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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">dwZmLkZCjWF9BWQ5GXnTkLj</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00007</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008000400007</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09000407</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008000400007</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Polimorfismo gen&#233;tico, terapia farmacol&#243;gica e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca seq&#252;encial em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Cuoco</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Antonio Romeo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mota</surname>
            <given-names>Gl&#243;ria de F&#225;tima Alves da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mansur</surname>
            <given-names>Alfredo Jos&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>90</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>274</fpage>
      <lpage>279</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>20</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: Variantes funcionais do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina (ECA) podem estar associados com a resposta &#224; terapia em portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC). OBJETIVO: Testar a hip&#243;tese de diferen&#231;as na avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica seq&#252;encial da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo de pacientes com IC em tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, inclusive com inibidores da ECA, em rela&#231;&#227;o ao polimorfismo de inser&#231;&#227;o (I) e dele&#231;&#227;o (D) do gene da ECA. M&#201;TODOS: Estudamos 168 pacientes (m&#233;dia de idade 43,3&#177;10,1 anos), 128 (76,2%) dos quais homens, com IC e ecocardiogramas seq&#252;enciais. O polimorfismo I/D foi determinado por rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase. A fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) foi analisada comparativamente aos gen&#243;tipos. Mais de 90% dos pacientes estavam tomando inibidores da ECA. RESULTADOS: Houve um aumento significantemente maior na FEVE m&#233;dia em pacientes com o alelo D, em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com gen&#243;tipo II (p = 0,01) ap&#243;s um seguimento m&#233;dio de 38,9 meses. O alelo D foi associado com aumento de 8,8% na FEVE m&#233;dia no mesmo per&#237;odo. Al&#233;m disso, observou-se uma tend&#234;ncia para um efeito do "n&#250;mero de c&#243;pias" do alelo D sobre o aumento da FEVE m&#233;dia com o tempo: uma diferen&#231;a de 3,5% na varia&#231;&#227;o da FEVE entre os pacientes com gen&#243;tipos II e ID (p = 0,03) e de 5% entre os pacientes com gen&#243;tipos II e DD (p = 0,02). CONCLUS&#195;O: O polimorfismo de dele&#231;&#227;o do gene da ECA pode estar associado com a resposta ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico com inibidores da ECA em portadores de IC. Outros estudos controlados poder&#227;o contribuir para uma melhor compreens&#227;o das influ&#234;ncias gen&#233;ticas sobre a resposta &#224; terapia.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina</kwd>
        <kwd>gen&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Polimorfismo gen&#233;tico, terapia farmacol&#243;gica e fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca seq&#252;encial em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Marco Antonio Romeo Cuoco; Alexandre Costa Pereira; Gl&#243;ria de F&#225;tima Alves da Mota; Jos&#233; Eduardo Krieger; Alfredo Jos&#233; Mansur </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor), Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO </bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> Variantes funcionais do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina (ECA) podem estar associados com a resposta &#224; terapia em portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC). </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Testar a hip&#243;tese de diferen&#231;as na avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica seq&#252;encial da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo de pacientes com IC em tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, inclusive com inibidores da ECA, em rela&#231;&#227;o ao polimorfismo de inser&#231;&#227;o (I) e dele&#231;&#227;o (D) do gene da ECA. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Estudamos 168 pacientes (m&#233;dia de idade 43,3&#177;10,1 anos), 128 (76,2%) dos quais homens, com IC e ecocardiogramas seq&#252;enciais. O polimorfismo I/D foi determinado por rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase. A fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) foi analisada comparativamente aos gen&#243;tipos. Mais de 90% dos pacientes estavam tomando inibidores da ECA. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Houve um aumento significantemente maior na FEVE m&#233;dia em pacientes com o alelo D, em compara&#231;&#227;o com pacientes com gen&#243;tipo II (<italic>p</italic> = 0,01) ap&#243;s um seguimento m&#233;dio de 38,9 meses. O alelo D foi associado com aumento de 8,8% na FEVE m&#233;dia no mesmo per&#237;odo. Al&#233;m disso, observou-se uma tend&#234;ncia para um efeito do "n&#250;mero de c&#243;pias" do alelo D sobre o aumento da FEVE m&#233;dia com o tempo: uma diferen&#231;a de 3,5% na varia&#231;&#227;o da FEVE entre os pacientes com gen&#243;tipos II e ID (<italic>p</italic> = 0,03) e de 5% entre os pacientes com gen&#243;tipos II e DD (<italic>p</italic> = 0,02). </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> O polimorfismo de dele&#231;&#227;o do gene da ECA pode estar associado com a resposta ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico com inibidores da ECA em portadores de IC. Outros estudos controlados poder&#227;o contribuir para uma melhor compreens&#227;o das influ&#234;ncias gen&#233;ticas sobre a resposta &#224; terapia. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina, gen&#233;tica, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O polimorfismo de inser&#231;&#227;o (I) e dele&#231;&#227;o (D) do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina (ECA) pode estar associado com a resposta do paciente ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico. A regress&#227;o da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial tratados com enalapril foi maior em indiv&#237;duos homozigotos para o alelo D<sup>1</sup>. Portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica com o alelo D que n&#227;o foram tratados com betabloqueadores apresentaram pior sobrevida livre de transplante<sup>2</sup>. Os benef&#237;cios do tratamento com doses elevadas de inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina associados com betabloqueadores foram maiores em pacientes DD<sup>3</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, apenas portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com gen&#243;tipos ID e II demonstraram melhora na fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular esquerda ap&#243;s tratamento com espironolactona<sup>4</sup>. Portanto, observa&#231;&#245;es diferentes em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca indicam que o polimorfismo de inser&#231;&#227;o/dele&#231;&#227;o do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina desempenha um papel significativo na resposta ao tratamento.</p>
    <p>Esses achados podem estar associados ao fato de a variabilidade da atividade da enzima conversora da angiotensina ser parcialmente modulada pelas variantes funcionais determinadas por esse polimorfismo bial&#233;lico localizado no <italic>&#237;ntron</italic> 16 do gene da ECA. A diferen&#231;a dos dois alelos reside na presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de uma seq&#252;&#234;ncia de 287 pares de base e determina o alelo I (inser&#231;&#227;o) ou D (dele&#231;&#227;o). O alelo D foi associado com n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos mais elevados e maior atividade da enzima conversora da angiotensina<sup>5,6</sup>, e tamb&#233;m com progn&#243;sticos adversos em portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;ada<sup>2,3,7,8</sup>. Por esse motivo, aventamos a hip&#243;tese de que pudesse haver diferen&#231;as na avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica seq&#252;encial da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo no seguimento de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, inclusive com inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s variantes funcionais do gene da ECA.</p>
    <p>Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a varia&#231;&#227;o na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, estimada por exames ecocardiogr&#225;ficos seq&#252;enciais, de portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em tratamento farmacol&#243;gico, inclusive com inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina, encaminhados pelo ambulat&#243;rio geral de um hospital universit&#225;rio de refer&#234;ncia em cardiologia, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s variantes funcionais do gene da ECA.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Delineamento do estudo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Entre 1995 e 2001, pacientes de uma coorte inicial em andamento de portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca foram genotipados quanto &#224;s variantes funcionais do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina e submetidos a uma avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica seq&#252;encial.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Pacientes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Cento e sessenta e oito pacientes foram estudados no Ambulat&#243;rio Geral do Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo. Os pacientes tinham entre 19 e 64 anos (m&#233;dia 43,3; desvio-padr&#227;o 10,1), sendo que 128 (76,2%) eram homens e 40 (23,8%) eram mulheres. O diagn&#243;stico de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca foi estabelecido de acordo com crit&#233;rios publicados anteriormente<sup>9</sup>. A classifica&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca seguiu recomenda&#231;&#245;es pr&#233;vias<sup>10,11</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca sintom&#225;tica de diferentes etiologias e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda <underline>&lt;</underline> 45% no ecocardiograma Doppler transtor&#225;cico bidimensional foram considerados eleg&#237;veis para o estudo. Os pacientes foram avaliados para tratamento cir&#250;rgico de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, inclusive transplante card&#237;aco. Em especial, os pacientes com valvopatia inscritos no estudo eram aqueles com grave disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda a ponto de n&#227;o serem considerados eleg&#237;veis para reparo ou substitui&#231;&#227;o valvar, mas sim candidatos a transplante card&#237;aco. S&#243; foram inclu&#237;dos neste estudo pacientes com pelo menos dois exames ecocardiogr&#225;ficos (no in&#237;cio do estudo e durante o seguimento).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Pacientes com valvopatia que seriam candidatos a tratamento cir&#250;rgico convencional, como reparo ou substitui&#231;&#227;o valvar, bem como pacientes com cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica, doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, angina inst&#225;vel, grave disfun&#231;&#227;o renal ou hep&#225;tica, grave doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica, doen&#231;a cerebrovascular, infec&#231;&#227;o ativa, neoplasma coexistente e &#250;lcera p&#233;ptica ativa, foram exclu&#237;dos do estudo<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Etiologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncnia card&#237;aca foi atribu&#237;da &#224; cardiomiopatia dilatada idiop&#225;tica em 61 (36,3%), cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica em 36 (21,4%), cardiomiopatia hipertensiva em 25 (14,9%), doen&#231;a de Chagas em 21 (12,5%), cardiomiopatia alco&#243;lica em 10 (6%), valvopatia em 10 (6%) e cardiomiopatia periparto em 5 (2,9%) pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda seq&#252;encial foi determinada por ecocardiograma unidimensional. Em alguns pacientes, foi empregado o m&#233;todo bidimensional, utilizando-se a regra de Simpson. A fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda foi avaliada por ecocardiografistas que desconheciam os gen&#243;tipos dos pacientes e de acordo com recomenda&#231;&#245;es publicadas anteriormente<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Determina&#231;&#227;o do gen&#243;tipo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O DNA gen&#244;mico foi extra&#237;do de leuc&#243;citos separados do sangue total por meio de um m&#233;todo convencional<sup>14</sup>. O polimorfismo I/D foi detectado pela t&#233;cnica de rea&#231;&#227;o em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) com <italic>primers</italic> oligonucleot&#237;dicos flanqueando os respectivos fragmentos D e I do <italic>&#237;ntron</italic> 16 do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina<sup>6</sup>. A genotipagem foi realizada de maneira "cega" depois que as amostra foram separadas por eletroforese em gel de agarose a 1% e coradas com brometo de et&#237;dio (1&#181;g/ml). Devido &#224; amplifica&#231;&#227;o preferencial do alelo D em amostras heterozigotas, cada amostra com o gen&#243;tipo DD foi submetida a uma segunda amplifica&#231;&#227;o independente por PCR com um <italic>primer</italic> capaz de reconhecer uma seq&#252;&#234;ncia espec&#237;fica da forma polim&#243;rfica de inser&#231;&#227;o<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O teste de qui-quadrado foi usado para avaliar associa&#231;&#245;es entre o polimorfismo I/D e as vari&#225;veis discretas. O teste <italic>t</italic> de <italic>Student</italic> foi usado para a compara&#231;&#227;o das m&#233;dias de dois grupos, e a ANOVA foi usada para a compara&#231;&#227;o de mais de dois grupos de vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas.</p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre o polimorfismo I/D e a evolu&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca foi analisada levando-se em conta o padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a gen&#233;tica conferida ao alelo D<sup>16</sup>. Dessa maneira, considerando-se um modelo codominante para o alelo D, os tr&#234;s gen&#243;tipos foram analisados separadamente (DD <italic>versus</italic> ID <italic>versus</italic> II), enquanto considerando-se um modelo recessivo do alelo D, pacientes que tinham o gen&#243;tipo DD foram comparados com pacientes que tinham o alelo I (DD <italic>versus</italic> ID + II). Por fim, considerando-se um modelo dominante do alelo D, os pacientes com o alelo D foram analisados em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; homozigose para o alelo I (DD + ID <italic>versus</italic> II).</p>
    <p>As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram feitas com aux&#237;lio do programa SAS<sup>17</sup>. Valores de p &lt; de 0,05 foram considerados estatisticamente significantes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>&#201;tica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O protocolo de estudo foi aprovado pelo Conselho de &#201;tica em Pesquisas M&#233;dicas envolvendo Seres Humanos do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo. Todos os participantes assinaram um termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A freq&#252;&#234;ncia genot&#237;pica do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina foi de 32,5% para o gen&#243;tipo DD, 49,7% para o gen&#243;tipo ID e 17,8 para o gen&#243;tipo II. As freq&#252;&#234;ncias genot&#237;picas estavam de acordo com o equil&#237;brio de Hardy-Weinberg. N&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel determinar o gen&#243;tipo de apenas um dos pacientes, em virtude de problemas t&#233;cnicos.</p>
    <p>A compara&#231;&#227;o entre as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e demogr&#225;ficas dos pacientes no in&#237;cio do estudo n&#227;o revelou diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significantes entre os grupos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">Tabela 1</xref>).</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0274-00007-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; etiologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, n&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante entre os pacientes com gen&#243;tipos DD, ID ou II.</p>
    <p>Houve uma diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significante na varia&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com o tempo. Houve tamb&#233;m um aumento significante na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia dos pacientes com o gen&#243;tipo DD, comparado com os pacientes com gen&#243;tipos ID e II (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a07fig01">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a07fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0274-00007-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Considerando-se o alelo D em um modelo dominante, observamos um aumento estatisticamente significante no valor m&#233;dio da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com o tempo em pacientes com o alelo D, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes homozigotos para o alelo I (p = 0,01). A presen&#231;a de pelo menos um alelo D foi associada com um aumento de 8,8% na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s um seguimento m&#233;dio de 38,9 meses (desvio-padr&#227;o de 24), comparado com uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 1,73% nos pacientes com o gen&#243;tipo II ap&#243;s um seguimento m&#233;dio de 43 meses (desvio-padr&#227;o de 26,6).</p>
    <p>Observou-se uma tend&#234;ncia, embora n&#227;o significante, para um efeito do "n&#250;mero de c&#243;pias" do alelo D sobre a progress&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o: uma diferen&#231;a de 3,5% entre a progress&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com gen&#243;tipos II e ID (p = 0,03) e de 5% entre pacientes com gen&#243;tipos II e DD (p = 0,02) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a07fig02">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a07fig02">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0274-00007-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p>No presente estudo, observamos que os pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e alelo D tratados com inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina apresentaram uma melhora consider&#225;vel na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, avaliada por ecocardiogramas seq&#252;enciais, em compara&#231;&#227;o com os pacientes com o gen&#243;tipo II. </p>
    <p>Esse achado refor&#231;a a hip&#243;tese da influ&#234;ncia das variantes funcionais do gene da ECA sobre a resposta ao tratamento farmacol&#243;gico para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Nosso estudo revelou a mesma tend&#234;ncia de estudos publicados anteriormente. Por exemplo, foram observadas maior regress&#227;o induzida por enalapril da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e melhora no enchimento diast&#243;lico ventricular esquerdo em pacientes hipertensos com gen&#243;tipo DD, comparativamente aos pacientes com o alelo I<sup>1</sup>. Em outro estudo, a sobrevida livre de transplante foi ligeiramente menor, sobretudo em pacientes com alelo D e disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular esquerda que n&#227;o receberam betabloqueadores<sup>2</sup>. Mais recentemente, um estudo analisou pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular esquerda e demonstrou que os benef&#237;cios proporcionados pela administra&#231;&#227;o de betabloqueadores e altas doses de inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina eram maiores para os pacientes DD<sup>3</sup>. Esses dados indicam que o alelo D pode ser um marcador de resposta farmacol&#243;gica aos inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina e betabloqueadores. Portanto, a determina&#231;&#227;o do polimorfismo de inser&#231;&#227;o/dele&#231;&#227;o pode ajudar a orientar a terapia de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Vale ressaltar que, em um estudo realizado com portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca designados aleatoriamente para receber espironolactona, apenas os pacientes que n&#227;o tinham gen&#243;tipo DD apresentaram melhora significante na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda<sup>4</sup>. Os resultados divergentes observados nesses estudos devem-se, em parte, &#224;s diferen&#231;as gen&#233;ticas das popula&#231;&#245;es analisadas, ao n&#250;mero de pacientes estudados e &#224;s diferentes classes de medicamentos avaliados, com s&#237;tios e mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o distintos.</p>
    <p>Neste estudo, mais de 90% dos pacientes estavam em uso de inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina, mas apenas os que tinham o alelo D apresentaram melhora significante na fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo ao longo do tempo. Esse achado pode estar relacionado com uma melhor resposta aos inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina em indiv&#237;duos com maior atividade neurormonal. Na verdade, indiv&#237;duos com o gen&#243;tipo DD apresentam n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos e teciduais mais elevados da enzima conversora da angiotensina<sup>18</sup>, e podem ter n&#237;veis mais altos de angiotensina II. De acordo com essa observa&#231;&#227;o, um estudo publicado anteriormente mostrou uma maior resposta pressora &#224; infus&#227;o de angiotensina I em homens normotensos com gen&#243;tipo DD, provavelmente em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia da eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de angiotensina II em indiv&#237;duos homozigotos para o alelo D<sup>19</sup>. &#201; interessante notar que os mesmos autores demonstraram, mais tarde, que o efeito do enalaprilato intravenoso era significantemente maior e durava mais tempo em homens normotensos com gen&#243;tipo II<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>A tend&#234;ncia para o efeito do n&#250;mero de c&#243;pias do alelo D sobre o aumento da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com o tempo poderia ser analisada como a express&#227;o gen&#233;tica e molecular da melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda observada em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em tratamento com inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina. De fato, como foi demonstrado em estudos anteriores, os benef&#237;cios da inibi&#231;&#227;o da ECA foram mais pronunciados em pacientes com concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas neurormonais elevadas<sup>21-23</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, aparentemente o maior benef&#237;cio em termos de sobrevida &#233; obtido por pacientes com gen&#243;tipo DD e aumento crescente da inibi&#231;&#227;o neurormonal<sup>3</sup>. Em nosso estudo, observou-se uma tend&#234;ncia para uma progress&#227;o linear da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda a partir de pacientes com o gen&#243;tipo II, e provavelmente menor atividade da enzima conversora da angiotensina, para pacientes homozigotos para o alelo D, e provavelmente maior atividade da enzima conversora da angiotensina, que podem ter maior propens&#227;o a uma melhor resposta aos inibidores da ECA.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nosso estudo tem limita&#231;&#245;es. O n&#250;mero de pacientes analisados foi relativamente pequeno diante da heterogeneidade das etiologias. No entanto, se levarmos em considera&#231;&#227;o que a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; a fase final de uma s&#233;rie de condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas, essa heterogeneidade etiol&#243;gica enriqueceria a nossa observa&#231;&#227;o, uma vez que nos permite avaliar a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e os antecedentes gen&#233;ticos &#224; luz de diferentes caracter&#237;sticas patog&#234;nicas. Outra poss&#237;vel limita&#231;&#227;o pode estar relacionada com o pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes que estavam em uso de betabloqueadores no in&#237;cio do estudo. Esse fato impede uma maior an&#225;lise da intera&#231;&#227;o dessa terapia com as variantes gen&#233;ticas da enzima conversora da angiotensina, como foi demonstrado previamente<sup>2,3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Neste estudo, os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos da enzima conversora da angiotensina n&#227;o foram determinados porque mais de 90% dos pacientes estavam recebendo terapia com inibidores da ECA. Entretanto, como afirmado anteriormente, os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos hormonais n&#227;o revelam por si s&#243; a atividade da ativa&#231;&#227;o neurormonal e, portanto, &#233; poss&#237;vel que o efeito tecidual e a sensibilidade do receptor possam desempenhar um papel<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>Este foi um estudo n&#227;o-randomizado, e apenas pacientes com exames ecocardiogr&#225;ficos seq&#252;enciais foram avaliados. Essas caracter&#237;sticas podem ter levado a um vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o. &#201; poss&#237;vel que pacientes com doen&#231;a mais avan&#231;ada e maior incid&#234;ncia de mortalidade n&#227;o apresentem a mesma associa&#231;&#227;o farmacogen&#233;tica descrita aqui.</p>
    <p>Outra poss&#237;vel limita&#231;&#227;o reside no fato de que a dose do inibidor da enzima conversora da angiotensina n&#227;o foi determinada no presente estudo. Pacientes com gen&#243;tipo DD e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca obt&#234;m os maiores benef&#237;cios em termos de desfecho com uma dose elevada de inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina, como foi publicado recentemente<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por fim, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda pela ecocardiografia, apesar de pr&#225;tica, tamb&#233;m pode deixar a desejar. Portanto, s&#227;o necess&#225;rios outros estudos para avaliar a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo por meio da ventriculografia radioisot&#243;pica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os achados do nosso estudo contribuem para a compreens&#227;o da modula&#231;&#227;o do polimorfismo do gene da enzima conversora da angiotensina na resposta cl&#237;nica de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em tratamento com inibidores da ECA. &#201; necess&#225;rio que sejam feitos outros estudos para demonstrar se as variantes gen&#233;ticas da enzima conversora da angiotensina podem ajudar a identificar os pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca mais propensos a apresentar uma maior resposta aos inibidores da ECA e, conseq&#252;entemente, uma melhor evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Marco Antonio Romeo Cuoco pela Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Marco Antonio Romeo Cuoco </p>
        <p> Av. En&#233;as de Carvalho, 44 </p>
        <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="marcocuoco@cardiol.br">marcocuoco@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="cuocomar@incor.usp.br">cuocomar@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Artigo recebido em 20/03/2007; revisado recebido em 10/09/2007; aceito em 30/11/2007.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Genetic polymorphism, medical therapy and sequential cardiac function in patients with heart failure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Functional variants of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene may be associated with response to therapy in patients with heart failure (HF). OBJECTIVE: To test the hypothesis of differences in sequential echocardiographic evaluations of left ventricular ejection fraction in patients with HF on medical therapy, including ACE inhibitors in relation to insertion (I) / deletion (D) polymorphism of the ACE gene. METHODS: We studied 168 patients (mean age 43.3&#177;10.1 years), 128 (76.2%) men, with HF and sequential echocardiograms. The I/D polymorphism was determined by polymerase chain reaction. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) was analyzed comparatively to genotypes. More than 90% of patients were on ACE inhibitors. RESULTS: There was a significantly greater increase in mean LVEF in patients with the D allele compared to patients with the II genotype (p=0.01) after a mean follow-up of 38.9 months. The D allele was associated with an increase of 8.8% in mean LVEF over the same period. Furthermore, there was a tendency toward a D allele "copy number" effect on the increase of mean LVEF over time: a 3.5% difference in LVEF variation between patients with the II and the ID genotypes (p = 0.03) and a 5% difference between patients with the II and DD genotypes (p=0.02). CONCLUSION: ACE gene deletion polymorphism may be operative in response to medical treatment that included ACE inhibitors in patients with HF. Further controlled studies may contribute to better understanding of genetic influences on response to therapy.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors</kwd>
        <kwd>genetics</kwd>
        <kwd>heart failure</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p><undefined id="tit-body2"/>Genetic polymorphism, medical therapy and sequential cardiac function in patients with heart failure</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Marco Antonio Romeo Cuoco; Alexandre Costa Pereira; Gl&#243;ria de F&#225;tima Alves da Mota; Jos&#233; Eduardo Krieger; Alfredo Jos&#233; Mansur</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart Institute (InCor), University of S&#227;o Paulo Medical School, S&#227;o Paulo - Brazil</p>
      <p>Mailing address</p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Functional variants of angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) gene may be associated with response to therapy in patients with heart failure (HF).</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To test the hypothesis of differences in sequential echocardiographic evaluations of left ventricular ejection fraction in patients with HF on medical therapy, including ACE inhibitors in relation to insertion (I)/deletion (D) polymorphism of the ACE gene.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> We studied 168 patients (mean age 43.3&#177;10.1 years), 128 (76.2%) men, with HF and sequential echocardiograms. The I/D polymorphism was determined by polymerase chain reaction. Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) was analyzed comparatively to genotypes. More than 90% of patients were on ACE inhibitors.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> There was a significantly greater increase in mean LVEF in patients with the D allele compared to patients with the II genotype (p=0.01) after a mean follow-up of 38.9 months. The D allele was associated with an increase of 8.8% in mean LVEF over the same period. Furthermore, there was a tendency toward a D allele "copy number" effect on the increase of mean LVEF over time: a 3.5% difference in LVEF variation between patients with the II and the ID genotypes (p = 0.03) and a 5% difference between patients with the II and DD genotypes (p=0.02).</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> ACE gene deletion polymorphism may be operative in response to medical treatment that included ACE inhibitors in patients with HF. Further controlled studies may contribute to better understanding of genetic influences on response to therapy. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors; genetics; heart failure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Insertion (I)/deletion (D) polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene may be associated with response to medical therapy. Regression of left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with arterial hypertension treated with enalapril was greater in homozygotes for the D allele<sup>1</sup>. Poorer transplant-free survival was observed in patients with heart failure and systolic dysfunction with the D allele not treated with beta-blockers<sup>2</sup>. Furthermore, the benefits of high-dose angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors associated with beta-blockers appeared maximal for DD patients<sup>3</sup>. Moreover, only patients with heart failure and ID or II genotypes demonstrated improvement in left ventricular systolic function after treatment with spironolactone<sup>4</sup>. Thus, different observations in patients with heart failure suggest a significant role for the insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene in response to therapy.</p>
      <p>Such findings may be associated with the fact that the variability of angiotensin-converting enzyme activity is partly modulated by functional variants determined by this biallelic polymorphism located at intron 16 of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene. The difference between the two alleles lies in the presence or absence of a 287-base pair sequence and determines the I (insertion) or D (deletion) allele. The D allele was associated with higher plasma levels and activity of the angiotensin-converting enzime<sup>5,6</sup> and has been associated with adverse outcomes in patients with heart failure<sup>2,3,7,8</sup>. Hence, we hypothesized that there may be differences in the sequential echocardiographic evaluation of left ventricular ejection fraction in follow-up of patients with heart failure on medical therapy including angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in relation to functional variants of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene. </p>
      <p>Thus, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the variation in left ventricular ejection fraction, estimated by sequential echocardiographic assessment, of heart failure patients on medical therapy including angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in relation to the functional variants of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene. These patients were referred from a general outpatient clinic of a referral university cardiology hospital.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Study design - </italic>Patients from an ongoing inception cohort of patients with heart failure were genotyped for functional variants of angiotensin-converting enzyme gene between 1995 and 2001 and submitted to sequential echocardiographic evaluation. </p>
      <p><italic>Patients</italic> -One hundred and sixty-eight patients were studied in the General Outpatient Clinic of the Heart Institute of S&#227;o Paulo University Medical School. Patients' age ranged from 19 to 64 (mean 43.3; standard deviation 10.1) years, 128 (76.2%) being men and 40 (23.8%) women. The diagnosis of heart failure was made according to previously published criteria<sup>9</sup>. The classification of the etiology of heart failure followed previous recommendations<sup>10,11</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Inclusion criteria</italic> - Patients with symptomatic heart failure of different etiologies and left ventricular ejection fraction <underline>&lt;</underline> 45% on two-dimensional transthoracic Doppler echocardiography were eligible for the study. Patients were also evaluated for surgical treatment of heart failure, including heart transplantation. Specifically, patients with valvular cardiomyopathy enrolled in the study were those with severe left ventricular dysfunction to the point that they would not be eligible for valve repair or replacement, but rather candidates for heart transplantation. We have only included in this study patients with at least two echocardiographic studies (baseline and follow-up) during the follow-up period.</p>
      <p><italic>Exclusion criteria</italic> - Patients with valvular heart disease that would be candidates for conventional surgical treatment, such as valve repair or replacement; patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, recent myocardial infarction and unstable angina were excluded. In addition, patients with severe renal or hepatic dysfunction, severe peripheral arterial disease, cerebrovascular disease, active infection, coexisting neoplasm and active peptic ulcer disease were also excluded<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Etiology of heart failure</italic> - Heart failure was ascribed to idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy in 61 (36.3%) of the patients. The etiology of heart failure was ischemic cardiomyopathy in 36 (21.4%) patients, hypertensive cardiomyopathy in 25 (14.9%), Chagas' heart disease in 21(12.5%), alcoholic cardiomyopathy in 10 (6%), valvular heart disease in 10 (6%), and peripartum cardiomyopathy in 5 (2.9%) patients. </p>
      <p><italic>Left ventricular function assessment</italic> - Sequential left ventricular ejection fraction was determined by M-mode echocardiography. In some patients two-dimensional method was employed, using Simpson. The evaluation of the left ventricular function was performed by the echocardiography staff in a blinded way in relation to the genotypes and was conducted according to previously published recommendations<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Genotype determination</italic> - Extraction of genomic DNA was performed from leukocytes separated from whole blood using a standard method<sup>14</sup>. The I/D polymorphism was detected by a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique using oligonucleotide primers flanking the respective fragments D and I from the intron 16 of the human angiotensin-converting enzyme gene<sup>6</sup>. Genotyping was undertaken in a blinded way after the samples had been separated with electrophoresis on a 1% agarose gel and stained with ethidium bromide (1&#181;g/ml). Because the preferential amplification of the D allele in heterozygous samples, each sample found to have the DD genotype was subjected to a second, independent PCR amplification with a primer that recognizes an insertion-specific sequence<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Statistical analysis</italic> - The c<sup>2</sup>-square test was used to evaluate associations between the I/D polymorphism and discrete variables. The Student t-test was used for the comparison of means of two groups, and ANOVA was used for comparison of more than two groups of continuous variables. </p>
      <p>The relation between the I/D polymorphism and evolution of patients with heart failure was analyzed in the light of the pattern of genetic inheritance conferred to the D allele<sup>16</sup>. In this way, assuming a codominant model for the D allele, the three genotypes were analyzed separately (DD <italic>versus</italic> ID <italic>versus</italic> II), whereas assuming a recessive model of the D allele, patients with the DD genotype were compared with patients with the I allele (DD <italic>versus</italic> ID + II). Finally, assuming a dominant model of the D allele, patients with the D allele were analyzed in relation to homozygosity for the I allele (DD + ID <italic>versus</italic> II). </p>
      <p>Statistical analyses were performed with SAS software<sup>17</sup>. A p value &lt; 0.05 was considered significant.</p>
      <p><italic>Ethics</italic> - The study protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee for Medical Research on Human Beings of the <italic>Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</italic> from University of S&#227;o Paulo Medical School. Signed informed consent was obtained from all participants.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The frequency of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene genotypes was 32.5% for the DD, 49.7% for the ID and 17.8% for the II genotype. Genotype frequencies were in accordance with the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium. It was not possible to determine the genotype of only one of the patients due to technical problems. </p>
      <p>The comparison of baseline demographic and clinical characteristics did not reveal a statistically significant difference between the study groups (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>). </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0274-00007-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>In relation to the etiology of heart failure there was no statistically significant difference among patients with the DD, ID or II genotypes.</p>
      <p>There was a statistically significant difference in the variation of left ventricular ejection fraction over time. There was a significant increase in the mean value of left ventricular ejection fraction in patients with the DD genotype comparatively to patients with the ID and II genotypes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a07fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a07fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0274-00007-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Considering the D allele in a dominant mode, we observed that there was a statistically significant increase in the mean value of left ventricular ejection fraction with time in patients with the D allele when compared to patients homozygous for the I allele (p = 0.01). The presence of at least one D allele was associated with an ejection fraction increase of 8.8% after a mean follow-up of 38.9 (standard deviation 24) months compared to 1.73% decrease in patients with the II genotype, mean follow-up 43 (standard deviation 26.6) months. </p>
      <p>There was a tendency, although not significant, toward a D allele "copy number" effect on ejection fraction progression: a 3.5% difference between ejection fraction progression of patients with the II versus ID genotypes (p = 0.03) and a 5% difference between patients with the II versus DD genotypes (p = 0.02) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a07fig02-body2">Figure2</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a07fig02-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0274-00007-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We observed in the present series that patients with heart failure and the D allele treated with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors had a significant improvement in left ventricular ejection fraction assessed by sequential echocardiograms compared to patients with the II genotype. </p>
      <p>This finding may add further information in the hypothesis of the influence of functional variants of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene on the response to pharmacological treatment of heart failure. Our study showed the same trend of previously published studies. For instance, a greater enalapril-induced regression of left ventricular hypertrophy and improvement in left ventricular impaired diastolic filling was observed in hypertensive patients with the DD genotype compared to patients with the I allele<sup>1</sup>. In another study, there was a significantly poorer transplant-free survival mainly in patients with the D allele and left ventricular systolic dysfunction not treated with beta-blockers<sup>2</sup>. More recently, a study analyzing patients with left ventricular systolic dysfunction showed that the benefits of beta-blockers and high doses of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors appeared maximal for the DD patients<sup>3</sup>. These data suggest that the D allele may be a marker of pharmacological response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and beta-blockers. Hence, determination of the insertion/deletion polymorphism might help target therapy for patients with heart failure.</p>
      <p>It is noteworthy that a study with patients with heart failure randomly assigned to treatment with spironolactone showed a significant improvement in left ventricular function only in patients with a non-DD genotype<sup>4</sup>. The different results observed in these studies must be due in part to the different genetic backgrounds of the populations analyzed, the number of patients enrolled and the different classes of drug studied, with their distinct sites and mechanisms of action.</p>
      <p>In our study, more than 90% of the patients were on angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors but only those with the D allele showed a significant improvement in left ventricular ejection fraction over time. This finding may be related to a better response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in individuals with higher neurohormonal activity. In fact, individuals with the DD genotype have higher plasmatic and tissue angiotensin-converting enzyme activity<sup>18</sup> and may present higher angiotensin II levels. In accordance with this observation, a previously published study showed an increased pressure response to infusion of angiotensin I in normotensive men with the DD genotype, probably as a consequence of the generation of increased angiotensin II levels in subjects homozygous for the D allele<sup>19</sup>. Interestingly, the same authors later showed that the effect of intravenous enalaprilat was significantly greater and lasted longer in normotensive men with the II genotype<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>The trend toward a D allele copy number effect on left ventricular ejection fraction increase over time could be analyzed as the genetic and molecular expression of improvement in left ventricular function observed in patients with heart failure on angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. In fact, as demonstrated in previous studies, the benefits from angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition were more pronounced in patients with elevated plasma neurohormonal concentrations<sup>21-23</sup>. Furthermore, it seems that the maximal survival benefit is obtained in patients with the DD genotype with increasing levels of neurohormonal inhibition<sup>3</sup>. In our study, there was a tendency to a linear progression of left ventricular function in patients with the II genotype and probably lower angiotensin-converting enzyme activity towards patients homozygous for the D allele and probably higher angiotensin-converting enzyme activity who might show a better response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors.</p>
      <p><italic>Limitations of the study</italic> - Our study has limitations. There was a relatively small number of patients analyzed in light of the heterogeneity of etiologies. Nevertheless, if we consider heart failure as the final phase of a series of different pathological conditions, such an etiologic heterogeneity enriches our observation since it allows us to assess heart failure and genetic background in the light of different pathogenetic characteristics. Another potential limitation may be related to the small number of patients on beta-blocker therapy at the beginning of the study. This fact hinders further analysis on the interaction of this therapy and the angiotensin-converting enzyme genetic variants as previously demonstrated<sup>2,3</sup>.</p>
      <p>In our study the angiotensin-converting enzyme plasma levels were not determined because more than 90% of the patients were on therapy with angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors. However, as previously outlined, plasma hormone levels do not by themselves describe the activity of neurohormonal activation and it is thus possible that tissue effect and receptor sensitivity might be playing a role<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>Our study is a non-randomized analysis and only patients with sequential echocardiographic studies were evaluated. These characteristics may imply a potential selection bias. It is possible that patients with more advanced disease and an increased mortality incidence do not show the same pharmacogenetic association here described.</p>
      <p>Another potential limitation lies in the fact that the angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor dose was not determined in the present study. Patients with the DD genotype and heart failure show the maximal benefits in terms of outcome on high-dose angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, as recently published<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Finally, the assessment of left ventricular function by echocardiography however practical may be also less than optimal and thus further studies that evaluate left ventricular ejection fraction by radionuclide ventriculography might be performed.</p>
      <p><italic>Clinical implications -</italic> The findings of our study add further information to the understanding of the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene polymorphism modulation of clinical response of patients with heart failure to treatment with angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors. Further studies are necessary to demonstrate whether genetic variants of the angiotensin-converting enzyme might be of help to individualize those patients with heart failure more prone to show a better response to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and consequently a better outcome.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Marco Antonio Romeo Cuoco, from <italic>Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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