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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">y96GJC5gmHXWP88wzsVb7Mt</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008000400012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09000412</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008000400012</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fatores de risco no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Gisele dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pegoraro</surname>
            <given-names>Marina</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sandrini</surname>
            <given-names>Fabiano</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Macuco</surname>
            <given-names>Em&#237;lio C&#233;sar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Paran&#225;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cient&#237;fica do Paran&#225; </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>90</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>301</fpage>
      <lpage>308</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) constituem uma importante causa de morte nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos e tamb&#233;m naqueles em desenvolvimento. Em geral, as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas das DCV, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica, s&#227;o causadas por um processo ateroscler&#243;tico e t&#234;m in&#237;cio a partir da meia-idade. No entanto, estudos atuais indicam que o processo ateroscler&#243;tico come&#231;a a se desenvolver na inf&#226;ncia. A fisiopatogenia da aterosclerose tem sido estudada pelo seu aspecto inflamat&#243;rio, e, dentre os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, a prote&#237;na-C-reativa (PCR) vem sendo bastante estudada nos indiv&#237;duos portadores de alguma DCV, inclusive naqueles aparentemente saud&#225;veis. N&#237;veis elevados de PCR t&#234;m sido relacionados a fatores de risco para a aterosclerose: hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC), dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabete melito, obesidade, tabagismo e sedentarismo. Grande parte desses fatores de risco pode ser influenciada por modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, tais como a mudan&#231;a de h&#225;bitos alimentares e a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica. Na literatura est&#227;o documentados os efeitos da atividade f&#237;sica sobre os n&#237;veis de PCR na fase adulta, por&#233;m h&#225; pouco conhecimento dos estilos de vida ativo ou sedent&#225;rio em crian&#231;as e adolescentes. Este trabalho tem o objetivo de revisar o impacto da atividade f&#237;sica em crian&#231;as e adolescentes sobre os n&#237;veis de PCR e os fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento de DCV.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Aterosclerose coronariana</kwd>
        <kwd>atividade motora</kwd>
        <kwd>crian&#231;a</kwd>
        <kwd>adolescente</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Fatores de risco no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Maria Gisele dos Santos; Marina Pegoraro; Fabiano Sandrini; Em&#237;lio C&#233;sar Macuco</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Federal do Paran&#225; - UFPR, Instituto de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cient&#237;fica do Paran&#225; - IICP, Curitiba, Cascavel, PR - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO </bold>
    </p>
    <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) constituem uma importante causa de morte nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos e tamb&#233;m naqueles em desenvolvimento. Em geral, as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas das DCV, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica, s&#227;o causadas por um processo ateroscler&#243;tico e t&#234;m in&#237;cio a partir da meia-idade. No entanto, estudos atuais indicam que o processo ateroscler&#243;tico come&#231;a a se desenvolver na inf&#226;ncia. A fisiopatogenia da aterosclerose tem sido estudada pelo seu aspecto inflamat&#243;rio, e, dentre os marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, a prote&#237;na-C-reativa (PCR) vem sendo bastante estudada nos indiv&#237;duos portadores de alguma DCV, inclusive naqueles aparentemente saud&#225;veis. N&#237;veis elevados de PCR t&#234;m sido relacionados a fatores de risco para a aterosclerose: hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC), dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabete melito, obesidade, tabagismo e sedentarismo. Grande parte desses fatores de risco pode ser influenciada por modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, tais como a mudan&#231;a de h&#225;bitos alimentares e a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica. Na literatura est&#227;o documentados os efeitos da atividade f&#237;sica sobre os n&#237;veis de PCR na fase adulta, por&#233;m h&#225; pouco conhecimento dos estilos de vida ativo ou sedent&#225;rio em crian&#231;as e adolescentes. Este trabalho tem o objetivo de revisar o impacto da atividade f&#237;sica em crian&#231;as e adolescentes sobre os n&#237;veis de PCR e os fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento de DCV.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Aterosclerose coronariana, atividade motora, crian&#231;a, adolescente.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) constituem uma importante causa de morte nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos e tamb&#233;m naqueles em desenvolvimento<sup>1</sup>. Em geral, as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas das DCV t&#234;m in&#237;cio a partir da meia-idade. No entanto, estudo recente indica que o processo ateroscler&#243;tico come&#231;a a se desenvolver na inf&#226;ncia. Estrias gordurosas, precursoras das placas ateroscler&#243;ticas, aparecem na camada &#237;ntima da aorta aos 3 anos de idade e nas coron&#225;rias durante a adolesc&#234;ncia<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>A aterosclerose passou ent&#227;o, gradualmente, de um modelo de doen&#231;a cr&#244;nico-degenerativa e, exclusivamente de pacientes de idade avan&#231;ada, para um modelo de doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria cr&#244;nica subcl&#237;nica, presente j&#225; na inf&#226;ncia<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>A fisiopatogenia da aterosclerose tem sido estudada pelo seu aspecto inflamat&#243;rio. Marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, como a prote&#237;na-C-reativa (PCR), v&#234;m sendo estudados nos indiv&#237;duos portadores de alguma DCV, inclusive em indiv&#237;duos aparentemente saud&#225;veis<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>At&#233; ent&#227;o, a PCR tem sido um marcador inflamat&#243;rio bastante utilizado para detec&#231;&#227;o de DCV, pela facilidade de determina&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica e melhor correla&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nico-epidemiol&#243;gica. Os n&#237;veis elevados da PCR no sangue t&#234;m sido encontrados nos tecidos inflamados, nos vasos ateroscler&#243;ticos e no mioc&#225;rdio infartado<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o vem sendo importante pela possibilidade de identificar novos caminhos para a preven&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento das DCV e dos fatores de risco para a aterosclerose<sup>4,6</sup>: hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC), dislipidemia, hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabete melito, obesidade, tabagismo e sedentarismo<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Grande parte desses fatores de risco pode ser influenciada por modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida, de forma a reduzir os eventos cardiovasculares e aumentar a sobrevida dos indiv&#237;duos. A mudan&#231;a de h&#225;bitos alimentares e a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica s&#227;o modifica&#231;&#245;es do estilo de vida que podem melhorar de forma significativa os fatores de risco das DCV e reduzir a PCR<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>As estrat&#233;gias para redu&#231;&#227;o da PCR foram inicialmente baseadas em terapias medicamentosas<sup>4,7</sup>. Apesar de esses estudos comprovarem o efeito positivo dessas terapias na redu&#231;&#227;o da PCR em adultos, pouco se sabe do efeito da atividade f&#237;sica sobre a PCR na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia.</p>
    <p>A demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares podem ter sua origem na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia leva &#224; necessidade de que esses fatores de risco sejam amplamente investigados nesse per&#237;odo, com o objetivo de planejar interven&#231;&#245;es cada vez mais precoces e, possivelmente, mais efetivas sobre esses fatores, reduzindo, no futuro, a morbidade e mortalidade.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Doen&#231;as cardiovasculares </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A fisiopatologia das DCV, principais causas de morbidade e mortalidade no mundo, se inicia em idade precoce. As DCV fazem parte do grupo das doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o-transmiss&#237;veis, as quais comp&#245;em a s&#237;ndrome plurimetab&#243;lica (obesidade, hipertens&#227;o, diabete melito e dislipidemia), causada por fatores de risco resultantes de mudan&#231;as de h&#225;bitos de vida<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>A probabilidade de alguma das DCV ocorrer aumenta na presen&#231;a de m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco estabelecidos para aterosclerose. Eles podem ser modific&#225;veis e n&#227;o-modific&#225;veis. Os n&#227;o-modific&#225;veis s&#227;o a idade, o sexo e a hist&#243;ria familiar. Os fatores modific&#225;veis s&#227;o a dislipidemia, a hipertens&#227;o arterial, os h&#225;bitos alimentares, o fumo, o diabete melito, a obesidade e o sedentarismo<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores de risco n&#227;o-modific&#225;veis para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os riscos para as DCV crescem com a idade, e a cada dez anos h&#225; uma possibilidade de aumentar em 2,5 vezes a mortalidade por essas doen&#231;as. A magnitude dos fatores de risco e a ocorr&#234;ncia de manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas aparecem mais tardiamente em mulheres do que em homens<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; heran&#231;a gen&#233;tica, a anamnese detalhada da hist&#243;ria patol&#243;gica familiar revela a suscetibilidade gen&#233;tica para o desenvolvimento de DAC<sup>11</sup>. No estudo realizado por Romaldini e cols.<sup>12</sup>, foi observado que, das 109 crian&#231;as e adolescentes com hist&#243;ria familiar de DCV prematura, 41,1% apresentaram um ou mais fatores de risco para a aterosclerose.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores de risco modific&#225;veis para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial &#233; um fator de risco modific&#225;vel considerado bastante importante para a DCV, em ambos os sexos, independentemente do grupo &#233;tnico e da faixa et&#225;ria. Por&#233;m, as crian&#231;as com n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial mais elevados tendem a evoluir ao longo da vida mantendo uma press&#227;o arterial mais elevada que as demais e apresentando maior probabilidade de se tornar um adulto hipertenso<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Segundo Rabelo<sup>10</sup>, a dislipidemia, altera&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de lip&#237;deos ou de lipoprote&#237;nas circulantes, &#233; causada pelas altera&#231;&#245;es na produ&#231;&#227;o, no catabolismo ou no clearence, em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de fatores gen&#233;ticos e/ou ambientais, dieta inadequada e/ou sedentarismo. De acordo com o Programa Nacional de Educa&#231;&#227;o sobre o Colesterol<sup>14 </sup>, a hipercolesterolemia, em particular o aumento do LDL, &#233; o principal preditor das DCV, porque as part&#237;culas de LDL cont&#234;m 70% de colesterol no sangue, sendo o principal alvo de interven&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica.</p>
    <p>N&#237;veis s&#233;ricos aumentados de HDL diminuem o risco relativo para a DCV. O mecanismo para esse efeito protetor ocorre pela habilidade de o HDL fazer o transporte reverso do colesterol, ou seja, de remov&#234;-lo das c&#233;lulas e transport&#225;-lo para o f&#237;gado para posterior excre&#231;&#227;o. O HDL tamb&#233;m previne a oxida&#231;&#227;o e agrega&#231;&#227;o das part&#237;culas de LDL na parede arterial, diminuindo o potencial aterog&#234;nico dessa lipoprote&#237;na<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p> O diabete melito constitui um dos mais importantes problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica no mundo, principalmente nos pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento<sup>15,16</sup>. Seus fatores de risco s&#227;o a hiperglicemia, as altera&#231;&#245;es lipoprot&#233;icas e a hipertrigliceridemia, que causam modifica&#231;&#245;es na biologia vascular e aceleram os eventos moleculares e celulares que levam &#224; aterosclerose<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>A obesidade &#233; tamb&#233;m um importante preditor das DCV, e j&#225; foram observadas les&#245;es arteriais nas paredes vasculares de crian&#231;as obesas<sup>17</sup>. A preval&#234;ncia da obesidade na inf&#226;ncia e na adolesc&#234;ncia traz conseq&#252;&#234;ncias em curto e longo prazos, por estar associada a um perfil lip&#237;dico anormal, com aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de colesterol total, triglicer&#237;deo e LDL, e diminui&#231;&#227;o de HDL<sup>14</sup>. O cigarro, al&#233;m de ser fator de risco para o baixo peso ao nascer, para o descolamento prematuro da placenta e para doen&#231;as pulmonares, &#233; um fator de risco importante nas DCV, por diminuir as concentra&#231;&#245;es sang&#252;&#237;neas de HDL<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo de McGill e cols.<sup>18</sup> sugere que a exposi&#231;&#227;o passiva ao tabaco est&#225; relacionada a baixos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de HDL, o que est&#225; associado a uma disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial significativa. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos efeitos diretos, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que leve obstru&#231;&#227;o nas vias a&#233;reas e retardo de crescimento da fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar em adolescentes est&#227;o relacionados ao tabagismo<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro fator de risco que tem sido apontado como um dos respons&#225;veis pela maior preval&#234;ncia das DCV &#233; a mudan&#231;a nos h&#225;bitos alimentares. Essa mudan&#231;a provoca a redu&#231;&#227;o do consumo de vegetais e frutas e um aumento no porcentual de gordura saturada e animal, acarretando uma menor ingest&#227;o de micronutrientes alimentares antioxidantes que s&#227;o importantes para controlar ou reduzir a a&#231;&#227;o delet&#233;ria dos radicais livres no organismo, pois retardam ou impedem a sua oxida&#231;&#227;o<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por fim, o sedentarismo tem sido apontado como outro fator de risco para as DCV, presente j&#225; na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia. Observou-se que as crian&#231;as diminu&#237;ram o n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica por v&#225;rias raz&#245;es, como a menor tend&#234;ncia de caminhar e/ou andar de bicicleta e o aumento do uso de carros para transporte. Houve tamb&#233;m uma diminui&#231;&#227;o de atividades recreacionais e esportivas realizadas no tempo livre das crian&#231;as, com aumento de atividades sedent&#225;rias, como assistir &#224; televis&#227;o, jogar videogames e fazer uso do computador<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>Sabe-se que a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica exerce um efeito positivo para os riscos cardiovasculares em adultos, e, em crian&#231;as ela vinha sendo relacionada como uma estrat&#233;gia para o desenvolvimento f&#237;sico<sup>22</sup>. Por&#233;m, alguns dados mostram que o menor n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica e o sedentarismo est&#227;o associados com maior preval&#234;ncia de obesidade infantil, apontando o sedentarismo como um fator de risco presente em idades precoces<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>A demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que as DCV podem ter sua origem na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia leva &#224; necessidade de que esses fatores de risco sejam amplamente investigados nesse per&#237;odo, com o objetivo de planejar interven&#231;&#245;es cada vez mais precoces e, possivelmente, mais efetivas sobre esses fatores, reduzindo, no futuro, a morbidade e mortalidade.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Preval&#234;ncia dos fatores de risco para aterosclerose na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os dados brasileiros acerca dos fatores de risco para a aterosclerose na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia apontam que a preval&#234;ncia da hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica prim&#225;ria, nessas faixas et&#225;rias, variou de 0,8% a 8,2%<sup>24,25</sup>. Demonstrou-se uma freq&#252;ente associa&#231;&#227;o de hipertens&#227;o arterial com sobrepeso ou obesidade.</p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos trinta anos, observaram-se um r&#225;pido decl&#237;nio da preval&#234;ncia de desnutri&#231;&#227;o em crian&#231;as e adolescentes e uma eleva&#231;&#227;o, num ritmo mais acelerado, da preval&#234;ncia de sobrepeso/obesidade. A an&#225;lise dos dados de crian&#231;as e adolescentes de 2 a 17 anos, da Pesquisa sobre Padr&#227;o de Vida<sup>26 </sup>(PPV), coletados no Brasil em 1997 pelo IBGE, demonstrou que a preval&#234;ncia de obesidade foi de 10,1%, sendo maior no Sudeste (11,9%) do que no Nordeste (8,2%).</p>
    <p>Dados do IBGE<sup>27</sup> em 2003 apontam um aumento da preval&#234;ncia de sobrepeso em adolescentes de 8,5% (10,4% no Sudeste e 6,6% no Nordeste) e a preval&#234;ncia de obesidade em adolescentes de 3,0% (1,7% no Nordeste e 4,2% no Sudeste). A preval&#234;ncia de excesso de peso foi maior nas fam&#237;lias de maior renda, exceto em Porto Alegre, onde meninas de escolas p&#250;blicas tinham IMC maior que as de escolas privadas.</p>
    <p>Quanto &#224;s dislipidemias, Moura e cols.<sup>28 </sup>encontraram a preval&#234;ncia de hipercolesterolemia de 35% dos 1.600 escolares com idades de 7 a 14 anos estudados em Campinas, SP, identificando n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de colesterol total, triacilglicer&#243;is, LDL e HDL, respectivamente, de 160, 79, 96 e 49 mg/dl.</p>
    <p>Em amostra populacional do munic&#237;pio de Florian&#243;polis foram identificados, em 1.053 escolares de 7 a 18 anos, valores m&#233;dios de colesterol total, triacilglicer&#243;is, LDL e HDL, respectivamente, de 162, 93, 92 e 53 mg/dl. Nesse estudo, 10% dos indiv&#237;duos apresentaram hipercolesterolemia, 22% hipertrigliceridemia, 6% LDL elevado e 5% HDL baixo<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro fator de risco que tem se apresentado j&#225; na fase da inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia &#233; o h&#225;bito de fumar. No Brasil, at&#233; a d&#233;cada de 1980, esse h&#225;bito entre estudantes dos n&#237;veis fundamental e m&#233;dio estava presente em 1% a 34% dos jovens entrevistados. Investiga&#231;&#245;es realizadas em dez capitais brasileiras, envolvendo 24.000 alunos dos Ensinos Fundamental e M&#233;dio, nos anos de 1987, 1989, 1993 e 1997, revelaram um aumento progressivo na experimenta&#231;&#227;o de cigarros pelos jovens em todas as capitais. Outra conclus&#227;o importante da pesquisa de 1997 diz respeito &#224; tend&#234;ncia de equil&#237;brio no consumo entre estudantes de ambos os g&#234;neros, diferentemente do que ocorria no ano de 1987, quando o predom&#237;nio era do g&#234;nero masculino<sup>30</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao sedentarismo, h&#225; poucos estudos sobre sua preval&#234;ncia em crian&#231;as e adolescentes no Brasil, variando de 42% a 93,5%, o que depende do crit&#233;rio utilizado<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aterosclerose </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A patog&#234;nese mais encontrada nas DCV &#233; a aterosclerose. &#201; uma doen&#231;a oriunda da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e de inflama&#231;&#227;o. O endot&#233;lio vascular regula a homeostase vascular e provoca altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais adaptativas causadas pela libera&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;rias subst&#226;ncias com atividades pr&#243; e anticoagulantes, capazes de promover a ades&#227;o de mol&#233;culas, e com a&#231;&#245;es vasoativas. A homeostase vascular &#233; o resultado da regula&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica dessas fun&#231;&#245;es. O &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) &#233; a principal subst&#226;ncia antiaterog&#234;nica, ou seja, com a&#231;&#227;o protetora ao endot&#233;lio<sup>32</sup>.</p>
    <p>A perda da a&#231;&#227;o protetora do endot&#233;lio pode ocorrer na presen&#231;a de fatores inflamat&#243;rios e de risco cardiovascular, com aumento da propens&#227;o &#224; vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o, trombose, inflama&#231;&#227;o e prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular na parede do vaso. Assim, a perda da atividade biol&#243;gica do NO, denominada disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, pode ser o evento desencadeante da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica em humanos, e a sua avalia&#231;&#227;o, um marcador precoce de risco de aterosclerose<sup>33</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, tem sido, portanto, evidenciado o papel da inflama&#231;&#227;o na fisiopatogenia da aterosclerose e ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos aterotromb&#243;ticos como determinantes nas DCV<sup>4</sup>. Observou-se ainda que esse processo pode aparecer no in&#237;cio da vida. As estrias gordurosas na aorta se desenvolvem na inf&#226;ncia, e as placas fibrosas podem ser observadas antes dos 20 anos de idade<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com isso, a aterosclerose passou, gradualmente, de um modelo de doen&#231;a cr&#244;nico-degenerativa n&#227;o-transmiss&#237;vel e exclusivamente de pacientes de idade avan&#231;ada para um modelo de doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria cr&#244;nica subcl&#237;nica, presente j&#225; na inf&#226;ncia<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os fatores que contribuem para o desenvolvimento da aterosclerose s&#227;o a hiperlipoproteinemia, o aumento da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, a diminui&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas endoteliais vasculares e o aumento da prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas lisas. Os leuc&#243;citos, mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos est&#227;o presentes na les&#227;o ateroscler&#243;tica, sugerindo rea&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria no seu desenvolvimento<sup>34</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro mecanismo inflamat&#243;rio &#233; a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os altos n&#237;veis da PCR e o aumento da taxa de adiposidade, triglicer&#237;deos e baixa rela&#231;&#227;o do HDL/colesterol total<sup>35</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na presen&#231;a de LDL oxidada, de agente infeccioso na parede vascular ou les&#227;o tecidual (necrose ou isquemia), os leuc&#243;citos s&#227;o ativados. Uma vez ativados, iniciam a produ&#231;&#227;o de diferentes citocinas, interleucinas, fator de necrose tumoral alfa, interferon gama. Especialmente, a interleucina-6 (IL-6) estimula os hepat&#243;citos a produzirem RNAm para produ&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas de fase aguda, tais como o fibrinog&#234;nio, a PCR e a prote&#237;na amil&#243;ide s&#233;rico A<sup>35</sup>.</p>
    <p>Tem sido demonstrado que a aterosclerose n&#227;o &#233; simplesmente uma doen&#231;a de dep&#243;sito de lip&#237;deos e que a inflama&#231;&#227;o tem papel fundamental na inicia&#231;&#227;o, progress&#227;o e desestabiliza&#231;&#227;o do ateroma<sup>36</sup>. Um marcador da atividade inflamat&#243;ria &#233; o aumento na circula&#231;&#227;o das prote&#237;nas de fase aguda produzidas pelo f&#237;gado, como a PCR e o fibrinog&#234;nio. A PCR &#233; uma das prote&#237;nas de fase aguda mais sens&#237;veis, cuja concentra&#231;&#227;o aumenta significativamente durante uma inflama&#231;&#227;o aguda<sup>37,38</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Rea&#231;&#227;o de fase aguda da inflama&#231;&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os seres vivos sobrevivem por meio da manuten&#231;&#227;o de equil&#237;brio din&#226;mico e complexo que freq&#252;entemente &#233; amea&#231;ado por for&#231;as internas e externas. A manuten&#231;&#227;o desse equil&#237;brio &#233; assegurada por alguns mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos, de tal forma que qualquer fator que perturbe a integridade do organismo (como trauma ou infec&#231;&#227;o tecidual) deflagra uma s&#233;rie de altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e sist&#234;micas que visam ao restabelecimento da homeostase. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es constituem o processo de inflama&#231;&#227;o e o grupo de rea&#231;&#245;es humorais e celulares que se iniciam logo ap&#243;s o dano e s&#227;o coletivamente chamados de rea&#231;&#227;o de fase aguda<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <p>&#201; a rea&#231;&#227;o de fase aguda que permite a sobrevida durante o per&#237;odo p&#243;s-imediato &#224; les&#227;o tecidual, pelo desencadeamento da s&#237;ntese e secre&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;rios mediadores celulares no local do dano que mobilizam a resposta metab&#243;lica de todo o organismo. Todas essas altera&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m por objetivo conter ou destruir agentes infecciosos, evitar a continua&#231;&#227;o do dano tecidual e ativar os mecanismos de reparo que s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para o organismo voltar a funcionar normalmente. Dessa forma, a rea&#231;&#227;o de fase aguda &#233; uma resposta homeost&#225;tica, din&#226;mica e protetora de que o hospedeiro lan&#231;a m&#227;o contra as diversas agress&#245;es a que &#233; submetido<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na maioria das vezes, os mediadores inflamat&#243;rios agem localmente para restringir as conseq&#252;&#234;ncias e a extens&#227;o do dano tecidual. Em condi&#231;&#245;es em que essa capacidade homeost&#225;tica local &#233; superada, ou pela magnitude do est&#237;mulo agressor ou pela insufici&#234;ncia dos mecanismos reguladores, a resposta inflamat&#243;ria extravasa os limites do seu microambiente e pode se manifestar de modo sist&#234;mico<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Mecanismos moleculares da rea&#231;&#227;o de fase aguda</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Independentemente da natureza do est&#237;mulo desencadeante, as c&#233;lulas ativadas do sistema fagoc&#237;tico mononuclear (mon&#243;citos circulantes e macr&#243;fagos teciduais) iniciam a cascata de eventos da resposta da fase aguda, secretando, em uma etapa inicial, citocinas da fam&#237;lia da interleucina-1 (IL-1) e fator de necrose tumoral (TNF). Essas mol&#233;culas t&#234;m a&#231;&#227;o tanto em n&#237;vel local como sist&#234;mico<sup>42</sup>.</p>
    <p>Localmente, agem principalmente sobre fibroblastos e c&#233;lulas endoteliais, causando a libera&#231;&#227;o de um segundo conjunto de citocinas que incluem, al&#233;m dos pr&#243;prios IL-1 e TNF, tamb&#233;m IL-6 e IL-8 e as prote&#237;nas inflamat&#243;ria e quimiot&#225;tica de macr&#243;fago. Esta &#250;ltima prote&#237;na, juntamente com a IL-1 e IL-8, atrai para o foco inflamat&#243;rio mon&#243;citos e neutr&#243;filos, os quais, por sua vez, secretam um terceiro conjunto de citocinas, incluindo o TNF e outros fatores quimiot&#225;ticos, que retroalimentam o processo inflamat&#243;rio<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <p>O endot&#233;lio vascular desempenha papel central na comunica&#231;&#227;o entre o s&#237;tio inflamat&#243;rio e os leuc&#243;citos circulantes, tanto pela express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o que facilitam a migra&#231;&#227;o tecidual de mon&#243;citos e neutr&#243;filos, como pela modifica&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus vascular mediado por metab&#243;litos do &#225;cido araquid&#244;nico (prostaglandinas, tromboxane e leucotrienos), pelo &#243;xido n&#237;trico e pelas cininas, causando vasodilata&#231;&#227;o, aumento da permeabilidade vascular e hipotens&#227;o arterial<sup>44-46</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em n&#237;vel sist&#234;mico, o f&#237;gado &#233; o alvo principal dos mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, suprindo os metab&#243;litos essenciais para a resposta de estresse e os componentes necess&#225;rios para a defesa de primeira linha no s&#237;tio de inflama&#231;&#227;o<sup>47</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por meio de seus receptores espec&#237;ficos, o hepat&#243;cito responde a quatro tipos de mediadores da resposta inflamat&#243;ria. S&#227;o eles: as citocinas do tipo IL-1 (IL-1 e TNF) que estimulam a produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica da PCR, do componente C3 do complemento e da prote&#237;na amil&#243;ide s&#233;rica A (SAA), constituindo as prote&#237;nas de fase aguda do tipo 1; citocinas do tipo IL-6 (IL-6, IL-11) que estimulam a maioria das prote&#237;nas de fase aguda do tipo 1; glicocortic&#243;ides que agem sinergicamente com as citocinas dos tipos IL-1 e IL-6, estimulando a produ&#231;&#227;o de algumas prote&#237;nas de fase aguda. Entretanto, a a&#231;&#227;o mais importante dos glicocortic&#243;ides na resposta da fase aguda &#233; a de inibir a produ&#231;&#227;o de citocinas pelos macr&#243;fagos e c&#233;lulas endoteliais, impedindo que sua ativa&#231;&#227;o continuada tenha conseq&#252;&#234;ncias lesivas aos tecidos; e por fim, fatores de crescimento que, com os glicocortic&#243;ides, modulam a resposta hep&#225;tica &#224;s citocinas<sup>47,48</sup>.</p>
    <p>Essas prote&#237;nas de fase aguda desempenham importante papel na defesa do hospedeiro, como neutraliza&#231;&#227;o direta dos agentes inflamat&#243;rios, redu&#231;&#227;o da extens&#227;o do dano tecidual local, participa&#231;&#227;o no reparo e regenera&#231;&#227;o do tecido. Al&#233;m disso, a ativa&#231;&#227;o das prote&#237;nas do complemento resulta na migra&#231;&#227;o de neutr&#243;filos, macr&#243;fagos e prote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas que participam na destrui&#231;&#227;o de agentes infecciosos, na depura&#231;&#227;o de restos celulares de microorganismos e do pr&#243;prio hospedeiro<sup>47,49</sup>.</p>
    <p>A PCR &#233; considerada a principal prote&#237;na de fase aguda. Entre as diversas fun&#231;&#245;es atribu&#237;das &#224; PCR, talvez a mais importante seja a sua capacidade de ligar-se a componentes da membrana celular, formando complexos que ativam a via cl&#225;ssica do complemento, com libera&#231;&#227;o de opsoninas e eventual fagocitose e remo&#231;&#227;o dessas estruturas da circula&#231;&#227;o<sup>42</sup>.</p>
    <p>Observa-se ainda que a liga&#231;&#227;o da PCR &#224;s membranas celulares se d&#225; apenas ap&#243;s a ruptura destas. Essa propriedade sugere importante papel da PCR na defesa inespec&#237;fica do hospedeiro, por causa da remo&#231;&#227;o de restos celulares derivados de c&#233;lulas necr&#243;ticas ou danificadas no processo inflamat&#243;rio, permitindo, assim, a repara&#231;&#227;o tecidual. Outras fun&#231;&#245;es atribu&#237;das &#224; PCR seriam a inibi&#231;&#227;o do crescimento de c&#233;lulas tumorais, modula&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o de polimorfonucleados (PMN) e mon&#243;citos, agrega&#231;&#227;o e secre&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria<sup>42,50</sup>.</p>
    <p>A rapidez e a magnitude do aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o da PCR dependem do tipo de est&#237;mulo inflamat&#243;rio. Isso provavelmente est&#225; relacionado com a quantidade da prote&#237;na que &#233; necess&#225;ria para participar efetivamente na rea&#231;&#227;o de fase aguda. Ap&#243;s um est&#237;mulo de fase aguda, geralmente se verifica que as concentra&#231;&#245;es da PCR aumentam rapidamente ap&#243;s o dano tecidual, atingindo um pico num per&#237;odo de 24 a 72 horas, para ent&#227;o diminuir rapidamente ap&#243;s a resolu&#231;&#227;o do processo inflamat&#243;rio. A intensidade da resposta da PCR correlaciona-se mais estreitamente com a extens&#227;o do dano tecidual<sup>51</sup>.</p>
    <p>Observa-se, assim, que a magnitude e a rapidez da resposta da PCR poderiam retratar de forma mais precisa e precoce a extens&#227;o do dano tissular. Os n&#237;veis basais baixos, o r&#225;pido aumento e a meia-vida curta da PCR s&#227;o argumentos que favorecem o uso da PCR na avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade da doen&#231;a<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora a resposta de fase aguda n&#227;o seja espec&#237;fica, pode ser usada na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica como parte do diagn&#243;stico, tanto na avalia&#231;&#227;o da intensidade da atividade inflamat&#243;ria como na discrimina&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as inflamat&#243;rias das n&#227;o-inflamat&#243;rias. Por&#233;m, marcadores inflamat&#243;rios, principalmente a PCR, v&#234;m sendo intensamente estudados nos indiv&#237;duos portadores de alguma DCV e at&#233; mesmo em indiv&#237;duos aparentemente saud&#225;veis, com a ajuda do avan&#231;o tecnol&#243;gico obtido na determina&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica desses par&#226;metros<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <p>A PCR destaca-se por apresentar meia-vida plasm&#225;tica curta (aproximadamente 19 horas) e pelo fato de sua concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica estar exclusivamente relacionada &#224; s&#237;ntese nesse per&#237;odo. Ainda, o interesse no estudo dessa prote&#237;na tem crescido nos &#250;ltimos anos, uma vez que pequenos aumentos em sua produ&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o associados a um aumento no risco de DCV em pacientes com <italic>angina pectoris</italic> e tamb&#233;m em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>PCR e as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estudos imuno-histoqu&#237;micos t&#234;m demonstrado a presen&#231;a da PCR nos tecidos inflamados, nos vasos ateroscler&#243;ticos e no mioc&#225;rdio infartado. Tem sido demonstrado ainda que a PCR aumenta a express&#227;o do fator tecidual (efeito procoagulante) de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, liga-se &#224;s lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas e ativa o sistema complemento <italic>in vitro</italic> e <italic>in vivo</italic>, presente na maioria das c&#233;lulas esponjosas das placas ateroscler&#243;ticas<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <p>Stefanadis e cols.<sup>54 </sup>demonstraram direta correla&#231;&#227;o entre o aumento da temperatura da placa e os n&#237;veis mais altos de PCR e prote&#237;na s&#233;rica amil&#243;ide em pacientes com s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas. Ainda, pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio apresentam n&#237;veis mais elevados de PCR que se correlacionam com maior extens&#227;o da &#225;rea de necrose mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
    <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, n&#237;veis mais elevados de PCR correlacionam-se com maior extens&#227;o da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, mesmo ap&#243;s corre&#231;&#227;o para outros fatores de risco. Indiv&#237;duos aparentemente saud&#225;veis com n&#237;veis mais altos, mesmo em n&#237;veis considerados normais altos, apresentam maiores riscos de desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em estudos realizados com crian&#231;as e adolescentes, observam-se o ac&#250;mulo de gordura na regi&#227;o abdominal e a hiperinsulinemia associados com um perfil trombog&#234;nico e inflamat&#243;rio. Concentra&#231;&#245;es aumentadas de fibrinog&#234;nio e do inibidor do ativador do plasminog&#234;nio 1 (PAI-1) t&#234;m sido relatadas em indiv&#237;duos com obesidade visceral, aumentando o risco de trombose nestes. N&#237;veis elevados de certos marcadores inflamat&#243;rios como a IL-6, o TNF e a PCR tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associados &#224; obesidade abdominal<sup>55</sup>.</p>
    <p>Sudi e cols.<sup>56 </sup>avaliaram vinte meninos e quarenta meninas obesos e verificaram que, ap&#243;s um programa para perda de peso (tr&#234;s semanas com dieta hipocal&#243;rica e atividade f&#237;sica), houve uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da adiposidade, do ac&#250;mulo de gordura na regi&#227;o abdominal e dos par&#226;metros fibrinol&#237;ticos. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que o excesso de peso, a gordura corporal e a obesidade abdominal s&#227;o fatores preditores para altera&#231;&#245;es do sistema fibrinol&#237;tico em indiv&#237;duos mais jovens.</p>
    <p>Pela facilidade de determina&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica e melhor correla&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nico-epidemiol&#243;gica at&#233; ent&#227;o, a PCR &#233; um marcador inflamat&#243;rio de especial interesse, dada a possibilidade de elucidar novos caminhos para a preven&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento de doen&#231;as de alta preval&#234;ncia e morbidade e mortalidade<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Efeitos da atividade f&#237;sica nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e PCR </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Do ponto de vista da preven&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, os trabalhos sobre atividade f&#237;sica em jovens investigaram o n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica por eles realizada, o resultado de interven&#231;&#245;es na escola e na comunidade sobre educa&#231;&#227;o em sa&#250;de, as estrat&#233;gias que elevam o n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica e o resultado da atividade f&#237;sica na preven&#231;&#227;o ou no controle dos fatores de risco cardiovascular<sup>57</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora alguns estudos demonstrem que adolescentes que praticam mais atividade f&#237;sica tendem a permanecer mais ativos quando adultos jovens, outros autores demonstraram que a atividade f&#237;sica durante a inf&#226;ncia n&#227;o confere prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular se n&#227;o estiver associada &#224; perman&#234;ncia de um estilo de vida ativo durante a fase adulta<sup>58</sup>.</p>
    <p>A Associa&#231;&#227;o Americana do Cora&#231;&#227;o (<italic>American Heart Association</italic> &#150; AHA) estabelece ent&#227;o que, a partir dos 2 anos de idade, o incentivo &#224; ado&#231;&#227;o de um estilo de vida ativo deve ser iniciado e mantido por toda a adolesc&#234;ncia at&#233; a vida adulta. E, como orienta&#231;&#227;o geral, as crian&#231;as saud&#225;veis devem ser encorajadas a praticar atividade f&#237;sica, de forma prazerosa, no lazer ou sob a forma de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos programados ou em atividades esportivas, no m&#237;nimo trinta minutos por dia, tr&#234;s a quatro vezes por semana, para adquirir aptid&#227;o f&#237;sica<sup>57,59</sup>. Como o sedentarismo &#233; um importante fator de risco para a aterosclerose, o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico regular &#233; de grande relev&#226;ncia na preven&#231;&#227;o e no controle das DCV, influenciando quase todos os seus fatores de risco, como a obesidade, as dislipidemias, o diabete melito e a hipertens&#227;o arterial<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os benef&#237;cios associados ao estilo de vida ativo em crian&#231;as incluem o controle do peso corporal, a menor press&#227;o arterial e a predisposi&#231;&#227;o para manuten&#231;&#227;o da atividade f&#237;sica na idade adulta, fatores que est&#227;o relacionados com o aumento da expectativa de vida e menor risco de desenvolvimento das DCV. Entre os efeitos da atividade f&#237;sica, ainda &#233; observado que os indiv&#237;duos que a praticam t&#234;m n&#237;veis menores de triacilglicer&#243;is e maiores de HDL que aqueles sedent&#225;rios. O n&#237;vel elevado de HDL atua sobre a oxida&#231;&#227;o do LDL, levando a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na forma&#231;&#227;o de novas placas ateroscler&#243;ticas, bem como ajudando a estabilizar as j&#225; existentes<sup>59</sup>.</p>
    <p>Williams e cols.<sup>59 </sup>mostraram que ocorre um aumento do n&#237;vel do colesterol ao longo do tempo, apontando que crian&#231;as com altos n&#237;veis de LDL s&#227;o mais suscet&#237;veis a manter esses n&#237;veis elevados na fase adulta.</p>
    <p>Na revis&#227;o de Prado e Dantas<sup>60</sup>, observou-se que a maior parte dos estudos tem demonstrado modifica&#231;&#245;es ben&#233;ficas nos n&#237;veis do HDL e LDL ap&#243;s um programa de exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bios, com diferentes intensidades, dura&#231;&#245;es e freq&#252;&#234;ncias, realizados por indiv&#237;duos de variadas faixas et&#225;rias e n&#237;veis de aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria.</p>
    <p>Corroborando esses achados, Matsudo e cols.<sup>61</sup>, em sua revis&#227;o, apontaram que a pr&#225;tica regular de atividade f&#237;sica aumenta o HDL, diminui triacilglicer&#243;is e LDL e ainda aumenta a sensibilidade &#224; insulina. Ainda t&#234;m se demonstrado efeitos favor&#225;veis de treinamento aer&#243;bico sobre a atividade da lipase lipoprot&#233;ica que explicaria o melhor retorno da lipoprote&#237;na rica em triglicer&#237;deo.</p>
    <p>Francischi e cols.<sup>62</sup> avaliaram as duas principais estrat&#233;gias de tratamento n&#227;o-farmacol&#243;gico de sobrepeso e obesidade, o uso de restri&#231;&#245;es energ&#233;ticas e de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos, e conclu&#237;ram que dietas hipocal&#243;ricas s&#227;o efetivas para a perda de peso e de gordura, por&#233;m podem causar perda de massa magra e conseq&#252;entemente redu&#231;&#227;o nas taxas metab&#243;licas. O treinamento f&#237;sico isolado, sem controle alimentar, causa modesta perda de peso. Por&#233;m, em associa&#231;&#227;o com dietas, facilita a ades&#227;o ao controle alimentar e garante maior sucesso na manuten&#231;&#227;o da massa magra e redu&#231;&#227;o na massa adiposa.</p>
    <p>Os mesmos autores ainda apontaram que o treinamento aer&#243;bio regular intensifica a perda de gordura, mas n&#227;o impede a perda de massa magra, enquanto o treinamento resistido parece minimizar essa perda. A combina&#231;&#227;o do trabalho aer&#243;bio ao treinamento de for&#231;a parece, ent&#227;o, garantir uma concomitante perda de gordura e manuten&#231;&#227;o de massa magra.</p>
    <p>Ainda com rela&#231;&#227;o ao sobrepeso e &#224; obesidade, Watts e cols.<sup>63</sup> observaram que crian&#231;as obesas de 8 anos apresentam uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo mediado pela dilata&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria braquial, caracterizando altera&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio do vaso. Verificaram nesse mesmo grupo que a promo&#231;&#227;o do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico aumentou o fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo arterial, sustentando a import&#226;ncia de um programa de exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico como forma de tratamento para crian&#231;as obesas como preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria para aterosclerose.</p>
    <p>Os efeitos do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico sobre a hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica ocorrem por causa das adapta&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares e respirat&#243;rias que o corpo humano sofre durante um per&#237;odo de exerc&#237;cio, a fim de atender &#224;s demandas aumentadas dos m&#250;sculos ativos, e, &#224; medida que essas adapta&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o repetidas, ocorrem modifica&#231;&#245;es nesses m&#250;sculos, permitindo que o organismo melhore o seu desempenho. Entram em a&#231;&#227;o processos fisiol&#243;gicos e metab&#243;licos que otimizam a distribui&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio pelos tecidos em atividade. A queda press&#243;rica p&#243;s-treinamento f&#237;sico est&#225; relacionada a fatores hemodin&#226;micos, humorais e neurais<sup>64</sup>.</p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos efeitos da atividade f&#237;sica na preven&#231;&#227;o e no tratamento do diabete melito, uma revis&#227;o de 1966 a 2000 mostrou que estudos prospectivos indicam que maiores n&#237;veis de atividade f&#237;sica est&#227;o claramente associados com a menor incid&#234;ncia do diabete melito tipo 2. Por&#233;m, ainda n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel esclarecer o efeito da dose-resposta do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico para seu tratamento ou sua preven&#231;&#227;o<sup>65</sup>.</p>
    <p>As estrat&#233;gias para redu&#231;&#227;o da PCR foram inicialmente baseadas em terapias medicamentosas<sup>4,7</sup>. Por&#233;m, esses estudos comprovam o efeito positivo dessas terapias medicamentosas na redu&#231;&#227;o da PCR em adultos, mas h&#225; pouco se sabe do efeito da atividade f&#237;sica sobre a PCR em crian&#231;as e adolescentes.</p>
    <p>Somente em 1999, Smith e cols.<sup>66</sup> demonstraram, em estudo com 43 adultos, que o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico de longa dura&#231;&#227;o &#233; capaz de reduzir significativamente as citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e os n&#237;veis de PCR.</p>
    <p>Mais recentemente, foi relatado o impacto positivo do n&#237;vel de aptid&#227;o f&#237;sica nos n&#237;veis de PCR ultra-sens&#237;vel em mulheres de 55 anos. Observou-se uma concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica menor (0,43, 0,25, 0,23 mg/dl) &#224; medida que o n&#237;vel de aptid&#227;o f&#237;sica melhorava (7,2, 9,1 e 10 METs), sugerindo participa&#231;&#227;o de um efeito antiinflamat&#243;rio para justificar os benef&#237;cios do exerc&#237;cio para preven&#231;&#227;o de DCV. No entanto, vale ressaltar que boa parte ou a quase totalidade desses efeitos positivos se revertem caso a pessoa suspenda a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica<sup>67</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ainda em 1995, Pate e cols.<sup>68</sup> j&#225; demonstraram que o destreinamento provoca diminui&#231;&#227;o do HDL, aumento da massa de gordura, do IMC, leptina, LDL e dos triglicer&#237;deos. Assim, a chance de sucesso no manejo terap&#234;utico ou preventivo das DCV depende em muito da habilidade em desenvolver abordagens que garantam o envolvimento das pessoas ou dos pacientes em padr&#245;es de estilo ativo por todo o ciclo da vida. </p>
    <p>No estudo realizado por Okita e cols.<sup>69</sup>, foi observado que o treinamento aer&#243;bio supervisionado por dois meses reduziu significativamente o peso corporal e os n&#237;veis de PCR nas mulheres, sem associa&#231;&#227;o do decr&#233;scimo da PCR com a perda de peso. </p>
    <p>Smith e cols.<sup>66 </sup>demonstraram que o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico de longa dura&#231;&#227;o &#233; capaz de reduzir significativamente as citocinas inflamat&#243;rias e os n&#237;veis de PCR, sugerindo participa&#231;&#227;o de um efeito antiinflamat&#243;rio para justificar os benef&#237;cios do exerc&#237;cio para preven&#231;&#227;o de DCV. </p>
    <p>Como &#233; sabido que o processo ateroscler&#243;tico antecede as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas das DCV por anos, at&#233; mesmo d&#233;cadas, e que a pr&#225;tica regular de atividade f&#237;sica diminui a incid&#234;ncia de morbidade e mortalidade pelas DCV, parece ser prudente minimizar ou reduzir os fatores de risco para DCV conhecidos para o adulto j&#225; na inf&#226;ncia e adolesc&#234;ncia. Al&#233;m disso, a atividade f&#237;sica parece ser um fator protetor importante para a preven&#231;&#227;o e controle das DCV, por influenciar quase todos os seus fatores de risco<sup>59</sup>.</p>
    <p> Recentemente, a literatura mostrou que o sedentarismo &#233; um fator de risco para as DCV e que somente a pr&#225;tica de atividade f&#237;sica pode representar um mecanismo preventivo e terap&#234;utico. Embora os efeitos da atividade f&#237;sica sobre os n&#237;veis de PCR como fator de risco para a aterosclerose tenham sido mais investigados na fase adulta, pouco ainda se sabe sobre esses efeitos em crian&#231;as e adolescentes, havendo, portanto, necessidade de maior investiga&#231;&#227;o do efeito da atividade f&#237;sica sobre os n&#237;veis de PCR na inf&#226;ncia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamentos externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de mestrado de Marina Pegoraro pela Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
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    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Marina Pegoraro </p>
        <p> Rua General Os&#243;rio, 1934 - Parque S&#227;o Paulo </p>
        <p> 85806-470, Cascavel, PR - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="marinapegoraro82@yahoo.com.br">marinapegoraro82@yahoo.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 14/06/07; revisado recebido em 25/08/07; aceito em 04/09/07.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <ref id="B1">
        <mixed-citation>1. Laurenti R, Buchalla CM, Carantin CVS. Doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o: interna&#231;&#245;es, tempo de perman&#234;ncia e gastos. Brasil, 1993 a 1997. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2000; 74 (6): 483-7.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o: interna&#231;&#245;es, tempo de perman&#234;ncia e gastos. Brasil, 1993 a 1997</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>483</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <issue>6</issue>
          <volume>74</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
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          <article-title>Can exercise training with weight loss lower serum C-reactive protein levels?</article-title>
          <source>Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2004</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1868</fpage>
          <lpage>73</lpage>
          <volume>24</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Okita</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishijima</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Murakami</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nagai</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Morita</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yonezawa</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis in childhood and adolescence</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a major cause of death in developed countries as well as in developing countries. In general, the clinical manifestations of CVD, such as myocardial infarction, stroke and peripheral vascular disease, are caused by an atherosclerotic process with onset as from the middle age. However, current studies indicate that the atherosclerotic process starts to develop in childhood. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis has been studied as to its inflammatory aspect. Among the inflammatory markers, C-reactive protein (CRP) has been extensively studied in individuals with CVD, including those apparently healthy. High CRP levels have been related to risk factors for atherosclerosis: family history of coronary artery disease (CAD), dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, smoking and sedentary lifestyle. A great part of these risk factors may be influenced by lifestyle modifications, such as changes in eating habits and engagement in physical activities. The effects of physical activity on CRP levels in adulthood are documented in the literature, however little is known on the influence of an active or sedentary lifestyle of children and adolescents on CRP levels. Thus, the objective of this study is to review the impact of physical activity of children and adolescents on CRP levels and the risk factors for the development of CVD.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Coronary arteriosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>motor activity</kwd>
        <kwd>child</kwd>
        <kwd>adolescent</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis in childhood and adolescence</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Maria Gisele dos Santos; Marina Pegoraro; Fabiano Sandrini; Em&#237;lio C&#233;sar Macuco</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Federal do Paran&#225; &#150; UFPR, Instituto de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Cient&#237;fica do Paran&#225; &#150; IICP, Curitiba, Cascavel, PR - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a major cause of death in developed countries as well as in developing countries. In general, the clinical manifestations of CVD, such as myocardial infarction, stroke and peripheral vascular disease, are caused by an atherosclerotic process with onset as from the middle age. However, current studies indicate that the atherosclerotic process starts to develop in childhood. The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis has been studied as to its inflammatory aspect. Among the inflammatory markers, C-reactive protein (CRP) has been extensively studied in individuals with CVD, including those apparently healthy. High CRP levels have been related to risk factors for atherosclerosis: family history of coronary artery disease (CAD), dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, smoking and sedentary lifestyle. A great part of these risk factors may be influenced by lifestyle modifications, such as changes in eating habits and engagement in physical activities. The effects of physical activity on CRP levels in adulthood are documented in the literature, however little is known on the influence of an active or sedentary lifestyle of children and adolescents on CRP levels. Thus, the objective of this study is to review the impact of physical activity of children and adolescents on CRP levels and the risk factors for the development of CVD. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words: </bold>Coronary arteriosclerosis; motor activity; child; adolescent.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are a major cause of death in developed countries as well as in developing countries<sup>1</sup>. In general, the clinical manifestations of CVD start in the middle age. However, recent studies indicate that the atherosclerotic process starts to develop in childhood. Fatty streaks precursor of atherosclerotic plaques appear in the aortic intima at three years of age, and in the coronary arteries during adolescence<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Thus, atherosclerosis gradually changed from a model of a chronic degenerative disease exclusively affecting patients with advanced age to a model of a subclinical chronic inflammatory disease already existing in childhood<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>The pathogenesis of atherosclerosis has been studied as to its inflammatory aspect. Inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) have been studied in individuals with CVD, including those apparently healthy<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>CRP has been a widely used inflammatory marker for the detection of CVD because its plasma concentration is easy to determine and it has the best clinical and epidemiological correlation to date. High blood CRP levels have been found in inflamed tissues, atherosclerotic vessels and infarcted myocardium<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Its utilization has been important for the possibility of identifying new pathways for the prevention and treatment of CVD and of risk factors for atherosclerosis<sup>4,6</sup>: family history of coronary artery disease (CAD), dyslipidemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus, obesity, smoking and sedentary lifestyle<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>A great part of these factors may be influenced by lifestyle changes, thus reducing cardiovascular events and increasing the individuals' life expectancy. Modifications in eating habits and practice of physical activities are lifestyle changes that may significantly diminish risk factors for CVD and reduce CRP<sup>6</sup>. </p>
      <p>The strategies for CRP reduction were initially based on pharmacological treatments<sup>4,7</sup>. Although these studies prove the positive effect of these therapies on CRP reduction in adults, little is known of the effect of physical activity on CRP in childhood and adolescence.</p>
      <p>The demonstration that cardiovascular diseases may originate in childhood and adolescence leads to the need that these risk factors be extensively investigated in these phases, with the purpose of planning increasingly earlier and possibly finding more effective interventions on these factors, thus further reducing morbidity and mortality.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiovascular diseases </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The pathophysiology of CVD, the major causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, starts at an early age. CVD are part of the group of chronic non-communicable diseases that comprise the plurimetabolic syndrome (obesity, hypertension, diabetes mellitus and dyslipidemia) caused by risk factors resulting from changes in lifestyle habits<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>The likelihood of occurrence of CVD increases in the presence of multiple risk factors established for atherosclerosis. These may be modifiable or non-modifiable. The non-modifiable risk factors are age, gender and family history. The modifiable risk factors are dyslipidemia, hypertension, eating habits, smoking, diabetes mellitus, obesity and sedentary lifestyle<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Non-modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular diseases</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The risks for CVD increase with age, and at every 10 years there is a possibility of mortality from these diseases increasing by 2.5 times. The magnitude of the risk factors and the occurrence of clinical manifestations emerge later in women than in men<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>As regards genetic inheritance, detailed history taking of family diseases reveals a genetic susceptibility for the development of CAD<sup>11</sup>. In Romaldini et al study<sup>12</sup>, of 109 children and adolescents with a premature CVD family history, 41.1% were observed to present one or more risk factors for atherosclerosis. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular diseases</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertension is a modifiable risk factor considered very important for CVD in both genders, irrespective of ethnical group or age bracket. However, children with higher blood pressure levels tend to progress over life, maintaining higher blood pressure levels than their peers and showing a greater probability of becoming hypertensive adults<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>According to Rabelo<sup>10</sup>, dyslipidemia &#150; abnormal circulating lipid or lipoprotein levels, is caused by alterations in their production, catabolism or clearance as a consequence of genetic and/or environmental factors, inappropriate diet and/or sedentary lifestyle, and, according to the National Cholesterol Education Program<sup>14</sup>, high blood cholesterol, particularly increased LDL, is the main predictor of CVD. This occurs because LDL particles contain 70% of the blood cholesterol, and are thus the main target of medical intervention. </p>
      <p>Increased serum HDL levels reduce the relative risk for CVD. The mechanism for this protective effect stems from the HDL ability to perform reverse cholesterol transport, that is, to remove it from the cells and transport it to the liver for further excretion. HDL also prevents oxidation and aggregation of LDL particles in the arterial wall, thus diminishing the atherogenic potential of this lipoprotein<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>Diabetes mellitus is one of the major public health problems worldwide, especially in developing countries<sup>15,16</sup>. Its risk factors are hyperglycemia, lipoprotein alterations and hypertriglyceridemia, which cause modifications in the vascular biology and accelerate molecular and cellular events which lead to atherosclerosis<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Obesity is also an important predictor of CVD, and arterial wall lesions are already observed in obese children<sup>17</sup>. The prevalence of obesity in childhood and adolescence has short and long-term consequences because it is associated with an abnormal lipid profile, with increased concentrations of total cholesterol, triglycerides and LDL, and decreased HDL<sup>14</sup>. In addition to being a risk factor for low-birth weight, placental abruption and pulmonary diseases, smoking is also an important risk factor for CVD because it reduces blood HDL concentrations<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>McGille et al study<sup>18</sup> suggests that secondhand smoke is related to low plasma HDL levels, which is associated with a significant endothelial dysfunction. In relation to the direct effects, evidences demonstrate that a mild airway obstruction and slowed growth of lung function in adolescents are associated with smoking<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another risk factor that has been pointed out as one of the factors responsible for the higher CVD prevalence is the change in eating habits, through a reduction in fruit and vegetable consumption and increase in the percentage of saturated and animal fat, thus leading to lower ingestion of antioxidant food micronutrients which are important for the control or reduction of the deleterious action of free radicals in the body; this delays or prevents their oxidation<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Finally, a sedentary lifestyle has been pointed out as another risk factor for CVD, already existing in childhood and adolescence. It has been observed that children have reduced their level of physical activity for several reasons, among which we can mention the lower tendency to walk and/or ride a bicycle, and the increased use of cars for transportation. Also, children have been performing less recreational and sports activities in their free time, with increased sedentary activities such as watching television, playing videogames, and using the computer<sup>21</sup>. </p>
      <p>The practice of physical exercises is known to have a positive effect on cardiovascular risks in adults, and, in children, it had first been related to a strategy for physical development<sup>22</sup>. However, some data show that lower levels of physical activity and sedentary lifestyle are associated with a higher prevalence of childhood obesity, pointing out to a sedentary lifestyle as a risk factor present in early age<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>The demonstration that CVD may originate in childhood and adolescence leads to the need that these risk factors be extensively investigated during this period, with the objective of planning increasingly earlier and, possibly, taking more effective interventions on these factors, thus reducing morbidity and mortality in the future. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prevalence of risk factors for atherosclerosis in childhood and adolescence</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Brazilian data on the risk factors for atherosclerosis in childhood and adolescence show that the prevalence of essential hypertension in these phases range from 0.8% to 8.2%<sup>24-25</sup>. A frequent association between hypertension and overweight or obesity is demonstrated. </p>
      <p>In the past 30 years, a sharp decline in the prevalence of malnutrition among children and adolescents and a more rapid increase in the prevalence of overweight/obesity were observed. The analysis of data of children and adolescents between two and 17 years of age, from the Survey on Life Standard<sup>26</sup> (SLS) collected in Brazil in 1997 by the IBGE (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics), demonstrated that the prevalence of obesity was 10.1%, and was higher in the Southeastern than in the Northeastern region (11.9% and 8.2%, respectively). </p>
      <p>IBGE data<sup>27</sup> in 2003 point out to an increase by 8.5% in the prevalence of overweight in adolescents (10.4% in the Southeastern region and 6.6% in the Northeastern region) and a prevalence of obesity among adolescents of 3.0% (1.7% in the Northeastern region and 4.2% in the Southeastern region). The prevalence of excess weight was higher among families with a higher income, except in the city of Porto Alegre, where girls from public schools had higher BMI than those from private schools. </p>
      <p>As regards dyslipidemias, Moura et al<sup>28</sup> found a prevalence of high blood cholesterol of 35% among 1,600 school children aged between 7 and 14 years who were studied in the city of Campinas, State of SP, and identified mean serum levels of total cholesterol, triacylglycerols, LDL and HDL of 160, 79, 96, and 49mg/dl, respectively.</p>
      <p>In a population sample from the city of Florianopolis, mean levels of total cholesterol, triacylglycerols, LDL and HDL of 162, 93, 92 and 53 mg/dl were found in 1,053 school children aged between 7 and 18 years. In that study, 10% of the individuals presented high blood cholesterol, 22% hypertriglyceridemia, 6% high LDL, and 5% low HDL<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another risk factor that is already present in childhood and adolescence is smoking. In Brazil, until the 1980's, smoking was present among elementary school and high school students in one to 34% of the young people interviewed. Researches conducted in 10 Brazilian capitals involving 24,000 elementary school and high school students in the years of 1987, 1989, 1993 and 1997 showed an increasing number of young people trying cigarettes in all capitals. Another important conclusion of the 1997 research is related to the tendency of a balance in the consumption among students of both genders, unlike what occurred in the year of 1987, when the male gender predominated<sup>30</sup>.</p>
      <p>As regards sedentary lifestyle, few studies on its prevalence among Brazilian children and adolescents are available, ranging from 42 to 93.5%, depending on the criteria used<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Atherosclerosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The pathogenesis most frequently found in CVD is atherosclerosis, which is a disease resulting from endothelial dysfunction and inflammation. The vascular endothelium regulates vascular homeostasis, leading to adaptive functional changes with the release of several substances with clotting and anti-clotting activities - able to promote molecule adhesion - and with vasoactive actions. Vascular homeostasis is the result of the dynamic regulation of these functions. Nitric oxide (NO) is the main antiatherogenic substance, that is, it has an endothelial protective action<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>The loss of the endothelial protective action may occur in the presence of inflammatory factors and cardiovascular risk factors, with increased propensity towards vasoconstriction, thrombosis, inflammation, and cell proliferation in the vessel wall. Thus, the loss of NO biological activity, known as endothelial dysfunction, may be the event triggering the atherosclerotic disease in humans, turning its assessment in an early marker of the risk for atherosclerosis<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, in the last few years, the role of inflammation in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis and the occurrence of atherothrombotic events as determinants of CVD has been evidenced<sup>4</sup>. It has also been verified that this process may begin early in life. Aortic fatty streaks develop in childhood and fibrous plaques may be observed before 20 years of age<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Thus, atherosclerosis gradually changed from a model of a non-communicable chronic degenerative disease exclusively affecting patients with advanced age to a model of a subclinical chronic inflammatory disease already existing in childhood<sup>3</sup>. </p>
      <p>The factors contributing to the development of atherosclerosis are hyperlipoproteinemia, increased platelet aggregation, decreased vascular endothelial cells, and increased smooth cell proliferation. Leukocytes, monocytes and macrophages are present in the atherosclerotic lesion, thus suggesting a developing inflammatory reaction<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another inflammatory mechanism is the relationship between high CRP levels and increased rate of adiposity, triglycerides, and a low HDL/total cholesterol ratio<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the presence of oxidized LDL, of infectious agents in the vascular wall or of tissue lesion (necrosis or ischemia), leukocytes are activated. Once activated, they start to produce different cytokines, interleukins, tumor necrosis factor alpha, and gamma interferon. Especially, interleukin-6 (IL-6) stimulates the hepatocytes to produce RNAm for the production of acute phase proteins such as fibrinogen, CRP and serum amyloid A protein<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>It has been demonstrated that atherosclerosis is not simply a lipid storage disease, and that inflammation has a key role in the initiation, progression and destabilization of atheroma<sup>36</sup>. A marker of the inflammatory activity is the increased circulation of acute phase proteins produced in the liver, such as CRP and fibrinogen. CRP is one of the most sensitive acute phase proteins, and its concentration significantly increases during acute inflammation<sup>37-38</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acute phase reaction of inflammation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Living beings survive thanks to the maintenance of a dynamic and complex balance, which is often jeopardized by inner and outer forces. The maintenance of this balance is ensured by some physiological mechanisms, so that any factor disturbing the organism's integrity (such as trauma or tissue infection) is able to trigger a series of metabolic and systemic changes that aim to reestablish the homeostasis. These changes comprise the inflammation process and the group of humoral and cell reactions initiated soon after the damage, and are collectively called acute phase reaction<sup>39</sup>. </p>
      <p>The acute phase reaction enables survival during the immediate post-tissue lesion period by triggering the synthesis and secretion of several cell mediators in the site of the damage, which mobilize the metabolic response of the entire organism. The purpose of all these changes is to halt or destroy infectious agents, to prevent the maintenance of tissue damage, and to activate the repair mechanisms required for the organism to resume its normal functioning. Thus, the acute phase reaction is a homeostatic, dynamic and protective response that hosts make use of against the different aggressions they are subjected to40. </p>
      <p>Mostly, inflammatory mediators act locally to limit the consequences and extent of tissue damage. Under conditions in which this local homeostatic capacity is exceeded, whether by the magnitude of the aggression or by failure of the regulating mechanisms, the inflammatory response goes beyond the limits of its microenvironment and may express itself systemically<sup>41</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Molecular mechanisms of the acute phase reaction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Irrespective of the nature of the triggering stimulus, the activated cells of the mononuclear phagocytic system (blood monocytes and tissue macrophages) initiate a cascade of events of the acute phase response by secreting cytokines of the interleukin-1 (IL-1) family and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) in an initial stage. These molecules act both locally and systemically<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <p>Locally, they act mainly on fibroblasts and endothelial cells, causing the release of a second set of cytokines that include IL-6, IL-8, and the inflammatory and chemotactic macrophage proteins, in addition to IL-1 and TNF themselves. The inflammatory and chemotactic macrophage proteins along with IL-1 and IL-8 attract monocytes and neutrophils to the inflammation site; monocytes and neutrophils, in turn, secrete a third set of cytokines including TNF and other chemotactic factors that exert a feedback on the inflammatory process<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>The vascular endothelium plays a central role in the communication between the inflammatory site and blood leukocytes, both via the expression of adhesion molecules that facilitate tissue migration of monocytes and neutrophils, and via the modification of the vascular tonus mediated by metabolites of the arachidonic acid (prostaglandins, thromboxane and leukotrienes), by nitric oxide, and by kinins, thus causing vasodilation, increased vascular permeability and arterial hypotension<sup>44-46</sup>.</p>
      <p>Systemically, the liver is the main target of inflammatory mediators, supplying the essential metabolites for the stress response and the components required for the first-line defense in the inflammation site<sup>47</sup>.</p>
      <p>Using their specific receptors, the liver cells respond to four types of inflammatory response mediators. These mediators are the IL-1-type cytokines (IL-1 and TNF) which stimulate liver production of CRP, of the C3 component of complement, and serum amyloid A protein (SAA), which comprise the type-1 acute phase proteins; type IL-6 cytokines (IL-6 and IL-11) which stimulate most of the type-1 acute phase proteins; glucocorticoids that act synergistically with type IL-1; and IL-6 cytokines stimulating the production of some acute phase proteins. However, the most important action of glucocorticoids in the acute phase response is the inhibiton of cytokine production by macrophages and endothelial cells, thus preventing its continued activation from having harmful consequences to the tissues; and, finally, growth factors which, along with glucocorticoids, modulate the liver response to cytokines<sup>47,48</sup>.</p>
      <p>These acute phase proteins play an important role in host defense, such as direct neutralization of inflammatory agents, reduction of the extent of local tissue damage, and participation in tissue repair and regeneration. In addition, activation of complement proteins results in migration of neutrophils, macrophages and plasma proteins that participate in the destruction of infectious agents, clearance of cell debris from both the microorganisms and from the host themselves<sup>47,49</sup>.</p>
      <p>CRP is considered the main acute phase protein. Among the several functions attributed to CRP, maybe the most important is its ability to bind to cell membrane components, thus forming complexes that activate the classical complement pathway, with opsonin release and occasional phagocytosis, as well as removal of these structures from circulation<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <p>Also, CRP binds to cell membranes only after membrane rupture. This property suggests an important role of CRP in the unspecific host defense due to removal of cell debris derived from necrotic cells or cells damaged during the inflammatory process, thus allowing tissue repair. Other functions attributed to CRP are growth inhibition of tumor cells, modulation of polymorphonuclear (PMN) and monocyte function, platelet aggregation and secretion<sup>42,50</sup>. </p>
      <p>The speed and magnitude of the increase in CRP concentration depend on the type of inflammatory stimulus. This is probably related to the amount of protein that is required to effectively participate in the acute phase reaction. After an acute phase stimulus, CRP concentrations usually increase rapidly after tissue damage, reaching a peak within 24 to 72 hours, and then decrease steeply after resolution of the inflammatory process. The intensity of the CRP response is more closely correlated with the extent of tissue damage<sup>51</sup>.</p>
      <p>Thus, we can observe that the magnitude and speed of CRP response could reflect the extent of tissue damage more precisely and earlier in time. CRP low baseline levels, rapid increase and short half-life are arguments in favor of its use in the assessment of disease activity<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although the acute phase response is not specific, it can be used in the clinical practice as part of the diagnosis, both to assess the intensity of inflammatory activity and to discriminate inflammatory from non-inflammatory diseases. However, inflammatory markers, especially CRP, have been intensively studied in individuals with CVD and even in those apparently healthy with the help of technological advances obtained in the determination of serum levels of these parameters<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>CRP stands out for its short plasma half-life (approximately 19 h) and its plasma concentration, exclusively related to the synthesis in this period. Also, the interest in the study of this protein has increased in the past years, since small increments in its production are associated with increased risk for CVD in patients with angina pectoris and also in healthy individuals<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>CRP and cardiovascular diseases</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Immunohistochemical studies have demonstrated the presence of CRP in inflamed tissues, in atherosclerotic vessels and in the infarcted myocardium. It has also been demonstrated that CRP enhances the expression of the tissue factor (clotting effect) of adhesion molecules, binds to plasma lipoproteins and activates the complement system in vitro and in vivo, which is present in the majority of foam cells of atherosclerotic plaques<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>Stefanadis et al<sup>54</sup> demonstrated a direct correlation between increased plaque temperature and higher levels of CRP and serum amyloid protein in patients with acute coronary syndromes. Patients with acute myocardial infarction also have higher CRP levels correlated with a greater extent of the area of myocardial necrosis.</p>
      <p>In the absence of myocardial necrosis, higher CRP levels are correlated with a greater extent of atherosclerotic disease, even after correction for other risk factors. Apparently, healthy individuals with higher CRP levels, even those considered high normal levels, have a higher risk of developing peripheral arterial disease<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>In studies conducted with children and adolescents, an accumulation of abdominal fat and hyperinsulinemia associated with a thrombogenic and inflammatory profile have been observed. Increased concentrations of fibrinogen and plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1) have been reported in individuals with visceral obesity, thus increasing the risk of thrombosis in these individuals. High levels of certain inflammatory markers such as IL-6, TNF and CRP are also associated with abdominal obesity<sup>55</sup>.</p>
      <p>Sudi et al<sup>56</sup> evaluated 20 obese boys and 40 obese girls and verified that after a weight-loss program (three weeks with a low-calorie diet and physical activity), a significant reduction in adiposity, in abdominal fat accumulation and in the fibrinolytic parameters occurred. The authors concluded that excess weight, body fat and abdominal obesity are predictive factors for alterations in the fibrinolytic system in younger individuals. </p>
      <p>Because its serum levels are easy to determine and have the best clinical and epidemiological correlation to date, CRP is an inflammatory marker of special interest, given the possibility of elucidating new ways for the prevention and treatment of diseases with high prevalence, morbidity and mortality<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Effects of physical activity on cardiovascular diseases and CRP</bold>
      </p>
      <p>From the point of view of prevention of atherosclerotic diseases, studies on physical activity in young people investigated their level of physical activity, the result of the interventions at school and in the community regarding health education, the strategies to increase the levels of physical activity, and the outcomes of physical activity in the prevention or in the control of cardiovascular risk factors<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although some studies demonstrate that adolescents who practice more physical activities tend to remain more active when they become young adults, others demonstrated that physical activity during childhood does not provide cardiovascular protection if not associated with a sustained active lifestyle in adulthood<sup>58</sup>. </p>
      <p>The American Heart Association (AHA) establishes that the adoption of an active lifestyle should be encouraged from two years of age and maintained throughout adolescence until adulthood. As a general advice, healthy children should be encouraged to practice pleasant physical activities during leisure time or as organized physical exercises or sporting activities at least 30 minutes a day, three to four times a week, to become physically fit<sup>57,59</sup>. Since sedentary lifestyle is an important risk factor for atherosclerosis, regular physical exercises are very important in the prevention and control of CVD, by influencing almost all its risk factors such as obesity, dyslipidemias, diabetes mellitus and hypertension<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>The benefits associated with an active lifestyle in children include, therefore, body weight control, lower blood pressure, and predisposition to maintain physical activity in adulthood. An active lifestyle is also associated with increased life expectancy and lower risk of developing CVD. Also among the effects of physical activity, individuals who practice it have lower triacylglycerol levels and higher HDL levels than sedentary individuals. High HDL levels act on LDL oxidation, thus leading to decreased formation of new atherosclerotic plaques, as well as helping stabilize those already existing<sup>59</sup>.</p>
      <p>Williams et al<sup>59</sup> showed that cholesterol levels increase over time, pointing out that children with high LDL levels are more susceptible to maintain these high levels when they become adults.</p>
      <p>In Prado and Dantas review<sup>60</sup>, most of the studies were observed to have demonstrated beneficial changes in HDL and LDL levels after an aerobic exercise program with different intensities, durations and frequencies, performed by individuals of varying age brackets and cardiorespiratory abilities.</p>
      <p>Corroborating these findings, Matsudo et al review<sup>61</sup> showed that the regular practice of physical activity increases HDL, reduces triacylglycerol and LDL and also increases insulin sensitivity. Favorable effects of aerobic training have also been demonstrated on the activity of lipoprotein lipase, which would explain a better return of trygliceride-rich lipoprotein. </p>
      <p>Francischi et al<sup>62</sup> evaluated the two main strategies of non-pharmacological treatment of overweight and obesity &#150; the use of calorie restriction and physical exercises, and concluded that low-calorie diets are effective to reduce weight and fat, but can cause a loss of lean mass and, consequently, a reduction in metabolic rates. Physical training alone, without eating control, results in a modest weight loss. However, in association with diets, it facilitates compliance to eating control and ensures greater success in the maintenance of lean mass and reduction in fat mass. </p>
      <p>These authors also pointed out that regular aerobic training intensifies fat loss, however without preventing lean mass loss, whereas resisted training seems to minimize the latter. The combination of aerobic work with resisted training thus seems to ensure fat loss while preserving the lean mass.</p>
      <p>Also in relation to overweight and obesity, Watts et al<sup>63</sup> observed that eight-year-old obese children presented decreased blood flow mediated by brachial artery dilatation, thus characterizing an endothelial alteration of this vessel. They also verified that physical exercises increased the arterial blood flow in this group, thus corroborating the importance of a physical exercise program as a form of treatment for obese children in the primary prevention for atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>The effects of physical exercises on systemic hypertension result from cardiovascular and respiratory adaptations that the human body suffers during exercise periods in order to supply the increased demands of the active muscles. As these adaptations are repeated, changes occur in these muscles, thus allowing the body to improve its performance. Physiologic and metabolic processes take place, thus optimizing oxygen distribution to the tissues in activity. Therefore the pressure drop after physical training is related to hemodynamic, humoral and neural factors<sup>64</sup>. </p>
      <p>As regards the effects of physical activity on the prevention and treatment of diabetes mellitus, a review between 1966 and 2000 showed that prospective studies indicate that higher levels of physical activity are clearly associated with a lower frequency of type-2 diabetes mellitus. However, it is not yet possible to clarify the dose-response effect of physical exercise on the treatment or prevention of this disease<sup>65</sup>.</p>
      <p>The strategies for CRP reduction were initially based on pharmacological treatments<sup>4,7</sup>. However, these studies proved the positive effect of these pharmacological treatments on CRP reduction in adults. Recently, the effects of physical activity on CRP levels of children and adolescents have also become known.</p>
      <p>It was only in 1999, that Smith et al<sup>66</sup> demonstrated, in a study with 43 adults, that long-term physical exercises are able to significantly reduce inflammatory cytokines and CRP levels.</p>
      <p>More recently, the positive impact of the level of physical fitness on high-sensitivity CRP levels in 55-year-old women was reported, and lower plasma concentrations (0.43, 0.25, 0.23 mg/dl) were observed as the level of physical fitness improved (7.2, 9.1 and 10 METs), thus suggesting the participation of an antiinflammatory effect to explain the benefits of exercise on the prevention of CVD. However, it is worth pointing out that a great majority or almost all of these positive effects are reverted if the individual interrupts the practice of physical activity<sup>67</sup>.</p>
      <p>Pate et al<sup>68</sup> had already demonstrated, in 1995, that detraining leads to decreased HDL and increased fat mass, BMI, leptin, LDL and triglycerides. Thus, the chance of success in the treatment or preventive management of CVD depends a great deal on the ability to develop strategies that ensure the engagement of people or patients in patterns of an active style for their whole life cycle.</p>
      <p>In the study conducted by Okita et al<sup>69</sup> supervised aerobic training for two months was observed to significantly reduce body weight and CRP levels in women, without association between decreased CRP and weight loss.</p>
      <p>Smith et al<sup>66</sup> demonstrated that long-term physical exercises are able to significantly reduce inflammatory cytokines and CRP levels, and suggested the participation of an antiinflammatory effect to explain the benefits of exercises on the prevention of CVD. </p>
      <p>Knowing that the atherosclerotic process precedes the clinical manifestations of CVD in years, even decades, and that the regular practice of physical activities reduces the incidence of morbidity and mortality from CVD, it seems prudent to minimize or reduce the known risk factors for CVD in the adult starting from childhood and adolescence, since physical activity seems to be an important protective factor for the prevention and control of CVD, since it influences almost all its risk factors<sup>59</sup>.</p>
      <p>Recently, the literature has demonstrated the sedentary lifestyle as a risk factor for CVD and not only the practice of physical activities as a preventive and therapeutic mechanism for these diseases. However, the effects of physical activity on CRP levels as a risk factor for atherosclerosis have been more deeply investigated in adulthood, and little is known of these effects on children and adolescents. Therefore, further investigation on the effect of physical activity on CRP levels during childhood is necessary.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Marina Pegoraro from <italic>Universidade Federal do Paran&#225;</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
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      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing address:</p>
          <p>Marina Pegoraro</p>
          <p> Rua General Os&#243;rio, 1934 - Parque S&#227;o Paulo </p>
          <p> 85806-470 - Cascavel - PR, Brazil </p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="marinapegoraro82@yahoo.com.br">marinapegoraro82@yahoo.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received June 14, 2007; revised manuscript received August 25; accepted September 4, 2007.</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
