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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">9rgqYCsqYZ6zf59dx8rQQzb</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2008000100012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(08)09000112</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2008000100012</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>O que o cardiologista precisa saber sobre gorduras trans</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scherr</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Pinto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Gama Filho</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>90</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>e4</fpage>
      <lpage>e7</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>22</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>PONTO DE VISTA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O que o cardiologista precisa saber sobre gorduras trans</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Carlos Scherr; Jorge Pinto Ribeiro</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Universidade Gama Filho, Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul &#150; Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Dieta, dislipidemias, fatores de risco, &#225;cidos graxos trans.</p>
    <p>Segundo a Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de<sup>1</sup>, 80% a 90% das pessoas que morrem de doen&#231;a coronariana t&#234;m um ou mais fatores de risco diretamente associados a estilo de vida, h&#225;bitos alimentares, atividade f&#237;sica e outros pass&#237;veis de modifica&#231;&#227;o. Os &#250;ltimos dados publicados pelo Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estat&#237;stica<sup>2</sup>, referentes aos anos de 2002 e 2003, revelam um quadro preocupante em rela&#231;&#227;o aos h&#225;bitos alimentares brasileiros e o que isso representa de risco para a incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, em particular da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana. Em um universo de 96 milh&#245;es de pessoas com mais de 20 anos, existem 41% com excesso de peso, dos quais 10,5 milh&#245;es s&#227;o considerados obesos. A mesma publica&#231;&#227;o mostra o consumo reduzido de frutas e hortali&#231;as, sendo a maior parte das prote&#237;nas consumidas de origem animal<sup>2</sup>. Tamb&#233;m constata-se a elevada presen&#231;a de alimentos com is&#244;meros trans, como margarinas, sorvetes, biscoitos e batatas fritas, produzidos em nosso Pa&#237;s, com consumo cada vez maior, principalmente entre os mais jovens.  </p>
    <p>As gorduras trans est&#227;o na pauta do dia em rela&#231;&#227;o a uma alimenta&#231;&#227;o saud&#225;vel do ponto de vista cardiovascular. Esse tipo de gordura desperta o interesse da ind&#250;stria aliment&#237;cia por permitir maior prazo de validade, pela sua estabilidade durante a fritura, e, por ser uma gordura semi-s&#243;lida, poder melhorar a palatabilidade de doces e manufaturados assados. Assim, esse assunto envolve interesses econ&#244;micos volumosos, representados pelas empresas de alimenta&#231;&#227;o e pelas cadeias de <italic>fast-food</italic>. Nesse contexto, &#233; fundamental para o cardiologista o conhecimento das caracter&#237;sticas e a&#231;&#245;es desse tipo de alimento no organismo humano, para que possa oferecer adequada orienta&#231;&#227;o nutricional aos pacientes. Esse assunto foi profundamente revisado na literatura internacional<sup>3</sup>. Neste artigo, est&#227;o apresentadas, de forma resumida, algumas informa&#231;&#245;es fundamentais sobre gorduras trans com implica&#231;&#245;es para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>&#193;cidos graxos trans</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os &#225;cidos graxos trans s&#227;o sintetizados durante o processo de hidrogena&#231;&#227;o parcial de &#243;leos vegetais, transformando algumas liga&#231;&#245;es duplas (inexistentes nos saturados) em simples, o que torna sua configura&#231;&#227;o semelhante &#224; dos &#225;cidos graxos saturados. &#201; por esse motivo que as gorduras trans elevam o colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-colesterol), como os &#225;cidos graxos saturados, e ainda com um efeito adicional, o de reduzir o colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-colesterol)<sup>4</sup>, aumentando, portanto, a rela&#231;&#227;o colesterol total/HDL. Agem tamb&#233;m aumentando os triglicer&#237;deos, comparativamente &#224; ingest&#227;o de outras gorduras, mas essa altera&#231;&#227;o pode depender do grau de absor&#231;&#227;o e do aumento da oxida&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos de cadeia longa, al&#233;m de elevar os n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;na(a)<sup>5</sup> e de reduzir o tamanho das part&#237;culas LDL<sup>6</sup>. Os mecanismos respons&#225;veis por essas altera&#231;&#245;es parecem estar associados com a modula&#231;&#227;o de receptores de membranas celulares, por meio da incorpora&#231;&#227;o de fosfol&#237;pides, assim como com a regula&#231;&#227;o da transcri&#231;&#227;o de genes. Estudos <italic>in vitro</italic> demonstram que os &#225;cidos graxos trans podem alterar a secre&#231;&#227;o, a composi&#231;&#227;o e o tamanho das part&#237;culas de apolipoprote&#237;na B-100 produzidas no f&#237;gado, al&#233;m de aumentar o ac&#250;mulo celular de colesterol e de &#233;steres de colesterol. A ingest&#227;o de &#225;cidos graxos trans aumenta a atividade da prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de &#233;steres de colesterol, enzima respons&#225;vel pela transfer&#234;ncia de &#233;steres de colesterol de mol&#233;culas de HDL para LDL e para lipoprote&#237;na de densidade muito baixa (VLDL), explicando a mudan&#231;a de perfil lip&#237;dico que ocorre em seres humanos<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Esses &#225;cidos graxos est&#227;o presentes tamb&#233;m em pequenas quantidades na carne e nos latic&#237;nios de vaca, ovelha e outros ruminantes, produzidos naturalmente pela a&#231;&#227;o de bact&#233;rias no est&#244;mago desses animais. Os &#225;cidos graxos trans provenientes da carne ou de latic&#237;nios de ruminantes parecem n&#227;o trazer problemas maiores para a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, talvez pela pouca quantidade ingerida (1% a 8% do total de gorduras ou menos de 0,5% do total de calorias ingeridas) ou por suas diferen&#231;as biol&#243;gicas em rela&#231;&#227;o aos produzidos por hidrogena&#231;&#227;o<sup>7</sup>. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela 1</xref> apresenta alguns alimentos com elevado conte&#250;do de &#225;cidos graxos trans. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-01-00e4-00012-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>As maiores fontes de gorduras trans s&#227;o: frituras encontradas em lanchonetes, produtos assados, petiscos empacotados, margarinas e bolachas. Entretanto, o conte&#250;do de gorduras trans &#233; muito vari&#225;vel, em diferentes marcas de alimentos industrializados. Como exemplo, um estudo demonstrou haver enorme diferen&#231;a no conte&#250;do de gorduras trans entre algumas marcas de barras achocolatadas, variando de 0,3 &#181;g/g a 2,94 &#181;g/g; nas margarinas, variou de 0,12 &#181;g/g a 87,6 &#181;g/g; e na batata tipo <italic>chips</italic>, de 0,09 &#181;g/g a 3,5 &#181;g/g<sup> 8</sup>. &#201; considerado um card&#225;pio rico nesse tipo de gordura uma por&#231;&#227;o grande de batatas fritas ou 100 g de pipoca de microondas, bolachas, <italic>waffers</italic>, tortas industrializadas<sup>9</sup> ou <italic>cream crackers</italic><sup>10</sup>. Tamb&#233;m ultrapassam os valores m&#225;ximos preconizados, podendo chegar a 9 g/100 g, as sopas e os molhos enlatados. Um interessante estudo comparou o conte&#250;do de &#225;cidos graxos trans em 43 comidas servidas em duas cadeias de lanchonetes em 20 pa&#237;ses entre novembro de 2004 e setembro de 2005<sup>8</sup>. Esse conte&#250;do variou de menos de 1 g na Dinamarca e na Alemanha a 10 g nos Estados Unidos (New York) e 24 g na Hungria, e 50% das comidas avaliadas continham mais de 5 g por por&#231;&#227;o. Tamb&#233;m a diferen&#231;a desse conte&#250;do no mesmo pa&#237;s foi grande. Como exemplo, pode-se usar o conte&#250;do de &#225;cidos trans encontrados nos &#243;leos utilizados nas batatas fritas, que continham 23% nos Estados Unidos e 24% no Peru, enquanto na maioria dos pa&#237;ses europeus continham somente 10%, na Espanha 5% e na Dinamarca 1%<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>A m&#233;dia de consumo de alimentos industrializados contendo &#225;cidos graxos trans nos Estados Unidos &#233; de 2% a 3% do total das calorias consumidas<sup>11</sup>. Efeitos adversos j&#225; podem estar presentes mesmo com o consumo de 1% a 3% do total de calorias ingerido, o que significa aproximadamente 20 a 60 calorias (2 g a 7 g) para uma pessoa com dieta de 2.000 calorias. A recomenda&#231;&#227;o do <italic>Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee</italic> americano &#233; que se deva consumir menos de 1% do total de calorias em gorduras trans<sup>12</sup>. Cabe lembrar que, para os produtores americanos de alimentos, &#233; permitido colocar como contendo zero de gorduras trans nos r&#243;tulos daqueles alimentos que cont&#234;m at&#233; 500 mg<sup>12</sup>. No Brasil, recentemente, foram feitas algumas compara&#231;&#245;es de alimentos, demonstrando haver diferen&#231;as na quantidade de gorduras trans, como, por exemplo, a concentra&#231;&#227;o &#233; maior no leite integral que no semidesnatado, e, neste, mais que no desnatado. Tamb&#233;m no queijo amarelo em rela&#231;&#227;o ao queijo minas e na salsicha tipo <italic>hot dog</italic> em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; ling&#252;i&#231;a calabresa. Quando se comparou a manteiga com a margarina, esta apresentou melhor perfil em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; gordura saturada, sendo mais recomend&#225;vel que a primeira. Na compara&#231;&#227;o feita, por&#233;m, as margarinas avaliadas n&#227;o apresentavam gordura trans<sup>13</sup>. Deve-se ressaltar que essa n&#227;o &#233; uma composi&#231;&#227;o representativa para todas as margarinas encontradas no mercado, pois algumas delas apresentam gorduras trans. Esses dados demonstram a grande variabilidade no conte&#250;do dessas gorduras em alimentos industrializados muito comumente utilizados no dia-dia da popula&#231;&#227;o, principalmente das crian&#231;as, e a importante influ&#234;ncia das legisla&#231;&#245;es nacionais nos h&#225;bitos alimentares.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Consumo de gorduras trans e risco cardiovascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre o consumo de gorduras trans e o aumento de marcadores inflamat&#243;rios j&#225; foi evidenciada em v&#225;rios estudos. Um deles avaliou, por meio de inqu&#233;rito, a alimenta&#231;&#227;o de 667 homens holandeses entre 64 e 84 anos de idade, sem doen&#231;a coronariana. Ap&#243;s dez anos de seguimento, concluiu-se haver associa&#231;&#227;o entre o consumo aumentado de gorduras trans e a incid&#234;ncia de aterosclerose coronariana<sup>14</sup>. Alguns estudos tamb&#233;m demonstraram que a gordura trans pode causar eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores s&#233;ricos inflamat&#243;rios e de disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, assim como piora da resposta vasodilatadora mediada pelo &#243;xido n&#237;trico<sup>15,16</sup>. Um experimento com volunt&#225;rios sadios comparou os efeitos da substitui&#231;&#227;o de gordura saturada por trans e observou maior redu&#231;&#227;o do HDL e da resposta vasodilatadora, fato n&#227;o observado quando a substitui&#231;&#227;o foi por monoinsaturados, que tamb&#233;m diminu&#237;ram o HDL<sup>17</sup>. Essa diminui&#231;&#227;o na vasodilata&#231;&#227;o parece estar relacionada com o tempo e n&#227;o ser um efeito agudo<sup>18</sup>. As altera&#231;&#245;es inflamat&#243;rias relacionadas com o consumo de gorduras trans parecem n&#227;o estar associadas diretamente com sua a&#231;&#227;o sobre os lip&#237;dios, mas por um efeito modulador em mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos, aumentando a produ&#231;&#227;o de fator de necrose tumoral alfa, interleucina-6 e prote&#237;na 1 quimioatratora de leuc&#243;citos<sup>3</sup>. </p>
    <p>A partir de resultados de estudos observacionais de coorte muito bem documentados<sup>14</sup> e com base no c&#225;lculo do n&#250;mero de calorias ingeridas, os &#225;cidos graxos trans parecem aumentar o risco de doen&#231;a coronariana mais que qualquer outro macronutriente, aumentando substancialmente o risco mesmo para baixos n&#237;veis de consumo (1% a 3% do total de energia consumido). Uma meta-an&#225;lise de quatro coortes prospectivas, envolvendo cerca de 140 mil indiv&#237;duos, demonstrou que o aumento de 2% no consumo de gordura trans estava associado a aumento relativo de 23% na incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a coronariana<sup>19,20</sup>. Em termos absolutos, esses dados representam aumento da incid&#234;ncia de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ou de morte card&#237;aca de aproximadamente 2% para 2,5% em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos sadios acompanhados ao longo de duas d&#233;cadas<sup>3</sup>. Em uma popula&#231;&#227;o com risco cardiovascular maior, de 15% em dez anos, por exemplo, o aumento do consumo de gorduras trans poderia elevar o risco para aproximadamente 18,5%<sup>14</sup>. A coorte das enfermeiras, acompanhadas por 16 a 20 anos, demonstrou associa&#231;&#227;o entre consumo de gorduras trans e incid&#234;ncia de diabetes e doen&#231;a arterial coronariana<sup>21,22</sup>. Uma meta-an&#225;lise de 12 ensaios randomizados, com 524 indiv&#237;duos de 39 grupos de estudos ou per&#237;odos, demonstrou que, comparando o consumo de igual n&#250;mero de calorias proveniente de gorduras saturadas com trans, estas aumentam mais os n&#237;veis de LDL-colesterol, reduzem os n&#237;veis de HDL-colesterol e pioram o &#237;ndice de Castelli I, elevando, ainda, os n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos, quando comparadas a outras gorduras, tamb&#233;m aumentando os n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;na(a) e reduzindo o tamanho das part&#237;culas do LDL-colesterol<sup>3</sup>. Parece ainda existir alguma rela&#231;&#227;o entre um tipo de &#225;cido graxo trans com a morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca, como relatado recentemente por Lemaitre e cols.<sup>23</sup>. Como a associa&#231;&#227;o entre consumo de &#225;cidos graxos trans e risco de doen&#231;a coronariana, diabetes e morte s&#250;bita &#233; maior que o previsto por seus efeitos nas lipoprote&#237;nas, acredita-se que os efeitos pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rios e na fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial possam contribuir para aumento do risco<sup>24-28</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em recente estudo, realizado com 35.924 indiv&#237;duos iranianos, constatou-se que a substitui&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos trans por insaturados diminuiria em 9% os eventos coronarianos e em 8% se fossem substitu&#237;dos por gorduras saturadas, quando se consideram somente os efeitos na rela&#231;&#227;o colesterol total/HDL-colesterol, ou em torno de 22% e 17%, respectivamente, se considerados os estudos prospectivos<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o cardiologista</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora n&#227;o existam ensaios cl&#237;nicos com desfechos s&#243;lidos sobre os efeitos da redu&#231;&#227;o da ingesta de gorduras trans, as evid&#234;ncias atualmente dispon&#237;veis na literatura indicam que o consumo aumentado de gorduras trans altera o perfil lip&#237;dico e inflamat&#243;rio e associa-se com maior incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana. Na realidade, como ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados demonstram que a diminui&#231;&#227;o do consumo dessas gorduras pode melhorar o perfil lip&#237;dico, alguns autores acreditam que n&#227;o seria &#233;tico realizar um grande ensaio randomizado com desfechos s&#243;lidos<sup>3</sup>. O cardiologista, portanto, deve recomendar a redu&#231;&#227;o ou mesmo a total elimina&#231;&#227;o do consumo dos alimentos listados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela 1</xref> em suas atividades de preven&#231;&#227;o tanto prim&#225;ria como secund&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por Instituto Nacional de Pesos e Medidas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Carlos Scherr e Jorge Pinto Ribeiro pela Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Carlos Scherr </p>
        <p> Avenida Visconde de Piraj&#225;, 595/1204 </p>
        <p> 22410-003 Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brasi </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="scherr@ali.com.br">scherr@ali.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 09/01/07; revisado recebido em 04/04/07; aceito em 11/04/07</p>
  </body>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Point of View</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">What the cardiologist should know about trans fats</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>POINT OF VIEW</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>What the cardiologist should dnow about trans fats</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Carlos Scherr; Jorge Pinto Ribeiro</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Universidade Gama Filho, Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Diet; dyslipidemias; risk factors; trans fatty acids.</p>
      <p>According to the World Health Organization<sup>1</sup>, 80% to 90% of people who die of coronary heart diseases have one or more risk factors directly associated with their lifestyle, eating habits, physical activities and others that could be changed. Data relative to the years 2002 and 2003 published by the <italic>Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e Estat&#237;stica - IBGE</italic><sup>2</sup> (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics) paint a worrisome picture of Brazilian eating habits, and the risk these represent for the incidence of cardiovascular diseases, particularly coronary artery diseases. In a universe with 96 million people above 20 years of age, 41% are overweight, and out of this 10.5 million are considered obese. The publication shows that people eat very small amounts of fruits and vegetables, and that most proteins come from animal products<sup>2</sup>. High consumption of foods containing trans-isomer fats, such as margarines, ice creams, biscuits and potato chips produced in our country, which is increasing specially among young people, was also observed.</p>
      <p>Trans fats are a current concern for a healthy cardiovascular diet. The characteristics of this type of fat - its longer shelf life, its stability during frying and its semi-solidity, which increases the palatability of sweet and baked products &#150; stir food industry interest. Therefore, it is a subject that involves huge economic interests, represented by food manufacturers and fast-food chains. Within this context, it is essential that the cardiologist be familiar with the characteristics and effects of this kind of food to be able to provide adequate nutritional orientation to his/her patients. This subject has been thoroughly reviewed in international literature<sup>3</sup>. This article presents a summary of important information about trans fats and their implications for clinical practice.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Trans-fatty acids</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Trans-fatty acids are synthesized during the process of partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils, by converting double bonds (inexistent in saturated fats) into single ones what makes its configuration similar to that of saturated fatty acids. It is for this reason that trans fats increase low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol levels, such as saturated fatty acids, with the additional effect of reducing the levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)<sup>4</sup> cholesterol thus raising the HDL/total cholesterol ratio. Trans fats act also by increasing triglycerides comparatively to the ingestion of other fats, but such alteration may depend on the degree of absorption and the extent of oxidation of long-chain fatty acids; they also raise the levels of lipoproteins(a)<sup>5</sup> and reduce the size of LDL particles<sup>6</sup>. The mechanisms responsible for these alterations seem to be associated with the modulation of cell membrane receptors, by incorporating phospholipids, as well as with the regulation of gene transcription. <italic>In vitro</italic> studies show that trans-fatty acids may alter the secretion, lipid composition and size of apolipoprotein B-100 particles produced in the liver, besides increasing the buildup of cholesterol and cholesterol esters in the cells. The ingestion of trans-fatty acids increases the activity of the cholesterol ester-transfer protein, an enzyme responsible for the transfer of cholesterol esters from HDL molecules to LDL, and to very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), which explains the changes that take place in the lipid profile in humans<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Small quantities of these fatty acids are present also in beef and dairy products from cow and sheep milk, as well as from other ruminant animals; these acids are naturally produced by the action of bacteria in the guts of these animals. Trans-fatty acids from meat or dairy products from ruminant animals seem not to cause major problems to public health, perhaps due to the small quantity ingested (1% to 8% of total fats or less than 0,5% of total calories ingested) or maybe due to the biological differences when compared to those produced by hydrogenation<sup>7</sup>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref> exhibits a few foods with high trans-fatty acid contents.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-90-01-00e4-00012-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The major sources of trans fats are: fried fast foods, baked products, packaged snacks, margarines and cookies. However, the contents of trans fats vary a lot among the different brands of industrialized foods. For instance, a study showed a large difference of trans fats contents among a few brands of chocolate-covered bars, ranging from 0.3 &#181;g/g to 2.94 &#181;g/g; in margarines, the difference ranged from 0.12 &#181;g/g to 87.6 &#181;g/g, whereas in potato chips the difference ranged from 0.09 &#181;g/g to 3.5 &#181;g/g<sup> 8</sup>. A large serving of potato chips or 100 g of microwave popcorn, cookies, waffers, ready-made pies<sup>9</sup> or creams crackers<sup>10</sup> is considered a diet rich in this kind of fat. Canned soups and sauces also exceed the maximum daily values recommended, and may reach up to 9 g/100 g. An interesting study compared the trans-fatty acid contents of 43 foods served in two fast-food chains in 20 countries, from November 2004 and September 2005<sup>8</sup>. The contents ranged from minus 1 g in Denmark and Germany to 10 g in the United States (New York) and 24 g in Hungary, and 50% of the foods evaluated had more than 5 g of trans fats per serving. The difference in trans-fatty acid contents varied a lot within the same country. For instance, the contents of trans-fatty acids in oils used in fried potatoes was 23% in the United States and 24% in Peru, whereas in most European countries it was just 10%, 5% in Spain and 1% in Denmark<sup>8</sup>. </p>
      <p>The average consumption of industrialized foods containing trans-fatty acids in the United States ranges from 2% to 3% of the total amount of calories ingested<sup>11</sup>. Adverse effects may be detected even with a consumption of 1% to 3% of the total calories ingested, what means approximately 20 to 60 calories (2g to 7g) for a person with a 2,000-calorie-a-day diet. The American <italic>Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee</italic> recommends that trans fats should be less than 1% of the total amount of calories ingested<sup>12</sup>. It is noteworthy to keep in mind that American food manufacturers are allowed to list zero trans fat contents on nutrition fact labels of food items containing up to 500 mg<sup>12</sup> of trans fats. In Brazil, a few food products were recently compared for differences of trans fat contents; it was noticed, for instance, that the concentration of trans fats is higher in whole milk than in semi-skimmed milk and, in the latter one, more than in skimmed milk. The same thing was noticed in yellow cheeses as compared to white ones, and hot dog sausages as compared to peperoni. When butter was compared to margarine, the latter showed to have a better saturated fat profile and should be preferred to the former. However, the margarines evaluated did not contain trans fats<sup>13</sup>. It should be kept in mind that this composition is not to be taken as representative of all margarines found in the market, as some of them do have trans fats. These data show the large variability of trans fat contents in industrialized foods commonly consumed by the population, mainly children, and the significant role of national laws play on eating habits.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Consumption of trans fats and cardiovascular risks</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The relationship between the consumption of trans fats and the increase of inflammatory markers has already been described in several studies. One of these studies evaluated, by means of a survey, the eating habits of 667 Dutch men, between 64 and 84 years of age, with no coronary artery disease. After a ten-year follow-up, the conclusion was that there is an association between an increased consumption of trans fats and the incidence of coronary atherosclerosis<sup>14</sup>. Some studies showed also that trans fats can increase the levels of serum inflammatory and endothelial dysfunction markers, as well as worsen the nitric-oxide mediated vessel dilation response<sup>15,16</sup>. A study conducted with healthy volunteers compared the effects of replacing saturated fats with trans fats and observed a greater reduction of HDL levels and vessel dilation response, which was not observed when saturated fats were replaced with monounsaturated, which also decreased HDL<sup>17</sup>. This reduction in vessel dilation seems to be time-dependent and not an acute effect<sup>18</sup>. The inflammatory alterations associated with the consumption of trans fats do not seem to be directly associated with their action on the lipids, but rather through a modulating effect on monocytes and macrophages, which increases the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6 and leukocyte chemoattractant protein-1<sup>3</sup>.  </p>
      <p>Based on results from very well-documented cohort observational studies<sup>14</sup> and on the calculation of the number of calories ingested, trans-fatty acids seem to increase the risk of coronary artery disease more than any other macronutrient, by substantially increasing the risk even with low levels of consumption (1% to 3% of total energy intake). A meta-analysis of 4 prospective cohorts, involving approximately 140 thousand individuals, showed that a 2% increase in the consumption of trans fats was associated with a 23% relative increase in the incidence of coronary artery disease<sup>19,20</sup>. In absolute terms, these data represent an approximate 2% to 2.5% increase in the incidence of myocardial infarction or death due to cardiac causes in a population of healthy individuals followed during two decades<sup>3</sup>. In a population with greater cardiovascular risks, let's say 15% in ten years, the increase in trans fat consumption could raise the risk to approximately 18.5%<sup>14</sup>. The follow-up of the nurse cohort during 16 to 20 years showed a relationship between the consumption of trans fats and the incidence of diabetes and coronary artery disease<sup>21,22</sup>. In a meta-analysis of 12 randomized trials conducted with 524 individuals of 39 groups of studies or periods, the comparison of the same amount of calories from saturated fats and trans fats showed that the latter ones increase more the levels of LDL-cholesterol, reduce the levels of HDL-cholesterol and worsen the Castelli I rate; when compared to other fats, trans fats also raise triglyceride levels, lipoprotein(a) levels and reduce the size of the LDL-cholesterol particles<sup>3</sup>. There seems to be also an association between a kind of trans-fatty acid and sudden cardiac death, as recently reported by Lemaitre et al<sup>23</sup>. As the relationship between consumption of trans-fatty acids and the risk of coronary artery disease, diabetes and sudden death is greater than expected due to their effects on lipoproteins, it is suggested that the proinflammatory and endothelial function effects may contribute to increase the risk<sup>24-28</sup>.  </p>
      <p>A recent study conducted with 35,924 Iranian individuals showed that the replacement of trans-fatty acids with unsaturated fats would reduce coronary events by 9%, and by 8% if trans-fatty acids were replaced with saturated fats, when only the effects on the total/HDL cholesterol ratio are taken in consideration, or by around 22% and 17%, respectively, if prospective studies were included<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Recommendations for cardiologists</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although there are no clinical trials that yield solid outcomes about the effects of a reduced ingestion of trans fats, currently available literature evidences show that an increased consumption of trans fats changes the lipid and inflammatory profile, and is associated with a greater incidence of coronary artery diseases. Actually, as randomized clinical assays show that a reduced consumption of these fats can improve the lipid profile, some authors believe that it would not be ethical to conduct a large randomized trial with solid outcomes<sup>3</sup>. The cardiologist, therefore, should recommend the reduction or even the total elimination of consumption of the foods listed on <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref> as primary and secondary prevention measures.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was partially funded by Instituto Nacional de Pesos e Medidas.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Carlos Scherr e Jorge Pinto Ribeiro, from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Carlos Scherr</p>
          <p> Avenida Visconde de Piraj&#225;, 595/1204</p>
          <p> 22410-003 &#150; Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="scherr@ali.com.br">scherr@ali.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received January 9, 2007; revised manuscript received April 4, 2007; accepted April 11, 2007.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
