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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">JpqSHnMjfdKScgkWzs83MYk</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00014</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008000400014</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09000414</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008000400014</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular diab&#233;tica: fatores de risco, impacto cl&#237;nico e diagn&#243;stico precoce</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rolim</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Clemente de Souza Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>S&#225;</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Roberto de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chacra</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Dib</surname>
            <given-names>S&#233;rgio Atala</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Paulista de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>90</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>e24</fpage>
      <lpage>e32</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>21</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC) constitui uma das complica&#231;&#245;es de maior repercuss&#227;o cl&#237;nica do diabete melito (DM) e, ao mesmo tempo, est&#225; entre as menos diagnosticadas. Nesta revis&#227;o, s&#227;o discutidos os principais fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento e a progress&#227;o da NAC nos pacientes com DM, a hist&#243;ria natural da neuropatia auton&#244;mica e seu impacto na doen&#231;a cardiovascular do DM, bem como os testes para o diagn&#243;stico precoce e o estadiamento da NAC na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. A pesquisa bibliogr&#225;fica teve como base dois bancos de dados: Medline e Tripdatabase, com os seguintes descritores: diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy e cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetes. Os artigos de 1998 a 2007 em ingl&#234;s e alem&#227;o foram selecionados. A NAC em est&#225;gios iniciais (precoce e intermedi&#225;ria) pode ser diagnosticada e revertida, por&#233;m, nos casos avan&#231;ados (est&#225;gio grave), resta apenas o tratamento sintom&#225;tico. A NAC est&#225; associada a um maior &#237;ndice de morbidade e mortalidade cardiovasculares e pior qualidade de vida nos indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Diabete melito</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;as do sistema cardiovascular</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;as do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo</kwd>
        <kwd>fatores de risco</kwd>
        <kwd>mortalidade</kwd>
        <kwd>neuropatias diab&#233;ticas</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular diab&#233;tica: fatores de risco, impacto cl&#237;nico e diagn&#243;stico precoce</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Luiz Clemente de Souza Pereira Rolim; Jo&#227;o Roberto de S&#225;; Antonio Roberto Chacra; S&#233;rgio Atala Dib</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Escola Paulista de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC) constitui uma das complica&#231;&#245;es de maior repercuss&#227;o cl&#237;nica do diabete melito (DM) e, ao mesmo tempo, est&#225; entre as menos diagnosticadas. Nesta revis&#227;o, s&#227;o discutidos os principais fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento e a progress&#227;o da NAC nos pacientes com DM, a hist&#243;ria natural da neuropatia auton&#244;mica e seu impacto na doen&#231;a cardiovascular do DM, bem como os testes para o diagn&#243;stico precoce e o estadiamento da NAC na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. A pesquisa bibliogr&#225;fica teve como base dois bancos de dados: Medline e Tripdatabase, com os seguintes descritores: <italic>diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy</italic> e <italic>cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetes. </italic>Os artigos de 1998 a 2007 em ingl&#234;s e alem&#227;o foram selecionados. A NAC em est&#225;gios iniciais (precoce e intermedi&#225;ria) pode ser diagnosticada e revertida, por&#233;m, nos casos avan&#231;ados (est&#225;gio grave), resta apenas o tratamento sintom&#225;tico. A NAC est&#225; associada a um maior &#237;ndice de morbidade e mortalidade cardiovasculares e pior qualidade de vida nos indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Diabete melito, doen&#231;as do sistema cardiovascular, doen&#231;as do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, fatores de risco, mortalidade, neuropatias diab&#233;ticas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC) ocorre quando h&#225; les&#227;o das fibras auton&#244;micas perif&#233;ricas (simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico) relacionadas ao sistema cardiovascular (SCV), resultando em dist&#250;rbios na sua regula&#231;&#227;o neuro-humoral. O balan&#231;o simp&#225;tico-vagal (t&#244;nico e f&#225;sico) modula a fun&#231;&#227;o de tr&#234;s das principais estruturas do SCV: n&#243; sinusal (freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca), ventr&#237;culos (volumes sist&#243;lico e diast&#243;lico finais) e vasos sang&#252;&#237;neos, incluindo a microcircula&#231;&#227;o (resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica total).</p>
    <p>Assim, o sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (SNA) desempenha papel fundamental na modula&#231;&#227;o da din&#226;mica do SCV por meio da intera&#231;&#227;o entre o t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e vagal que, em condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, atuam em <italic>feedback</italic> negativo, isto &#233;, a ativa&#231;&#227;o de um &#233; acompanhada pela inibi&#231;&#227;o do outro.</p>
    <p>Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, usualmente avalia-se essa modula&#231;&#227;o por meio do chamado estudo da variabilidade da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (VFC), isto &#233;, via an&#225;lise das flutua&#231;&#245;es espont&#226;neas e induzidas que ocorrem na FC (ou no intervalo RR do eletrocardiograma), como resultado das atividades simp&#225;tica e parassimp&#225;tica do SNA sobre o automatismo sinusal.</p>
    <p>A maioria dos pacientes com polineuropatia (PNP) diab&#233;tica apresentam algum grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica. Aqueles pacientes com predomin&#226;ncia dos sinais e sintomas auton&#244;micos s&#227;o considerados portadores de neuropatia auton&#244;mica diab&#233;tica (NAD). Embora esta possa afetar qualquer sistema org&#226;nico, geralmente se inicia pelos sistemas neurovascular cut&#226;neo (microcircula&#231;&#227;o dos p&#233;s) e cardiovascular (NAC). Posteriormente, afeta os sistemas gastrointestinal (gastroparesia, obstipa&#231;&#227;o e diarr&#233;ia) e geniturin&#225;rio (incontin&#234;ncia urin&#225;ria, bexiga neurog&#234;nica e disfun&#231;&#227;o er&#233;til).</p>
    <p>A NAC &#233; uma das complica&#231;&#245;es mais importantes do DM, pois a sua presen&#231;a est&#225; associada com uma piora no progn&#243;stico e na qualidade de vida do paciente. As seguintes manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas est&#227;o associadas &#224; NAC: taquicardia de repouso, hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (HO) grave, s&#237;ncope, intoler&#226;ncia a exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico (por bloqueio das respostas cronotr&#243;pica e inotr&#243;pica), instabilidade peroperat&#243;ria, isquemia e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio assintom&#225;ticos, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica e sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) e riscos aumentados de nefropatia, insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica (IRC), acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) e morte s&#250;bita de origem card&#237;aca (MSC).</p>
    <p>Apesar do seu potencial impacto negativo na qualidade de vida dos seus portadores, a NAC est&#225; entre as complica&#231;&#245;es menos compreendidas e diagnosticadas dos indiv&#237;duos com DM. Esse tipo de neuropatia pode ser encontrado, de um modo geral, em aproximadamente 25% dos pacientes com diabete melito do tipo 1 (DM1) e em 34% daqueles com diabete melito do tipo 2 (DM2). A preval&#234;ncia de NAC aumenta progressivamente em propor&#231;&#227;o direta com a idade, a dura&#231;&#227;o do DM e o mau controle glic&#234;mico<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>A NAC pode ser subdividida em <italic>subcl&#237;nica</italic> (em que predominam altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais e revers&#237;veis) e <italic>cl&#237;nica </italic>(quando j&#225; h&#225; altera&#231;&#245;es neuronais estruturais): a primeira somente &#233; diagnosticada por meio de testes e pode ocorrer j&#225; a partir do diagn&#243;stico de determinados tipos de DM ou logo nos primeiros anos da doen&#231;a; a segunda forma, como o pr&#243;prio nome indica, &#233; sintom&#225;tica e ocorre em est&#225;gios mais avan&#231;ados da doen&#231;a<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>As fibras auton&#244;micas est&#227;o comprometidas nos v&#225;rios subtipos cl&#237;nicos de neuropatias diab&#233;ticas. No tipo mais comum (PNP cl&#225;ssica: sim&#233;trica, distal e predominantemente sensitiva), h&#225; uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre a les&#227;o progressiva das fibras som&#225;ticas e auton&#244;micas, isto &#233;, hoje sabemos que 50% dos diab&#233;ticos portadores de PNP t&#234;m NAC assintom&#225;tica, ao passo que 100% dos portadores de NAC sintom&#225;tica apresentam PNP cl&#225;ssica<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>O objetivo desta revis&#227;o foi encontrar e discutir a melhor evid&#234;ncia dispon&#237;vel na literatura recente (de 1998 a 2007), a fim de se esclarecerem tr&#234;s quest&#245;es fundamentais:</p>
    <p>1) Quais s&#227;o os principais fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento e a progress&#227;o da NAC nos indiv&#237;duos com DM? H&#225; alguma diferen&#231;a entre a NAC do DM1 e a do DM2?</p>
    <p>2) Qual a hist&#243;ria natural e o impacto cl&#237;nico da NAC no DM ou, em termos pr&#225;ticos, qual a signific&#226;ncia desse diagn&#243;stico para o m&#233;dico e para o paciente diab&#233;tico?</p>
    <p>3) Como fazer o diagn&#243;stico precoce e o estadiamento na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e quais os melhores testes em termos de especificidade, sensibilidade e reprodutibilidade atualmente?</p>
    <p>Para tanto, utilizou-se a seguinte estrat&#233;gia: levantamento bibliogr&#225;fico em dois bancos de dados (Medline e Tripdatabase) com os descritores <italic>diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy</italic> e <italic>cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetes</italic>. Foram selecionados os artigos de 1998 a 2007 (total de 106 refer&#234;ncias) de l&#237;nguas inglesa e alem&#227;. Por&#233;m, tamb&#233;m foram inclu&#237;dos os artigos anteriores a 1998, desde que tivessem relev&#226;ncia ou um alto &#237;ndice de cita&#231;&#227;o (19 refer&#234;ncias).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento e a progress&#227;o da NAC nos pacientes com diabete melito. Diferen&#231;as entre a NAC do DM1 e do DM2</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O risco para o desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica no DM depende de v&#225;rios fatores. No entanto, h&#225; dois que est&#227;o bem estabelecidos na literatura e s&#227;o comuns tanto para o DM1 quanto para o DM2: a dura&#231;&#227;o do DM e o grau de controle glic&#234;mico<sup>2,5-7</sup>. Em ambos os tipos de DM, o mau controle glic&#234;mico (hiperglicemia cr&#244;nica) desempenha papel importante tanto na fisiopatologia inicial (estresse oxidativo, disfun&#231;&#227;o da microcircula&#231;&#227;o por perda de &#243;xido n&#237;trico e les&#227;o da c&#233;lula de Schwann por ac&#250;mulo de radicais livres) como na progress&#227;o (degenera&#231;&#227;o axonal e apoptose neuronal) da NAC<sup>8-10</sup>. Embora as neuropatias diab&#233;ticas estejam classificadas entre as complica&#231;&#245;es microangiop&#225;ticas do DM, hoje se sabe que o mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico &#233; multifatorial e h&#225; suficiente evid&#234;ncia de que PNP de fibras finas e mesmo NAC podem anteceder o DM (PNP da intoler&#226;ncia a glicose ou do pr&#233;-diabetes)<sup>19</sup>. De qualquer forma e embora fuja ao escopo desta revis&#227;o, a via final comum dos diferentes mecanismos j&#225; descritos para explicar a fisiopatologia da PNP parece ser o estresse oxidativo e nitrativo<sup>4,9</sup>.</p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a de NAC, entretanto, n&#227;o est&#225; somente associada &#224; dura&#231;&#227;o e ao grau de hiperglicemia. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, v&#225;rios estudos<sup>6,11-15</sup> mostraram de forma consistente que fatores de risco cardiovasculares (FRCV) t&#234;m papel importante no desenvolvimento da NAC, como press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS), &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea (IMC), triglic&#233;rides e tabagismo. &#201; interessante notar que esses fatores t&#234;m pelo menos dois pontos em comum: s&#227;o potencialmente modific&#225;veis e est&#227;o associados &#224; resist&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da insulina, sugerindo mais uma vez que a NAC pode surgir junto com a s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.</p>
    <p>Mais importantes, no entanto, foram os resultados do estudo Steno 2, em que o tratamento multifatorial (hiperglicemia, hipertens&#227;o, dislipidemia e microalbumin&#250;ria) intensivo de pacientes com DM2 reduziu em 68% o risco de progress&#227;o da NAC<sup>13,14</sup>. Tamb&#233;m &#233; bastante conhecido o papel do controle intensivo (com tr&#234;s doses de insulina NPH) na preven&#231;&#227;o e no retardo da NAC em pacientes com DM1: no cl&#225;ssico estudo DCCT houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o na sua preval&#234;ncia de 53%<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s diferen&#231;as entre a NAC no DM1 e no DM2, vale salientar que os sinais e sintomas surgem mais tardiamente no DM1 do que no DM2, ou seja, a grande maioria dos DM1 portadores de NAC permanece totalmente assintom&#225;tica durante anos, e, quando os sintomas ocorrem, a NAC em geral se encontra em est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados e irrevers&#237;veis<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>J&#225; no DM2, a NAC parece ser mais prevalente, mais precoce e de maior mortalidade<sup>8,18</sup>. Provavelmente isso se deve &#224; maior dura&#231;&#227;o das anomalias metab&#243;licas (disglicemia) que ocorrem antes mesmo do diagn&#243;stico do DM2, nos est&#225;gios de pr&#233;-diabetes e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica<sup>19,20</sup>. Essas diferen&#231;as sugerem que a hist&#243;ria natural da NAC apresenta diferentes vias de progress&#227;o no DM1 e no DM2, e, ainda mais, os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos tamb&#233;m parecem ser diferentes. Durante a &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, v&#225;rios estudos demonstraram que auto-anticorpos do tipo antig&#226;nglio simp&#225;tico, antinervo vago ou antiglicoprote&#237;na associada &#224; mielina ocorrem em uma propor&#231;&#227;o substancial de pacientes com DM1, e muitos destes apresentavam NAC grave<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>Tamb&#233;m chama a aten&#231;&#227;o o fato de que os sintomas da NAC s&#227;o inexplicavelmente incomuns e, quando presentes, oscilam e nem sempre progridem, como &#233; o caso da HO. Na realidade, hoje se sabe que a grande maioria dos diab&#233;ticos portadores de NAC permanece por d&#233;cadas assintom&#225;tica e menos de 1% desenvolve HO sintom&#225;tica<sup>1,2</sup>. Isso real&#231;a a import&#226;ncia de se realizarem testes quantitativos para o diagn&#243;stico da NAC nas fases iniciais e ainda revers&#237;veis, pois a hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e o exame f&#237;sico s&#227;o ineficazes para o diagn&#243;stico precoce<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nas duas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, houve um grande avan&#231;o no conhecimento dos fatores de risco (FR) para o in&#237;cio e a progress&#227;o da NAC, gra&#231;as ao advento de m&#233;todos mais sens&#237;veis e espec&#237;ficos para o seu diagn&#243;stico. &#201; o caso do estudo da VFC que permite uma avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-invasiva, seletiva e longitudinal da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, por meio de uma an&#225;lise matem&#225;tica da magnitude das flutua&#231;&#245;es da FC<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>No DM2, os seguintes fatores de risco est&#227;o associados com redu&#231;&#227;o na VFC: idade, obesidade, hiperinsulinemia, dura&#231;&#227;o do DM, hipertens&#227;o arterial, retinopatia, PNP e tabagismo<sup>1,2,24,25</sup>. No DM1, os fatores que aumentam o risco de desenvolver NAC s&#227;o: HbA1c, PAS, idade, retinopatia, albumin&#250;ria, PNP, hipertrigliceridemia, dislipidemia, sexo (feminino) e tempo de exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; hiperglicemia<sup>6,11,26-28</sup>. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">tabela 1</xref> est&#227;o resumidos os dados atuais que diferenciam ou n&#227;o a NAC no DM1 e no DM2, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco e &#224; hist&#243;ria natural. Conclui-se que h&#225; diferen&#231;as modestas entre a NAC do DM1 e do DM2 em rela&#231;&#227;o aos FR e que, na hist&#243;ria natural, a progress&#227;o da NAC parece ser mais r&#225;pida no DM2.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0e24-00014-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Hist&#243;ria natural da neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular e seu impacto na doen&#231;a cardiovascular do diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora a hist&#243;ria natural da NAC no DM prossiga com amplas zonas de penumbra, muito se avan&#231;ou na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada em rela&#231;&#227;o ao seu progn&#243;stico. Apesar das dificuldades como a falta de padroniza&#231;&#227;o e de metodologia &#250;nica no diagn&#243;stico entre os diferentes estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos, sabe-se que a NAC tem preval&#234;ncia que varia de 7,7% em pacientes com DM1 rec&#233;m-diagnosticados (embora esta possa estar relacionada a altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas transit&#243;rias) at&#233; 90% dos DM1 candidatos a transplante de p&#226;ncreas<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Um estudo finland&#234;s<sup>29</sup> acompanhou pacientes com DM2 por dez anos e encontrou que a preval&#234;ncia de NAC, avaliada pela VFC, aumentou de 5% para 65%, enquanto no grupo controle (n&#227;o-diab&#233;tico) foi de 2% para 28%. J&#225; a preval&#234;ncia de HO (queda de 20 mmHg ou mais na PAS ao terceiro minuto de ortostatismo) aumentou de 7% para 24% no grupo estudado (DM2) e de 6% para 9% nos controles, ap&#243;s dez anos. Al&#233;m disso, a presen&#231;a de NAC ap&#243;s cinco anos foi um fator de risco independente para AVC<sup>30,31</sup>.</p>
    <p>Desde o in&#237;cio da d&#233;cada de 1980, numerosos estudos j&#225; vinham demonstrando um aumento da mortalidade em diab&#233;ticos com NAC, como se pode observar na <xref ref-type="table" rid="a14tab02">tabela 2</xref><sup>5,7,29,32-41</sup>. No entanto, somente em recente metan&#225;lise<sup>42</sup> p&#244;de-se estabelecer uma forte associa&#231;&#227;o entre o grau de disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica e o risco de morte. Nessa metan&#225;lise, revisaram-se quinze trabalhos envolvendo um total de 2.900 pacientes diab&#233;ticos com e sem NAC. Durante o per&#237;odo de <italic>follow-up</italic> que variou de 0,5 a 16 anos, a mortalidade foi consistentemente maior nos portadores de NAC (30%) do que nos pacientes sem NAC (13%).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a14tab02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0e24-00014-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A grande cr&#237;tica, entretanto, que se faz atualmente a todos esses estudos &#233; o fato de que doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (DAC) freq&#252;entemente coexiste com NAC nos diab&#233;ticos e esta pode, de fato, n&#227;o ser o &#250;nico fator respons&#225;vel pela maior mortalidade cardiovascular no DM<sup>43</sup>. De qualquer forma, hoje h&#225; forte evid&#234;ncia de que a NAC &#233; um fator de risco independente para mortalidade CV em diab&#233;ticos<sup>44</sup>, e j&#225; foi demonstrado que pacientes com NAC associada a hepatopatia e alcoolismo (n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos) tamb&#233;m apresentam um risco maior de mortalidade<sup>45</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os mecanismos propostos para explicar esse aumento da mortalidade s&#227;o: dificuldade de reconhecimento de angina (s&#227;o comuns as manifesta&#231;&#245;es at&#237;picas como n&#225;useas, dispn&#233;ia e cansa&#231;o), isquemia ou IAM assintom&#225;ticos, disfun&#231;&#227;o da auto-regula&#231;&#227;o do fluxo coronariano, aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica do VE, elevado risco de arritmias (intervalo QT prolongado), diminui&#231;&#227;o da prote&#231;&#227;o noturna contra IAM, altera&#231;&#227;o do ciclo circadiano da PA, aumento da massa card&#237;aca, risco elevado de microalbumin&#250;ria e, finalmente, apn&#233;ia<sup>1,2</sup>. Tamb&#233;m &#233; bastante conhecida a s&#237;ndrome da morte no leito (<italic>dead in bed</italic>) em cujo mecanismo a tr&#237;ade NAC + descarga simpato-adren&#233;rgica + hipoglicemia noturna desempenha papel fundamental<sup>46</sup>.</p>
    <p>Diversos estudos cl&#237;nicos<sup>42,43,47,48 </sup>sugerem participa&#231;&#227;o importante da NAC na etiopatogenia da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica assintom&#225;tica (IMA) que ocorre nos diab&#233;ticos. Em um estudo amplo e prospectivo<sup>47</sup>, avaliaram-se 434.877 pacientes com IAM e 33% destes n&#227;o apresentaram dor precordial. As porcentagens de pacientes com DM foram de 32,6% entre aqueles avaliados com aus&#234;ncia de dor precordial <italic>vs</italic> 25,4% no grupo apresentando dor precordial. Ainda mais, in&#250;meros estudos t&#234;m mostrado uma associa&#231;&#227;o independente entre NAC e DAC assintom&#225;tica<sup>49-51</sup>. Recentemente, a IMA foi um previsor independente de eventos CV graves (MSC e IAM) em diab&#233;ticos do tipo 2 assintom&#225;ticos<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ao contr&#225;rio, em recente artigo de revis&#227;o<sup>53</sup>, um pesquisador levanta uma antiga controv&#233;rsia: a de que a NAC n&#227;o seria a respons&#225;vel pela maior incid&#234;ncia de isquemia e infarto silenciosos nos diab&#233;ticos, e sim a aterosclerose acelerada que ocorre nestes &#250;ltimos. De qualquer forma, ambas as hip&#243;teses s&#227;o compat&#237;veis com uma terceira possibilidade: a de que a NAC pode exercer um efeito direto acelerando ainda mais o processo de aterosclerose no DM<sup>46</sup>.</p>
    <p>De fato, atualmente h&#225; evid&#234;ncia, tanto experimental quanto cl&#237;nica de que art&#233;rias perif&#233;ricas submetidas &#224; simpatectomia apresentam aterosclerose grave (macroangiopatia) por um duplo mecanismo:</p>
    <p>1) <italic>Efeito hemodin&#226;mico -</italic> onde a pr&#243;pria eje&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida do volume sist&#243;lico (resultante da taquicardia de repouso que ocorre na NAC) est&#225; independentemente associada &#224; les&#227;o vascular<sup>53,54</sup>.</p>
    <p>2) <italic>Efeito fenot&#237;pico -</italic> maior migra&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas da musculatura lisa vascular (camada m&#233;dia) para a camada &#237;ntima e posterior diferencia&#231;&#227;o dessas c&#233;lulas, independentemente da atividade do &#243;xido n&#237;trico<sup>55</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em recente estudo prospectivo<sup>56,57</sup> para detectar a preval&#234;ncia e os previsores de coronariopatia silenciosa em pacientes com DM2, o melhor previsor de teste de imagem de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (SPECT) sob estresse farmacol&#243;gico (adenosina) positivo foi a presen&#231;a de NAC (avaliada pela raz&#227;o de Valsalva anormal). Esse estudo revelou ainda que 22% (n = 113) dos diab&#233;ticos do tipo 2 j&#225; apresentavam IMA ao serem inclu&#237;dos. Tais pacientes passaram a receber um tratamento mais intensivo dos FRCV (estatinas, aspirina e inibidores da enzima conversora) e ap&#243;s tr&#234;s anos, 71 deles foram submetidos a um novo teste sob estresse que revelou a resolu&#231;&#227;o da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica em 79% (n = 56)<sup>57</sup>.</p>
    <p>Tamb&#233;m h&#225; estudos com ecodopplercardiografia sugerindo papel importante da NAC na patog&#234;nese da miocardiopatia diab&#233;tica, mostrando uma significativa correla&#231;&#227;o entre a gravidade da NAC e o grau de comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. Em particular, a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE parece ser precoce e assintom&#225;tica em diab&#233;ticos jovens com NAC<sup>58</sup>.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, h&#225; uma associa&#231;&#227;o bem estabelecida entre NAC e nefropatia diab&#233;tica que contribui para as altas taxas de mortalidade encontradas nos diab&#233;ticos<sup>8</sup>. Ewing e cols.<sup>5</sup> reportaram taxa de mortalidade de 53% ap&#243;s cinco anos em uma coorte de pacientes diab&#233;ticos portadores de NAC contra 15% no grupo controle (diab&#233;ticos sem NAC). Por&#233;m, aqueles tinham NAC sintom&#225;tica de longa evolu&#231;&#227;o e j&#225; apresentavam macroangiopatia, e, na verdade, 50% foram a &#243;bito por IRC. J&#225; Sampson e cols.<sup>7</sup> exclu&#237;ram de sua coorte os diab&#233;ticos com IRC ou com NAC cl&#237;nica por mais de dois anos e encontraram, no <italic>follow-up</italic>, uma mortalidade de 27% contra 11% no grupo controle (diab&#233;ticos sem NAC), ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de dez a quinze anos.</p>
    <p>Lurbe e cols.<sup>59</sup> correlacionaram o n&#227;o-descenso noturno da PA (por perda do ritmo circadiano da press&#227;o arterial que ocorre tipicamente nos diab&#233;ticos portadores de NAC) com uma maior incid&#234;ncia de nefropatia (microalbumin&#250;ria) e macroangiopatia. &#201; interessante o fato de que neste estudo o aumento da PAS durante o sono (<italic>non dippers</italic>) precedeu o desenvolvimento da microalbumin&#250;ria em diab&#233;ticos jovens do tipo 1, fazendo o elo entre NAC (mais precoce) e a deteriora&#231;&#227;o na taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular (mais tardia).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Testes para o diagn&#243;stico precoce e estadiamento da neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica atual</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para o diagn&#243;stico e estadiamento da NAC na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, devem ser utilizados testes auton&#244;micos n&#227;o-invasivos, simples, sens&#237;veis tanto para o sistema simp&#225;tico (acometimento mais tardio) como para o parassimp&#225;tico (mais precoce) e com boa reprodutibilidade, a fim de se permitir um acompanhamento longitudinal das altera&#231;&#245;es<sup>23,60,61</sup>. Atualmente existem duas formas padronizadas nesse sentido: </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Testes de Ewing<sup>5,62</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dos cinco testes ambulatoriais descritos classicamente por Ewing<sup>62</sup>, tr&#234;s (teste de respira&#231;&#227;o profunda, teste de Valsalva e teste ortost&#225;tico) s&#227;o atualmente recomendados pela Associa&#231;&#227;o Americana de Diabetes e Academia Americana de Neurologia<sup>8,61</sup> ao diagn&#243;stico para o DM2 e ap&#243;s cinco anos do diagn&#243;stico para o DM1. Ap&#243;s a primeira pesquisa, os testes devem ser repetidos anualmente. Esses tr&#234;s testes apresentam boa reprodutibilidade, especificidade acima de 91% e sensibilidade de 93% (respira&#231;&#227;o profunda e ortost&#225;tico) a 98% (Valsalva).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estudo da variabilidade da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (vfc) por sistema computadorizado<sup>1,2,8</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, tornou-se fact&#237;vel a detec&#231;&#227;o mais precoce da disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica<sup>63,64</sup> gra&#231;as ao estudo da VFC por an&#225;lise espectral. Essa moderna tecnologia utiliza um algoritmo matem&#225;tico (transforma&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida de Fourier) para transformar um sinal biol&#243;gico complexo, como &#233; o caso da VFC (resultado do balan&#231;o simp&#225;tico e vagal no n&#243; sinusal), em seus componentes causadores, apresentando-os segundo a freq&#252;&#234;ncia com que alteram a FC<sup>2,23</sup>. O resultado (amplitude do espectro) &#233; apresentado em um diagrama de Amplitude (eixo Y) <italic>vs</italic> Freq&#252;&#234;ncia (eixo X) e pode ser visto na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a14fig01a">figura 1A</xref>. Pode-se observar que a amplitude do espectro reflete n&#227;o apenas a magnitude da VFC (eixo Y), mas tamb&#233;m as oscila&#231;&#245;es em diferentes freq&#252;&#234;ncias, isto &#233;, o n&#250;mero de flutua&#231;&#245;es da FC por segundo (eixo X). Isso permite distinguir melhor o impacto relativo da modula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e vagal sobre a VFC.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a14fig01a">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0e24-00014-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Foi demonstrado que a amplitude total do espectro (poder total ou PT) da VFC consiste de tr&#234;s faixas ou bandas fundamentais representadas na figura 1:</p>
    <p>1) componente de freq&#252;&#234;ncias muito baixas ou FMB (de 0,01 a 0,04 Hz) que est&#225; relacionado com as flutua&#231;&#245;es do t&#244;nus vasomotor ligadas &#224; termorregula&#231;&#227;o e sudorese (controle simp&#225;tico);</p>
    <p>2) componente de freq&#252;&#234;ncias baixas ou FB (de 0,04 a 0,15 Hz) associado ao reflexo barorreceptor (controle simp&#225;tico com modula&#231;&#227;o vagal);</p>
    <p>3) componente de freq&#252;&#234;ncias altas ou FA (de 0,15 a 0,5 Hz) que est&#225; relacionado com a arritmia sinusal (controle parassimp&#225;tico).</p>
    <p>Em pacientes diab&#233;ticos com disfun&#231;&#227;o predominantemente vagal (mais precoce), a amplitude de FA est&#225; reduzida ou ausente, ao passo que na presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o predominantemente simp&#225;tica (mais tardia) as amplitudes de FB e FMB est&#227;o reduzidas. Os casos mais avan&#231;ados s&#227;o caracterizados por aus&#234;ncia de todas as bandas. Este m&#233;todo<sup>2,23,62-65</sup> tem a vantagem de n&#227;o necessitar da coopera&#231;&#227;o ativa do paciente (&#233; realizado em repouso), al&#233;m de ter alta sensibilidade (99%) e especificidade (100%), por&#233;m requer equipamento computadorizado e <italic>software</italic> matem&#225;tico acoplado.</p>
    <p>Atualmente, para o diagn&#243;stico precoce da NAC, utilizam-se sete par&#226;metros: as tr&#234;s bandas da an&#225;lise espectral (FMB, FB e FA) e mais quatro testes de Ewing (os tr&#234;s j&#225; descritos anteriormente e mais o teste da HO descrito no <xref ref-type="app" rid="anx1">Anexo 1</xref>).</p>
    <p>O protocolo que apresentamos no <xref ref-type="app" rid="anx1">Anexo 1</xref> ao final desta revis&#227;o est&#225; baseado no que preconizam os diferentes laborat&#243;rios<sup>10,24,28,63-65</sup> de estudo do SNA, bem como nos consensos europeu e americano<sup>1,2,23,60,61</sup>. Utilizando-se esse protocolo, o diagn&#243;stico de NAC &#233; realizado quando pelo menos tr&#234;s dos sete testes est&#227;o alterados com uma especificidade de 100%. J&#225; quando apenas dois testes s&#227;o anormais, faz-se o diagn&#243;stico de <italic>NAC incipiente</italic> com uma especificidade de 98%<sup>1,2</sup></p>
    <p>Na falta de um sistema computadorizado para a an&#225;lise espectral da VFC, os quatro testes de Ewing devem ser realizados e o diagn&#243;stico de <italic>NAC estabelecida</italic> exige pelo menos dois testes alterados. Nesse caso, quando apenas um destes est&#225; alterado (em geral, o da respira&#231;&#227;o profunda ou o ortost&#225;tico), faz-se o diagn&#243;stico de <italic>NAC precoce</italic> ou <italic>incipiente</italic>. Posteriormente, com a evolu&#231;&#227;o da NAC, altera-se tamb&#233;m o teste de Valsalva e fala-se em <italic>NAC intermedi&#225;ria</italic>. Finalmente, quando ocorre HO, faz-se o diagn&#243;stico de <italic>NAC grave</italic><sup>1,2,8</sup></p>
    <p>Os testes da respira&#231;&#227;o profunda (ou raz&#227;o E:I) e ortost&#225;tico (ou raz&#227;o 30:15) e a an&#225;lise espectral na banda de FA avaliam somente o componente parassimp&#225;tico (afer&#234;ncia vagal do cora&#231;&#227;o) do SNA cardiovascular e s&#227;o os mais precocemente alterados no DM (note na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a14fig01b">figura 1B</xref> que a banda de FA j&#225; est&#225; alterada, apesar de o paciente n&#227;o ser portador de NAC). J&#225; a amplitude espectral na banda de FMB e o teste da HO avaliam o componente simp&#225;tico do SNA. O poder espectral na faixa de FB e o teste de Valsalva avaliam tanto o componente simp&#225;tico quanto o parassimp&#225;tico da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica CV e s&#227;o os mais sens&#237;veis.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a14fig01b">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0e24-00014-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora a NAC seja a mais estudada e a mais comprometedora dentre as apresenta&#231;&#245;es da neuropatia auton&#244;mica diab&#233;tica, sua fisiopatologia constitui um dos t&#243;picos mais obscuros e controversos da diabetologia atual. Por exemplo, h&#225; pesquisadores que consideram a NAC um componente a mais da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica<sup>19,20,66</sup>. In&#250;meras quest&#245;es ainda est&#227;o sem respostas, tais como:</p>
    <p>1) Quais s&#227;o os mecanismos respons&#225;veis pela NAC precoce e onde est&#225; o ponto de n&#227;o-retorno, isto &#233;, o ponto a partir do qual as altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e fisiopatol&#243;gicas tornam-se irrevers&#237;veis?</p>
    <p>2) Qual &#233; o melhor m&#233;todo para se realizar a pesquisa de coronariopatia silenciosa em indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos<sup>67</sup> e quando se deve realiz&#225;-lo?</p>
    <p>3) Qual &#233; a rela&#231;&#227;o entre hiperinsulinemia<sup>68</sup>, NAC e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica? Qual viria primeiro: a disfun&#231;&#227;o do parassimp&#225;tico ou a resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica<sup>69</sup>?</p>
    <p>&#201; fundamental ressaltar que hoje sabemos que a NAC &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o precoce do DM, e sua evolu&#231;&#227;o, tanto insidiosa quanto silenciosa, est&#225; associada &#224; morbidade e mortalidade consider&#225;veis e a um comprometimento s&#233;rio da qualidade de vida dos indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos.</p>
    <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o objetiva e nas fases iniciais da NAC (<italic>formas incipiente e intermedi&#225;ria</italic>) por meio de testes CV e de sistemas computadorizados (VFC por an&#225;lise espectral) &#233; fact&#237;vel e imperativa no atual estado da arte por quatro raz&#245;es:</p>
    <p>1) Como NAC pode ser retardada (estudos DCCT e Steno 2) e hoje h&#225; real possibilidade de se reverter o curso natural desta, &#233; fundamental diagnostic&#225;-la e estagi&#225;-la precocemente, antes que evolua para est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados e irrevers&#237;veis (<italic>NAC grave</italic>). Ainda mais, todos os trabalhos sobre tratamento cl&#237;nico mostram que NAC <italic>incipiente ou intermedi&#225;ria</italic> pode ser revertida ou melhorada, por&#233;m nunca os casos de NAC grave<sup>1,70</sup>.</p>
    <p>2) As manifesta&#231;&#245;es sintom&#225;ticas ocorrem muito tardiamente na evolu&#231;&#227;o do DM e nem sempre progridem. Isso ressalta a import&#226;ncia de se quantificar o d&#233;ficit auton&#244;mico por meio de testes objetivos e prospectivos, isto &#233;, n&#227;o se pode fazer o diagn&#243;stico s&#243; com hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica ou exame f&#237;sico.</p>
    <p>3) Quanto maior a gravidade da NAC (est&#225;gios tardios), maior parece ser o risco CV e tamb&#233;m a mortalidade<sup>71</sup>, j&#225; que hoje sabemos que, uma vez que os sintomas se desenvolvem, a mortalidade em cinco a sete anos &#233; de 50%<sup>5</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a NAC &#233; um marcador de mau progn&#243;stico para microangiopatia, em especial nefropatia, como demonstrou estudo sueco prospectivo com acompanhamento de onze anos<sup>72</sup>. Portanto, a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce e o estadiamento podem identificar os indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos em riscos de DAC silenciosa, ICC, IRC e morte prematura. &#201; fundamental prevenir e alertar esses pacientes quando submetidos a programas de treinamento f&#237;sico e exerc&#237;cios.</p>
    <p>4) A identifica&#231;&#227;o em tempo da disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica no DM pode acelerar a profilaxia das les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os alvos: tanto macroangiopatia (DAC, MSC e AVC) quanto microangiopatia (IRC e retinopatia) com o uso de drogas espec&#237;ficas para os FRCV que est&#227;o associados &#224; NAC: hipertens&#227;o e albumin&#250;ria (inibidores da ECA e bloqueadores do receptor da angiotensina II), IMA (betabloqueadores e aspirina) e dislipidemia (estatinas). Tamb&#233;m se preconiza atualmente, nos portadores de NAC incipiente e intermedi&#225;ria, um controle mais intensivo do DM e da hipertens&#227;o<sup>70,73</sup>.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o menos importante &#233; o fato de que aprendemos, nos &#250;ltimos anos, que os FRCV tradicionalmente associados com macroangiopatia no DM2 (IMC, triglic&#233;rides, tabagismo e PAS) tamb&#233;m t&#234;m papel fisiopatol&#243;gico na hist&#243;ria natural das complica&#231;&#245;es microangiop&#225;ticas do DM1, especialmente da NAC<sup>11,26</sup>. E ainda mais interessante, o tratamento intensivo desses fatores previne a progress&#227;o da NAC no DM2<sup>13,14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em conclus&#227;o, a presen&#231;a de NAC em pacientes diab&#233;ticos est&#225; associada a uma mortalidade por evento CV duas a tr&#234;s vezes maior e a uma mortalidade total de at&#233; cinco vezes maior em rela&#231;&#227;o aos diab&#233;ticos n&#227;o portadores de NAC<sup>74</sup>. Assim, a NAC constitui um importante marcador de risco para macroangiopatia em geral e para DAC em particular.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este manuscrito &#233; parte de tese de mestrado de Luiz Clemente de Souza Pereira Rolim pela Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Luiz Clemente de Souza Pereira Rolim </p>
        <p> Rua Borges Lagoa, 1065/110 - Vila Clementino </p>
        <p> 04038-032 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="rolim777@gmail.com">rolim777@gmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 21/08/2007; revisado recebido em 23/10/2007; aceito em 06/11/2007.</p>
    <p/>
    <p>Protocolo para pesquisa anual de NAC (Centro de Diabetes da Unifesp)</p>
    <p>
      <bold>A) Question&#225;rio de sintomas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A.1) Ao levantar-se: tonturas, dist&#250;rbios visuais, pr&#233;-s&#237;ncope. </p>
    <p> A.2) Com exerc&#237;cios: dispn&#233;ia, n&#225;useas, sudorese, dor. </p>
    <p> A.3) Disfagia, n&#225;useas, saciedade precoce, anorexia. </p>
    <p> A.4) Diarr&#233;ia, incontin&#234;ncia fecal, obstipa&#231;&#227;o, v&#244;mito p&#243;s-alimentar. </p>
    <p> A.5) Disfun&#231;&#227;o sexual: er&#233;til, lubrifica&#231;&#227;o vaginal. </p>
    <p> A.6) Incontin&#234;ncia, polaci&#250;ria, urg&#234;ncia, reten&#231;&#227;o, I.T.U. de repeti&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p> A.7) Anidrose, hiperidrose, intoler&#226;ncia ao calor, sudorese gustat&#243;ria.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>B) Sete par&#226;metros</bold>
    </p>
    <p>B.1) Teste de Valsalva (raz&#227;o de Valsalva) </p>
    <p> O paciente permanece em dec&#250;bito dorsal (DD) a 30 graus, e, ap&#243;s 15 minutos de repouso, realiza esfor&#231;o expirat&#243;rio para manter uma press&#227;o de 40 mmHg durante 15 segundos. Em torno do 14&#186; segundo, o paciente apresenta uma taquicardia m&#225;xima fisiol&#243;gica. Ap&#243;s esse esfor&#231;o, a v&#225;lvula do esfigmoman&#244;metro &#233; liberada e o paciente &#233; acompanhado por ECG durante 30 a 45 segundos, quando ocorre uma bradicardia m&#225;xima fisiol&#243;gica. A raz&#227;o de Valsalva &#233; a rela&#231;&#227;o entre a taquicardia e a bradicardia ou entre o intervalo RR mais longo e o mais curto.</p>
    <p>B.2) Teste ortost&#225;tico (raz&#227;o 30:15) </p>
    <p> Consiste em realizar o ECG com o paciente em DD nas mesmas condi&#231;&#245;es acima, e, ap&#243;s se levantar (ortostatismo), avalia-se a rela&#231;&#227;o entre as freq&#252;&#234;ncias card&#237;acas ou os intervalos RR correspondentes &#224; taquicardia m&#225;xima em torno do 15&#186; batimento e &#224; bradicardia m&#225;xima em torno do 30&#186; batimento.</p>
    <p>B.3) Teste da respira&#231;&#227;o profunda (raz&#227;o E:I) </p>
    <p> Consiste em realizar o ECG durante uma inspira&#231;&#227;o e expira&#231;&#227;o profundas com dura&#231;&#227;o m&#237;nima de 5 segundos cada uma e obter o &#237;ndice: freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca m&#225;xima (inspira&#231;&#227;o) dividida pela freq&#252;&#234;ncia m&#237;nima (expira&#231;&#227;o) ou RR mais longo (E) por RR mais curto (I).</p>
    <p>B.4) Teste da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (HO) </p>
    <p> Paciente em DD a 30 graus durante 15 minutos de repouso. Afere-se a press&#227;o arterial basal e ap&#243;s tr&#234;s minutos de ortostatismo. Uma queda da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica maior ou igual a 20 mmHg &#233; considerada alterada e queda na press&#227;o sist&#243;lica entre 10 e 19 mmHg &#233; considerada lim&#237;trofe.</p>
    <p>B.5) Estudo da VFC por an&#225;lise espectral (amplitude espectral nas tr&#234;s bandas: FMB, FB e FA) </p>
    <p> Paciente em repouso em DD a 30 graus e respira&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea. Registra-se no computador ou <italic>laptop</italic>, durante 300 segundos, o ECG que &#233; posteriormente analisado por um algoritmo matem&#225;tico e expresso em um diagrama de amplitude de oscila&#231;&#227;o (flutua&#231;&#245;es da FC por segundo) vs. freq&#252;&#234;ncia (hertz). </p>
    <p> Nas <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a14fig01a">figuras 1A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a14fig01b">1B</xref> podem-se observar, da esquerda para a direita, as tr&#234;s bandas: FMB, FB e FA da amplitude espectral. Os valores expressos em milissegundos quadrados refletem a &#225;rea sob a curva de cada banda (verde, azul e vermelha, respectivamente).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Observa&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Todos os testes CV devem ser realizados pela manh&#227; em jejum, com glicemia capilar menor que 180 mg/dl e ap&#243;s a suspens&#227;o, pelo menos 8 horas e idealmente 24 horas antes (pois depender&#225; da meia-vida de cada droga em particular), de todos os medicamentos cardiovasculares, ansiol&#237;ticos, antidepressivos, cafe&#237;na e descongestionantes. Os valores normais dependem sempre da faixa et&#225;ria do paciente e est&#227;o padronizados<sup>23,65</sup>.</p>
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    <app-group>
      <app id="anx1">
        <label>Anexo 1</label>
        <title>1 </title>
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    </app-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Clinical Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy: risk factors, clinical impact and early diagnosis</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) is one of the most clinically significant complications of diabetes mellitus (DM), but one of the least frequently diagnosed. In this review, we discuss the major risk factors for the development and progression of CAN in patients with DM, the natural history of autonomic neuropathy and its impact on cardiovascular disease in DM, as well as the tests for the early diagnosis and staging of CAN in the clinical practice. The bibliographic research was based on two databases: Medline and Tripdatabase, with the following descriptors: diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetes. We selected English and German articles, written between 1998 and 2007. In its initial stages (early and intermediate), CAN may be diagnosed and reversed. However, in advanced cases (severe stage), the only treatment that remains is a symptomatic one. CAN is associated with higher cardiovascular morbidity and mortality rates and poor quality of life in diabetic individuals.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Diabetes mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiovascular diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>autonomic nervous system</kwd>
        <kwd>risk factors</kwd>
        <kwd>mortality</kwd>
        <kwd>heart rate variability</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>CLINICAL UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="tit-body2"/>Diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy: risk factors, clinical impact and early diagnosis</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Luiz Clemente de Souza Pereira Rolim; Jo&#227;o Roberto de S&#225;; Antonio Roberto Chacra; S&#233;rgio Atala Dib</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Escola Paulista de Medicina, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) is one of the most clinically significant complications of diabetes mellitus (DM), but one of the least frequently diagnosed. In this review, we discuss the major risk factors for the development and progression of CAN in patients with DM, the natural history of autonomic neuropathy and its impact on cardiovascular disease in DM, as well as the tests for the early diagnosis and staging of CAN in the clinical practice. The bibliographic research was based on two databases: Medline and Tripdatabase, with the following descriptors: <italic>diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy</italic> and <italic>cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetes</italic>. We selected English and German articles, written between 1998 and 2007. In its initial stages (early and intermediate), CAN may be diagnosed and reversed. However, in advanced cases (severe stage), the only treatment that remains is a symptomatic one. CAN is associated with higher cardiovascular morbidity and mortality rates and poor quality of life in diabetic individuals.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Diabetes mellitus, cardiovascular diseases, autonomic nervous system, risk factors, mortality, heart rate variability.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN) occurs when peripheral autonomic fibers (sympathetic and parasympathetic) of the cardiovascular system (CVS), are affected, thus resulting in neurohumoral regulation disturbances. The sympathetic-vagal balance (both tonic and phasic) modulates the function of three of the main CVS structures: the sinus node (heart rate), the ventricles (end-systolic and end-diastolic volumes) and the blood vessels, including microcirculation (total peripheral resistance). </p>
      <p>The autonomic nervous system (ANS), thus, plays a key role in the modulation of the CVS dynamics by means of an interaction between the sympathetic and vagal tonus which, in physiologic conditions, act in a negative feedback manner. In other words, the activation of the former is followed by the inhibition of the latter. In clinical practice, this modulation is usually assessed by the well-known study of heart rate variability (HRV), which means an analysis of spontaneous and induced fluctuations that occur in HR (or in the electrocardiographic RR interval) as a result of ANS sympathetic and parasympathetic activities on sinus node automaticity.</p>
      <p>Most patients with diabetic polyneuropathy (PNP) show some degree of autonomic dysfunction. Patients with predominant autonomic signs and symptoms are considered as having diabetic autonomic neuropathy (DAN). Although this may affect any organ system, it usually starts in the skin neurovascular system (foot microcirculation) and in the cardiovascular system (CAN). Furthermore, it affects the gastrointestinal system (gastroparesis, constipation and diarrhea) and genitourinary system (urinary incontinence, neurogenic bladder and erectile dysfunction). </p>
      <p>CAN is one of the major complications of DM since its presence is associated with worsening prognosis and patient's poorer life quality. The following clinical manifestations are associated with CAN: resting tachycardia, severe orthostatic hypotension (OH), syncope, exercise intolerance (due to chronotropic and inotropic response block), perioperative instability, asymptomatic myocardial ischemia and infarction, left ventricular (LV) diastolic and systolic dysfunction, and increased risk of renal diseases, chronic renal failure (CRF), stroke, and sudden cardiac death (SCD). </p>
      <p>Despite the potential negative impact on the quality of life of patients with CAN, this disease falls among the least understood and least frequently diagnosed complications of individuals with DM. This type of neuropathy can usually be found in approximately 25% of the patients with type-1 diabetes mellitus (DM1) and in 34% of those with type-2 diabetes mellitus (DM2). The prevalence of CAN progressively increases in a direct proportion to age, duration of DM and poor glycemic control<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>CAN may be subdivided into <italic>subclinical</italic> (in which functional and reversible alterations are predominant) and <italic>clinical</italic> (when structural neuronal alterations are already present): the first one is only diagnosed by tests and may occur as soon as the diagnosis of certain types of DM are diagnosed, or in the first years of the disease; the second form, as the name suggests, is symptomatic and occurs in more advanced stages<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Autonomic fibers are compromised in the several clinical subtypes of diabetic neuropathies. The most common type (classical PNP: symmetric, distal, and predominantly sensitive), shows a strong correlation between the progressive lesion of both somatic and autonomic fibers, i.e., nowadays we know that 50% of the diabetic patients with PNP have asymptomatic CAN, whereas 100% of those with symptomatic CAN present classical PNP<sup>3,4</sup>. </p>
      <p>This review is aimed at finding and discussing the best evidence available in the recent literature (from 1998 to 2007) in order to clarify three key questions:</p>
      <p>1) Which are the major risk factors (RF) for the development and progression of CAN in individuals with DM? Is there any difference between CAN of DM1 and that of DM2?</p>
      <p>2) What is CAN natural history and its clinical impact on DM or, in practical terms, what is the significance of this diagnosis for both physician and diabetic patient?</p>
      <p>3) How should an early diagnosis and staging be made in the clinical practice, and which are currently the best tests in terms of specificity, sensitivity and reproducibility?</p>
      <p>For this purpose, the following strategy was used: bibliographic survey in two databases (Medline and Tripdatabase) with the descriptors <italic>diabetic cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy</italic> and <italic>cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and diabetes</italic>. We selected articles written in English and German from 1998 to 2007 (a total of 106 references). Nevertheless, articles published before 1998 were also included, provided they were relevant or had been frequently cited (19 references). </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Risk factors for CAN development and progression in patients with diabetes mellitus. Differences between CAN in DM1 and in DM2</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The risk of developing autonomic dysfunction in DM depends on several factors. However, two of them are well established in the literature and are common to both DM1 and DM2: Duration of disease and the degree of glycemic control<sup>2,5-7</sup>. In both DM types, poor blood glucose control (chronic hyperglycemia) plays an important role both in the initial pathophysiology (oxidative stress, microcirculation dysfunction due to nitric oxide loss and Schwann cell lesion due to accumulation of free radicals) as well as in its progression (axonal degeneration and neuronal apoptosis)<sup>8-10</sup>. Although diabetic neuropathies are classified among DM microangiopathic complications, the pathophysiological mechanism is multifactorial, and there is enough evidence that small-fiber PNP and even CAN may precede DM (PNP related to glucose intolerance or prediabetes)<sup>19</sup>. Although it falls outside the scope of this review, the final common pathway of the different mechanisms already described to explain the pathophysiology of PNP seems to be oxidative and nitrative stress<sup>4,9</sup>.</p>
      <p>The presence of CAN, however, is not only associated with the duration and degree of hyperglycemia. In the past years, several studies<sup>6,11-15</sup> consistently showed that cardiovascular risk factors (CVRF), such as systolic blood pressure (SBP), body mass index (BMI), triglycerides, and smoking, play an important role in the development of CAN. It is noteworthy that these factors share at least two points in common: they are potentially modifiable and are associated with insulin resistance, once again suggesting that CAN may arise with a metabolic syndrome. </p>
      <p>Even more important, however, were the results of the Steno 2 study, in which the intensified multifactorial intervention (hyperglycemia, hypertension, dyslipidemia and microalbuminuria) in patients with DM2 reduced the risk of CAN progression by 68%<sup>13,14</sup>. The role of intensive control (three doses of NPH insulin) in preventing and slowing the progression of CAN in patients with DM1 is also well-known: in the classical DCCT study, its prevalence was reduced by 53%<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>Regarding the differences between CAN in DM1 and in DM2, it is worth pointing out that both signs and symptoms appear later in DM1 than in DM2, i.e., the great majority of DM1 patients with CAN remain totally asymptomatic for years and, when the symptoms appear, CAN is usually in advanced and irreversible stages<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>CAN seems to be more prevalent in DM2 patients, appearing earlier and causing higher mortality rates<sup> 8,18</sup>. This is likely due to the longer duration of the metabolic abnormalities (dysglycemia), which occur even prior to the diagnosis of DM2, in the prediabetes and metabolic syndrome stages<sup>19,20</sup>. These differences suggest that the natural history of CAN presents different progression routes in DM1 and in DM2, and moreover, that pathophysiological mechanisms also seem to be different. During the past decade, several studies demonstrated that anti-sympathetic ganglion, anti-vagus nerve or anti-myelin-associated-glycoprotein autoantibodies occurr in a significant proportion of patients with DM1, and many of them presented severe CAN<sup>21</sup>. </p>
      <p>Also worthy of attention is the fact that CAN symptoms are inexplicably uncommon and, when present, they oscillate and do not always progress, as is the case with OH. As a matter of fact, the great majority of diabetic patients with CAN are currently known to remain asymptomatic for decades, and less than 1% develops symptomatic OH<sup>1,2</sup>. Since clinical history and physical examination are ineffective for its early detection, it is of crucial importance to perform quantitative tests in order to diagnose CAN in its initial and still reversible stages<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the past two decades, there was a great advance in our knowledge of RF for CAN initiation and progression, thanks to the development of more sensitive and specific methods for its diagnosis. It is the case of the HRV study, which allows a non-invasive, selective and longitudinal assessment of autonomic function by mathematically analyzing the magnitude of HR variations<sup>23</sup>. </p>
      <p>In DM2, the following RF are associated with a reduced HRV: age, obesity, hyperinsulinemia, DM duration, hypertension, retinopathy, PNP and smoking<sup>1,2,24,25</sup>. In DM1, the factors that increase the risk of developing CAN are: HbA1c, SBP, age, retinopathy, albuminuria, PNP, hypertriglyceridaemia, dyslipidemia, gender (female), and time of exposure to hyperglycemia<sup>6,11,26-28</sup>.</p>
      <p>Current data that differentiate CAN in DM1 and in DM2 in terms of risk factors and natural history are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>. We can conclude that, in relation to RF, there are modest differences between CAN in DM1 and in DM2 and, regarding its natural history, CAN seem to progress more rapidly in DM2 than in DM1.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0e24-00014-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Natural history of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy and its impact on diabetes mellitus cardiovascular disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although the natural history of CAN in DM remains partially obscure, great advances, regarding its prognosis, have been achieved in the past decade. Despite difficulties such as the lack of standardization and of a single methodology in the diagnosis among the different epidemiological studies, the prevalence of CAN is known to range from 7.7% in patients with newly diagnosed DM1 (although this can be related to transient hemodynamic changes) to 90% in DM1 patients eligible for pancreas transplantation<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>A Finnish study<sup>29</sup> followed patients with DM2 for ten years and found that the prevalence of CAN, as assessed by HRV, increased from 5% to 65%, whereas in the control group (non-diabetic patients) it increased from 2% to 28%. The prevalence of OH, in turn, (SBP decrease by 20mmHg or more after three minutes in the standing position) increased, after ten years, from 7% to 24% in the group studied (DM2), and from 6% to 9% in the control group. Additionally, the presence of CAN after five years was an independent risk factor for stroke<sup>30,31</sup>.</p>
      <p>Since early 1980's, several studies had already been demonstrating increased mortality in diabetic patients with CAN, as can be observed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a15tab02-body2">Table 2</xref><sup>5,7,29,32-41</sup>. However, only in a recent meta-analysis<sup>42</sup> a strong association between the degree of autonomic dysfunction and death risk was established. Fifteen studies involving a total of 2900 diabetic patients with and without CAN were reviewed in this meta-analysis. During the follow-up period, which ranged from 0.5 to 16 years, mortality rates were consistently higher in patients with CAN (30%) than in those without CAN (13%). However, a major criticism currently directed to all of these studies is the fact that coronary artery disease (CAD) frequently coexists with CAN in diabetic patients, thus CAN may not actually be the single factor accounting for higher cardiovascular mortality in DM<sup>43</sup>. Currently there is strong evidence that CAN is an independent risk factor for CV mortality in diabetic patients<sup>44</sup>, and it has already been demonstrated that patients with CAN associated with liver diseases and alcohol use (non-diabetic individuals) also present a higher mortality risk<sup>45</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_a15tab02-body2">
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      </p>
      <p>The mechanisms proposed to account for this increased mortality are: difficulty in recognizing angina (atypical manifestations such as nausea, shortness of breath and tiredness are common), asymptomatic ischemia or MI, dysfunction of the coronary flow autoregulation, increased heart rate, LV systolic and diastolic dysfunction, increased risk of arrhythmias (prolonged QT interval), decreased nocturnal protection against MI, changes in BP circadian cycle, increased cardiac mass, increased risk of microalbuminuria and, lastly, apnea<sup>1,2</sup>. The death in bed syndrome, in which the triad CAN + sympathetic-adrenergic discharge + nocturnal hypoglycemia plays a key role, is also well-known<sup>46</sup>.</p>
      <p>Several clinical studies<sup>42,43,47,48</sup> suggest an important participation of CAN in the etiopathogenesis of asymptomatic myocardial ischemia (AMI) found in diabetic individuals. In a large prospective study<sup>47</sup>, 434877 patients with MI were evaluated, and 33% of them did not present chest pain. The percentages of patients with DM were 32.6% among those without chest pain, <italic>vs</italic> 25.4% in the group with chest pain. Moreover, several studies have shown an independent association between CAN and asymptomatic CAD<sup>49-51</sup>. Recently, AMI was found to be an independent predictor of hard CV events (SCD and MI) in asymptomatic type-2 diabetic patients<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>On the contrary, in a recent review article<sup>53</sup>, a researcher raised an old controversy: the accelerated atherosclerosis seen in diabetics patients, and not CAN, would be responsible for the higher incidence of asymptomatic ischemia and infarction. Either way, both hypotheses are compatible with a third possibility: that CAN may exert a direct effect in accelerating even further<sup>46</sup> the atherosclerotic process in DM.</p>
      <p>In fact, there is currently both experimental and clinical evidence that peripheral arteries undergoing sympathectomy present severe atherosclerosis (macroangiopathy), due to a double mechanism: </p>
      <p>1) <italic>Hemodynamic effect -</italic> in which the faster systolic volume ejection itself (resulting from the resting tachycardia seen in CAN) is independently associated with vascular lesion<sup>53,54</sup>.</p>
      <p>2) <italic>Phenotypic effect -</italic> greater migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (medium layer) to the inner layer and further differentiation of these cells, regardless of nitric oxide activity<sup>55</sup>. </p>
      <p>In a recent prospective study<sup>56,57</sup> for detecting the prevalence and predictors of silent coronary disease in patients with DM2, the strongest predictor of a positive pharmacological stress (adenosine) myocardial perfusion imaging (SPECT) was the presence of CAN (assessed by the abnormal Valsalva ratio). This study also revealed that 22% (n = 113) of the patients with type-2 diabetes already presented AMI at enrollment. The CVRF were then more intensively treated in these patients (statins, aspirin and angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors), and after three years 71 of them underwent a repeat stress imaging which demonstrated resolution of the myocardial ischemia in 79% (n = 56)<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>By showing a significant correlation between the severity of CAN and the degree of impairment of the left ventricular function, other studies using Doppler echocardiography suggested that CAN plays an important role in the pathogenesis of diabetic cardiomyopathy. LV diastolic dysfunction, in particular, seems to occur early and be asymptomatic in young diabetic individuals with CAN<sup>58</sup>.</p>
      <p>Finally, there is a well established association between CAN and diabetic nephropathy which contributes to the high mortality rates found in diabetic patients<sup>8</sup>. Ewing et al<sup>5</sup> reported a mortality rate of 53% after five years in a cohort of diabetic patients with CAN, <italic>vs</italic> 15% in the control group (diabetic patients without CAN). However, the individuals in the first group had long-standing symptomatic CAN and already presented macroangiopathy. As a matter of fact, 50% died of CRF. Sampson et al<sup>7</sup>, in turn, excluded diabetic patients with CRF or with clinical CAN for more than two years from their cohort and found, during the follow-up period a mortality rate of 27% <italic>vs</italic> 11% in the control group (diabetic patients without CAN) after a period of 10 to 15 years. </p>
      <p>Lurbe et al<sup>59</sup> correlated nondipping of nocturnal BP (due to a loss of the circadian rhythm of blood pressure that typically occurs in diabetic patients with CAN) with higher incidence of nephropathy (microalbuminuria) and macroangiopathy. Interestingly, in this study the increased SBP during sleep (nondippers) preceded the development of microalbuminuria in young type-1 diabetic individuals, thus linking CAN (earlier) to the deterioration in glomerular filtration rate (later). </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Tests for the early detection and staging of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in current clinical practice</bold>
      </p>
      <p>For the diagnosis and staging of CAN in clinical practice, noninvasive autonomic tests that are, simple, reproducible and sensitive both for the sympathetic (later impairment) and parasympathetic (earlier impairment) systems, should be used, so as to allow a longitudinal follow-up of the alterations<sup>23,60,61</sup>. There are currently two standardized methods for this purpose:</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ewing tests<sup>5,62</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p>Of the five tests for outpatients classically described by Ewing<sup>62</sup>, three (deep breathing test, Valsalva maneuver and orthostatic test) are currently recommended by the American Diabetes Association and American Academy of Neurology<sup>8,61</sup> for DM2 at the time of diagnosis, and for DM1 five years after the diagnosis. After the first survey, these tests should be yearly repeated. These three tests have a good reproducibility, specificity higher than 91% and sensitivity from 93% (deep breathing and orthostatic test) to 98% (Valsalva).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Computerized heart rate variability (hrv) study<sup>1,2,8 </sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the past years, earlier detection of autonomic dysfunction<sup>63,64</sup> became feasible thanks to the spectral analysis study of HRV. This modern technology uses a mathematical algorithm (fast Fourier transform) to turn a complex biological signal, such as HRV (result of the sympathovagal balance in the sinus node), into its causing components, presenting them according to the frequency with which they alter the HR<sup>2,23</sup>. The result (spectral amplitude) is presented in an Amplitude (Y axis) <italic>vs</italic> Frequency (X axis) diagram as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a15fig01a-body2">Figure 1A</xref>. We can observe that the spectral amplitude does not only reflect the magnitude of HRV (Y axis), but also the oscillations in different frequencies, i.e., the number of HR fluctuations per second (X axis). This allows us to better distinguish the relative impact of the sympathetic and vagal modulation on HRV. </p>
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      </p>
      <p>It has been demonstrated that the total spectral amplitude (total power or TP) of HRV consists of three key frequency bands, as represented in Figure 1:</p>
      <p>1) very low-frequency component or VLF (from 0.01 to 0.04 Hz) which is related to fluctuations in the vasomotor tonus linked to thermoregulation and sweating (sympathetic control); </p>
      <p>2) low-frequency component or LF (from 0.04 to 0.15 Hz) associated with the baroreflex (sympathetic control with vagal modulation);</p>
      <p>3) high-frequency component or HF (from 0.15 to 0.5 Hz) which is related to sinus arrhythmia (parasympathetic control). </p>
      <p>In diabetic patients with predominantly vagal (but early) dysfunction, HF amplitude is reduced or absent, whereas in the presence of predominantly sympathetic (but late) dysfunction, LF and VLF amplitudes are reduced. The more advanced cases are characterized by the absence of all frequency bands. In addition to its high sensitivity (99%) and specificity (100%), this method<sup>2,23,62-65</sup> has the advantage of not requiring active cooperation from the patient (it is performed at rest). However, it requires computerized equipment and coupled mathematical software.</p>
      <p>Currently, seven parameters are used for the early detection of CAN: the three spectral analysis frequency bands (VLF, LF and HF) plus four Ewing tests (the three previously described plus the OH test described in <a href="#anexo" link-type="internal">Attachment 1</a>). </p>
      <p>The protocol presented at the end of this review, in <a href="#anexo" link-type="internal">Attachment 1</a>, is based on recommendations of different ANS study laboratories<sup>10,24,28,63-65</sup>, as well as on European and American consensus<sup>1,2,23,60,61</sup>. According to this protocol, the diagnosis of CAN is made when at least three of the seven tests are abnormal with a specificity of 100%. On the other hand, when only two tests are abnormal, the diagnosis of <italic>incipient CAN</italic> is made with a specificity of 98%<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the absence of a computerized system for HRV spectral analysis, the four Ewing tests should be performed. The diagnosis of <italic>established CAN</italic> requires at least two abnormal tests. When only one of them is abnormal (usually the deep breathing test or the orthostatic one), the diagnosis of <italic>early</italic> or <italic>incipient CAN</italic> is made. Later, with the progression of CAN, the Valsalva maneuver also becomes abnormal, characterizing the diagnosis of <italic>intermediate CAN</italic>. Finally, when OH is present, <italic>severe CAN</italic> is diagnosed<sup>1,2,8</sup>.</p>
      <p>Deep breathing (or E:I), and orthostatic tests (or 30:15 ratio) as well as spectral analysis in the HF band assess only the parasympathetic component (vagal afference of the heart) of cardiovascular ANS which is the most precociously affected in DM (Notice that, although the patient does not present CAN, the HF band in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a15fig01b-body2">Figure 1B</xref> is already abnormal). The spectral amplitude in VLF band and the OH test, in turn, assess the sympathetic component of the ANS. The LF band spectral power and the Valsalva maneuver assess both the sympathetic and parasympathetic components of CV autonomic function, and are the most sensitive.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a15fig01b-body2">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusions</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although CAN is the most extensively studied and the most hazardous among the clinical manifestations of diabetic autonomic neuropathy, its pathophysiology remains one of the most obscure and controversial topic in current diabetology. For instance, some researchers consider CAN an additional component of metabolic syndrome<sup>19,20,66</sup>. Several questions remain unanswered, such as: </p>
      <p>1) What are the mechanisms responsible for triggering early CAN and where is the point of no return, i.e., the point from which morphological and pathophysiological alterations become irreversible? </p>
      <p>2) What is the best method to detect silent coronary disease in diabetic individuals<sup>67</sup>, and when should it be performed?</p>
      <p>3) What is the relationship between hyperinsulinemia<sup>68</sup>, CAN and metabolic syndrome? Which comes first: parasympathetical dysfunction or insulin resistance<sup>69</sup>? </p>
      <p>It is fundamental to point out that CAN is currently known as an early complication of DM, and its progression, both insidious and silent, is associated with considerable morbidity and mortality, as well as with serious impairment of the quality of life of diabetic individuals. </p>
      <p>Objective detection of CAN in its early stages (<italic>incipient and intermediate forms</italic>) via CV tests and computerized systems (spectral analysis of HRV) is both feasible and mandatory in the current state of art for four reasons: </p>
      <p>1) Since CAN may be delayed (DCCT and Steno 2 studies), and since nowadays there is a real possibility of reverting its natural course, the early diagnosis and staging of CAN is crucial, in order to stop further progression to advanced and irreversible stages (<italic>severe CAN</italic>). Moreover, all studies on clinical treatment show that <italic>incipient or intermediate </italic>CAN may be reverted or improved, whereas severe cases cannot be either reverted or improved<sup> 1,70</sup>.</p>
      <p>2) Symptomatic manifestations occur very late in the course of DM and do not always progress. This stresses the importance of quantifying autonomic deficit by means of objective and prospective tests, i.e., diagnosis should not be made only on the basis of clinical history or physical examination. </p>
      <p>3) The more severe CAN is (late stages), the higher CV risk and mortality seems to be<sup>71</sup>, since we now know that, once the symptoms develop, mortality in five to seven years is of the order of 50%<sup>5</sup>. In addition, CAN is a marker of poor prognosis for microangiopathy, especially nephropathy, as demonstrated by a prospective Swedish study with an eleven-year follow-up<sup>72</sup>. Therefore, early detection and staging may identify diabetic individuals at risk for silent CAD, CHF, CRF and premature death. It is fundamental to warn and alert these patients when they initiate to physical training and exercise programs. </p>
      <p>4) Timely identification of DM autonomic dysfunction may improve the prophylaxis of target-organ injury &#150; both macroangiopathy (CAD, SCD and stroke) and microangiopathy (CRF and retinopathy), with the use of specific drugs for the CVRF associated with CAN: hypertension and albuminuria (ACE inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor blockers) and dyslipidemia (statins). A more intensive control of DM and hypertension in individuals with incipient and intermediate CAN is also currently recommended<sup>70,73</sup>.</p>
      <p>No less important is the fact that, in the past years, we have learned that the CVRF traditionally associated with macroangiopathy in DM2 (BMI, triglycerides, smoking and SBP) also play a pathophysiological role in the natural history of microangiopathic complications of DM1, in particular CAN<sup>11,26</sup>. Even more interestingly, the intensive treatment of these factors prevents the progression of CAN in DM2<sup>13,14</sup>.</p>
      <p>In conclusion, the presence of CAN in diabetic patients is associated with a mortality rate, caused by CV events, two to three times higher, and total mortality rate up to five times higher in relation to diabetic patients without CAN<sup>74</sup>. Thus, CAN is an important risk marker for macroangiopathy, in general, and for CAD, in particular.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this manuscript was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was partially funded by CAPES.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This manuscript is part of the thesis of master submitted by Luiz Clemente de Souza Pereira Rolim, from <italic>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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