define the true role of tissue Doppler as a predictor of LVH development. Just as the disease may not manifest itself later in life because of the incomplete penetrance, minor changes in left ventricular function may not be detected by tissue Doppler<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Strain and strain rate </bold>
      </p>
      <p>More sensitive echocardiographic techniques for characterizing LV structure and function include measurement of the extent and rate of segmental myocardial deformation using strain and strain rate imaging<sup>46</sup>. Midseptal longitudinal strain is decreased in HMC patients, the same being true for the basal portions of the septum and mid-lateral wall, compared with normal controls<sup>47</sup>. Two-dimensional strain analysis shows a decrease in all strain components: longitudinal, radial, circumferential, and transverse<sup>48</sup>. </p>
      <p>Strain/strain rate measurement may be useful in the diagnosis of left ventricular dysfunction both in HCM individuals and mutation carriers (phenotype-negative)<sup>46</sup>. Larger studies are needed to assess its effectiveness in detecting HCM at a preclinical stage. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Magnetic resonance imaging</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides information on LV morphology and performance, including ventricular mass and volumes, in addition to global and regional diastolic and systolic function. Flow dynamics in the LV outflow tract and the degree of mitral regurgitation can also be determined<sup>28,49</sup>. It also shows the extent and distribution of myocardial hypertrophy, especially when it is limited to a single LV segment<sup>50-52</sup>. This imaging modality is clearly superior to Doppler echocardiography for diagnosing LV apical hypertrophy<sup>53</sup>, as well as hypertrophy localized in the anterolateral LV free wall, for which ultrasound has shown less diagnostic accuracy<sup>51</sup>. In patients with massive LVH, magnetic resonance offers higher resolution than Doppler echocardiography in assessing maximal wall thickness<sup>51</sup>. Despite its undeniable role in the identification of phenotypic variants of HCM, it does not replace Doppler echocardiography in the morphological assessment of all patients with HCM<sup>49,51</sup>. </p>
      <p>Magnetic resonance may establish the differential diagnosis with athlete&#146;s heart by determining the geometric index, which is calculated as maximal LV end-diastolic wall thickness to LV end-diastolic volume index ratio<sup>54</sup>. It can also differentiate between concentric hypertrophy cardiomyopathy and infiltrative myocardial diseases, such as amyloidosis, characterized by an increase in interatrial septal thickness, as well as in right atrial and right ventricular free wall thickness<sup>55</sup>.</p>
      <p>Left ventricular segmental function is assessed by measurement of systolic wall thickening and circumferential strain. Reduced circumferential shortening associated with an abnormal strain pattern is found in hypertrophied segments<sup>28</sup>. Left ventricular diastolic function measured by contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance may be used to assess HCM, but warrants additional studies.</p>
      <p>The histopathological substrate of the disease can be analyzed by gadolinium-enhanced MRI. Late enhancement is found in 80% of the patients, involving 0 to 48% of myocardial mass with different patterns of distribution<sup>56,57</sup>. It is directly related to areas of reparative fibrosis, in which collagen is the predominant component<sup>58</sup>. Two patterns of distribution are described: diffuse and confluent<sup>56</sup>. Late enhancement has prognostic value in HCM. Its extent is associated with greater predisposition to sudden death and progressive left ventricular dilation. The diffuse pattern, more than the confluent, is associated with the presence of at least two risk factors for sudden death<sup>56</sup>. When multifocal, it is correlated with a greater degree of fibrosis and decreased ejection fraction<sup>59</sup>. Areas of late enhancement were not detected in mutation carriers without the HCM phenotype, suggesting that fibrosis only develops after appearance of LV hypertrophy<sup>57</sup>. In 81% of the phenotype-negative subjects, MRI revealed the presence of triangular, deep, bright structural abnormalities in the basal and mid segments of the LV inferoseptal wall<sup>60</sup>. The depth of these images decreased with increased wall thickness, which may explain the absence of such a description in histopathological studies, usually restricted to forms with complete phenotypic expression. Gadolinium-enhanced MRI may facilitate the differential diagnosis with Fabry disease, which accounts for 4% of patients diagnosed with HCM<sup>61</sup>. </p>
      <p>Phosphorus-31 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy may be potentially used in the preclinical diagnosis of HCM. The cardiac phosphocreatine-to-ATP ratio, which can reflect abnormalities in myocardial metabolism, is 30% lower in HCM patients, even in the absence of LVH, despite the overlapping results with the normal control group<sup>62</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Endomyocardial biopsy </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Endomyocardial biopsy is performed to identify the histopathological substrate of the disease, the less specific feature and focal distribution of which limit its use in routine screening for HCM. More recently, studies based on necropsy or in explanted hearts have analyzed the interrelation between several histopathological components and their respective association with clinical outcomes<sup>10,21,63,64</sup>.</p>
      <p>Endomyocardial biopsy, using light microscopy, shows various degrees of cellular hypertrophy and fibrosis. On electron microscopy, morphological changes are usually nonspecific<sup>65</sup>. Cellular disarray, lying deep within the interventricular septum, is often beyond the reach of the bioptome<sup>65</sup>, occupying approximately 30% of the left ventricular wall<sup>14</sup>. It is not pathognomonic, affecting, in a localized form, subjects with normal hearts or with congenital heart diseases. Its extension is inversely related to age<sup>63</sup>. Cellular disarray is not associated with specific LVH patterns, but is more diffuse in the presence of maximal wall thickness <underline>&lt;</underline> 20 mm, preserved systolic function, and young patients with sudden premature death<sup>21,63</sup>.</p>
      <p>Interstitial or reparative fibrosis may be focal or occupy extensive areas of the myocardium, and it is directly related to age, maximal LV wall thickness, and the presence of a dilated chamber<sup>63</sup>. Fibrosis is more severe in patients who progress to sudden death at a more advanced age<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>Microcirculation impairment is characterized by wall thickening due to myointimal hyperplasia and the ensuing luminal narrowing of small intramural arteries, being more pronounced in the interventricular septum<sup>65</sup>. It is implicated in the development of reparative fibrosis and progression to dilated hypertrophic cardiomyopathy<sup>14</sup>. This is an early finding that affects even the very young<sup>63</sup>.</p>
      <p>Endomyocardial biopsy may be used for the differential diagnosis with LVH of other etiologies, interventricular septal tumors, and infiltrative diseases, such as cardiac amyloidosis. Myocardial infiltrative processes may be clinically indistinguishable from HCM, such as Pompe disease, which affects children<sup>1</sup>. In Fabry disease, an X-linked recessive lysosomal disorder, potentially treatable, deficiency of &#945;-galactosidase A is associated with glycosphingolipid deposition in the myocardium in older men<sup>66</sup>. Mutations in genes related to cell metabolism, described recently, mimic familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Mutations in the gene encoding the &#946;<sup>2</sup> regulatory subunit of the AMP-activated protein kinase (PRKAG2) cause storage disease, in which Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome and premature conduction disease are associated with varying degrees of pseudo ventricular hypertrophy<sup>67</sup>. Mutations in the lysosome-associated membrane protein-2 (LAMP2) result in Danon disease, with massive myocardial hypertrophy accompanied by Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome<sup>68</sup>. In both diseases, histopathological examination reveals lack of cellular disarray and presence of glycogen-containing vacuoles.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Electrophysiological studies</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The role of electrophysiological studies (EPS) using programmed ventricular stimulation to assess the arrhythmogenic substrate of HCM has not yet been established. Although some relationship has been demonstrated between inducibility and prognosis, its predictive accuracy is debatable<sup>2,14,20</sup>. It may be helpful in patients with unexplained syncope<sup>2</sup>. High resolution ECG has low predictive accuracy as well<sup>20</sup>. T-wave alternans is regarded as predictive of ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death. Its contribution to risk stratification in HCM may be limited and needs further evaluation<sup>69</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Molecular genetic diagnosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>DNA analysis is the most definitive method for identifying HCM in its clinical and preclinical phases. The heterogeneous molecular substrate, represented by hundreds of mutations in multiple genes, adds complexity to the genetic diagnosis and limits its use in routine clinical practice. Because of the marked allelic heterogeneity, together with low individual prevalence of mutations, it is difficult to assess the genotype-phenotype relationship. The significant inter- and intrafamilial phenotypic variability is attributed to the action of modifying agents, either environmental or genetic, and to the likelihood of occurring more than one mutation in one or more genes<sup>6,16</sup>. </p>
      <p>Molecular genetic diagnosis is a valuable tool for assessing familial forms of the disease, particularly those associated with sudden death or late clinical expression<sup>2,6,7</sup>. It enables the early release of normal family members and follow-up of those who carry mutations but have no evidence of the disease. Prospective studies are needed to determine whether these individuals will necessarily express the phenotype. Preclinical diagnosis may produce adverse psychological effects, particularly in children and adolescents. In this regard, multidisciplinary genetic counseling is considered mandatory. </p>
      <p>Molecular genetic diagnosis helps differentiate other forms of LVH and phenocopies, including metabolic storage diseases, which are clinically indistinguishable from HCM<sup>66-68</sup>. </p>
      <p>The use of genetic analysis in risk stratification for sudden death is supported by descriptions of malignant mutations. Early studies based on large pedigrees relate certain phenotypes to the mutant genes and discriminate between mutations with good and poor prognosis<sup>7,10,11</sup>. More recent studies provided new data on HCM clinical and genetic profile, revealing less specific phenotypes and lower prevalence of malignant mutations<sup>31,70,71</sup>. For the purpose of prognostic evaluation, it is necessary to expand the analysis of genotype-phenotype relationships, including larger, unrelated families with a higher number of affected members<sup>7,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>As molecular genetic diagnosis is expensive and time-consuming, it has been limited to research centers. Single-strand conformation polymorphisms (SSCP) analysis can map 60% to 80% of the cases<sup>6</sup>. The advent of automated, direct DNA sequencing contributes to its use on a clinical scale, since it allows rapid screening for up to eight sarcomeric genes, but is still expensive<sup>7,12</sup>.The likelihood of false-negatives due to mutations in genes that were not assessed does exist.</p>
      <p>Molecular genetic diagnosis should prompt implementation of measures designed to prevent or delay disease progression, such as gene therapy. The multitude of structural and functional disorders involving contractile proteins has been a drawback to the development of effective therapeutic strategies. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy is a disease with a heterogeneous molecular genetic substrate and significant phenotypic variability, which makes clinical and preclinical diagnosis very complex. Higher resolution imaging modalities and affordable molecular techniques will allow early diagnosis and implementation of measures that may prevent the development of LVH and progression to sudden death.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
