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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">zkcD8DDMPqCm9pwXnsbW5QJ</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008000600004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09000604</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008000600004</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Mortalidade precoce por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e desigualdades sociais em Porto Alegre: da evid&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bassanesi</surname>
            <given-names>S&#233;rgio Luiz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azambuja</surname>
            <given-names>Maria In&#234;s</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Achutti</surname>
            <given-names>Aloyzio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Academia Sul-Riograndense de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>90</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>403</fpage>
      <lpage>412</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>12</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2008</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: Duas perspectivas, a econ&#244;mica (doen&#231;a causando empobrecimento) e a social (pobreza causando adoecimento), t&#234;m disputado internacionalmente a justifica&#231;&#227;o de pol&#237;ticas p&#250;blicas de sa&#250;de. OBJETIVO: Investigar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre mortalidade precoce por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) e condi&#231;&#245;es socioecon&#244;micas (SE) em Porto Alegre (PA), e discutir fundamentos e estrat&#233;gias para a preven&#231;&#227;o das DCV. M&#201;TODOS: An&#225;lise ecol&#243;gica da associa&#231;&#227;o entre mortalidade por DCV aos 45-64 anos e condi&#231;&#245;es SE de 73 bairros de PA. Estimou-se o risco relativo (RR) e a fra&#231;&#227;o do risco atribu&#237;vel (FRA) &#224;s desigualdades entre bairros agrupados em 4 estratos SE. RESULTADOS: A mortalidade precoce por DCV foi 2,6 vezes maior nos bairros classificados no pior comparado ao melhor de 4 estratos SE. Entre bairros extremos, o RR chegou a 3,3 para as DCV e 3,9 para as doen&#231;as cerebrovasculares. Comparada &#224; mortalidade no melhor estrato, 62% dos &#243;bitos precoces do pior estrato e 45% dos da cidade como um todo seriam atribu&#237;veis &#224; desigualdade socioecon&#244;mica. CONCLUS&#195;O: Quase a metade da mortalidade por DCV antes do 65 anos pode ser atribu&#237;da &#224; pobreza. A doen&#231;a, por sua vez, contribui para a pobreza e reduz a competitividade do pa&#237;s. &#201; preciso reduzir o adoecimento e recuperar a sa&#250;de dos mais pobres com investimentos que resultem em desenvolvimento econ&#244;mico-nacional e melhoria das condi&#231;&#245;es sociais da popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;as cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as</kwd>
        <kwd>iniq&#252;idade social</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>25</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>ARTIGO ORIGINAL </p>
    <p> EPIDEMIOLOGIA</p>
    <p>Mortalidade precoce por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e desigualdades sociais em Porto Alegre: da evid&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Premature mortality due to cardiovascular disease and social inequalities in Porto Alegre: from evidence to action</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>S&#233;rgio Luiz Bassanesi; Maria In&#234;s Azambuja; Aloyzio Achutti</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Academia Sul-Riograndense de Medicina, Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> Duas perspectivas, a econ&#244;mica (doen&#231;a causando empobrecimento) e a social (pobreza causando adoecimento), t&#234;m disputado internacionalmente a justifica&#231;&#227;o de pol&#237;ticas p&#250;blicas de sa&#250;de. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Investigar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre mortalidade precoce por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) e condi&#231;&#245;es socioecon&#244;micas (SE) em Porto Alegre (PA), e discutir fundamentos e estrat&#233;gias para a preven&#231;&#227;o das DCV. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> An&#225;lise ecol&#243;gica da associa&#231;&#227;o entre mortalidade por DCV aos 45-64 anos e condi&#231;&#245;es SE de 73 bairros de PA. Estimou-se o risco relativo (RR) e a fra&#231;&#227;o do risco atribu&#237;vel (FRA) &#224;s desigualdades entre bairros agrupados em 4 estratos SE. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> A mortalidade precoce por DCV foi 2,6 vezes maior nos bairros classificados no pior comparado ao melhor de 4 estratos SE. Entre bairros extremos, o RR chegou a 3,3 para as DCV e 3,9 para as doen&#231;as cerebrovasculares. Comparada &#224; mortalidade no melhor estrato, 62% dos &#243;bitos precoces do pior estrato e 45% dos da cidade como um todo seriam atribu&#237;veis &#224; desigualdade socioecon&#244;mica. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Quase a metade da mortalidade por DCV antes do 65 anos pode ser atribu&#237;da &#224; pobreza. A doen&#231;a, por sua vez, contribui para a pobreza e reduz a competitividade do pa&#237;s. &#201; preciso reduzir o adoecimento e recuperar a sa&#250;de dos mais pobres com investimentos que resultem em desenvolvimento econ&#244;mico-nacional e melhoria das condi&#231;&#245;es sociais da popula&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Mortalidade, doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as, iniq&#252;idade social.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>BACKGROUND: </bold>Two perspectives, the economic (disease causing impoverishment) and social (poverty causing illness), have internationally disputed the justification for public health policies. </p>
    <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To investigate the relationship between early mortality by cardiovascular disease (CVD) and socioeconomic (SE) conditions in the city of Porto Alegre (PA), and discuss bases and strategies for the prevention of CVD. </p>
    <p><bold>METHODS: </bold>An ecological analysis of the association between mortality by CVD at 45-64 years of age and SE conditions of 73 districts/neighborhoods in PA. The relative risk (RR) and the fraction of risk (FRA) attributable to inequality among the districts grouped into 4 SE strata were estimated. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold>Early mortality by CVD was 2.6 times higher in the districts classified in the worst compared to the best of the 4 SE strata. Among the extreme districts, the RR reached 3.3 for CVD and 3.9 for cerebrovascular disease. Compared to the mortality in the best stratum, 62% of the early deaths in the worst stratum and 45% of those in the city as a whole could be attributed to socioeconomic inequality. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold>Almost half of the mortality by CVD before 65 years of age can be attributed to poverty. Disease, on the other hand, contributes towards poverty and reduces competitiveness of the country. It is necessary to reduce illness and recover the health of the poorest inhabitants with investments that result in national economic development and improvement of the social conditions of the population. </p>
    <p><bold>Key words: </bold>Mortality; cardiovascular diseases; disease prevention; social inequity.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Duas perspectivas, a macroecon&#244;mica (doen&#231;a causando empobrecimento)<sup>1</sup> e a social (pobreza causando adoecimento)<sup>2-4</sup>, t&#234;m disputado a justifica&#231;&#227;o de pol&#237;ticas p&#250;blicas de sa&#250;de. </p>
    <p>Na &#225;rea das doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, desde 2001 as organiza&#231;&#245;es internacionais t&#234;m alertado para o risco de migra&#231;&#227;o da epidemia de DCV dos pa&#237;ses centrais para os de m&#233;dia e baixa rendas, decorrente do envelhecimento populacional, da urbaniza&#231;&#227;o e do aumento na capacidade de consumo das popula&#231;&#245;es desses pa&#237;ses<sup>5-7</sup>. Para a preven&#231;&#227;o, elas t&#234;m recomendado reestruturar os servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de de forma a priorizar a identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce de indiv&#237;duos em risco e seu atendimento continuado<sup>5-7</sup>. </p>
    <p>O argumento macroecon&#244;mica tem sido fortemente utilizado para estimular a a&#231;&#227;o imediata. Com base em estimativas demogr&#225;ficas, Leeder e cols.<sup>1</sup> sugerem haver uma janela de oportunidade de duas d&#233;cadas para organizar a aten&#231;&#227;o e evitar conseq&#252;&#234;ncias econ&#244;micas catastr&#243;ficas para os pa&#237;ses, em 20 a 40 anos.</p>
    <p>A perspectiva dos determinantes sociais do adoecimento teve pouca express&#227;o nos pa&#237;ses centrais durante o s&#233;culo XX, reemergindo na transi&#231;&#227;o para o s&#233;culo XXI em raz&#227;o da globaliza&#231;&#227;o econ&#244;mica<sup>8</sup>. No entanto, o espa&#231;o conferido &#224;s doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas nessa agenda ainda &#233; irrelevante<sup>9</sup>. </p>
    <p>Este estudo pretende investigar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre mortalidade precoce por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e desigualdades socioecon&#244;micas em Porto Alegre, e sugerir caminhos para a preven&#231;&#227;o &#224; luz da interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos achados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este &#233; um estudo ecol&#243;gico transversal, tendo como unidades de an&#225;lise os bairros do munic&#237;pio de Porto Alegre. A cidade foi escolhida por ter alto &#237;ndice m&#233;dio de desenvolvimento humano (IDH = 0,865 em 2000<sup>10</sup>), mas marcada desigualdade em indicadores de desenvolvimento social (de 0,46 a 0,93) entre suas regi&#245;es<sup>11</sup>. </p>
    <p>Dados referentes &#224;s vari&#225;veis "idade", "sexo", "causa b&#225;sica do &#243;bito (CID10)" e "local de resid&#234;ncia" foram extra&#237;dos de um banco de 51.562 &#243;bitos geo-referenciados referentes ao per&#237;odo 2000 a 2004; o n&#250;mero de nascidos vivos, do sistema de informa&#231;&#245;es de nascidos vivos de Porto Alegre, de 2000 a 2004; e os referentes &#224;s vari&#225;veis demogr&#225;ficas e socioecon&#244;micas, de microdados do Censo de 2000. A partir das vari&#225;veis prim&#225;rias dispon&#237;veis, foram selecionadas ou constru&#237;das as utilizadas neste estudo, listadas no <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04qdr01">quadro 1</xref>. A decis&#227;o de usar &#243;bitos precoces em vez de todos os &#243;bitos foi tomada para aumentar a especificidade dos diagn&#243;sticos cardiovasculares, e tamb&#233;m para evitar que a maior longevidade dos mais ricos inflasse artificialmente o risco de morrer por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares nesse estrato da popula&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a04qdr01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Todos os dados foram agregados por bairro de resid&#234;ncia. Dados relativos a nove bairros originais com menos de tr&#234;s mil habitantes em 2000 foram incorporados a bairros cont&#237;guos, resultando num universo de 73 unidades de estudo.</p>
    <p>Para minimizar a flutua&#231;&#227;o aleat&#243;ria das estimativas da mortalidade anual por DCV, doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o (DIC) e doen&#231;a cerebrovascular (DCeV) no bairro, utilizou-se, al&#233;m da m&#233;dia da mortalidade de cinco anos, a suaviza&#231;&#227;o bayesiana emp&#237;rica. Aceitando-se que exista uma tend&#234;ncia espacial na distribui&#231;&#227;o dos eventos, as ocorr&#234;ncias foram re-estimadas levando em conta as m&#233;dias anuais da ocorr&#234;ncia nos bairros vizinhos. </p>
    <p>As an&#225;lises foram realizadas tendo como unidades os bairros e sua distribui&#231;&#227;o em quatro estratos de risco SE. Inicialmente foram realizados cartogramas da mortalidade estratificando-se os bairros em quatro n&#237;veis de cada uma das sete vari&#225;veis socioecon&#244;micas selecionadas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig01">fig. 1</xref>). Os cartogramas sugeriam forte correla&#231;&#227;o espacial entre as vari&#225;veis independentes. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a04fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Para otimizar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o levando em conta o conjunto das vari&#225;veis independentes, utilizaram-se tr&#234;s estrat&#233;gias diferentes: a an&#225;lise de agrupamentos ("<italic>cluster analysis</italic>"), a an&#225;lise de componentes principais e a autocorrela&#231;&#227;o espacial de Moran. A an&#225;lise de agrupamentos definiu, para o conjunto de vari&#225;veis, quatro estratos como sendo os agrupamentos com menor variabilidade dentro de cada um e maior diferen&#231;a entre eles. A distribui&#231;&#227;o dos bairros nos estratos definidos pelo m&#233;todo "K-means" &#233; mostrada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02">fig. 2A</xref>. A an&#225;lise de componentes principais visava reduzir o n&#250;mero de vari&#225;veis independentes (dada a elevada autocorrela&#231;&#227;o espacial sugerida pelos cartogramas iniciais), previamente &#224; estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos bairros. A t&#233;cnica resultou na produ&#231;&#227;o de um componente apenas, com poder de explicar 74% da varia&#231;&#227;o entre as unidades de estudo, e altamente correlacionado com todas as vari&#225;veis. Esse componente foi parametrizado de forma a ser lido como um escore com m&#233;dia igual a zero e desvio padr&#227;o igual a um, sendo os valores mais negativos associados aos bairros melhores e os mais positivos, aos bairros piores. A estratifica&#231;&#227;o dos bairros em quatro n&#237;veis segundo esse escore pode ser vista no cartograma da <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02">fig. 2B</xref>. Esse escore foi tamb&#233;m utilizado para estimar diferen&#231;a de risco e o risco relativo entre os bairros extremos (ver adiante). Para a an&#225;lise de autocorrela&#231;&#227;o de Moran, utilizou-se uma matriz de vizinhan&#231;a por adjac&#234;ncia. Cada uma das vari&#225;veis independentes e o escore gerado pela an&#225;lise de componentes principais foram testados. O objetivo era avaliar se &#225;reas vizinhas eram semelhantes quanto &#224; vari&#225;vel em exame em compara&#231;&#227;o com o padr&#227;o que seria esperado numa situa&#231;&#227;o de completa aleatoriedade espacial.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a04fig02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Os quatro estratos refletem quartis aproximados do n&#237;vel de qualidade de vida em que se distribuem os bairros. Com base neles foram estimados o risco relativo (RR) e a fra&#231;&#227;o do risco (FRA) da mortalidade cardiovascular precoce atribu&#237;vel &#224; desigualdade SE entre os estratos 1 (melhor n&#237;vel SE) e o 4 (pior), e entre o estrato 1 e a cidade como um todo.</p>
    <p>Utilizando os bairros como unidades de estudo, produziu-se uma matriz dos coeficientes de correla&#231;&#227;o entre as todas as vari&#225;veis, dependentes e independentes. Utilizou-se a an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla para sumarizar a associa&#231;&#227;o entre condi&#231;&#227;o SE do bairro e mortalidade precoce por DCV. Havia correla&#231;&#227;o espacial entre as vari&#225;veis independentes e entre as vari&#225;veis dependentes, mas n&#227;o na associa&#231;&#227;o entre elas, ou seja, a associa&#231;&#227;o em um bairro ocorreu independentemente da associa&#231;&#227;o nos bairros vizinhos. Assim, n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade de relatar as t&#233;cnicas de regress&#227;o espacial (realizadas com achados similares). </p>
    <p>Para descrever a desigualdade na mortalidade precoce por DCV entre os bairros com condi&#231;&#245;es SE extremas foram estimados o &#237;ndice de desigualdade da pendente (IDP) e o &#237;ndice relativo da desigualdade (IRD). O c&#225;lculo dessas estimativas exige a cria&#231;&#227;o de uma vari&#225;vel intermedi&#225;ria (Ridit), que &#233; um indicador da posi&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade em rela&#231;&#227;o ao valor da vari&#225;vel socioecon&#244;mica, que nesse caso foi o escore do componente principal descrito anteriormente. Os bairros foram ordenados segundo o escore SE. A seguir, foram calculadas as freq&#252;&#234;ncias relativa (FR) e cumulativa (FA) de &#243;bitos precoces ponderadas pelo tamanho das popula&#231;&#245;es, e depois o Ridit = (FA + (FA-FR))/2. O IDP &#233; o coeficiente de regress&#227;o do coeficiente de mortalidade sobre o Ridit e o IRD a diferen&#231;a entre os valores extremos da reta de regress&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Utilizou-se o programa Excel para organizar o banco de dados, o SPSS 13.0 "for Windows" e o "Statistica" para as an&#225;lises n&#227;o espaciais; o GeoDa e o SigEpi para as an&#225;lises espaciais, o Tabwin para os mapas tem&#225;ticos e o software Brechas 1.0 para as mensura&#231;&#245;es das desigualdades entre os bairros. O projeto foi aprovado pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica do Hospital Moinhos de Vento, onde estava alojado. O estudo foi parcialmente financiado pela "Initiative for Cardiovascular Health, CDC-Delhi".</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Entre 2000 e 2004, a mortalidade por DCV na faixa dos 45-64 anos correspondeu a 28,5% dos &#243;bitos totais no intervalo de idade, e a 22,8% de todos os &#243;bitos por DCV. Na faixa et&#225;ria, 40% dos &#243;bitos cardiovasculares foram por DIC e 30% por doen&#231;a cerebrovascular (DCeV). </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela 1</xref> mostra o n&#250;mero de bairros, a popula&#231;&#227;o e as m&#233;dias das vari&#225;veis independentes e dependentes por estrato socioecon&#244;mico. H&#225; um gradiente linear nas medidas das vari&#225;veis independentes entre o melhor (estrato 1) e o pior estratos (estrato 4). H&#225; tamb&#233;m uma tend&#234;ncia linear de aumento da mortalidade cardiovascular entre o estrato 1 e o estrato 4. A consist&#234;ncia dos dados torna f&#225;cil e direta a interpreta&#231;&#227;o desses resultados. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig03">fig. 3</xref> mostra a distribui&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade precoce por DCV, DIC e DCeV nos quatro estratos, e a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig04">figura 4</xref> descreve as desigualdades entre os estratos. A mortalidade precoce por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares &#233; 2,6 vezes maior no estrato 4 comparado ao estrato 1. Para o estrato com piores indicadores e para a cidade como um todo, as fra&#231;&#245;es da mortalidade atribu&#237;veis &#224; desigualdade social (FRA), tendo como refer&#234;ncia o estrato 1, foram, respectivamente, 62% e 44,7%. Ou seja, 62% dos &#243;bitos precoces por DCV no estrato 4 e 44,7% na cidade poderiam ser evitados se a respectiva popula&#231;&#227;o tivesse as mesmas condi&#231;&#245;es socioecon&#244;micas que a popula&#231;&#227;o do estrato 1. Para a DIC e a DCeV, as fra&#231;&#245;es do risco atribu&#237;vel &#224; desigualdade SE na cidade foram, respectivamente, 39,8% e 47,6%. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a04fig03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a04fig04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>A matriz de correla&#231;&#245;es na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05">fig. 5</xref> sugere elevada correla&#231;&#227;o do tipo linear entre todas as vari&#225;veis. As vari&#225;veis independentes que mais fortemente se mostraram relacionadas com os indicadores de mortalidade cardiovascular foram: <italic>renda, educa&#231;&#227;o e viol&#234;ncia</italic>. Na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla, <italic>viol&#234;ncia</italic> e <italic>renda</italic> permaneceram independente e significativamente associadas com os tr&#234;s desfechos analisados. O modelo matem&#225;tico final, considerando todos os bairros e a mortalidade por todas as DCV, foi: <italic> mortalidade cardiovascular 45-64 anos</italic> = 233,77 + 184,79 <italic>viol&#234;ncia</italic> - 2,6<italic> renda</italic>.</p>
    <fig id="fig05">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>O coeficiente de determina&#231;&#227;o (r<sup>2</sup>) resultante dessa equa&#231;&#227;o &#233; de 0,61, isto &#233;, 61% da variabilidade na distribui&#231;&#227;o no coeficiente de mortalidade por DCV precoce podem ser explicados pela variabilidade na distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis viol&#234;ncia e renda. Achados equivalentes foram observados para os desfechos DIC e DceV.</p>
    <p>A estimativa do risco de mortalidade por DCV precoce no bairro com a melhor situa&#231;&#227;o socioecon&#244;mica (correspondendo a um Ridit = 1) foi de 123.1/100.000, e no bairro com a pior situa&#231;&#227;o (Ridit = 0) foi de 402,5/100.000. A diferen&#231;a estimada (IDP) foi de -279,5/100.000, e o &#237;ndice relativo de desigualdade entre os extremos (IRD) correspondeu a 402,5 / 123,1 ou 3,3. Ou seja, a mortalidade por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares &#233; 3,3 vezes maior no pior bairro em rela&#231;&#227;o ao melhor bairro. O IRD foi de 2,5 para doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o e 3,9 para as doen&#231;as cerebrovasculares (ver <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06">fig. 6</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="fig06">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Tal como ocorre nos Estados Unidos e na Europa, desde 1980 as taxas de mortalidade (&#243;bitos/100 mil habitantes) relativas &#224; DIC e doen&#231;a cerebrovascular reduziram-se significativamente no Brasil, em todas as idades<sup>12-13</sup>. Apesar disso, a demanda por atendimento a doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas nos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de deve crescer nas pr&#243;ximas d&#233;cadas, acompanhando o deslocamento das coortes nascidas durante o per&#237;odo de taxas mais elevadas de fecundidade (at&#233; aproximadamente 1965-70)<sup>14</sup>. At&#233; 2020, o maior crescimento no numero de adultos ocorrer&#225; entre 45 e 64 anos. A partir de 2020, o crescimento desloca-se progressivamente para a popula&#231;&#227;o mais velha<sup>14</sup>. A mortalidade por DCV na popula&#231;&#227;o entre 45-64 anos &#233; elevada no Brasil, comparado a pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, especialmente entre as mulheres<sup>15-16</sup>. A diferen&#231;a aumenta com a redu&#231;&#227;o na faixa et&#225;ria. No grupo mais jovem, de 35 a 44 anos, a mortalidade por infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio e por doen&#231;a cerebrovascular em 1988 era, respectivamente, tr&#234;s e cinco vezes maior no Brasil que nos Estados Unidos entre os homens, e quatro e seis vezes entre as mulheres<sup>16</sup>. Os achados do presente estudo suportam a id&#233;ia de que essa diferen&#231;a esteja associada &#224; m&#225; qualidade de vida das popula&#231;&#245;es dos grandes centros urbanos brasileiros, comparada &#224; dos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos.</p>
    <p>Mesmo numa cidade com IDH relativamente alto como Porto Alegre, quase a metade dos &#243;bitos precoces (45%) seria evitada se todos os bairros tivessem as condi&#231;&#245;es do melhor de quatro estratos SE, o que equivale a dizer que h&#225; <italic>80% de &#243;bitos precoces em excesso na cidade</italic>, atribu&#237;veis a essa desigualdade de condi&#231;&#245;es socioecon&#244;micas entre bairros. Duas vari&#225;veis, a "m&#233;dia de anos de educa&#231;&#227;o dos chefes de fam&#237;lia" &#150; um indicador dos antecedentes de inclus&#227;o/exclus&#227;o social dos moradores &#150; e a "mortalidade por causas externas" &#150; um indicador da <italic>exposi&#231;&#227;o corrente</italic> a risco, foram capazes de, somadas, explicar 61% da distribui&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade por DCV entre os bairros. </p>
    <p>Esses achados s&#227;o consistentes com outros publicados recentemente no Brasil<sup>17-19</sup>. Ishitani e cols.<sup>17</sup>, estudando &#243;bitos de adultos entre 35-64 anos ocorridos entre 1999 e 2001 em 98 munic&#237;pios com mais de cem mil habitantes, sendo mais de 90% residentes em &#225;rea urbana, mostraram, por meio de regress&#227;o linear simples e m&#250;ltipla, correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre DCV e renda/escolaridade e positiva com pobreza e m&#225;s condi&#231;&#245;es de moradia. Godoy e cols.<sup>18</sup> mostraram, em S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto (SP), que o componente principal extra&#237;do de vari&#225;veis refletindo renda e educa&#231;&#227;o nos domic&#237;lios explicava 87% da varia&#231;&#227;o entre os estratos censit&#225;rios, e que a estratifica&#231;&#227;o em quartis com base nesse componente associava-se com uma mortalidade por DCV 40% superior no pior, comparado ao melhor estrato. Melo e cols.<sup>19</sup>, estudando a distribui&#231;&#227;o espacial da mortalidade por infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio no Rio de Janeiro, descreveram padr&#227;o espacial associado com forte gradiente socioecon&#244;mico.</p>
    <p>Diferen&#231;as na ocorr&#234;ncia de adoecimento e morte podem ser atribu&#237;das a diferen&#231;as no acesso ao atendimento dos doentes<sup>20</sup> e a diferen&#231;as na ocorr&#234;ncia de exposi&#231;&#227;o a fatores de risco<sup>1,21,22</sup>. Coerentemente, as propostas de interven&#231;&#227;o enfatizariam a amplia&#231;&#227;o de investimentos em servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de voltados &#224; identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce e ao acompanhamento continuado de portadores de doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas e seus fatores de risco<sup>23</sup>. Mas tratar individualmente pessoas doentes ou de alto risco, embora cumpra um importante papel humanit&#225;rio, tem pequeno impacto na redu&#231;&#227;o das taxas de adoecimento populacional, isso porque se estaria atuando na causa dos casos, mas n&#227;o na causa da ocorr&#234;ncia<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nancy Krieger tem proposto que a desigualdade social em sa&#250;de seria resultado da incorpora&#231;&#227;o biol&#243;gica ("<italic>embodiement</italic>") de experi&#234;ncias sociais desiguais ("<italic>embodying inequality</italic>")<sup>25</sup>. Entre as condi&#231;&#245;es incorporadas biologicamente, mas fortemente determinadas socialmente, estariam o peso ao nascer, a altura, e respostas imunol&#243;gicas a infec&#231;&#245;es adquiridas<sup>25</sup>, que s&#227;o sabidamente associados &#224; aquisi&#231;&#227;o de fen&#243;tipos metab&#243;licos e imunol&#243;gicos de risco para algumas causas de adoecimento<sup>26</sup>. No caso da aterosclerose, a transi&#231;&#227;o do paradigma degenerativo para o inflamat&#243;rio<sup>27</sup> permitiria atribuir essas diferen&#231;as SE na ocorr&#234;ncia de DCV &#224; intera&#231;&#227;o entre acumula&#231;&#227;o desigual de vulnerabilidade biol&#243;gica ao longo da vida (baixo peso ao nascer, infec&#231;&#245;es, estresse) e n&#237;veis desiguais de exposi&#231;&#245;es a fatores ambientais correntes<sup>26,28</sup>. Investir na preven&#231;&#227;o, nesse caso, seria investir na melhoraria das condi&#231;&#245;es de vida da popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Embora a hist&#243;ria nunca se repita, pode-se aprender com ela. H&#225; coincid&#234;ncias significativas entre a situa&#231;&#227;o atual das grandes cidades brasileiras e as cidades europ&#233;ias do in&#237;cio do s&#233;culo XIX<sup>29-32</sup>. L&#225; como aqui, a industrializa&#231;&#227;o promoveu um r&#225;pido aumento da popula&#231;&#227;o urbana, com "faveliza&#231;&#227;o" e grande desigualdade social na mortalidade<sup>30-31</sup>. Nos cem anos da revolu&#231;&#227;o industrial, a popula&#231;&#227;o de Paris e de Londres aumentou cinco vezes, e a de Berlin, dez vezes<sup>31</sup>. Em 50 anos, entre 1950 e 2000, a popula&#231;&#227;o urbana brasileira passou de 19 milh&#245;es para 146 milh&#245;es de habitantes, ou seja, aumentou mais de sete vezes<sup>33</sup>. Entre 1830-1840, Villerm&#233; na Fran&#231;a e Chadwick na Inglaterra mostraram que a mortalidade era maior nas grandes cidades. Villerm&#233; mostrou que a mortalidade era 50% maior nos distritos mais pobres<sup>31</sup>. A tuberculose, seguida de perto pela pneumonia e pela influenza eram ent&#227;o as principais causas de morte nas cidades europ&#233;ias<sup>31</sup>. Discutia-se se a pobreza causava a doen&#231;a ou a doen&#231;a causava a pobreza<sup>29-32</sup>. A inter-rela&#231;&#227;o entre doen&#231;a e desenvolvimento social era t&#227;o presente na Europa que data dessa &#233;poca (1848) a famosa frase de Virchow: "Medicina &#233; uma ci&#234;ncia social e pol&#237;tica nada mais &#233; do que Medicina em grande escala". </p>
    <p>Tamb&#233;m em 1848, depois de documentar as p&#233;ssimas condi&#231;&#245;es de sa&#250;de da popula&#231;&#227;o trabalhadora da Gr&#227;-Bretanha, Edwin Chadwick &#150; o pai da Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica inglesa<sup>32</sup> &#150; defendeu e fez aprovar o "Public Health Act". O argumento de Chadwick era que a doen&#231;a generalizada resultava em pobreza para os trabalhadores e em importante perda de produtividade econ&#244;mica para a Inglaterra. A solu&#231;&#227;o por ele proposta foi realizar investimentos em obras de engenharia sanit&#225;ria, que al&#233;m de beneficiarem diretamente a sa&#250;de, estimulariam o crescimento econ&#244;mico, gerariam emprego e ampliariam o acesso dos mais pobres &#224; comida (redu&#231;&#227;o da pobreza), contribuindo assim para a manuten&#231;&#227;o da ordem social<sup>32</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hoje aqui, como na Europa h&#225; 150 anos, o grande desafio &#233; a redu&#231;&#227;o do excesso de adoecimento precoce entre adultos pobres. A tuberculose foi substitu&#237;da pelas DCV como principal causa de morte. O esperado crescimento no n&#250;mero de casos de DCV precoce nos pr&#243;ximos 15-20 anos, e nos mais velhos depois disso, ter&#225; impacto significativo nos or&#231;amentos do SUS e da Previd&#234;ncia Social<sup>28,34-35</sup>, e afetar&#225; a produtividade e a competitividade do pa&#237;s no mercado globalizado.</p>
    <p>O exemplo de Chadwick demonstra que n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;rio escolher entre investir na preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as para reduzir o impacto econ&#244;mico do adoecimento<sup>1</sup> ou intervir na pobreza para reduzir o adoecimento e a morte precoces<sup>2</sup>. A melhor op&#231;&#227;o seria integrar as duas estrat&#233;gias, ou seja, priorizar pol&#237;ticas de sa&#250;de que, al&#233;m de resultarem em ganhos diretos na sa&#250;de, estimulem o crescimento econ&#244;mico nacional e a melhoria das condi&#231;&#245;es sociais. E promover pol&#237;ticas inter-setoriais de desenvolvimento econ&#244;mico que valorizem a promo&#231;&#227;o da sa&#250;de e a redu&#231;&#227;o da morbidade e mortalidade por doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas na popula&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por IC-Health Delhi (&#205;ndia).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Maria In&#234;s Azambuja </p>
        <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos 2600/420 - Bom Fim </p>
        <p> 90035-003 - Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="miazambuja@terra.com.br">miazambuja@terra.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 12/11/07; revisado recebido em 09/01/08; aceito em 15/01/08.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Premature mortality due to cardiovascular disease and social inequalities in Porto Alegre: from evidence to action</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Two perspectives, the economic (disease causing impoverishment) and social (poverty causing illness), have internationally disputed the justification for public health policies. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between early mortality by cardiovascular disease (CVD) and socioeconomic (SE) conditions in the city of Porto Alegre (PA), and discuss bases and strategies for the prevention of CVD. METHODS: An ecological analysis of the association between mortality by CVD at 45-64 years of age and SE conditions of 73 districts/neighborhoods in PA. The relative risk (RR) and the fraction of risk (FRA) attributable to inequality among the districts grouped into 4 SE strata were estimated. RESULTS: Early mortality by CVD was 2.6 times higher in the districts classified in the worst compared to the best of the 4 SE strata. Among the extreme districts, the RR reached 3.3 for CVD and 3.9 for cerebrovascular disease. Compared to the mortality in the best stratum, 62% of the early deaths in the worst stratum and 45% of those in the city as a whole could be attributed to socioeconomic inequality. CONCLUSION: Almost half of the mortality by CVD before 65 years of age can be attributed to poverty. Disease, on the other hand, contributes towards poverty and reduces competitiveness of the country. It is necessary to reduce illness and recover the health of the poorest inhabitants with investments that result in national economic development and improvement of the social conditions of the population.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiovascular diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>disease prevention</kwd>
        <kwd>social inequity</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLES</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="tx-body2"/>Premature mortality due to cardiovascular disease and social inequalities in Porto Alegre: from evidence to action</p>
      <p>
        <bold>S&#233;rgio Luiz Bassanesi; Maria In&#234;s Azambuja; Aloyzio Achutti</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Academia Sul-Riograndense de Medicina, Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Two perspectives, the economic (disease causing impoverishment) and social (poverty causing illness), have internationally disputed the justification for public health policies.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To investigate the relationship between early mortality by cardiovascular disease (CVD) and socioeconomic (SE) conditions in the city of Porto Alegre (PA), and discuss bases and strategies for the prevention of CVD.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> An ecological analysis of the association between mortality by CVD at 45-64 years of age and SE conditions of 73 districts/neighborhoods in PA. The relative risk (RR) and the fraction of risk (FRA) attributable to inequality among the districts grouped into 4 SE strata were estimated.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Early mortality by CVD was 2.6 times higher in the districts classified in the worst compared to the best of the 4 SE strata. Among the extreme districts, the RR reached 3.3 for CVD and 3.9 for cerebrovascular disease. Compared to the mortality in the best stratum, 62% of the early deaths in the worst stratum and 45% of those in the city as a whole could be attributed to socioeconomic inequality.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Almost half of the mortality by CVD before 65 years of age can be attributed to poverty. Disease, on the other hand, contributes towards poverty and reduces competitiveness of the country. It is necessary to reduce illness and recover the health of the poorest inhabitants with investments that result in national economic development and improvement of the social conditions of the population.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Mortality; cardiovascular diseases; disease prevention; social inequity.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Two perspectives, the macroeconomic (disease causing impoverishment)<sup>1</sup> and the social (poverty causing disease)<sup>2-4</sup>, have been disputed as justifications for public health policies.</p>
      <p>In the area of chronic diseases, as of 2001, international organizations have alerted to the risk of migration of the CVD epidemic from central countries to those of middle and low incomes due to populational aging, urbanization, and the increased capacity for consumption of the inhabitants of these countries<sup>5-7</sup>. To prevent these chronic illnesses, they have recommended restructuring health care services in order to prioritize the early identification of individuals at risk and their ongoing treatment<sup>5-7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The macroeconomic argument has been emphatically used to stimulate immediate action. Based on demographic estimates, Leeder et al<sup>1</sup> suggest that there is a two-decade window of opportunity to establish awareness and avoid catastrophic consequences for countries twenty to forty years from now.</p>
      <p>The perspective of social determinants in illness had little expression in the central countries during the 20<sup>th</sup> century, and reemerged during the transition to the 21<sup>st</sup> century because of economic globalization<sup>8</sup>. Nevertheless, attention given to chronic diseases in this agenda is still irrelevant<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>This study intends to investigate the association between early mortality by cardiovascular disease and socioeconomic inequalities in Porto Alegre, and suggest paths to prevention based on the interpretation of the findings.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This is a cross-section ecological study, which has as analysis units the districts of the Porto Alegre municipality. The city was chosen because of its high average Human Development Index (HDI = 0.865 in 2000<sup>10</sup>) despite marked inequalities in social development indicators (from 0.46 to 0.93) among its regions<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Data relative to the variables "age", "gender", "basic cause of death (ICD10)", and "place of residence" were extracted from a databank with 51,562 georeferenced deaths during the period between 2000 and 2004, the number of liveborns in the information system of liveborns in Porto Alegre from 2000 to 2004, and information relative to demographic and socioeconomic variables of microdata from the year 2000 Census. Based on the available primary variables, those used in this study and listed in <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="en_a04pan01-body2">Panel 1</xref> were selected or constructed. The decision to use early deaths instead of all deaths was made in order to increase the specificity of cardiovascular diagnoses and to avoid the possibility of the greater longevity of the richest individuals artificially inflating the risk of death by cardiovascular disease in this population stratum.</p>
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      <p>All data were pooled by district of residence. Data relative to all the original 9 districts with less than 3,000 inhabitants in 2000 were incorporated into contiguous districts, resulting in a universe of 73 study units.</p>
      <p>In order to minimize random fluctuation in the estimates of annual mortality by CVD, ischemic heart disease (IHD), and cerebrovascular disease (CeVD) in the district, in addition to the mean 5-year mortality rate, empirical Bayesian attenuation was used. Assuming the existence of a spatial tendency in event distribution, the occurrences were reestimated taking into consideration the annual means of cases in the neighboring districts.</p>
      <p>Analyses were carried out using as units the districts and their distribution in 4 SE risk strata. Initially, mortality cartograms were made stratifying the districts into 4 levels of each of the seven socioeconomic variables selected (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig01-body2">Fig. 1</xref>). The cartograms suggested a strong spatial correlation among the independent variables.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a04fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>In order to optimize stratification as per the set of independent variables, 3 different strategies were used: cluster analysis, analysis of the principal components, and Moran spatial autocorrelation. The cluster analysis defined, for the set of variables, four strata as the groupings with the least variability within each one and the greatest difference among them. The distribution of the districts in the strata defined by the K-means method is shown on <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">Figure 2A</xref>. Analysis of the principal components sought to reduce the number of independent variables (due to the high spatial autocorrelation suggested by the initial cartogram) prior to the stratification of the districts. The technique resulted in the production of a single component, with the power to explain 74% of the variation among the study units and highly correlated with all the variables. This component was parameterized in order to be read as a score with a mean equal to zero and standard deviation equal to one, in which the more negative values were associated with the better districts and the more positive values with the worst districts. Stratification of the districts in four levels according to this score can be seen on the cartogram in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">Figure 2B</xref>. This score was also used to estimate the difference in risk and the relative risk among the extreme districts (see below). For Moran's autocorrelation, a matrix of adjacent neighborhoods was used. Each one of the independent variables was tested and the score was generated by the analysis of the principal components. The objective was to assess if the neighboring areas are similar regarding the variable in question compared to the standard that would be expected in a situation of complete spatial randomness. The autocorrelation was considered significant when p&lt;0.05. The Moran I Global Indices consistently showed highly significant global spatial autocorrelation for all the independent variables and for the principal component. The Moran I Local Indices enabled mapping of the districts according to whether they were surrounded by neighborhoods with equivalent (low-low or high-high) or different (low-high or high-low) rates of risk, guiding the delimitation of borders among the strata. The splatter plot for the score generated in the principal component analysis may be seen in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">Figure 2C</xref>. The final district SE stratification proposal took into account the coincidences among the three methods and the borders established by Moran's method. In the few cases with unclear district classification, reference was made to the original cartograms of the education and income variables, and personal knowledge of the city was used. The final stratification of the districts into strata 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively, as high, medium-high, medium-low, and low socioeconomic levels is presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">Figure 2D</xref>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a04fig02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The 4 strata reflect approximate quartiles of the quality of life levels into which the districts are distributed. Based on them, estimates were made of the relative risk (RR) and fraction of risk (FRA) of early cardiovascular death attributable to SE inequality between stratum 1 (best) and 4 (worst) SE level, and between stratum 1 and the city as a whole.</p>
      <p>With data referring to each district, a matrix was produced to correlate all the variables. In order to summarize the association between the SE condition of the district and early mortality by CVD, IHD, and CeVD, multiple linear regression analyses were performed. There was a spatial correlation among the independent variables and among the dependent variables, but not in the associations among them, i.e., the association in one district occurred independently from the association in the neighboring districts. Thus, there is no need to report spatial regression techniques (carried out with similar findings).</p>
      <p>In order to describe early CVD mortality inequality among the districts with extreme SE conditions, the Slope Index of Inequality (SII) and the Relative Index of Inequality (RII) were estimated. Calculation of these estimates requires the creation of an intermediate variable (Ridit), an indicator of the position of mortality relative to the socioeconomic variable, which in this case was the score of the principal component previously described. The districts were ordered according to their SE scores. Next, calculations were made of the Relative Frequency (RF) and Cumulative Frequency (CF) of early deaths weighted by the size of the population, followed by the Ridit = (CF + (CF-RF))/2. SII is the linear regression coefficient of the coefficient of mortality over the Ridit, and RII is the difference between the extreme values of the regression line.</p>
      <p>Excel software was used to organize the databank: SPSS 13.0 for Windows and Statistica for non-spatial analyses, GeoDa and SigEpi for spatial analyses, Tabwin for thematic maps, and Brechas 1.0 for measurements of inequalities among the districts. The project was approved by the Ethics Committee of the <italic>Hospital Moinhos de Vento</italic>, where it was based. The study was partially financed by the Initiative for Cardiovascular Health, CDC-Delhi. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Between 2000 and 2004, mortality by CVD for 45-64 years of age corresponded to 28.5% of the total deaths and 22.8% of all deaths by CVD. In this age bracket, 40% of the cardiovascular deaths were due to IHD and 30% were due to cerebrovascular disease (CeVD). </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref> shows the number of districts, populations, and means of the independent and dependent variables per socioeconomic stratum. There is a linear gradient in the measurements of the independent variables between the best stratum (stratum 1) and the worst stratum (stratum 4). There is also a linear tendency towards increased cardiovascular mortality between stratum 1 and stratum 4. The consistency of the data enables an easy and direct interpretation of these results.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig03-body2">Figure 3</xref> shows the distribution of early mortality by CVD, IHD, and CeVD in the four strata, and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig04-body2">figure 4</xref> illustrates the inequalities among the strata. Early mortality by cardiovascular disease is 2.6 times greater in stratum 4 compared to stratum 1. For the stratum with the worst indicators and for the city as a whole, the fractions of mortality (FRA) attributable to social inequality using as reference stratum 1 were 62% and 44.7%, respectively. In other words, 62% of early deaths by CVD in stratum 4 and 44.7% in the city could have been avoided if the respective population had the same socioeconomic conditions as stratum 1. For IHD and CeVD, the fractions of risk attributable to SE inequality were 39.8 and 47.6%, respectively. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a04fig03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a04fig04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The matrix of correlations in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05-body2">figure 5</xref> suggests a high linear-type correlation between the variables. The independent variables that showed the most pronounced relationship with the cardiovascular mortality indicators were <italic>income, education,</italic> and <italic>violence</italic>. In the multiple linear regression analysis, <italic>violence and income</italic> remained independent and significantly associated with the three outcomes analyzed. The final mathematical model, considering all the districts and mortality by all CVD, was <italic>Cardiovascular Mortality 45-64 years</italic> = 233.77 + 184.79 <italic>Violence</italic> - 2.6 <italic>Income</italic></p>
      <fig id="fig05-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The coefficient of determination (r<sup>2</sup>) resulting from this equation is 0.61, i.e., 61% of the variability in the distribution of the coefficient of early mortality by CVD can be explained by the variability in the distribution of <italic>Violence</italic> and <italic>Income</italic>. Equivalent findings were noted for the outcomes IHD and CeVD.</p>
      <p>The estimated risk of mortality by early CVD in the district with the best socioeconomic situation (corresponding to one Ridit = 1) was 123.1/100,000, and in the district with the worst situation (Ridit = 0) it was 402.5/100,000. The estimated difference (SII) was -279.5/100,000 and the Relative Inequality Index (RII) between the extremes corresponded to 402.5/123.1, or 3.3. In other words, mortality by cardiovascular disease is 3.3 times greater in the worst district relative to the best district. RII was 2.5 for ischemic heart disease, and 3.9 for cerebrovascular disease (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06-body2">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="fig06-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-06-0403-00004-gf06-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As is true for the United States and Europe, since 1980, mortality rates (deaths/100 thousand inhabitants) due to IHD and cerebrovascular disease dropped significantly in Brazil, for all age groups<sup>12-13</sup>. Even so, the demand for treatment of chronic diseases at health care centers is expected to climb in the next decades, accompanying the dislocation of cohorts born during the period of highest fertility rates (up until approximately 1965-70)<sup>14</sup>. Until 2020, the greatest growth in number of adults will occur between the ages of 45 and 64 years. After 2020, growth will shift progressively towards the older population<sup>14</sup>. Mortality by CVD in the 45-64 years of age population is high in Brazil compared to developed countries, especially among the women<sup>15-16</sup>. This difference increases with the decrease in age. In the younger group, aged 35 to 44 years, mortality by acute myocardial infarct and cerebrovascular disease in 1988 was 3 and 5 times higher, respectively, in Brazil than in the USA among men and 4 and 6 times higher, respectively, among women<sup>16</sup>. The findings of this study support the idea that this difference is associated with the poor quality of life of the populations in the large urban centers compared to those of developed countries.</p>
      <p>Even in a city with a relatively high HDI such as Porto Alegre, almost half of the early deaths (45%) could be avoided if all the districts had the best conditions of the 4 SE strata, which means <italic>80% of the excessive early deaths in the city</italic> attributable to this inequality of socioeconomic conditions among districts. Two variables, the average of years of education of the household heads - an indicator of the<italic> antecedents</italic> of social inclusion/exclusion of the residents - and mortality by external causes<italic> - </italic>an indicator of the <italic>current exposure </italic>to risk, were capable of together explaining 61% of the distribution of mortality by CVD among the districts.</p>
      <p>These findings are consistent with others published recently in Brazil<sup>17-19</sup>. Ishitani et al<sup>17</sup> in studying the deaths of adults 35-64 years old between 1999 and 2001 in 98 municipalities with more than 100,000 inhabitants, 90% of them residents of the urban area, showed, by simple and multiple linear regression, a negative correlation between CVD and income/educational level, and a positive association with poverty and poor living conditions. In S&#227;o Jos&#233; do Rio Preto, SP, Godoy et al<sup>18</sup> showed that the principal component extracted from the variables that reflects income and education in the domiciles explained 87% of the variation among the census strata, and stratification in quartiles based on this component was associated with a mortality by CVD 40% higher in the worst compared to the best stratum. Melo et al<sup>19</sup> in studying the spatial distribution of mortality by acute myocardial infarct in Rio de Janeiro, described a spatial distribution associated with a strong socioeconomic gradient.</p>
      <p>Differences in the occurrence of illness and death may be attributed to differences in access to treatment of patients<sup>20</sup> and the difference in exposure to risk factors<sup>1,21,22</sup>. Similarly, intervention proposals emphasize the amplification of investments in health care services geared towards early identification and ongoing accompaniment of individuals with chronic diseases and their risk factors<sup>23</sup>. Nevertheless, individual treatment of ill or high-risk patients, while fulfilling an important humanitarian role, has a small impact in reducing populational rates of illness, since action is taken in reference to the cause of those cases, but not to the cause of the occurrences<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Nancy Krieger has proposed that social inequality in health care is the result of an embodiment of unequal social experiences - embodying inequality<sup>25</sup>. Among the conditions biologically incorporated but with strong social determinants are birth weight, height, and immune responses to acquired infections<sup>25</sup>, which are known to be associated with the acquisition of metabolic and immune phenotypes of risk for some causes of illness<sup>26</sup>. In the case of atherosclerosis, the transition from the degenerative to the inflammatory paradigm<sup>27</sup> would enable these SE differences in the occurrence of CVD to be attributed to the interaction between unequal accumulation of biological vulnerability over a lifetime (low birth weight, infections, and stress) and unequal levels of current exposure to environmental factors<sup>26,28</sup>. Investment in prevention, in this case, would be an investment in the improvement of living conditions of the population.</p>
      <p>Even though history never repeats itself, much can be learned from it. There are significant coincidences between the present situation of the large Brazilian cities and European cities at the beginning of the 19<sup>th</sup> century<sup>29-32</sup>. As is the case here, industrialization promoted a rapid increase in the urban population with the appearance of shanty towns/slums and great social inequality in mortality<sup>30-31</sup>. During the 100 years of the industrial revolution, the population of Paris and London increased 5 times, and that of Berlin, 10 times<sup>31</sup>. In 50 years, between 1950 and 2000, the Brazilian urban population went from 19 million to 146 million inhabitants, i.e., it increased more than 7 times<sup>33</sup>. Between 1830 and 1840, Villerm&#233; in France and Chadwick in England showed that mortality was greater in the large cities. Villerm&#233; showed that mortality was 50% higher in the poorest districts<sup>31</sup>. Tuberculosis, followed closely by pneumonia and influenza, was the primary cause of death in European cities<sup>31</sup>. The question debated then was if poverty caused disease or disease caused poverty<sup>29-32</sup>. The interrelationship between disease and social development was so significant in Europe that the famous phrase spoken by Virchow dates back to this period (1848): <italic>"Medicine is a social science, and politics is nothing more than medicine on a large scale."</italic> Also in 1948, after documenting the horrific health conditions of the working population in Great Britain, Edwin Chadwick &#150; the father of English Health Care<sup>32</sup> - defended and promoted the approval of the "Public Health Act." Chadwick's argument was that generalized disease resulted in poverty for the workers and a significant loss of economic productivity for England. The solution he proposed was to carry out investments in sanitary engineering projects, which besides benefiting health directly, would stimulate economic growth, create jobs, and widen access of the poorest to food (reduction of poverty), thus contributing to maintaining social order<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>In Brazil today, as was the case in Europe 150 years ago, the great challenge is the reduction of excessive illness among poor adults. Tuberculosis was substituted by CVD as the main cause of death. The expected growth in the number of cases of early CVD over the next 15-20 years, and in older individuals after that, will have a significant impact on the budgets of the National Unified Health System [SUS] and the Ministry of Social Security and Social Assistance [Previd&#234;ncia Social]<sup>28,34-35</sup>, and affect the productivity and competitiveness of the country in the globalized market.</p>
      <p>Chadwick's example demonstrates that it is not necessary to chose between investing in the prevention of diseases in order to reduce the economic impact of illness<sup>1</sup> or intervening in poverty in order to reduce the rates of disease and early death<sup>2</sup>. The best alternative would be to integrate the two strategies, i.e., prioritize health care policies, which besides resulting in direct gains in terms of health care, would stimulate national economic growth and improvement of social conditions. Moreover, it would advance intersector policies of economic development that value the promotion of health and the reduction of morbimortality by chronic illnesses in the population.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was partially funded by IC-Health Delhi (&#205;ndia).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
