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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">cSkfTGVyjC8pvysB8DNtjHr</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008000400004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09000404</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008000400004</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Os efeitos da metformina sobre a dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT e QTc de ratos diab&#233;ticos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Eunice Cristina da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gon&#231;alves</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Ari</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Areas</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel Arcanjo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Morgabel</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Gustavo Birochi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Campinas</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>90</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>254</fpage>
      <lpage>260</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>FUNDAMENTO: Diversos f&#225;rmacos podem causar aumento do intervalo QT, bem como da sua dispers&#227;o (QTd) em registros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos (ECG). O QTd pode ser um marcador potencialmente sens&#237;vel ao aumento do risco de arritmias card&#237;acas e morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca. Metformina &#233; uma subst&#226;ncia de efic&#225;cia anti-hiperglic&#234;mica utilizada no tratamento do diabete. Entretanto, estudos t&#234;m relacionado efeitos dose-dependentes da metformina sobre a glicemia e marcadores de riscos cardiovasculares. OBJETIVO: Avaliar os efeitos dose-resposta da metformina sobre o QT e QTd de ratos diab&#233;ticos. M&#201;TODOS: Ratos Wistar machos foram distribu&#237;dos em cinco grupos: controle n&#227;o-tratado (C), diab&#233;tico n&#227;o-tratado (D), diab&#233;ticos tratados com metformina nas doses 3,5, 30 e 74 &#181;g/kg/pc (DM 3,5, DM 30 e DM 74). O diabete foi induzido por uma inje&#231;&#227;o de aloxana (40 mg/kg, i.v.). O ECG foi registrado (1&#186;, 15&#186; e 30&#186; dias) atrav&#233;s de quatro eletrodos inseridos na camada subcut&#226;nea das patas. Ambos os intervalos, RR e QT, foram medidos, e ent&#227;o os valores do QT corrigido e da dispers&#227;o de QT foram calculados. RESULTADOS: Os grupos DM 3,5 e DM 30 mostraram significativa redu&#231;&#227;o da glicemia (p&lt; 0,05) quando comparados &#224; alta dose (DM 74). Ratos do grupo DM 74 apresentaram aumento dos intervalos QTc, QTd e QTcd, enquanto os ratos dos grupos DM 3,5 e DM 30 apresentaram menor prolongamento desses intervalos. CONCLUS&#195;O: A metformina em altas doses proporcionou maior dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT, em raz&#227;o, provavelmente, do aumento da n&#227;o-homogeneidade do processo de repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, enquanto em baixas doses houve diminui&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QT em ratos diab&#233;ticos.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Diabete melito experimental</kwd>
        <kwd>eletrocardiografia</kwd>
        <kwd>metformina</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body><p><bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold></p><p> Os efeitos da metformina sobre a dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT e QTc de ratos diab&#233;ticos</p><p><bold>Eunice Cristina da Silva Costa; Antonio Ari Gon&#231;alves; Miguel Arcanjo Areas; Rafael Gustavo Birochi Morgabel</bold></p><p>Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP - Brasil </p><p><xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref></p><p><bold>RESUMO</bold></p><p><bold>FUNDAMENTO:</bold> Diversos f&#225;rmacos podem causar aumento do intervalo QT, bem como da sua dispers&#227;o (QTd) em registros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos (ECG). O QTd pode ser um marcador potencialmente sens&#237;vel ao aumento do risco de arritmias card&#237;acas e morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca. Metformina &#233; uma subst&#226;ncia de efic&#225;cia anti-hiperglic&#234;mica utilizada no tratamento do diabete. Entretanto, estudos t&#234;m relacionado efeitos dose-dependentes da metformina sobre a glicemia e marcadores de riscos cardiovasculares. </p><p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Avaliar os efeitos dose-resposta da metformina sobre o QT e QTd de ratos diab&#233;ticos. </p><p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Ratos Wistar machos foram distribu&#237;dos em cinco grupos: controle n&#227;o-tratado (C), diab&#233;tico n&#227;o-tratado (D), diab&#233;ticos tratados com metformina nas doses 3,5, 30 e 74 &#181;g/kg/pc (DM 3,5, DM 30 e DM 74). O diabete foi induzido por uma inje&#231;&#227;o de aloxana (40 mg/kg, i.v.). O ECG foi registrado (1&#186;, 15&#186; e 30&#186; dias) atrav&#233;s de quatro eletrodos inseridos na camada subcut&#226;nea das patas. Ambos os intervalos, RR e QT, foram medidos, e ent&#227;o os valores do QT corrigido e da dispers&#227;o de QT foram calculados. </p><p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Os grupos DM 3,5 e DM 30 mostraram significativa redu&#231;&#227;o da glicemia (p&lt; 0,05) quando comparados &#224; alta dose (DM 74). Ratos do grupo DM 74 apresentaram aumento dos intervalos QTc, QTd e QTcd, enquanto os ratos dos grupos DM 3,5 e DM 30 apresentaram menor prolongamento desses intervalos. </p><p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> A metformina em altas doses proporcionou maior dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT, em raz&#227;o, provavelmente, do aumento da n&#227;o-homogeneidade do processo de repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, enquanto em baixas doses houve diminui&#231;&#227;o do intervalo QT em ratos diab&#233;ticos. </p><p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Diabete melito experimental, eletrocardiografia, metformina. </p><p><bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o </bold></p><p>O diabete &#233; uma desordem metab&#243;lica caracterizada pelo aumento da glicemia, decorrente de altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo de prote&#237;nas, lip&#237;deos e carboidratos, resultante de secre&#231;&#227;o deficiente ou de resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica &#224; insulina. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es aumentam a tend&#234;ncia ao desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e neuropatias, as quais representam uma das maiores causas de morte de pacientes<sup>1,2</sup>. As altera&#231;&#245;es promovidas no metabolismo de carboidratos e de lip&#237;deos e mudan&#231;as eletrol&#237;ticas de c&#225;lcio e pot&#225;ssio no sangue podem causar modifica&#231;&#245;es na estrutura e fisiologia cardiovascular, que, por sua vez, alteram o registro do eletrocardiograma<sup>3,4</sup>.</p><p>O eletrocardiograma (ECG) &#233; um dos m&#233;todos mais importantes no diagn&#243;stico de cardiopatias<sup>5</sup>. Dependendo da extens&#227;o e das &#225;reas lesadas, a propaga&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o no m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco altera as ondas do ECG e os respectivos intervalos.</p><p>Entre as principais altera&#231;&#245;es observadas, encontra-se o aumento do intervalo QT, tamb&#233;m chamado s&#237;ndrome do QT longo (LQTS). A LQTS pode ter origem cong&#234;nita, quando ocorrem anormalidades nos canais de s&#243;dio ou pot&#225;ssio, ou adquirida, em raz&#227;o do uso de medicamentos, anormalidades el&#233;tricas ou dist&#250;rbios metab&#243;licos. O intervalo QT corresponde ao tempo necess&#225;rio para a completa excita&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica e a recupera&#231;&#227;o dos ventr&#237;culos, sendo, portanto, a medida da dura&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;stole "el&#233;trica", a qual inclui a despolariza&#231;&#227;o e a repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, ou seja, &#233; a dura&#231;&#227;o total da atividade el&#233;trica ventricular<sup> 6</sup>. O intervalo QT varia inversamente com a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), de modo que quanto maior a FC, menor o QT, e vice-versa. Assim, ele deve ser corrigido em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; FC, gerando o QTc, que &#233; preferencialmente usado<sup>7</sup>. Outros par&#226;metros a serem avaliados s&#227;o a dispers&#227;o do QT e do QTc (QTd e QTcd, respectivamente). Esta seria provocada por tempos de repolariza&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-homog&#234;neos, sendo definida como a diferen&#231;a entre o QT m&#225;ximo e o m&#237;nimo nas doze deriva&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas<sup>8</sup>. A an&#225;lise da dispers&#227;o do QT &#233; um m&#233;todo n&#227;o-invasivo para detec&#231;&#227;o da heterogeneidade da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, sendo um marcador de arritmog&#234;nese<sup>9</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; estudos associando o aumento desse intervalo a um maior risco de morte s&#250;bita<sup>10,11</sup> e como &#237;ndice progn&#243;stico na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica<sup>8,12</sup>. Em diab&#233;ticos, o aumento do intervalo QT &#233; considerado precursor de aumento do risco de morte s&#250;bita<sup>13</sup>.</p><p>Medicamentos, dependendo de sua dosagem, podem prolongar a dura&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o ventricular e o intervalo QT por meio de diferentes mecanismos i&#244;nicos.</p><p>A biguanida metformina &#233; um agente anti-hiperglicemiante usado para diminuir a glicemia e conseq&#252;entemente melhorar o perfil metab&#243;lico. Ela reduz os n&#237;veis de glicose sang&#252;&#237;nea pela inibi&#231;&#227;o da gliconeog&#234;nese e, na presen&#231;a de insulina, estimula a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose perif&#233;rica pelos tecidos, principalmente m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos, e diminui a absor&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelo trato gastrointestinal. Seu efeito direto sobre as c&#233;lulas b ainda &#233; caso de debate. A metformina n&#227;o causa hipoglicemia, mas reduz os n&#237;veis de hemoglobina glicosilada e melhora o perfil lip&#237;dico e a atividade fibrinol&#237;tica<sup>14,15</sup>.</p><p>Apesar dos efeitos ben&#233;ficos da metformina, estudos demonstram que o uso de altas doses de metformina n&#227;o diminui a hiperglicemia e aumenta os riscos cardiovasculares<sup>16-20</sup>.</p><p>Dist&#250;rbios gastrointestinais, como diarr&#233;ia, s&#227;o freq&#252;entes, e a absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal de vitaminas B, especialmente folato, &#233; reduzida durante terapia cr&#244;nica. Freq&#252;entemente, essa defici&#234;ncia aumenta os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de homociste&#237;na, que acelera a progress&#227;o de doen&#231;a vascular por causa do efeito adverso sobre os vasos sang&#252;&#237;neos, fatores de coagula&#231;&#227;o e endot&#233;lio. Um estudo verificou que h&#225; associa&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis elevados de homociste&#237;na e o &#237;ndice geral de mortalidade em pacientes com doen&#231;a aterog&#234;nica<sup>15</sup>.</p><p>Em algumas circunst&#226;ncias, a metformina pode induzir acidose l&#225;ctica especialmente em pacientes clinicamente predispostos a esta complica&#231;&#227;o, como fal&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou infarto do mioc&#225;rdio<sup>15</sup>.</p><p>Al&#233;m disso, resultados preliminares (n&#227;o publicados) mostraram que altas doses de metformina, como as recomendadas a pacientes humanos, promoveram grande aumento de glicog&#234;nio card&#237;aco em ratos aloxanizados, enquanto em baixas doses esse aumento foi menor. Nos diab&#233;ticos, o aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de glicog&#234;nio no ventr&#237;culo aparentemente est&#225; associado &#224; gravidade do diabete e torna o cora&#231;&#227;o mais suscet&#237;vel aos efeitos da isquemia<sup>21,22</sup>, al&#233;m de causar inadequado funcionamento do cora&#231;&#227;o, pois seu ac&#250;mulo no tecido condutor &#233; a causa de disfun&#231;&#227;o dos nodos sinusal e atrioventricular<sup>23</sup>.</p><p>Com base nesses achados, investigamos os efeitos de baixas e altas doses de metformina sobre a glicemia e o intervalo QT e suas derivadas QTc, QTd, e QTcd de ratos diab&#233;ticos por aloxana.</p><p><bold>M&#233;todos </bold></p><p><bold>Animais</bold></p><p>Para o desenvolvimento deste trabalho, foram utilizados ratos machos, albinos, Wistar, com idade de 10 semanas, fornecidos pelo Centro de Bioterismo da Unicamp. Os ratos foram mantidos no Biot&#233;rio do Departamento de Fisiologia e Biof&#237;sica, sendo adaptados durante duas semanas. Os ratos s&#227;o alimentados com ra&#231;&#227;o (Purina para roedores) e &#225;gua <italic>ad libitum</italic> em ciclo fotoperi&#243;dico de 12 h claro e 12 h escuro, a 22 &#177; 2&#186;C. O Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal da Unicamp aprovou o protocolo experimental sob o n&#250;mero 262-1.</p><p><bold>Indu&#231;&#227;o do diabete</bold></p><p>Antes que o diabete melito fosse induzido, os ratos foram mantidos sob jejum de 24 horas, com livre acesso a &#225;gua. Ap&#243;s serem anestesiados com pentobarbital s&#243;dico (40 mg/kg de peso corporal), os ratos receberam uma inje&#231;&#227;o de aloxana em salina (40 mg/kg/pc, i.v., pH 4,5, Sigma<sup>&#174;</sup>)<sup>24,25</sup>. O estabelecimento do diabete foi verificado pela presen&#231;a de glicose na urina, no dia seguinte.</p><p><bold>Tratamento com metformina e grupos</bold></p><p>Ap&#243;s indu&#231;&#227;o do diabete, o tratamento foi iniciado. Os ratos dos grupos tratados receberam metformina (Lipha, Lion, Fran&#231;a) dilu&#237;da na &#225;gua de beber (3,5, 30 e 74 &#181;g/g/pc) durante 30 dias, formando os seguintes grupos: controle (C; n = 5); diabete (D; n = 6); diabete metformina [3,5 &#181;g/g/pc] (DM3.5; n = 8); diabete metformina [30 &#181;g/g/pc] (DM30; n = 7); diabete metformina [74 &#181;g/g/pc] (DM74; n = 8).</p><p><bold>Eletrocardiograma</bold></p><p>Ratos anestesiados (Pentobarbital s&#243;dico, 40 mg/kg/pc) foram mantidos em posi&#231;&#227;o supina e com respira&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea para registrar o ECG. Os eletrodos foram conectados aos canais do computador (<italic>Heart Ware System</italic>) e registradas 6 ondas padr&#227;o (I, II, III, aVR, aVL e aVF) com sensibilidade 2N e velocidade de 50 mm/segundo. O intervalo QT foi medido em tr&#234;s batimentos consecutivos, do in&#237;cio do complexo QRS ao ponto de retorno da onda T &#224; linha isoel&#233;trica, definido como segmento TP<sup>26</sup>. O QTd foi calculado em valores absolutos, subtraindo o intervalo QT mais curto do mais longo (QT = QT Max &#150; Qtmin). Esse valor foi convertido em porcentual (%QTd) pela corre&#231;&#227;o do QTd pelo intervalo QT mais curto e multiplicando este valor por 100 (%QTd = Qtmax - QTmin/QTmin x 100). O intervalo QT foi corrigido pela freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca usando a f&#243;rmula de Bazett (QTc = QT/&#8730;R-R) e posteriormente foi calculada a dispers&#227;o do intervalo QTc, subtraindo o intervalo QTc mais curto do QTc mais longo (QTcd = QTcmax - QTcmin). O porcentual de QTcd foi calculado tamb&#233;m (%QTcd = Qtcmax - QTcmin/ Qtcmin x 100). As an&#225;lises foram feitas por um observador &#250;nico e sem conhecimento pr&#233;vio dos tratamentos aos quais os animais foram submetidos, para minimizar as diverg&#234;ncias na medida da dispers&#227;o.</p><p><bold>Determina&#231;&#227;o da glicose plasm&#225;tica, Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup> e Ca<sup>2+ </sup></bold></p><p>A glicose plasm&#225;tica foi determinada pelo m&#233;todo da glicose oxidase, usando <italic>kit</italic> comercial (Laborlab, S&#227;o Paulo, SP-Brazil). O Na<sup>+</sup> e o K<sup>+</sup> foram determinados pelo m&#233;todo de eletrodo &#237;on seletivo (Roche<sup>&#174;</sup>). O c&#225;lcio s&#233;rico total foi mensurado pelo m&#233;todo colorim&#233;trico com cresolftale&#237;na (o-cresolftaleine complexone &#150; Roche<sup>&#174;</sup>)<sup>27</sup>, utilizando-se analisador autom&#225;tico (Hitachi<sup>&#174;</sup>).</p><p><bold>Estat&#237;stica</bold></p><p>Os resultados foram relatados como m&#233;dia &#177; DPM. A avalia&#231;&#227;o dos dados foi feita por meio da an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia por dois fatores, seguida do teste de Tukey. Foram considerados significativos os valores cujas diferen&#231;as foram demonstradas menores que 5%.</p><p><bold>Resultados </bold></p><p><bold>Efeitos da metformina sobre a glicose sang&#252;&#237;nea</bold></p><p>Os n&#237;veis de glicose sang&#252;&#237;nea n&#227;o diferiram entre os ratos de todos os grupos no in&#237;cio do per&#237;odo experimental (primeirodia). No final do experimento, n&#237;veis similares foram observados em ratos do grupo controle.</p><p>A administra&#231;&#227;o de aloxana induziu uma hiperglicemia severa no 15&#186; dia que foi mantida at&#233; o 30&#186; dia em ratos do grupo D (563 &#177; 61 mg/dl, p &lt; 0,001; comparado com a glicemia antes da administra&#231;&#227;o de aloxana). Os ratos que receberam diariamente doses de 3,5 (DM3,5) e 30 (DM30) mg/kg de metformina mostraram menor n&#237;vel de glicemia no 15&#186; (381 &#177; 37 e 360 &#177; 14, respectivamente) e 30&#186; dias de tratamento quando comparados com ratos do grupo diab&#233;tico controle. A administra&#231;&#227;o de 74 mg/kg de metformina reduziu marginalmente a glicose sang&#252;&#237;nea ap&#243;s 30 dias em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ratos diab&#233;ticos controle (p &gt; 0,05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig01">fig. 1</xref>).</p><p content-type="asset"><fig id="a04fig01"><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0254-00004-gf01.jpg"/></fig></p><p><bold>Efeitos da metformina sobre o ECG</bold></p><p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">figura 2</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">C</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">D</xref>) indica que os intervalos QT (2A) e QTc (B), bem como suas derivadas QTd (2C) e QTcd (2D), foram semelhantes no in&#237;cio do per&#237;odo experimental. Em ratos diab&#233;ticos, esses intervalos aumentaram 15 dias ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o de aloxana e se mantiveram semelhante ap&#243;s 30 dias. No 15&#186; e 30&#186; dias, o intervalo QT de ratos diab&#233;ticos tratados com 3,5 e 30 mg/kg foi semelhante ao observado no grupo controle n&#227;o-diab&#233;tico, mas foi significativamente maior em ratos tratados com 74 mg/kg de metformina. O intervalo QTc de ratos tratados com doses menores de metformina (3,5 e 30 mg/kg) foi maior do que o observado em ratos do grupo controle (n&#227;o-diab&#233;tico) 15 e 30 dias ap&#243;s administra&#231;&#227;o de aloxana. Entretanto, foi significativamente menor do que os valores observados em diab&#233;ticos (sem tratamento) e diab&#233;ticos tratados com altas doses de metformina (74 mg/kg). Apenas metformina em doses menores (3,5 e 30 mg/kg) diminuiu a dispers&#227;o de QT e QTc quando comparados ao grupo de diab&#233;ticos n&#227;o-tratados. Entretanto, essas diferen&#231;as ficaram mais claras ap&#243;s 30 dias de tratamento.</p><p><fig id="a04fig02a_d"/></p><fig id="a04fig02a_dxfig2ac"/>
&#160;
<p><fig id="a04fig02ac"><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0254-00004-gf02.jpg"/></fig></p><p><fig id="a04fig02a_dxfig2bd"/><fig id="a04fig02bd"><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0254-00004-gf03.jpg"/></fig></p> <p><bold>Efeitos do tratamento com metformina sobre a concentra&#231;&#227;o i&#244;nica no soro</bold></p> <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">tabela 1</xref> mostra que houve diminui&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de K<sup>+</sup> no soro de ratos diab&#233;ticos (n&#227;o-tratados) quando comparados ao grupo controle (n&#227;o-diab&#233;tico).</p> <table-wrap id="tab1"><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0254-00004-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>   <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">tabela 1</xref> tamb&#233;m mostra que houve aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de Ca<sup>2+</sup> apenas no grupo tratado com metformina em altas doses. Os demais par&#226;metros n&#227;o sofreram modifica&#231;&#245;es.</p>   <p><bold>Discuss&#227;o </bold></p> <p>O diabete tipo 2 &#233; caracterizado por altera&#231;&#245;es no metabolismo de glicose e gordura, por causa, em parte, da resist&#234;ncia da a&#231;&#227;o da insulina nos tecidos perif&#233;ricos. A aus&#234;ncia de tratamento pode levar a v&#225;rias complica&#231;&#245;es, como o aumento de risco cardiovascular<sup>1,2</sup>.</p> <p>A biguanida metformina &#233; um anti-hiperglicemiante usado no tratamento de diab&#233;ticos tipo 2. Entretanto, o mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o da metformina ainda &#233; obscuro.</p> <p>Estudos mostraram que a metformina ativa a AMP prote&#237;na quinase ativada (AMPK) em hepat&#243;citos e m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico de ratos<sup>28</sup>. Recentes pesquisas indicam que a AMPK desempenha um papel na regula&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo de glicose e lip&#237;deos. A AMPK &#233; uma enzima que promove a disponibiliza&#231;&#227;o de energia, sendo ativada pela contra&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico e durante isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, e est&#225; envolvida na estimula&#231;&#227;o do transporte de glicose e na oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos. No f&#237;gado, a ativa&#231;&#227;o da AMPK resulta em aumento da oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos e diminui&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de glicose, colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos<sup>29</sup>. Esse efeito contribui para a diminui&#231;&#227;o da glicemia, melhora o perfil metab&#243;lico e provoca o aumento de glicog&#234;nio no f&#237;gado e nos m&#250;sculos, al&#233;m de promover benef&#237;cios ao perfil lip&#237;dico sang&#252;&#237;neo<sup>30,31</sup>.</p> <p>Outros estudos, entretanto, indicaram que, em animais diab&#233;ticos, altas doses de metformina n&#227;o reduziram a hiperglicemia, podendo, ainda, aumentar os riscos cardiovasculares<sup>16-20</sup>.</p> <p>Nossos resultados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig01">fig. 1</xref>) mostram que a metformina, em altas doses, equivalente &#224; recomendada a pacientes diab&#233;ticos (74 &#181;g/g/pc) n&#227;o diminuiu a glicemia em ratos diab&#233;ticos, ao passo que, em doses baixas (3,5 &#181;g/g/pc) e intermedi&#225;rias (30 &#181;g/g/pc), ela reduziu significativamente a glicemia, quando comparados com ratos diab&#233;ticos sem tratamento. Entretanto, a redu&#231;&#227;o da glicemia induzida por baixas doses de metformina n&#227;o foi suficiente para normalizar os n&#237;veis glic&#234;micos.</p> <p>A inefic&#225;cia de altas doses de metformina em diminuir a glicemia pode ter sido provocada pela redu&#231;&#227;o da responsividade das c&#233;lulas b &#224; glicose. Um estudo <italic>in vitro</italic> com c&#233;lulas b mostrou que a metformina, em altas doses (1 mM) e exposi&#231;&#227;o prolongada (24 horas), ativou a AMPK e inibiu, assim, parcialmente a s&#237;ntese e libera&#231;&#227;o de insulina nas c&#233;lulas b, o que causou a redu&#231;&#227;o de sua responsividade &#224; glicose<sup>32</sup>.</p> <p>Al&#233;m disso, foi observado que a metformina, em doses terap&#234;uticas, estimulou a atividade da tirosina quinase da subunidade b na por&#231;&#227;o intracelular do seu receptor. Entretanto, altas doses de metformina inibiram a atividade da tirosina quinase e, conseq&#252;entemente, a a&#231;&#227;o da insulina<sup>33</sup>.</p> <p>O diabete, <italic>per se</italic>, causa mudan&#231;as na MAP quinase e nos transportadores de glicose. A eleva&#231;&#227;o das correntes de K<sup>+</sup> em c&#233;lulas ventriculares depende da ativa&#231;&#227;o da MAP quinase, o que reflete na s&#237;ntese de novos canais. A diminui&#231;&#227;o de insulina em diab&#233;ticos, provavelmente, leva a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da corrente de K<sup>+</sup> no epic&#225;rdio, causando aumento da dura&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aco<sup>34</sup>.</p> <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es promovidas no metabolismo de carboidratos e de lip&#237;deos e nas concentra&#231;&#245;es dos eletr&#243;litos podem causar modifica&#231;&#245;es na estrutura e na fisiologia cardiovascular, as quais podem ser registradas no eletrocardiograma. Um dos problemas mais comumente detectados em diab&#233;ticos &#233; o aumento do intervalo QT e suas derivadas QTc, QTd e QTcd. Esse fato se deve ao retardo na despolariza&#231;&#227;o e/ou na repolariza&#231;&#227;o do potencial de a&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aco, provocando o aumento do risco de arritmias e de morte s&#250;bita<sup>35</sup>.</p> <p>Apesar de o intervalo QT ser utilizado como um meio n&#227;o-invasivo para identificar risco de desenvolver arritmias ventriculares malignas e morte s&#250;bita, de fato espera-se que haja imperfei&#231;&#245;es no sistema proposto. O ideal na utiliza&#231;&#227;o da f&#243;rmula QT max - QT min &#233; obter um ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es com uma onda T bem definida em cada deriva&#231;&#227;o<sup>36</sup>. Em nosso estudo, este foi um fator limitante, em raz&#227;o de apenas podermos registrar 6 deriva&#231;&#245;es em ratos, conforme metodologia aplicada por outros autores<sup>37</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, em diversas situa&#231;&#245;es foi imposs&#237;vel detectar o final da onda T. Nesta situa&#231;&#227;o, a metodologia indica que o mais adequado &#233; excluir esse intervalo da an&#225;lise<sup>36</sup>, tal como efetuamos em nossos resultados. Entretanto, apesar dessas limita&#231;&#245;es, algumas medidas foram tomadas para minimizar as diverg&#234;ncias na medida da dispers&#227;o. Houve utiliza&#231;&#227;o do mesmo eletrodo em todos os registros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos, bem como padroniza&#231;&#227;o do local colocado, e a realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG foi sempre pela manh&#227; para diminuirmos os poss&#237;veis efeitos do ritmo circadiano. Al&#233;m disso, um &#250;nico observador analisou o intervalo QT em tr&#234;s batimentos consecutivos para diminuir erros de contagem<sup>26</sup>. Ap&#243;s determina&#231;&#227;o dos valores, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica entre os resultados calculados.</p> <p>Assim, apesar dos fatores limitantes do estudo, a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">figura 2</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">C</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">D</xref>) mostra que os intervalos QTc, QTd e QTcd aumentaram em ratos diab&#233;ticos aloxanizados.</p> <p>As causas do aumento do intervalo s&#227;o desconhecidas. Entretanto, essa altera&#231;&#227;o observada em eletrocardiograma pode ser explicada em raz&#227;o da mais comum manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do diabete melito, a poli&#250;ria<sup>38</sup>. A poli&#250;ria observada em diab&#233;ticos &#233; tradicionalmente atribu&#237;da &#224; diurese osm&#243;tica secund&#225;ria ao aumento da glicemia (glicos&#250;ria)<sup>37</sup>. A excessiva perda urin&#225;ria causa diminui&#231;&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio<sup>39</sup> que pode ser respons&#225;vel pelo aumento do per&#237;odo de repolariza&#231;&#227;o da membrana<sup>40</sup>, com resultante aumento do intervalo QT. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">tabela 1</xref> mostra que houve diminui&#231;&#227;o concentra&#231;&#245;es de K<sup>+ </sup>no soro de ratos do grupo diabete.</p> <p>O aumento da dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT pode tamb&#233;m ser resultante de altera&#231;&#245;es nos canais de K<sup>+</sup> voltagem dependentes<sup>41</sup>. De fato, o diabete pode alterar a magnitude dos canais de K<sup>+</sup> envolvidos no processo de repolariza&#231;&#227;o da membrana dos cardiomi&#243;citos<sup>34</sup>, afetando, ent&#227;o, o tecido card&#237;aco.</p> <p>O tratamento de ratos diab&#233;ticos com altas doses de metformina (74 &#181;g/g) causou aumento do QT e suas derivadas (QTd, QTc, QTcd), no 15&#186; e 30&#186; dias do per&#237;odo experimental (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a04fig02a_d">fig. 2 A-D</xref>).</p> <p>Esse aumento pode ser decorrente da hipercalcemia observada nesse grupo (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">tab. 1</xref>), uma vez que o aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o do c&#225;lcio diminui a velocidade de condu&#231;&#227;o ventricular e encurta o per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo, podendo causar arritmias<sup>42</sup>.</p> <p>Fatores n&#227;o avaliados neste estudo, entretanto, tamb&#233;m podem ter contribu&#237;do para o aumento do intervalo QT. A atividade persistente da AMPK, como ocorre durante o tratamento com metformina em altas doses, pode promover muta&#231;&#227;o no PRKAG2, o gene g2 da subunidade reguladora da prote&#237;na quinase AMP-ativada. Essa muta&#231;&#227;o pode aumentar a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pela estimula&#231;&#227;o da transloca&#231;&#227;o de transportadores de glicose GLUT-4 para a membrana plasm&#225;tica e elevar a atividade da hexoquinase, levando ao ac&#250;mulo de glicog&#234;nio que pode causar disfun&#231;&#227;o no nodo sinusal e atrioventricular<sup>22,24</sup>.</p> <p>Al&#233;m disso, a ativa&#231;&#227;o da AMPK tamb&#233;m promove aumento da glic&#243;lise e da oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos em cardiomi&#243;citos de uma maneira dose-dependente. O aumento da oxida&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos inibe a oxida&#231;&#227;o de glicose, e a acetil-coA produzida pode inibir o complexo piruvato-desidrogenase, limitando, assim, a oxida&#231;&#227;o de piruvato. Esses eventos levam ao aumento da glic&#243;lise, e, nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, os pr&#243;tons e o lactato produzidos se acumulam, o que provoca diminui&#231;&#227;o do pH, sobrecarga de c&#225;lcio intracelular e conseq&#252;ente morte celular, reduzindo, assim, a capacidade funcional card&#237;aca<sup>16</sup>.</p> <p>Em doses baixas e intermedi&#225;rias, a metformina, no entanto, diminuiu o intervalo QT e suas derivadas, sugerindo que houve melhora na condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica ventricular. Al&#233;m disso, os eletr&#243;litos do soro (c&#225;lcio, pot&#225;ssio e s&#243;dio), que s&#227;o outros fatores que podem alterar a condutividade el&#233;trica, n&#227;o sofreram altera&#231;&#245;es nesses grupos.</p> <p>Assim, como em outros estudos, pode ser questionado se realmente a dispers&#227;o do QTc oferece uma medida mais precisa e segura do que a medida isolada do QTc como marcador de risco cardiovascular, ou se &#233; meramente mais uma medida de precis&#227;o a ser adicionada ao arsenal cl&#237;nico de acesso ao risco cardiovascular. Independentemente desse questionamento, conclui-se que sua determina&#231;&#227;o, por ser simples e de relativo baixo custo, &#233; importante para estudar a influ&#234;ncia de drogas sobre par&#226;metros cardiovasculares. Pelas limita&#231;&#245;es na metodologia utilizada neste trabalho, os resultados e coment&#225;rios aqui apresentados baseiam-se somente em dados obtidos nas nossas condi&#231;&#245;es experimentais, para n&#227;o se incorrer no risco de extrapola&#231;&#245;es que n&#227;o sejam pertinentes.</p>   <p><bold>Conclus&#227;o </bold></p> <p>O aumento significativo da dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT foi observado com altas doses de metformina. Doses baixas e intermedi&#225;rias de metformina diminu&#237;ram a dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT.</p>   <p><bold>Agradecimentos </bold></p> <p>Agradecemos a assist&#234;ncia do CNPq e do Grupo Lipha, Lion, Fran&#231;a pelo fornecimento de metformina.</p> <p><bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses </bold></p> <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p> <p><bold>Fontes de Financiamento </bold></p> <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pelo CNPQ.</p> <p><bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica </bold></p> <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de Doutorado de Eunice Cristina da Silva Costa pela Universidade Estadual de Campinas.</p>                                                 <p><fn id="end" fn-type="corresp"><p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p><p> Eunice Cristina da Silva Costa </p><p> Rua Izabel Negr&#227;o Bertotti, 30/102-B - Mans&#245;es Santo Ant&#244;nio </p><p> 13087-508 - Campinas, SP - Brasil </p><p> E-mail: </p><p><email xlink:href="nicrisilva@uol.com.br">nicrisilva@uol.com.br</email></p></fn></p> <p> Artigo recebido em 13/08/2007; revisado recebido em 31/10/2007; aceito em 19/11/2007.</p></body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Effects of metformin on QT and QTc interval dispersion of diabetic rats</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>BACKGROUND: Several drugs can cause prolonged QT interval, as well as prolonged QT dispersion (QTd) in electrocardiographic (EKG) recordings. QTd may be a potentially sensitive marker of increased risk of cardiac arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Metformin is an effective antihyperglycemic agent used in the treatment of diabetes. However, studies have correlated dose-dependent effects of metformin on glycemia and cardiovascular risk markers. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the dose-response effects of metformin on QT and QTd of diabetic rats. METHODS: Male Wistar rats were distributed in five groups: non-treated control (C), non-treated diabetics (D), diabetics treated with metmorfin at the doses of 3.5, 30 and 74 &#181;g/kg/bw (DM 3.5, DM 30 and DM 74). Diabetes was induced by an alloxan injection (40 mg/kg, IV). EKG was recorded (days 1, 15 and 30) using four electrodes inserted into the subcutaneous layer of the paws. Both RR and QT intervals were measured, and then corrected QT and QT dispersion values were calculated. RESULTS: The DM 3.5 and DM 30 groups showed a significant reduction of glycemia (p&lt; 0.05) when compared with the high dose (DM 74). Rats of the DM 74 group presented prolonged QTc, QTd and QTcd intervals, whereas rats of the DM 3.5 and DM 30 groups presented less prolonged intervals. CONCLUSION: Metformin at high doses provided greater dispersion of the QT interval probably because of the increased ventricular repolarization inhomogeneity, whereas at low doses decreased QT intervals were observed in diabetic rats.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Diabetes mellitus</kwd>
        <kwd>experimental</kwd>
        <kwd>electrocardiography</kwd>
        <kwd>metformin</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Effects of metformin on QT and QTc interval dispersion of diabetic rats</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Eunice Cristina da Silva Costa; Antonio Ari Gon&#231;alves; Miguel Arcanjo Areas; Rafael Gustavo Birochi Morgabel</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Estadual de Campinas (Unicamp), Campinas, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>BACKGROUND:</bold> Several drugs can cause prolonged QT interval, as well as prolonged QT dispersion (QTd) in electrocardiographic (EKG) recordings. QTd may be a potentially sensitive marker of increased risk of cardiac arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Metformin is an effective antihyperglycemic agent used in the treatment of diabetes. However, studies have correlated dose-dependent effects of metformin on glycemia and cardiovascular risk markers.</p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To evaluate the dose-response effects of metformin on QT and QTd of diabetic rats.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> Male Wistar rats were distributed in five groups: non-treated control (C), non-treated diabetics (D), diabetics treated with metmorfin at the doses of 3.5, 30 and 74 &#181;g/kg/bw (DM 3.5, DM 30 and DM 74). Diabetes was induced by an alloxan injection (40 mg/kg, IV). EKG was recorded (days 1, 15 and 30) using four electrodes inserted into the subcutaneous layer of the paws. Both RR and QT intervals were measured, and then corrected QT and QT dispersion values were calculated.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> The DM 3.5 and DM 30 groups showed a significant reduction of glycemia (p&lt; 0.05) when compared with the high dose (DM 74). Rats of the DM 74 group presented prolonged QTc, QTd and QTcd intervals, whereas rats of the DM 3.5 and DM 30 groups presented less prolonged intervals.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Metformin at high doses provided greater dispersion of the QT interval probably because of the increased ventricular repolarization inhomogeneity, whereas at low doses decreased QT intervals were observed in diabetic rats. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Diabetes mellitus, experimental; electrocardiography; metformin.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by increased blood glucose resulting from alterations in protein, lipid and carbohydrate metabolism due to impaired secretion of or peripheral resistance to insulin. These alterations increase the tendency to the development of cardiovascular diseases and neuropathies, which represent one of the major causes of death of patients<sup>1,2</sup>. Alterations in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism as well as electrolytic changes in blood calcium and potassium may cause modifications in the cardiovascular structure and physiology which, in turn, lead to alterations in electrocardiographic recording<sup>3,4</sup>. </p>
      <p>Electrocardiogram (ECG) is one of the most important methods in the diagnosis of heart diseases<sup>5</sup>. Depending on the extent and areas damaged, the propagation of action potentials in the heart muscle changes ECG waves and their respective intervals. </p>
      <p>Among the main changes observed is the QT interval prolongation, also known as long QT syndrome (LQTS). LQTS may be congenital &#150; when abnormalities in sodium or potassium channels occur, or acquired &#150; resulting from the use of medications, electrical abnormalities or metabolic disorders. The QT interval corresponds to the time necessary for the complete ventricular electrical excitation and recovery and is, therefore, the measurement of the duration of the "electrical" systole, which includes ventricular depolarization and repolarization, that is, the total duration of the ventricular electrical activity<sup>6</sup>. The QT interval varies inversely with heart rate (HR), so that the higher the HR, the shorter the QT and vice versa. Accordingly, it should be corrected for HR, thus generating the QTc, which is preferably used<sup>7</sup>. Other parameters to be assessed are QT dispersion and QTc dispersion (QTd and QTcd, respectively). This dispersion would result from inhomogeneity of repolarization times, and is defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum QT in the twelve electrocardiographic leads<sup>8</sup>. QT dispersion is a marker of arrhythmogenesis, and its analysis is a noninvasive method for the detection of ventricular repolarization heterogeneity<sup>9</sup>. Additionally, some studies associate increased QTd intervals with a higher risk of sudden death<sup>10,11</sup> and as a prognostic index in heart failure and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy<sup>8,12</sup>. In diabetic individuals, increased QT interval is considered a precursor of increased risk of sudden death<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>Depending on their dosages, certain medications may prolong the duration of the ventricular action potential and the QT interval by means of different ionic mechanisms.</p>
      <p>The biguanide metformin is an antihyperglicemic agent used to reduce blood glucose and consequently to improve the metabolic profile. It reduces blood glucose levels by inhibiting gluconeogenesis and in the presence of insulin it stimulates peripheral glucose uptake by the tissues &#150; mainly skeletal muscles - and decreases absorption of glucose from the gastrointestinal tract. Its direct effect on b cells is still debatable. Metformin does not cause hypoglycemia, but rather reduces glycosylated hemoglobin levels and improves the lipid profile and fibrinolytic activity<sup>14,15</sup>.</p>
      <p>Despite the beneficial effects of metformin, studies have demonstrated that its use at high doses does not decrease hyperglycemia and increases the cardiovascular risks<sup>16-20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhea are common, and the intestinal absorption of group B vitamins, especially folate, is impaired during chronic therapy. Frequently, this deficiency increases plasma homocysteine levels, which accelerate the progression of vascular disease due to adverse effects on blood vessels, clotting factors, and endothelium. One study found an association between high homocysteine levels and the overall mortality in patients with atherogenic disease<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>In some circumstances, metformin may lead to lactic acidosis, especially in patients with clinical conditions that predisposed to this complication, such as heart failure or myocardial infarction<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>Additionally, preliminary results (unpublished) showed that high metformin doses such as those recommended for human patients promoted a great increase in cardiac glycogen in alloxanized rats, whereas at low doses this increase was milder. In diabetic patients, the increased glycogen concentration in the ventricles is apparently associated with the severity of diabetes, and makes the heart more susceptible to the effects of ischemia<sup>21,22</sup>, in addition to leading to cardiac malfunctioning, since its accumulation in the conductive tissue is the cause of sinus and atrioventricular node dysfunction<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>Based on these findings, we investigated the effects of low and high metformin doses on blood glucose and on the QT interval, as well as on QTc, QTd, and QTcd of alloxan diabetic rats.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Animals</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Male albino Wistar rats aged 10 weeks were supplied by Unicamp's vivarium to be used in this study. They were kept in the vivarium of the Department of Physiology and Biophysics for adaptation for two weeks. The rats were fed on feed (Purina rodent) and had ad libitum access to water in a photoperiodic cycle of 12 h light and 12 h dark, at 22 &#177; 2&#186; C. The experimental protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee on Animal Experimentation of Unicamp under number 262-1. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Induction of diabetes</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Before induction of diabetes, the rats were fasted for 24 hours with free access to water. After being anesthetized with sodium pentobarbital (40 mg/kg of body weight), the rats were injected with alloxan in saline (40 mg/kg/bw, IV, pH 4.5, Sigma<sup>TM</sup>)<sup>24,25</sup>. Established diabetes was verified by the presence of glucose in urine the next day. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Treatment with metformin and groups</bold>
      </p>
      <p>After induction of diabetes, the treatment was started. The rats in the groups treated received metformin (Lipha, Lyon, France) diluted in drinking water (3.5, 30 and 74 &#181;g/g/bw) for 30 days, thus comprising the following groups: control (C; n = 5); diabetes (D; n = 6); diabetes metformin [3,5 &#181;g/g/bw] (DM3.5; n = 8); diabetes metformin [30 &#181;g/g/bw] (DM30; n = 7); and diabetes metformin [74 &#181;g/g/bw] (DM74; n = 8).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Electrocardiogram</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Anesthetized rats (sodium pentobarbital, 40 mg/kg/bw) were kept in the supine position with spontaneous breathing for ECG recording. The electrodes were connected to the computer channels (Heart Ware System), and six standard waves were recorded (I, II, III, aVR, aVR and aVF) with a 2N sensitivity at a 50-mm/second speed. The QT interval was measured in three consecutive beats from the beginning of the QRS-complex to the point of return of the T wave to the isoelectric line, defined as the TP segment<sup>26</sup>. QTd was calculated in absolute values, by subtracting the shortest QT interval from the longest (QT = QT max &#150; Qt min). This value was converted into a percentage (%QTd) by correcting the QTd for the shortest QT interval and multiplying this value by 100 (%QTd = Qt max &#150; QT min/QT min x 100). The QT interval was corrected for the heart rate using Bazett's formula (QTc = QT/&#214;R-R) and the QTc interval dispersion was further calculated by subtracting the minimum QTc interval from the maximum QTc interval (QTcd = QTcmax - QTcmin). The percentage QTcd was also calculated (%QTcd = Qtcmax - QTcmin/ Qtcmin x 100). The analyses were made by a single observer blinded to the treatment the animals received, so as to minimize divergences in the dispersion measurement. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Determination of plasma glucose, Na<sup>+</sup>, K<sup>+</sup> and Ca<sup>2+</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p>Plasma glucose was determined with the glucose oxidase method, using a commercial kit (Laborlab, Sao Paulo, Brazil). Na<sup>+</sup> and K<sup>+ </sup>were determined using the selective ion electrode method (Roche<sup>TM</sup>). Total serum calcium was measured using the colorimetric method with cresolftaleine (o-cresolftaleine complexone &#150; Roche<sup>TM</sup>)<sup>27</sup>, with an automated analyzer (Hitachi<sup>TM</sup>).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Statistics</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The results were expressed as mean &#177; MSD. Data were evaluated using the analysis of variance for two factors, followed by Tukey's test. Significant values were considered those whose differences were lower than 5%. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Effects of metformin on blood glucose</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Blood glucose levels did not differ among the rats of all groups at the beginning of the experimental period (day 1). At the end of the experiment, similar levels were observed in rats of the control group. </p>
      <p>Administration of alloxan induced severe hyperglycemia on day 15, which was maintained until day 30 in the rats of group D (563 &#177; 61 mg/dl, p &lt; 0.001; compared with blood glucose prior to alloxan administration). Rats that received daily metformin doses of 3.5 (DME.5) and 30 (DM30) mg/kg showed lower blood glucose levels on days 15 and 30 (381 &#177; 37 and 360 &#177; 14, respectively) of treatment when compared with rats of the control diabetic group. The administration of metfomin at 74 mg/kg marginally reduced blood glucose after day 30 in comparison with control diabetic rats (p &gt;0.05) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig01-body2">Fig.1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a04fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0254-00004-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Effects of metformin on ECG</bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">A</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">D</xref>) shows that the QT (2A) and QTc (B) intervals, as well as QTd (2C) and QTcd (2D), were similar at the beginning of the experimental period. In diabetic rats, these intervals increased after 15 days of the administration of alloxan and remained similar 30 days later. On days 15 and 30, the QT interval of diabetic rats treated with 3.5 and 30 mg/kg was similar to that observed in the non-diabetic control group, but was significantly longer in rats treated with metmorfin at 74 mg/kg. The QTc interval of rats treated with lower metmorfin doses (3.5 and 30 mg/kg) was longer than that observed in rats of the control group (non-diabetic) 15 and 30 days after the administration of alloxan. However, it was significantly shorter than the values observed in diabetics (non-treated) and diabetics treated with metformin at high doses (74 mg/kg). Only metformin at lower doses (3.5 and 30 mg/kg) decreased QT and QTc dispersion when compared with the group of non-treated diabetics. However, these differences were more evident after 30 days of treatment. </p>
      <p content-type="html"><fig id="en_a04fig02-body2"><graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/cSkfTGVyjC8pvysB8DNtjHr/f647fc10109bfeb7020442285f35ebad9dabcb1b.jpg"/><graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0254-00004-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig><fn id="en_a04fig02xfig2ac-body2"/>
&#160;
</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Effects of metmorfin treatment on serum ion concentration</bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref> shows a decrease in serum K<sup>+ </sup>concentration of diabetic rats (non-treated) in comparison with the control group (non-diabetic). </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-04-0254-00004-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>It also shows an increase in Ca<sup>2+</sup> concentration only in the group treated with metformin at high doses. No alterations were observed in the other parameters. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Type-2 diabetes is characterized by alterations in glucose and lipid metabolism, partly due to resistance to insulin action in peripheral tissues. If untreated, it may lead to several complications such as increased cardiovascular risk<sup>1,2</sup>. </p>
      <p>The biguanide metformin is an antihyperglycemic agent used in the treatment of type-2 diabetics. However, the action mechanism of metformin is still unclear. </p>
      <p>Studies have shown that metformin activates AMP activated protein kinase (AMPK) in liver cells and skeletal muscle of rats<sup>28</sup>. Recent studies indicate that AMPK plays a role in the regulation of glucose and lipid metabolism. AMPK is an enzyme that promotes energy availability and is activated by skeletal muscle contraction and during myocardial ischemia; it is involved in the stimulation of glucose transport and fatty acid oxidation. </p>
      <p>In the liver, AMPK activation results in increased fatty acid oxidation and decreased production of glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride<sup>29</sup>. This effect contributes to a reduction in blood glucose and improvement of the metabolic profile, and leads to increased glycogen in the liver and muscles, in addition to promoting benefits to blood lipid profile<sup>30,31</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, other studies demonstrated that high-dose metformin did not reduce hyperglycemia in diabetic animals, but could increase the cardiovascular risks<sup>16-20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Our results (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>) show that metformin at a high dose equivalent to that recommended for diabetic patients (74&#181;g/g/bw) did not reduce blood glucose in diabetic rats, whereas at low (3.5 &#181;g/g/bw) and medium doses (30 &#181;g/g/bw), it significantly reduced blood glucose in comparison with untreated diabetic rats. However, the blood glucose reduction induced by low doses of metformin was not enough to normalize blood glucose levels. </p>
      <p>The inefficacy of high doses of metformin in reducing blood glucose may have been caused by decreased b-cell responsiveness to glucose. An in vitro study with b cells showed that metformin at high doses (1 mM) and prolonged exposure (24 hours) activated AMPK and thus partially inhibited the synthesis and release of insulin in b cells, which caused the reduction of their glucose responsiveness<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>Additionally, metformin at therapeutic doses was observed to stimulate the tyrosine kinase activity of the intracellular portion of the b subunity of its receptor. However, high doses of metformin inhibited tyrosine kinase activity and, consequently, insulin action<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Diabetes, per se, causes changes in MAP kinase and in glucose transporters. The enhancement of K<sup>+</sup> currents in ventricular cells depends on the activation of MAP kinase, which reflects the synthesis of new channels. The decrease of insulin in diabetics probably leads to a reduction in K<sup>+</sup> currents in the epicardium, thus causing increased duration of the cardiac action potential<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>The alterations promoted in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and in electrolyte concentrations may cause changes in the cardiovascular physiology and structure, which can be recorded in the electrocardiogram. One of the most common problems detected in diabetics is prolongation of the QT interval, as well as of QTc, QTd and QTcd. This is due to a late depolarization and/or repolarization of the cardiac action potential, thus leading to an increased risk of arrhythmias and sudden death<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although the QT interval is used as a noninvasive method to identify the risk of developing malignant ventricular arrhythmias and sudden death, flaws are actually expected in the system proposed. When the equation QT max &#150; QT min is used, a 12-lead ECG with a well-defined T-wave in each lead should ideally be obtained<sup>36</sup>. This was a limitation in our study because only six leads can be recorded in rats according to the methodology used by other authors<sup>37</sup>. Additionally, in several situations it was impossible to detect the end of the T-wave. In this circumstance, the methodology indicates that excluding this interval from the analysis is the most proper thing to do<sup>36</sup>, as we did in our results. However, despite these limitations, some measures were taken to minimize the discrepancies in the dispersion measurement. The same electrode was used in all electrocardiographic recordings; the site where it was placed was also standardized. The ECG was always performed in the morning so as to lessen the possible effects of the circadian rhythm. Additionally, one single observer analyzed the QT interval in three consecutive beats, in order to decrease counting errors<sup>26</sup>. After determination of the values, no statistically significant difference was found between the results calculated. </p>
      <p>Thus, despite the limitations of the study, the QTc, QTd and QTcd intervals increased in alloxan diabetic rats, as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">B</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">D</xref>).</p>
      <p>The causes of the increased intervals are unknown. However, this alteration observed in the electrocardiogram may be explained in function of polyuria, which is the most common clinical manifestation of diabetes mellitus<sup>38</sup>. Polyuria observed in diabetic patients is traditionally attributed to the osmotic diuresis secondary to increased blood glucose (glicosuria)<sup>37</sup>. The excessive urinary loss causes a reduction of potassium<sup>39</sup> which can be responsible for the increased membrane repolarization period<sup>40</sup>, with a consequent increase in the QT interval. The reduction in serum K concentration observed in rats of the diabetes group is shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>. </p>
      <p>The increased QT interval dispersion may also result from alterations in voltage-gated K<sup>+</sup> channels<sup>41</sup>. In fact, diabetes may change the magnitude of K<sup>+</sup> channels involved in the cardiomyocyte membrane repolarization process<sup>34</sup>, thus affecting the cardiac tissue. </p>
      <p>Treatment of diabetic rats with high doses of metformin (74 &#181;g/g) caused an increase in QT, QTd, QTc, and QTcd on days 15 and 30 of the experimental period (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a04fig02-body2">Figure 2 A-D</xref>).</p>
      <p>This increase may result from the hypercalcemia observed in this group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>), since increased calcium concentrations reduce the ventricular conduction velocity and shorten the effective refractory period, and thus may cause arrhythmias<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, factors that were not evaluated in this study may also have contributed to the increased QT interval. Persistent AMPK activity, as occurs during treatment with metformin at high doses, may promote mutations in PRKAG2, the gene for g2 regulatory subunity of AMP-activated protein kinase. This mutation may increase glucose uptake by stimulating translocation of the glucose transporter GLUT-4 to the plasma membrane and increase hexokinase activity, thus leading to glycogen accumulation, which may cause sinus node and atrioventricular node dysfunction<sup>22,24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Additionally, AMPK activation also promotes a dose-dependent increase in glycolysis and fatty acid oxidation in cardiomyocytes. Increased fatty acid oxidation inhibits glucose oxidation, and the acetyl-coA produced may inhibit the pyruvate-dehydrogenase complex, thus limiting pyruvate oxidation. These events lead to increased glycolysis and, in this situation, the protons and lactate produced accumulate and provoke a decrease in pH, intracellular calcium overload and subsequent cell death, thus reducing the cardiac functional capacity<sup>16</sup>. </p>
      <p>However, metformin at low and medium doses decreased the QT, QTc, QTd, and QTcd intervals, thus suggesting improved ventricular electric conduction. Additionally, serum electrolytes (calcium, potassium and sodium), which are other factors that may affect the electric conductivity, did not change in these groups. </p>
      <p>Thus, like in other studies, it is questionable whether QTc dispersion is actually a more accurate and safe measurement than the measurement of QTc alone as a marker of cardiovascular risk, or whether it is merely one more accurate measure to be added to the clinical armamentarium of assessment of the cardiovascular risk. Regardless of this discussion, we conclude that since QTc dispersion measurement is simple and relatively inexpensive, it is important in order to study the influence of drugs on cardiovascular parameters. Because of the limitations of the methodology used in this study, the results and comments presented are based only on data obtained under our experimental conditions, so as not to incur the risk of improper extrapolations.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A significant increase in QT interval dispersion was observed with high metformin doses. Low and medium metformin doses decreased QT interval dispersion. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We would like to thank CNPq for their assistance and Lipha Group, Lyon, France, for supplying metformin.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by CNPQ.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Eunice Cristina da Silva Costa, from <italic>Universidade Estadual de Campinas</italic>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing address:</p>
          <p>Eunice Cristina da Silva Costa </p>
          <p> Rua Izabel Negr&#227;o Bertotti, 30/102-B - Mans&#245;es Santo Ant&#244;nio </p>
          <p> 13087-508 - Campinas, SP - Brazil </p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="nicrisilva@uol.com.br">nicrisilva@uol.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received August 13, 2007; revised manuscript received October 31, 2007; accepted November 19, 2007.</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
