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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">KtqMZbNDhg8tsbY36WX7wXk</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007001800013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08900613</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007001800013</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Sistema renina-angiotensina: &#233; poss&#237;vel identificar genes de suscetibilidade &#224; hipertens&#227;o?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Sandro Gon&#231;alves de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Hatagima</surname>
            <given-names>Ana</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Norma Lucena Cavalcanti L. da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Funda&#231;&#227;o Oswaldo Cruz</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Centro de Pesquisas Aggeu Magalh&#227;es </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Materno Infantil de Pernambuco</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>89</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>427</fpage>
      <lpage>433</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>18</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2008</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sistema renina-angiotensina: &#233; poss&#237;vel identificar genes de suscetibilidade &#224; hipertens&#227;o?</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sandro Gon&#231;alves de Lima; Ana Hatagima; Norma Lucena Cavalcanti L. da Silva</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Centro de Pesquisas Aggeu Magalh&#227;es e Instituto Materno Infantil Professor Fernando Figueira &#150; Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Recife, PE - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Sistema renina-angiotensina, genes, hipertens&#227;o/epidemiologia, fatores de risco.</p>
    <p>No Brasil, estima-se que 15% a 20% da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta urbana sejam acometidos por hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS)<sup>1,2</sup>. Em que pese a inexist&#234;ncia de um estudo de base populacional com representatividade nacional para HAS, indicadores de morbidade e mortalidade por doen&#231;a cerebrovascular podem mostrar, claramente, a relev&#226;ncia da HAS para a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica brasileira, uma vez que representa um fator de risco com expressiva for&#231;a de determina&#231;&#227;o para doen&#231;as cardiovasculares<sup>3</sup>. Em 2004, a doen&#231;a cerebrovascular foi respons&#225;vel por 90.930 mortes, sendo a principal causa de mortalidade no Brasil<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios fatores de risco j&#225; foram identificados para o desenvolvimento da HAS, entre eles: obesidade, resist&#234;ncia a insulina, consumo aumentado de &#225;lcool e sal, idade, sedentarismo e estresse. O conhecimento da epidemiologia desses fatores de risco &#233; fundamental para a compreens&#227;o do impacto de cada um deles como determinante da HAS. Em estudo de revis&#227;o, recentemente publicado, avaliou-se a preval&#234;ncia dos fatores de risco mais comuns para a HAS no Brasil a partir de estudos populacionais realizados no per&#237;odo de 1996 a 2005 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tab. 1</xref>)<sup>5</sup>. Verifica-se ampla faixa de varia&#231;&#227;o na preval&#234;ncia desses fatores de risco que aponta para a necessidade de estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos mais bem estruturados, entretanto os valores da mediana apresentados revelam elevada preval&#234;ncia, o que justifica a alta mortalidade por doen&#231;a cerebrovascular.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>HAS: uma doen&#231;a complexa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Fatores de risco ambientais e gen&#233;ticos, em conjunto, constituem fen&#243;tipos intermedi&#225;rios, como a obesidade, a resist&#234;ncia a insulina, entre outros. Assim, a HAS pode ser entendida como um fen&#243;tipo final, resultante de diversos fen&#243;tipos intermedi&#225;rios. &#192; luz da biologia molecular, poder&#237;amos conceituar a HAS como uma doen&#231;a complexa, polig&#234;nica, multifatorial, na qual cada paciente pode apresentar diferentes fatores causais (ambientais e/ou gen&#233;ticos) para o tra&#231;o<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>A press&#227;o arterial (PA) &#233; resultado do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e da resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica. A descoberta de novos sistemas e mecanismos que influenciam o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e a resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica e, por conseguinte a PA, contribuiu para a constru&#231;&#227;o de uma complexa rede de inter-rela&#231;&#245;es na fisiopatologia da HAS<sup>7</sup>. Altera&#231;&#245;es nos mecanismos de reten&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio, no sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico, no sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA), na membrana celular, a hiperinsulinemia, entre outros, s&#227;o parte dessa rede fisiopatol&#243;gica complexa<sup>8</sup>. Entendendo cada um desses componentes como fen&#243;tipos intermedi&#225;rios e determinados por m&#250;ltiplos genes, fortalece-se o conceito de HAS como uma doen&#231;a complexa.</p>
    <p>Muitos estudos t&#234;m sido realizados para se identificar os genes de susceptibilidade &#224; HAS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2">tab. 2</xref>). Ainda n&#227;o se conhece o n&#250;mero de genes envolvidos, seu modo de transmiss&#227;o, seu efeito quantitativo na PA, sua intera&#231;&#227;o com outros genes e com fatores ambientais<sup>9</sup>. Dos fatores envolvidos na etiopatogenia da HAS, um ter&#231;o pode ser atribu&#237;do a fatores gen&#233;ticos<sup>9-12</sup>; entretanto, muitos estudos podem subestimar o impacto desses genes, uma vez que os padr&#245;es comportamentais, como a obesidade e o uso excessivo de &#225;lcool, tamb&#233;m podem ser modulados por fatores gen&#233;ticos<sup>6</sup>. Tem sido demonstrado que as respostas ao exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico variam de indiv&#237;duo para indiv&#237;duo, sugerindo que os efeitos dos exerc&#237;cios podem ser mediados, em grande parte, por varia&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A complexidade do estudo dos determinantes moleculares da HAS n&#227;o se deve apenas &#224; intera&#231;&#227;o gene-ambiente, mas &#224; pr&#243;pria interfer&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos alelos que individualmente podem ter pouca influ&#234;ncia no fen&#243;tipo final, mas em associa&#231;&#227;o podem ter efeito aditivo significativo<sup>14-16</sup>. H&#225; relatos de efeitos combinados de gen&#243;tipos relacionados ao SRA e a elevada preval&#234;ncia de HAS, embora nenhum efeito individual de cada gen&#243;tipo isolado tenha sido detectado<sup>17</sup>. Contudo, alguns genes da HAS podem ser ativados apenas em alguns per&#237;odos durante a hist&#243;ria de vida de um organismo, assim alguns indiv&#237;duos que desenvolvem HAS em idade mais avan&#231;ada podem ter como mecanismo respons&#225;vel a ativa&#231;&#227;o de genes da HAS. Apesar dessas evid&#234;ncias, estudos longitudinais s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para examinar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre HAS e genes em diferentes idades<sup>18</sup>. As muta&#231;&#245;es em diferentes s&#237;tios no mesmo gene podem tamb&#233;m contribuir para aumentar a complexidade do entendimento do impacto dos genes na determina&#231;&#227;o da HAS.</p>
    <p>O estudo de polimorfismos gen&#233;ticos na HAS, entretanto, n&#227;o &#233; dificultado apenas pelos aspectos gen&#233;ticos j&#225; citados; h&#225; limita&#231;&#245;es relacionadas com a metodologia dos estudos empregados. Os tipos de estudos mais utilizados s&#227;o do tipo caso controle e an&#225;lises de liga&#231;&#227;o. Estudos do tipo caso controle selecionam indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o aparentados e permitem obter amostras maiores, t&#234;m maior poder estat&#237;stico, mas s&#227;o mais suscet&#237;veis a resultados falso-positivos. Estudos de an&#225;lise de liga&#231;&#227;o recrutam sujeitos de uma mesma fam&#237;lia ou grupos de familiares portadores de HAS, por&#233;m um n&#250;mero menor de indiv&#237;duos participa do estudo, o que reduz o seu poder<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sistema renina-angiotensina: um componente da rede complexa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um dos componentes da complexa rede que regula a press&#227;o arterial &#233; o SRA. Seu papel na fisiopatologia da HAS tem sido extensamente estudado, bem como os genes que regulam a express&#227;o de prote&#237;nas envolvidas nesse sistema. O SRA influencia a homeostase do sal e da &#225;gua e o t&#244;nus vascular<sup>7</sup>. Ele &#233; constitu&#237;do por quatro prote&#237;nas principais: renina (REN), angiotensinog&#234;nio (AGT), enzima conversora da angiotensina (ECA) e os receptores para a angiotensina II (AII). Todos os componentes do SRA j&#225; foram encontrados em tecidos como cora&#231;&#227;o, c&#233;rebro, rins, gl&#226;ndulas adrenais, vasos sang&#252;&#237;neos e &#243;rg&#227;os reprodutores, permitindo distinguir um SRA local e um circulante. Tem-se sugerido a exist&#234;ncia de um SRA intracelular, onde seus componentes n&#227;o seriam secretados e exerceriam suas a&#231;&#245;es no interior da c&#233;lula<sup>7,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>Sumariamente, temos que a renina, de origem renal, atua no AGT, formado no f&#237;gado, originando a angiotensina I (AI), que pela a&#231;&#227;o da ECA transforma-se na AII, potente vasoconstritor direto, e que de forma indireta interage com a secre&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona, com o sistema nervoso central e com o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico. Al&#233;m da AII, outras angiotensinas produzidas t&#234;m a&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas e entre as melhores caracterizadas est&#227;o as angiotensina III, angiotensina IV e angiotensina 1-7<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>As a&#231;&#245;es reguladoras da AII s&#227;o mediadas por receptores de superf&#237;cie celular que est&#227;o acoplados, por meio da prote&#237;na G, a efetores, incluindo a fosforilase C e a adenilciclase<sup>21</sup>. Existem quatro classes farmacologicamente distintas de receptores para as angiotensinas: AT<sub>1</sub>, AT<sub>2</sub>, AT<sub>4</sub> e AT<sub>1-7</sub>. O tipo 1 parece ser o mediador das principais a&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas da AII e &#233; por meio dele que o SRA influencia a PA<sup>7,20</sup>. Os receptores AT<sub>1</sub> est&#227;o localizados na membrana plasm&#225;tica das c&#233;lulas-alvo para a AII: c&#233;lulas da musculatura lisa vascular, adrenais, mioc&#225;rdicas e cerebrais<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>A renina, na maioria das esp&#233;cies, &#233; codificada por um &#250;nico gene. No homem o gene <italic>REN</italic> est&#225; localizado na regi&#227;o 1q32. O RNA mensageiro &#233; traduzido para uma forma inativa denominada pr&#233;-prorenina, com 401 res&#237;duos de amino&#225;cidos, posteriormente clivados at&#233; formar a renina ativa. O angiotensinog&#234;nio &#233; codificado pelo gene <italic>AGT</italic> localizado no cromossomo 1q42-43 e pode ser clivado por diferentes enzimas gerando a angiotensina I ou a angiotensina II diretamente. A enzima conversora de angiotensina &#233; codificada pelo gene <italic>ACE</italic> situado no cromossomo 17q23. Al&#233;m de aumentar a produ&#231;&#227;o da AII, &#233; tamb&#233;m respons&#225;vel pela degrada&#231;&#227;o da bradicinina, uma subst&#226;ncia vasodilatadora e natriur&#233;tica<sup>20</sup>. O gene que codifica o receptor AT1 (<italic>AGTR1</italic>) est&#225; localizado no cromossomo 3q21-25, compreende 60 Kb e possui 6 &#233;xons. A regi&#227;o codificante inteira est&#225; situada no &#233;xon 5<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>HAS e os polimorfismos do sistema renina-angiotensina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>V&#225;rios genes que codificam as prote&#237;nas integrantes do SRA t&#234;m sido implicados na etiopatogenia da HAS, doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria, s&#237;ndrome do prolapso da valva mitral, hipertrofia card&#237;aca, apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono, dem&#234;ncia de Alzheimer, entre outras.</p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o dos polimorfismos do SRA com HAS n&#227;o &#233; bem definida, como pode ser visto nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">tabelas 3</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">4</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">5</xref>. Alguns estudos mostram associa&#231;&#227;o desses polimorfismos com a HAS, enquanto outros n&#227;o. Apesar da diversidade &#233;tnica e do tamanho amostral, achados semelhantes foram relatados por Sakuma e cols.<sup>24</sup> no Brasil e por Sayed-Tabatabaei e cols.<sup>25</sup> em Roterd&#227;. O mesmo desenho de estudo (corte transversal) foi utilizado para descrever a associa&#231;&#227;o do alelo D do polimorfismo I/D da ECA com HAS. O primeiro grupo de pesquisadores utilizou uma amostra de 184 indiv&#237;duos, enquanto o segundo avaliou 5.321.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t3">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t4">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t5">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A substitui&#231;&#227;o de uma timina por uma citosina na posi&#231;&#227;o 704, no &#233;xon 2 do gene <italic>AGT</italic>, altera a seq&#252;&#234;ncia de amino&#225;cidos da prote&#237;na, levando &#224; substitui&#231;&#227;o de uma metionina por uma treonina, no c&#243;don 235. Indiv&#237;duos homozigotos TT possuem n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de AGT 10% a 20% maiores que os homozigotos MM, mostrando uma estreita rela&#231;&#227;o desse polimorfismo com os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de AGT<sup>18,26,27</sup>. A correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre o polimorfismo M235T e a concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de AGT tem sido observada em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es<sup>28-30</sup>. O alelo <italic>AGT*235T</italic> est&#225; em desequil&#237;brio de liga&#231;&#227;o com uma variante na regi&#227;o promotora do gene <italic>AGT</italic>, que consiste na substitui&#231;&#227;o de uma adenina por uma guanina no nucleot&#237;deo 6 (A-6G)<sup>31</sup>. Tem sido sugerido que essa muta&#231;&#227;o, A-6G, afeta a intera&#231;&#227;o de fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o com o promotor do <italic>AGT</italic>, influenciando assim a taxa basal de transcri&#231;&#227;o do gene. Um aumento da express&#227;o do gene <italic>AGT</italic> pode elevar a produ&#231;&#227;o de angiotensina II pelo SRA resultando na expans&#227;o do volume sang&#252;&#237;neo que, por sua vez, aumentaria a press&#227;o arterial<sup>31</sup>. O polimorfismo M235T pode ser considerado um marcador para a co-exist&#234;ncia do polimorfismo A-6G e esse, por sua vez, um marcador para o polimorfismo M235T<sup>32</sup>.</p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o do gene <italic>AGT</italic> com HAS foi descrita por Jeunemaitre e cols. em 1992<sup>19</sup>. Esse gene parece estar envolvido no determinismo da hipertens&#227;o familiar e de algumas formas de hipertens&#227;o induzidas pela gravidez<sup>22,33</sup>. Pereira e cols.<sup>34</sup>, em estudo realizado em uma popula&#231;&#227;o etnicamente diversa, observaram que o alelo <italic>AGT*235T</italic>, em homozigose, conferia risco aumentado de HAS<sup>34</sup>. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">tabela 3</xref> mostra alguns estudos realizados em diversas popula&#231;&#245;es. Na Alemanha, Mondry e cols. demonstraram redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de HAS entre mulheres com o gen&#243;tipo TT<sup>18</sup>. Deve-se notar, ainda, que, nesses estudos, a distribui&#231;&#227;o da freq&#252;&#234;ncia dos gen&#243;tipos do <italic>AGT</italic> variou consideravelmente entre as popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas.</p>
    <p>O polimorfismo inser&#231;&#227;o/dele&#231;&#227;o da ECA foi caracterizado em 1990<sup>35</sup> e corresponde a inser&#231;&#227;o (I) ou dele&#231;&#227;o (D) de 287 pares de base no &#237;ntron 16 do gene <italic>ACE</italic><sup>13</sup>. Estudos sugerem que esse polimorfismo influencia a concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de ECA; indiv&#237;duos com gen&#243;tipo DD teriam as maiores concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas da ECA, enquanto aqueles com gen&#243;tipo II teriam as menores<sup>18,25,36</sup>. Estima-se que o alelo D contribuiria com aproximadamente metade da varia&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos da ECA<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>Tem sido relatada associa&#231;&#227;o do polimorfismo I/D da ECA com HAS<sup>10,24</sup> e com elevada morbidade em hipertensos e diab&#233;ticos, embora estudos em popula&#231;&#245;es caucasianas n&#227;o tenham conseguido detectar um efeito maior desse gene nos hipertensos<sup>18,38-42</sup>. Em estudo em que a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial (MAPA) foi utilizada, a PA e a carga press&#243;rica estavam relacionadas com o polimorfismo I/D da ECA<sup>43</sup>. Especula-se, ainda, que esse polimorfismo modifica a resposta hipotensora dos inibidores da ECA, uma vez que atividade residual dessa enzima tem sido detectada em hipertensos que utilizam essa medica&#231;&#227;o<sup>44</sup>. Espinel e cols.<sup>35</sup> detectaram uma maior preval&#234;ncia do gen&#243;tipo DD em pacientes portadores de hipertens&#227;o maligna<sup>35</sup>. O'Donnell e cols.<sup>37</sup> demonstraram um aumento estatisticamente significante na press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD) ajustada pela idade, nos indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino, portadores do alelo <italic>ACE*D,</italic> de forma dose-dependente<sup>37</sup>. Outros estudos que avaliaram a associa&#231;&#227;o do polimorfismo I/D da ECA com HAS est&#227;o listados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">tabela 4</xref>.</p>
    <p>O polimorfismo A1166C do receptor AT1 da AII corresponde &#224; troca de uma adenina por uma citosina na posi&#231;&#227;o 1166 da regi&#227;o 3' n&#227;o traduzida do gene <italic>AGTR1</italic>. Variantes no gene <italic>AGTR1</italic> humano podem afetar a press&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea. Alguns autores encontraram associa&#231;&#227;o do alelo <italic>AGTR1*1166C</italic> com a predisposi&#231;&#227;o para HAS<sup>45-49</sup>. Castellano e cols. relataram que o alelo <italic>AGTR1*1166A</italic> era mais freq&#252;ente entre os hipertensos<sup>46</sup>. Jones e cols.<sup>50</sup> observaram que o polimorfismo A1166C confere ao indiv&#237;duo um risco relativo independente para HAS<sup>50</sup>. Outros estudos, entretanto, n&#227;o demonstraram nenhuma associa&#231;&#227;o<sup>51-54</sup>. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">tabela 5</xref> observa-se que nas popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas o gen&#243;tipo mais freq&#252;ente foi AA.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Como explicar os achados conflitantes</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os resultados muitas vezes conflitantes entre alguns estudos podem, em parte, ser explicados pelo tamanho relativamente pequeno das amostras, especialmente nos estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o<sup>25</sup>, ou seja, um poder inadequado para detectar modestas contribui&#231;&#245;es de um fator gen&#233;tico individual para tra&#231;os complexos como a HAS<sup>37</sup>. O desenho do tipo caso controle usado em muitos estudos de associa&#231;&#227;o de genes candidatos &#233; eficiente para avaliar a hip&#243;tese de associa&#231;&#227;o com a doen&#231;a, mas a sua metodologia est&#225; sujeita a vieses se a sele&#231;&#227;o de casos e controles n&#227;o for aleatorizada<sup>37</sup>. Uma recente metan&#225;lise envolvendo estudos em genes candidatos demonstrou que grandes amostras s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para mostrar os efeitos dos genes envolvidos em tra&#231;os complexos<sup>55</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outro fator que pode contribuir para os resultados divergentes pode estar relacionado aos grupos &#233;tnicos estudados. As freq&#252;&#234;ncias dos diferentes marcadores podem variar de acordo com a estrutura da popula&#231;&#227;o e a etnia<sup>6,32</sup>, assim, em raz&#227;o das diferen&#231;as gen&#233;ticas interindividuais ou do estilo de vida, um fator que &#233; identificado como de risco para HAS em uma popula&#231;&#227;o pode n&#227;o ser significante em outro grupo populacional<sup>9,18,32,37</sup>.</p>
    <p>A intera&#231;&#227;o gene-ambiente tamb&#233;m pode ser respons&#225;vel por uma parcela das contradi&#231;&#245;es entre os estudos. Fatores ambientais ou comportamentais como o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico e o cigarro podem influenciar a express&#227;o de um determinado gene e assim influenciar o fen&#243;tipo final. Existem evid&#234;ncias de que a nicotina aumenta a express&#227;o de v&#225;rios genes no endot&#233;lio, incluindo o gene da ECA<sup>25</sup>. Montgomery e cols.<sup>56</sup> mostraram que indiv&#237;duos homozigotos DD somente apresentavam hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos indiv&#237;duos homozigotos II, se esses fossem submetidos &#224; influ&#234;ncia de algum fator hipertr&#243;fico como o exerc&#237;cio<sup>56</sup>. Sayed-Tabatabaei e cols.<sup>25</sup> demonstraram por meio de modelos de regress&#227;o m&#250;ltipla que o polimorfismo I/D da ECA e o cigarro foram os &#250;nicos determinantes dos n&#237;veis de atividade plasm&#225;tica da ECA, explicando, juntos, 28% dos n&#237;veis de varia&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica<sup>25</sup>.</p>
    <p>A intera&#231;&#227;o gene-gene tamb&#233;m pode ser imputada para explicar alguns desses resultados divergentes. O'Donnell e cols.<sup>37</sup> observaram que o gene do horm&#244;nio do crescimento est&#225; relacionado com a PAD e cogitaram, a partir desse achado, que outros genes, al&#233;m do gene do horm&#244;nio do crescimento, poderiam estar em desequil&#237;brio de liga&#231;&#227;o com o gene da ECA<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Assim como &#233; importante conhecer a epidemiologia dos fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos para HAS e avaliar o impacto que cada um deles tem sobre a morbidade e a mortalidade relacionadas &#224; HAS, o conhecimento de fatores de risco baseados no polimorfismo gen&#233;tico &#233;, da mesma forma, fundamental. Embora estes &#250;ltimos n&#227;o sejam, na atualidade, modific&#225;veis, a&#231;&#245;es em sa&#250;de voltadas para a popula&#231;&#227;o geneticamente mais suscet&#237;vel poder&#227;o representar valioso impacto na redu&#231;&#227;o da preval&#234;ncia da HAS. Indiv&#237;duos normotensos portadores de polimorfismos do SRA, associados com HAS, poderiam se beneficiar de medidas de tratamento farmacol&#243;gico ou n&#227;o-farmacol&#243;gico, com o objetivo de impedir o desenvolvimento da HAS. O bloqueio precoce do SRA com agentes atualmente dispon&#237;veis, como os inibidores da ECA e os bloqueadores dos receptores AT<sub>1</sub>, poder&#225; representar uma alternativa. Ademais, com os avan&#231;os da farmacogen&#244;mica, medidas terap&#234;uticas visando modificar a express&#227;o de genes, por exemplo, poder&#227;o ser uma realidade no futuro.</p>
    <p>Sendo a HAS uma doen&#231;a polig&#234;nica e multifatorial, caracterizar genes de suscetibilidade para HAS n&#227;o &#233; tarefa f&#225;cil. As evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis at&#233; o momento indicam que talvez a maior dificuldade resida em quantificar o grau de participa&#231;&#227;o desses genes no determinismo da HAS, em face das intera&#231;&#245;es gene-gene e gene-ambiente. Contudo, os avan&#231;os em tecnologia aplicada &#224; gen&#233;tica e os crescentes estudos de epidemiologia molecular nos fazem acreditar que esse objetivo ser&#225; alcan&#231;ado.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o desse estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p>Sandro Gon&#231;alves de Lim </p>
        <p> Rua Andr&#233; Cavalcanti, 45/1702 - Parnamirim </p>
        <p> 52060-090 - Recife, PE - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="sandrolima@cardiol.br">sandrolima@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Artigo recebido em 15/05/07; revisado recebido em 23/08/07; aceito em 23/08/07.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Renin-angiotensin system: is it possible to identify hypertension susceptibility genes?</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Renin-angiotensin system: is it possible to identify hypertension susceptibility genes? </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sandro Gon&#231;alves de Lima; Ana Hatagima; Norma Lucena Cavalcanti L. da Silva</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Centro de Pesquisas Aggeu Magalh&#227;es e Instituto Materno Infantil Professor Fernando Figueira - Rio de Janeiro, RJ - Recife, PE - Brazil</p>
      <p><bold>Key Words:</bold> Renin-angiotensin system; genes; hypertension/ epidemiology; risk of factors</p>
      <p>It is estimated that from 15% to 20% of Brazilian adult urban population is affected by Hypertension<sup>1,2</sup>. Although no populational study based on nationwide data is available, morbimortality indicators resulting from cerebrovascular disease clearly show the relevance of hypertension for public health in Brazil since it is reported as significant impacting risk factor for the onset of cardiovascular diseases<sup>3</sup>. In 2004, cerebrovascular disease was responsible for 90,930 deaths, having been a major cause of death in Brazil<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>A number of factors have been identified for the development of hypertension. Some of them are: obesity, insulin resistance, increased alcohol and salt consumption, age, sedentary life, and stress. The epidemiological knowledge of those risk factors is key for the understanding of how impacting each one of them is to determine the hypertension condition. A recently published review study evaluated the prevalence of the most commonly found risk factors for hypertension in Brazil. The study was based on populational studies conducted in the period between 1996 and 2005 (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_12t1-body2">Table 1</xref>)<sup>5</sup>. Quite a wide prevalence range could be observed for risk factors, which signals towards the need of more structured epidemiological studies. However, median values presented show high prevalence, thus explaining high mortality rate resulting from cerebrovascular disease.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_12t1-body2">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Hypertension: a complex condition</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Environmental and genetic risk factors combined are considered to be intermediate phenotypes, just as obesity and insulin resistance, among others. Therefore, hypertension may be understood as a final phenotype, resulting from a number of intermediate phenotypes. In the light of molecular biology hypertension can be defined as a complex, polygenic, multifactorial condition. Each patient may present different cause factors (environmental and/or genetic) for the trait<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>Blood pressure (BP) is the result of cardiac debit and peripheral vascular resistance. New systems and mechanisms affecting cardiac debit and peripheral vascular resistance &#150; as well as BP, as a consequence &#150; have contributed for a complex chain of physiopathological inter-relations in the hypertension condition scenario<sup>7</sup>. Changes in sodium renal retention, in the sympathetic nervous system, in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), in cell membrane, and in hyperinsulinemia, among others, are integral parts of this complex physiopathological chain<sup>8</sup>. The understanding of each of those components as intermediate multiple-gene phenotypes supports the concept of hypertension as a complex condition.</p>
      <p>Many studies have been conducted to identify hypertension susceptibility genes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2-body2">Table 2</xref>). The number of genes involved is not yet known; neither is the transmission mode, quantitative effect on BP, the interaction with other genes or with environmental factors<sup>9</sup>. Genetic factors are responsible for one third of all factors involved in hypertension etiopathogeny<sup>9-12</sup>. However, many studies may have underestimated the impact of those genes since behavioral patterns &#150; such as obesity and alcohol abuse &#150; may also be modulated by genetic factors<sup>6</sup>. Response to physical exercise has been demonstrated to vary from individual to individual, thus suggesting that the effects from exercise may &#150; to a great extent &#150; be mediated by genetic variations<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The complexity of studying hypertension molecular determinants results not only of the gene-environment interaction, but of the interference of the multiples alleles themselves, which individually may have little influence on final phenotype but when combined may have significantly additional effect<sup>14-16</sup>. Reports on combined RAS-related genotypes and high prevalence of hypertension are available, although no individual effect of each genotype, isolatedly, has been detected<sup>17</sup>. On the other hand, some hypertension genes may be activated at certain points in time along life. So, some individuals who develop hypertension at a later age may have hypertension gene activation as the mechanism responsible. Despite such evidence, longitudinal studies are needed to investigate the association between hypertension and genes at different age ranges<sup>18</sup>. Mutations at different loci in the same gene may also contribute to make the understanding of gene impact on hypertension even harder.</p>
      <p>However, the study of genetic polymorphisms involved in hypertension is not only made difficult due to genetic aspects already mentioned. There are limitations related to study methodology. The most commonly used studies have a case-control design and linkage analysis. Case control studies screen non-related individuals, allow larger samples and have higher statistical power, but are more susceptible to false-positives. Linkage analysis recruit individuals within the same family or groups of family members who have a history of hypertesion. As a smaller number of individuals are enrolled in the study, power is reduced<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Renin&#150;angiotensin system: one component in the complex chain</bold>
      </p>
      <p>One of the components in the complex chain regulating blood pressure is RAS. The role played by RAS in the pathophysiology of hypertension has been extensively studied, as have the genes regulating the expression of proteins involved in that system. RAS interferes in the homeostasis of salt, water and vascular tonus<sup>7</sup>. It is made up by four major proteins: renin (REN), angiotensinogen (AGT), angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and angiotensin II receptors (AII). All RAS components have been found in tissues of the heart, brain, kidneys, adrenal glands, blood vessels and reproductive organs. That leads to the identification of local RAS and circulating RAS. An intracellular RAS has been suggested, where components would not be excreted and would act inside the cell<sup>7,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Ultimately we know that renin, from renal origin, acts over AGT, formed in the liver - and that is how angiotensin I (AI) is originated. Through ACE angiotensin I is turned into AII, a powerful, direct vasoconstrictor which indirectly interacts with aldosterone secretion, with central nervous system and with sympathetic nervous system. In addition to AII, other angiotensins have specific actions. Among the best characterized are angiotensin III, angiotensin IV and angiotensin 1-7<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The regulating actions of AII are mediated by cell surface receptors that are coupled to effectors, phosphorylase C and adenyl cyclase included<sup>21</sup>, through G protein. The four pharmacologically distinctive classes of angiotensin receptors are: AT<sub>1</sub>, AT<sub>2</sub>, AT<sub>4</sub> and AT<sub>1-7</sub> type 1 seems to be the mediator for AII major pathophysiologic actions. It is through type 1 that RAS acts over BP<sup>7,20</sup>. AT<sub>1</sub> receptors are located in the plasma membrane of target cells for AII: vascular smooth muscle cells, adrenal cells, myocardial cells and brain cells<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>In most species renin is codified by one gene only. In man, the <italic>REN</italic> gene is located in the 1q32 region. Messenger RNA is translated to an inactive form called pre-prorenin, with 401 aminoacid residues which are later clevaged until active renin is formed. Angiotensinogen is codified by <italic>AGT</italic> gene in chromosome 1q42-43 and can be cleavaged by different enzymes to generate angiotensin I or angiotensin II directly. The ACE is codified by the <italic>ACE-</italic> gene located at chromosome 17q23. In addition to increasing the production of AII, it is also responsible for the degradation of bradicinin &#150; a vasodilating, natriuretic substance<sup>20</sup>. The codifying gene for AT1 (<italic>AGTR1</italic>) receptor is located at chromosome 3q21-25, spreads over 60 Kb and contains 6 exons. The whole codifying region is situated at exon 5<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Hypertension and renin-angiotensin system polymorphisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A number of genes codifying RAS have been involved in the etiopathogeny of hypertension, coronary disease, mitral valve prolapse syndrome, cardiac hypertrophy, obstructive sleep apnea, and Alzheimer, among other conditions.</p>
      <p>The association between RAS polymorphisms and hypertension has not been clearly defined, as seen in<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_12t3-body2"> tables 3</xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_12t4-body2">4</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_12t5-body2">5</xref>. Some studies have actually shown the association between those polymorphisms with hypertension, others have not. Ethnic diversity and sample size considered, similar findings have been related by Sakuma et al<sup>24</sup> in Brazil, and Sayed-Tabatabaei et al<sup>25</sup> in Roterdam, The Netherlands. The same study design (cross-sectional study) was used to describe the association between allele D of ACE I/D polymorphism and hypertension. The first group of researchers used a sample made up of 184 individuals, whereas the second group evaluated 5,321.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_12t3-body2">
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      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_12t4-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_12t5-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-06-0427-00013-gt05-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The replacemend of a tymine by a cytosine at position 704, exon 2 of gene <italic>AGT</italic>, changes the sequence of protein aminoacids, leading to the replacement of methyonine by treonin at codon 235. TT homozygote individuals have plasma AGT levels 10 to 20% higher than MM homozygotes, thus showing a close association between that polymorphism and AGT plasma levels<sup>18,26,27</sup>. The positive correlation between polymorphism M235T and AGT plasma concentration has been observed in different populations<sup>28-30</sup>. Allele <italic>AGT*235T</italic> shows linkage disequilibrium with a variant in the <italic>AGT</italic>-gene promoting area &#150; a replacement of adenine by guanine in nucleotide 6 (A-6G)<sup>31</sup>. It has been suggested that such mutation - A-6G &#150; interferes in the interaction of transcriptor factors with <italic>AGT</italic> promoter, thus influencing the gene transcription baseline rate. An increase in <italic>AGT</italic> gene expression may increase the production of angiotensin II by RAS, thus resulting the expansion of blood volume, which in turn would increase blood pressure. Polymorphism M235T may be seen as a marker for the coexistence of polymorphism A-6G, which in turn is a marker for polymorphism M235T<sup>32</sup>.</p>
      <p>The association between gene <italic>AGT</italic> and hypertension was described by Jeunemaitre et al<sup>19</sup> in 1992. The gene seems to be involved in family hypertension as well as some forms of pregnancy-induced hypertension<sup>22,23</sup>. In a study conducted in an ethically diverse population, Pereira et al<sup>34</sup> observed that allele <italic>AGT*235T</italic>, in homozygosis, would pose increased risk of hypertension<sup>34</sup>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_12t3-body2">Table 3</xref> shows some studies conducted in different populations. In Germany, Mondry et al have demonstrated the decreased risk of hypertension in women with TT genotype<sup>18</sup>. It should be pointed out, also, that in those studies the distribution of <italic>AGT</italic> genotype frequency varied significantly in the different populations under study.</p>
      <p>ACE insertion/deletion polymorphism was characterized in 1990<sup>35</sup> and corresponds to the insertion (I) or deletion (D) of 287 base pairs in intron 16 of <italic>ACE-gene</italic><sup>13</sup>. Studies have suggested that this polymorphism interferes in ACE serum concentration. DD Genotype individuals would have the highest ACE serum concentrations, where those with genotype II would have the lowest<sup>18,25,36</sup>. It is estimated that allele D would contribute with approximately half the variation of ACE plasma levels<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The association between ACE I/D polymorphism and hypertension<sup>10,24</sup> has been reported, with high morbidity rate for hypertensives and diabetics, although studies conducted with Caucasian populations have not detected a more impacting effect of that gene in hypertensives<sup>18,38-42</sup>. A study where Blood Pressure Ambulatory Monitoring (ABPM) was used, BP and pressure load were related to ACE I/D polymorphism<sup>43</sup>. It has been speculated, as well, that this polymorphism modifies hypotensive response of ACE inhibitors, since the residual activity of the enzyme has been detected in hypertensives on that medication<sup>44</sup>. Espinel et al<sup>35</sup> have detected higher prevalence of DD genotype in malign hypertension patients<sup>35</sup>. O'Donnell et al<sup>37</sup> have demonstrated a statistically significant increase in diastolic blood pressure (DBP) adjusted by age in male patients with <italic>ACE*D</italic> in a dose-dependent fashion<sup>37</sup>. Other studies evaluating the association between ACE polymorphism I/D and hypertension can be found in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_12t4-body2">Table 4</xref>.</p>
      <p>Polymorphism A1166C of AII AT1 receptor corresponds to the replacement of adenine by cytosine at locus 1166 of non-translated region 3' of gene <italic>AGTR1</italic>. Variants in human <italic>AGTR1</italic> gene may affect blood pressure. Some authors have found the association between allele <italic>AGTR1*1166C</italic> and the predisposition for hypertension<sup>45-49</sup>. Castellano et al have reported that allele <italic>AGTR1*1166A</italic> was more commonly found among hypertensives<sup>46</sup>. Jones et al<sup>50</sup> have observed that polymorphism A1166C poses individuals an independent risk for HAS<sup>50</sup>. Other studies, however, have not demonstrated any association<sup>51-54</sup>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_12t5-body2">Table 5</xref> shows that AA was the most commonly found genotype in the populations under study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>How to explain conflicting findings</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The many times conflicting results from studies conducted may be partially explained by the relatively small size of samples, especially in the association studies<sup>25</sup>, that is to say, the power is inadequate to detect modest contributions of individual genetic factors for complex traits such as hypertension<sup>37</sup>. The case-control design used in many association studies on candidate genes is efficient to evaluate the association hypothesis, but the methodology is subject to biased results if the screening of cases and controls is not randomized<sup>37</sup>. A recent meta-analysis involving studies with candidate genes showed that large samples are necessary to show the effects of genes involved in complex traits<sup>55</sup>.</p>
      <p>Another factor that may contribute with conflicting results may be related to the ethnic groups under study. The frequencies of different markers may vary according to population structure and ethnicity<sup>6,32</sup>. Therefore, due to genetic differences among individuals or to life style, one factor identified as hypertension risk factor in one given population may not be significant in another populational group<sup>9,18,32,37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The interaction gene-environment may also be responsible for some of the contradictions among studies. Environmental or behavioral factors, such as physical exercise and cigarette smoking, may interfere in the expression of a certain gene, and therefore affect final phenotype. Evidence has shown that nicotine increases the expression of a number of genes in the endothelium, ACE-gene included<sup>25</sup>. Montgomery et al<sup>56</sup> have demonstrated that DD homozygote individuals only reported left ventricular hypertrophy when compared to homozygotes II individuas if submitted to the interference of some hypertrophic factor, such as exercise<sup>56</sup>. Sayed-Tabatabaei et al<sup>25</sup> have demonstrated that through multiple regression models ACE I/D polymorphism and cigarette smoking were the only indicators of ACE plasma level activity, thus explaining, in combination, 28% of enzyme variation levels<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>The interaction gene-gene may also be used to explain some of those diverging results. O'Donnell et al<sup>37</sup> have observed that growth hormone gene is associated to DBP. Based on such finding, they have considered that other genes &#150; in addition to growth hormone gene &#150; could be in linkage disequilibrium with ACE-gene<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Final considerations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Just as it is relevant to be aware of the epidemiology of classic risk factors for hypertension and evaluate the impact of each risk on morbimortality related to hypertension, the awareness of risk factors based on genetic polymorphism is equally crucial. Although the latter are not actually modifiable, health actions focusing populations that are genetically more susceptible may act as invaluable impact in reducing hypertension prevalence. Normotensive individuals with RAS polymorphism associated to hypertension might benefit from pharmacological or non-pharmacological treatment procedures with the purpose of preventing the development of hypertension. Early blocking of RAS through drugs presently available, such as ACE inhibiors and AT<sub>1,</sub> receptors blockers, may be an alternative choice. Additionally, the advances of pharmacogenomic, and therapeutic measures aiming at modifying genes expression, for instance, may be a real scenario in the future.</p>
      <p>Considering that hypertension is a multifactorial, polygenic condition, it is no easy task to characterize hypertension susceptibility genes. Evidence available to this point in time shows that the most challenging difficulty may be to find out the extent of the role played by those genes in the hypertension condition when considering gene-gene and gene-environment interactions. However, the advance of genetically applied technology as well as the growing number of studies on molecular epidemiology are strong signs that the objective will be met.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="back-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailling address:</p>
          <p>Sandro Gon&#231;alves de Lima</p>
          <p> Rua Andr&#233; Cavalcanti, 45/1702 - Parnamirim</p>
          <p> 52060-090 &#150; Recife, PE - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="sandrolima@cardiol.br">sandrolima@cardiol.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received May 05, 2007; revised manuscript received August 23, 2007; accepted August 23, 2007.</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
