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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">fPCGM34jBVrGVGsRkZNbn4R</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007001700012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08900512</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007001700012</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial e diabete melito tipo 2</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leit&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiane Bauermann</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Canani</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Henrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silveiro</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra Pinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gross</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Luiz</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Endocrinologia </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>89</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>347</fpage>
      <lpage>354</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS) &#233; um dos principais fatores de risco para a instala&#231;&#227;o e progress&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do diabetes melito (DM) tipo 2. A medida da press&#227;o arterial (PA) atrav&#233;s da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA (MAPA) apresenta melhor correla&#231;&#227;o com o desenvolvimento de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo do que a medida no consult&#243;rio. Al&#233;m disso, permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o de par&#226;metros press&#243;ricos distintos como as m&#233;dias das PAs sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica das 24 h, do dia e da noite, cargas press&#243;ricas e aus&#234;ncia do descenso noturno, al&#233;m da identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com HAS do avental branco e mascarada. Os pacientes com DM apresentam maiores m&#233;dias de PA diurna e noturna do que os sem DM. Al&#233;m disso, um ter&#231;o do pacientes normotensos com DM tipo 2 apresentam HAS mascarada, que est&#225; associada a um aumento da albumin&#250;ria e da espessura das paredes do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Por outro lado, a preval&#234;ncia e o efeito da HAS do avental branco nos pacientes com DM ainda n&#227;o foram adequadamente avaliados. A determina&#231;&#227;o da aus&#234;ncia do descenso noturno da PA n&#227;o acrescenta informa&#231;&#227;o &#224;s medidas da PA nas 24 h, no dia ou na noite, mas a medida da PA noturna parece ser relevante na retinopatia do DM. Em conclus&#227;o, a determina&#231;&#227;o da PA atrav&#233;s da MAPA &#233; capaz de estratificar de forma mais adequada os pacientes em risco para o desenvolvimento das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM e tornou-se um instrumento indispens&#225;vel para o controle efetivo da PA nestes pacientes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial</kwd>
        <kwd>diabete melito tipo 2</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial e diabete melito tipo 2 </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Cristiane Bauermann Leit&#227;o; Lu&#237;s Henrique Canani; Sandra Pinho Silveiro; Jorge Luiz Gross </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Servi&#231;o de Endocrinologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS) &#233; um dos principais fatores de risco para a instala&#231;&#227;o e progress&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do diabetes melito (DM) tipo 2. </p>
    <p> A medida da press&#227;o arterial (PA) atrav&#233;s da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA (MAPA) apresenta melhor correla&#231;&#227;o com o desenvolvimento de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo do que a medida no consult&#243;rio. Al&#233;m disso, permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o de par&#226;metros press&#243;ricos distintos como as m&#233;dias das PAs sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica das 24 h, do dia e da noite, cargas press&#243;ricas e aus&#234;ncia do descenso noturno, al&#233;m da identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com HAS do avental branco e mascarada. </p>
    <p> Os pacientes com DM apresentam maiores m&#233;dias de PA diurna e noturna do que os sem DM. Al&#233;m disso, um ter&#231;o do pacientes normotensos com DM tipo 2 apresentam HAS mascarada, que est&#225; associada a um aumento da albumin&#250;ria e da espessura das paredes do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Por outro lado, a preval&#234;ncia e o efeito da HAS do avental branco nos pacientes com DM ainda n&#227;o foram adequadamente avaliados. A determina&#231;&#227;o da aus&#234;ncia do descenso noturno da PA n&#227;o acrescenta informa&#231;&#227;o &#224;s medidas da PA nas 24 h, no dia ou na noite, mas a medida da PA noturna parece ser relevante na retinopatia do DM. </p>
    <p> Em conclus&#227;o, a determina&#231;&#227;o da PA atrav&#233;s da MAPA &#233; capaz de estratificar de forma mais adequada os pacientes em risco para o desenvolvimento das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM e tornou-se um instrumento indispens&#225;vel para o controle efetivo da PA nestes pacientes.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial, diabete melito tipo 2.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Press&#227;o arterial e diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O diabete melito (DM) tipo 2 est&#225; associado ao desenvolvimento de complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas microvasculares e macrovasculares de elevada morbidade e mortalidade<sup>1,2</sup>. Os fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos e mais bem estudados para o desenvolvimento e a progress&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM s&#227;o o tempo de doen&#231;a, a hiperglicemia, a hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS), a dislipidemia e o tabagismo, al&#233;m de fatores gen&#233;ticos<sup>3-8</sup>. O tratamento da hiperglicemia e da HAS resulta em preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e redu&#231;&#227;o da progress&#227;o da retinopatia diab&#233;tica (RD) e nefropatia diab&#233;tica (ND)<sup>9,10</sup>. A HAS parece ter particular import&#226;ncia, pois a redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial (PA) de 154/87 mm Hg para 144/82 mm Hg no estudo <italic>United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study</italic> (UKPDS) resultou em redu&#231;&#227;o de 37% no desenvolvimento de complica&#231;&#245;es microvasculares, enquanto a redu&#231;&#227;o observada para o tratamento intensivo da hiperglicemia foi apenas de 25%<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
    <p>A HAS &#233; prevalente nos pacientes com DM tipo 2, estando presente em 30% no momento do diagn&#243;stico do DM e em at&#233; 73% durante o seu curso cl&#237;nico<sup>1,11</sup>. No entanto, altera&#231;&#245;es da homeostase press&#243;rica podem ocorrer em pacientes com DM sem nenhuma evid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a renal<sup>12,13</sup>.</p>
    <p>O objetivo do presente trabalho &#233; revisar as altera&#231;&#245;es press&#243;ricas presentes em pacientes com DM e determinar o papel da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da PA (MAPA) na identifica&#231;&#227;o dessas altera&#231;&#245;es e a sua indica&#231;&#227;o na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A MAPA come&#231;ou a ser realizada na d&#233;cada de 1960 quando foram desenvolvidos equipamentos n&#227;o-invasivos capazes de medir a PA durante as 24 horas, enquanto o paciente estivesse desenvolvendo as suas atividades di&#225;rias habituais. O primeiro aparelho de MAPA era volumoso, utilizava o m&#233;todo auscultat&#243;rio de medida da PA e necessitava de insufla&#231;&#227;o manual<sup>14</sup>. Somente na d&#233;cada de 1970 foi desenvolvido um sistema port&#225;til de MAPA que possibilitou a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o em pesquisa e na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Todavia, esses aparelhos ainda eram pesados e utilizavam o m&#233;todo auscultat&#243;rio, que dependia da presen&#231;a de um pulso braquial palp&#225;vel e amplo, mas n&#227;o necessitavam de insufla&#231;&#227;o manual.</p>
    <p>Atualmente, a MAPA realiza a medida da PA nas 24 horas por meio de um aparelho port&#225;til totalmente autom&#225;tico constitu&#237;do de um monitor de aproximadamente 350 g, que &#233; acoplado na cintura do paciente e ligado a um manguito de borracha convencional (como os utilizados para a medida da PA no consult&#243;rio), atrav&#233;s de uma c&#226;nula de borracha flex&#237;vel. O manguito &#233; colocado no bra&#231;o n&#227;o-dominante do paciente e realiza medidas de PA com intervalos de tempo que s&#227;o ajustados no <italic>software</italic> do monitor utilizado. Tipicamente, s&#227;o realizadas medidas a cada 15-30 minutos durante o dia e a noite. A medida da PA &#233; realizada pelo m&#233;todo oscilom&#233;trico, que capta as oscila&#231;&#245;es causadas pelo fluxo de sangue que se inicia ap&#243;s a desinsufla&#231;&#227;o do manguito. As oscila&#231;&#245;es come&#231;am antes do primeiro som de Korotkoff (PA sist&#243;lica) utilizado pelo m&#233;todo auscultat&#243;rio e terminam ap&#243;s o quinto som de Korotkoff (PA diast&#243;lica). A maior oscila&#231;&#227;o captada pelo aparelho &#233; a PA m&#233;dia. Os valores de PA sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica registrados no aparelho s&#227;o derivados de f&#243;rmulas matem&#225;ticas estabelecidas para cada marca de monitor.</p>
    <p>Para que um monitor possa ser utilizado em pesquisa ou na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, deve-se realizar a valida&#231;&#227;o contra medidas obtidas pelo man&#244;metro de merc&#250;rio, que continua sendo o m&#233;todo-padr&#227;o de medida de PA<sup>15</sup>. Os monitores validados, conforme protocolos da British Hypertension Society (BHS) ou da Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), podem ser identificados no <italic>site</italic>: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.dableducational.org/sphygmomanometers/devices_3_abpm.htm">http://www.dableducational.org/sphygmomanometers/devices_3_abpm.htm</ext-link>.</p>
    <p>A maioria dos estudos que relacionam a medida da PA e o desenvolvimento de les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, em pacientes com HAS essencial com ou sem DM, foram realizados utilizando como refer&#234;ncia a medida da PA no consult&#243;rio<sup>9,16,17</sup>. No entanto, estudos recentes t&#234;m demonstrado que a medida de PA pela MAPA apresenta melhor correla&#231;&#227;o com os desfechos de interesse do que a medida da PA no consult&#243;rio<sup>18,19</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a ado&#231;&#227;o das medidas da MAPA como par&#226;metro para acompanhamento de pacientes em tratamento da HAS foi superior na predi&#231;&#227;o de desfechos cardiovasculares em compara&#231;&#227;o com a simples medida da PA no consult&#243;rio<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o da MAPA permite a an&#225;lise de par&#226;metros at&#233; ent&#227;o imposs&#237;veis de serem registrados pela medida de PA no consult&#243;rio, como as m&#233;dias de PA sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica de 24 horas, do dia e da noite, as cargas press&#243;ricas e a aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno da PA<sup>21</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, permite a identifica&#231;&#227;o de duas novas categorias de pacientes: com HAS do avental branco e com HAS mascarada. Cada um desses par&#226;metros ser&#225; detalhado a seguir.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Valores press&#243;ricos m&#233;dios</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os valores press&#243;ricos m&#233;dios s&#227;o determinados por meio de c&#225;lculo de m&#233;dias das medidas realizadas no per&#237;odo de 24 horas. As m&#233;dias das PA diurnas e noturnas s&#227;o definidas com base no per&#237;odo de vig&#237;lia e sono relatado pelo paciente no dia do exame. Os valores obtidos em cada uma dessas medidas se correlacionam com aumento da massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e maior mortalidade cardiovascular e geral na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral<sup>22,23</sup>. Com base nos valores press&#243;ricos m&#233;dios, &#233; poss&#237;vel calcular a press&#227;o de pulso (PA sist&#243;lica &#150; PA diast&#243;lica), que &#233; um marcador de maior rigidez arterial.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Cargas press&#243;ricas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As cargas press&#243;ricas s&#227;o definidas pela porcentagem de medidas de PA acima de valores previamente definidos: 24 horas e dia <underline>&amp;gt</underline>140/90 mm Hg e noite <underline>&amp;gt</underline>120/80 mm Hg. As cargas press&#243;ricas &lt;20% s&#227;o consideradas normais, entre 20%-50% intermedi&#225;rias e <underline>&amp;gt</underline>50% elevadas. A eleva&#231;&#227;o na carga press&#243;rica est&#225; associada com desenvolvimento de les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo<sup>24,25</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno da press&#227;o arterial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Existe uma varia&#231;&#227;o circadiana fisiol&#243;gica da PA que &#233; caracterizada por valores mais baixos de PA durante o sono. Ocorre, tipicamente, uma queda da PA noturna maior que 10% em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; m&#233;dia da PA diurna. Dessa maneira, a aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno da PA &#233; definida pela queda de PA noturna &lt;10% ou &#237;ndice noite/dia (N/D) (PA noturna/PA diurna) &gt;0,9<sup>21</sup>. Esse c&#225;lculo &#233; realizado para os valores sist&#243;licos e diast&#243;licos. A aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno da PA est&#225; associada ao desenvolvimento de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo e aumento de mortalidade em diversos contextos<sup>26,27</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o do avental branco</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A HAS do avental branco &#233; definida como presen&#231;a de HAS nas medidas de PA de consult&#243;rio (PA <underline>&amp;gt</underline>140/90 mm Hg) em pacientes com valores normais de PA na MAPA (PA &lt;135/85 mm Hg nas medidas diurnas). Esses pacientes representam de 20% a 30% da popula&#231;&#227;o dos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos<sup>28</sup>. Os pacientes com esse diagn&#243;stico s&#227;o tradicionalmente considerados normotensos e sem necessidade de tratamento. Essa conduta &#233; baseada nos estudos iniciais que demonstraram que esses indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o apresentavam eventos desfavor&#225;veis durante o curso cl&#237;nico da doen&#231;a<sup>29-31</sup>. No entanto, a an&#225;lise criteriosa desses relatos demonstra que os pacientes apresentaram menor les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes com HAS, mas ambos em vig&#234;ncia de tratamento anti-hipertensivo, pois, na log&#237;stica dos estudos, os pacientes eram acompanhados e tratados pelo seu m&#233;dico assistente, que n&#227;o tinha conhecimento dos resultados do MAPA e definia a conduta terap&#234;utica com base nos resultados da PA do consult&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>Estudos mais recentes demonstraram que os pacientes com HAS do avental branco apresentam maior hipertrofia de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<sup>22</sup> e maior mortalidade cardiovascular<sup>32</sup> em compara&#231;&#227;o com os indiv&#237;duos normotensos. Esses achados apontam para um grupo de pacientes com HAS de gravidade intermedi&#225;ria em rela&#231;&#227;o aos normotensos e hipertensos, isto &#233;, apresentam maior les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo do que os normotensos, mas, quando tratados da mesma maneira que os hipertensos, apresentam melhores desfechos cl&#237;nicos do que os &#250;ltimos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o mascarada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A mais recente categoria de pacientes definida pelas medidas da MAPA &#233; a de pacientes com HAS mascarada ou pseudonormotens&#227;o. S&#227;o indiv&#237;duos com PA normal no consult&#243;rio (&lt;140/90 mm Hg), mas classificados como hipertensos na medida da PA diurna da MAPA (<underline>&amp;gt</underline>135/85 mm Hg) e representam 10%-20% dos indiv&#237;duos com PA normal no consult&#243;rio<sup>28</sup>. Esses pacientes apresentaram risco para eventos cardiovasculares semelhantes aos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos<sup>22,32,33</sup>, refor&#231;ando a superioridade da medida da MAPA na defini&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o arterial em pacientes com diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A maioria dos estudos a respeito de padr&#245;es press&#243;ricos em pacientes com DM relata altera&#231;&#245;es nos valores da PA nas 24 horas, mesmo antes do diagn&#243;stico de HAS<sup>34,35</sup>. A an&#225;lise de cada um dos par&#226;metros da MAPA em pacientes com DM ser&#225; discutida, de forma detalhada, a seguir.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Valores press&#243;ricos m&#233;dios e diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os pacientes com DM tipo 1 apresentam maiores m&#233;dias de PA de 24 horas, tanto sist&#243;lica quando diast&#243;lica, em compara&#231;&#227;o com os controles sem DM<sup>36,37</sup>.</p>
    <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre ND e aumento dos valores absolutos de PA na MAPA foi demonstrada at&#233; mesmo em est&#225;gios precoces da les&#227;o renal<sup>12</sup>. Um estudo realizado pelo nosso grupo em pacientes com DM tipo 1 demonstrou que indiv&#237;duos normoalbumin&#250;ricos e hiperfiltrantes (filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular &gt;134 ml/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>) apresentaram maior PA diast&#243;lica noturna quando comparados com pacientes normofiltrantes<sup>12</sup>. Da mesma forma, a an&#225;lise de 117 pacientes normoalbumin&#250;ricos com DM tipo 1 da Dinamarca, agrupados a partir da mediana da excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de albumina (EUA) (EUA = 4,2 &#181;g/min), demonstrou que os pacientes com albumin&#250;ria mais elevada apresentavam maiores n&#237;veis de PA sist&#243;lica nas 24 horas, diurna e noturna, al&#233;m de maiores m&#233;dias de PA diast&#243;lica nas 24 horas e durante a noite<sup>38</sup>. Esses dados foram confirmados em um estudo prospectivo realizado em pacientes com DM tipo 1 normoalbumin&#250;ricos, no qual os pacientes que progrediram para microalbumin&#250;ria apresentavam maiores n&#237;veis de PA diast&#243;lica durante o dia na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial<sup>39</sup>. Resultados semelhantes foram identificados em um estudo transversal realizado em pacientes com DM tipo 2 normoalbumin&#250;ricos<sup>13</sup>. As m&#233;dias das PA nas 24 horas e as press&#245;es de pulso apresentaram correla&#231;&#245;es positivas e significativas com a medida da EUA em uma amostra de 90 pacientes brasileiros<sup>13</sup>. Da mesma maneira, maiores m&#233;dias da PA nas 24 horas, diurna e noturna, maiores PA de pulso e cargas press&#243;ricas foram descritas conforme a progress&#227;o para graus mais avan&#231;ados da ND (microalbumin&#250;ria e macroalbumin&#250;ria) em pacientes com DM tipo 2<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em um estudo transversal realizado no nosso centro, com 270 pacientes com DM tipo 2, os valores m&#233;dios da PA nas 24 horas, no dia e na noite apresentaram correla&#231;&#245;es positivas e significativas com a EUA e com a massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<sup>41</sup>. Os resultados das PA sist&#243;licas foram os mais consistentes e com maior magnitude de associa&#231;&#227;o e permaneceram relacionados ap&#243;s ajustes para poss&#237;veis fatores de confus&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Resultados semelhantes foram descritos para a associa&#231;&#227;o entre as m&#233;dias da PA na MAPA e a RD. O aumento da PA diast&#243;lica noturna foi associado com a presen&#231;a de RD em um estudo transversal em pacientes dinamarqueses com DM tipo 1 <sup>42</sup>. Da mesma maneira, em uma coorte de pacientes com DM tipo 1 brasileiros, a PA diast&#243;lica do dia e das 24 horas previu o desenvolvimento e a progress&#227;o da RD<sup>43</sup>. Nos pacientes com DM tipo 2, um levantamento transversal estabeleceu um aumento progressivo dos valores de PA sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica das 24 horas, do dia e da noite, conforme a gravidade da RD<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da associa&#231;&#227;o dos valores m&#233;dios da PA na MAPA e a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a macrovascular somente foi analisada de forma transversal e em pacientes com DM tipo 2. As m&#233;dias de PA sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica do dia, da noite e a PA de pulso foram maiores nos pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a macrovascular<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Cargas press&#243;ricas e diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A exist&#234;ncia de associa&#231;&#227;o entre maiores cargas press&#243;ricas e aumento da EUA foi demonstrada em pacientes com DM tipo 1<sup>44,45</sup> e tipo 2<sup>13</sup>. Recentemente, correla&#231;&#245;es entre as cargas press&#243;ricas e a EUA, massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, espessura interventricular e parede posterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em pacientes com DM tipo 2<sup>41</sup> foram demonstradas pelo nosso grupo. Da mesma maneira, a presen&#231;a de RD estava associada com maiores valores de carga press&#243;rica diast&#243;lica noturna nessa mesma amostra de pacientes<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aus&#234;ncia do descenso noturno da press&#227;o arterial e diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Uma elevada preval&#234;ncia de aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno da PA foi observada nos pacientes com DM tipo 1<sup>36,37</sup>, podendo atingir at&#233; mesmo 78% dos pacientes em compara&#231;&#227;o com 39% dos controles sem DM<sup>37</sup>. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es nas medidas da MAPA se correlacionam com a presen&#231;a de neuropatia auton&#244;mica cardiovascular (NAC)<sup>46-48</sup>. Os estudos realizados em pacientes com DM tipo 2 apresentam resultados semelhantes<sup>34</sup>. Fogari e cols.<sup>34</sup> analisaram 199 indiv&#237;duos (96 com DM tipo 2 e 103 sem DM) e demonstraram que os pacientes com DM apresentavam uma maior preval&#234;ncia de anormalidades do descenso noturno (sem descenso ou aumento paradoxal da PA durante a noite) em rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles. Essa diferen&#231;a foi semelhante na presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de HAS (30% <italic>versus</italic> 31% nos com DM normotensos e hipertensos, e 6,0% <italic>versus</italic> 6,4% nos controles sem DM normotensos e hipertensos, respectivamente)<sup>34</sup>.</p>
    <p>A maior preval&#234;ncia de aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno nos estudos realizados em pacientes com DM tipo 1 em compara&#231;&#227;o aos com DM tipo 2 (78% <italic>versus</italic> 30%)<sup>34,37</sup> pode estar relacionada &#224; maior descompensa&#231;&#227;o do DM nos primeiros. A hiperglicemia altera o volume plasm&#225;tico circulante, podendo interferir na hemodin&#226;mica renal e distribui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo, alterando o descenso noturno normal da PA. Al&#233;m disso, a insulina apresenta um papel importante na regula&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo. A melhora do controle glic&#234;mico por uma semana em pacientes com DM do tipo 1 diminuiu as m&#233;dias press&#243;ricas da MAPA e aumentou a queda da PA durante a noite<sup>49</sup>, refor&#231;ando a teoria exposta.</p>
    <p>A aus&#234;ncia do descenso da PA durante o sono foi estudada em filhos de pacientes com DM tipo 2, n&#227;o sendo encontradas diferen&#231;as em rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles, isto &#233;, indiv&#237;duos sem hist&#243;ria familiar de DM<sup>50</sup>. No entanto, em um subgrupo de n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos com hist&#243;ria familiar de DM tipo 2, mas que j&#225; apresentavam NAC, foi demonstrada menor queda da PA durante a noite<sup>50</sup>, confirmando a impress&#227;o de que a aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno &#233; uma caracter&#237;stica relacionada ao DM, presente at&#233; mesmo em indiv&#237;duos suscet&#237;veis mas sem a express&#227;o cl&#237;nica do DM, e determinada pela presen&#231;a de NAC. Posteriormente, foi demonstrado que pacientes com DM tipo 1 normotensos e normoalbumin&#250;ricos sem descenso noturno apresentavam maior preval&#234;ncia de testes para NAC alterados<sup>51</sup>. Nestes, a aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno se correlacionou com a EUA na an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla<sup>51</sup>, sugerindo uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno e maiores n&#237;veis de EUA.</p>
    <p>A contribui&#231;&#227;o da aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno para o desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM permanece, no entanto, controversa. A maioria dos estudos que analisaram esse par&#226;metro da MAPA enfocaram o desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o da ND. Alguns autores encontraram resultados positivos<sup>35,40,52-56</sup>, enquanto outros n&#227;o foram capazes de estabelecer essa rela&#231;&#227;o<sup>44,57,58</sup>. A maioria dos estudos foi realizada com delineamento transversal ou de casos e de controles, sugerindo apenas associa&#231;&#227;o entre o fator em estudo (descenso noturno) e o desfecho (ND), e alguns apresentaram an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de dados suscet&#237;veis a cr&#237;ticas<sup>54,55</sup>. Apenas dois estudos foram prospectivos, ambos em coortes de pacientes com DM tipo 1 normoalbumin&#250;ricos, e acompanharam os pacientes at&#233; o desenvolvimento de microalbumin&#250;ria<sup>39,59</sup>. No primeiro deles, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre aus&#234;ncia de descenso e desenvolvimento de microalbumin&#250;ria desapareceu ap&#243;s controle para dura&#231;&#227;o do DM<sup>59</sup>. No segundo estudo, essa associa&#231;&#227;o s&#243; foi evidente na MAPA realizada no seguimento dos pacientes (e n&#227;o na avalia&#231;&#227;o basal), sugerindo que o surgimento da microalbumin&#250;ria e aumento da PA noturna sejam concomitantes<sup>39,60</sup>.</p>
    <p>Um aspecto at&#233; o momento n&#227;o levado em considera&#231;&#227;o na interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados desses estudos &#233; o valor m&#233;dio da PA dos pacientes sem descenso noturno da PA. A maioria dos resultados aponta para maiores valores de PA sist&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas nos grupos de pacientes que progridem para microalbumin&#250;ria ou est&#225;gios mais avan&#231;ados de les&#227;o renal<sup>39,40</sup>, e, dessa maneira, a eleva&#231;&#227;o das m&#233;dias de PA seria respons&#225;vel pelos piores desfechos e n&#227;o a aus&#234;ncia do descenso. Por esse motivo, realizamos um estudo a fim de determinar a import&#226;ncia relativa de diversos par&#226;metros press&#243;ricos em rela&#231;&#227;o a desfechos microvasculares (ND e RD) e altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais card&#237;acas (massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, espessura do septo interventricular e da parede posterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo) em 270 pacientes com DM tipo 2<sup>41</sup>. Os valores m&#233;dios de PA, principalmente as medidas sist&#243;licas na MAPA, apresentaram correla&#231;&#245;es mais consistentes e de maior magnitude com os desfechos do que os &#237;ndices N/D da PA. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; EUA e &#224;s espessuras das paredes do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, os &#237;ndices N/D perderam a associa&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s os ajustes para potenciais fatores de confus&#227;o. A PA noturna e o &#237;ndice N/D da PA diast&#243;lica foram mais relevantes e agregaram informa&#231;&#227;o aos demais valores da PA somente quando o desfecho analisado foi a RD.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o do avental branco e diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o do avental branco foi inicialmente descrita como sendo maior nos pacientes com DM, podendo chegar a 74% nos pacientes com DM tipo 1<sup>61</sup> e 51% nos com DM tipo 2<sup>62</sup>. Posteriormente, esses achados foram contestados em pacientes com DM tipo 2. Nielsen e cols.<sup>63</sup> encontraram uma preval&#234;ncia de avental branco de 23% nos normoalbumin&#250;ricos, 8% nos microalbumin&#250;ricos e 9% nos macroalbumin&#250;ricos. Dessa maneira, os pacientes normoalbumin&#250;ricos n&#227;o diferiram da preval&#234;ncia esperada para pacientes hipertensos essenciais (20%-30%)<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>A pequena preval&#234;ncia de HAS do avental branco nos pacientes com microalbumin&#250;ria e macroalbumin&#250;ria &#233; decorrente da alta incid&#234;ncia de HAS estabelecida nesses grupos. Esses dados n&#227;o foram replicados, e a repercuss&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico da HAS do avental branco nas complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM n&#227;o foi adequadamente avaliada at&#233; o momento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o mascarada e diabete melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia da HAS mascarada em pacientes com DM tipo 2 &#233; de 30%<sup>64</sup>, maior do que a relatada na literatura para indiv&#237;duos sem DM (10%-20%)<sup>28</sup>. O efeito da HAS mascarada sobre as complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM somente foi avaliado em um estudo em pacientes com DM tipo 2 brasileiros<sup>64</sup>. Foi observada maior EUA, maior preval&#234;ncia de albumin&#250;ria normal-alta, microalbumin&#250;ria e macroalbuminuria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">fig. 1</xref>) e maiores espessuras das paredes do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Essas associa&#231;&#245;es foram independentes das medidas da PA no consult&#243;rio.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-05-0347-00012-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Indica&#231;&#245;es de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial em pacientes com diabete Melito</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As indica&#231;&#245;es cl&#225;ssicas para a realiza&#231;&#227;o da MAPA em pacientes com DM tipo 1 e 2, presentes nos consensos nacionais e internacionais, s&#227;o as mesmas dos pacientes sem DM<sup>21,65</sup>: 1. suspeita de HAS do avental branco, 2. avalia&#231;&#227;o de HAS resistente (PA n&#227;o controlada no consult&#243;rio apesar do uso de tr&#234;s ou mais anti-hipertensivos com mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o diferentes), 3. HAS epis&#243;dica (medidas da PA no consult&#243;rio normais ou elevadas com hist&#243;ria de medidas casuais maiores detectadas em momentos epis&#243;dicos), 4. suspeita de epis&#243;dios de hipotens&#227;o e 5. avalia&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia terap&#234;utica anti-hipertensiva.</p>
    <p>Diante dos dados expostos nesta revis&#227;o, prop&#245;e-se uma amplia&#231;&#227;o nas indica&#231;&#245;es cl&#225;ssicas de realiza&#231;&#227;o da MAPA em pacientes com DM. Visto que 30% dos pacientes normotensos com DM tipo 2 apresentam HAS mascarada, associada com aumento da EUA e da espessura das cavidades card&#237;acas, e que a PA noturna est&#225; associada com a presen&#231;a da RD, recomenda-se a realiza&#231;&#227;o da MAPA em todos os pacientes com DM, a fim de que seja poss&#237;vel a realiza&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico da HAS mascarada e avalia&#231;&#227;o da PA noturna.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo da homeostase press&#243;rica, por meio da MAPA, tem possibilitado o esclarecimento do papel da HAS no desenvolvimento de les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo em pacientes com HAS essencial. Al&#233;m disso, permite a an&#225;lise de novas classes de hipertensos (por exemplo, HAS do avental branco e HAS mascarada) e de vari&#225;veis associadas &#224; PA at&#233; ent&#227;o n&#227;o estudadas (por exemplo, cargas press&#243;ricas e aus&#234;ncia do descenso noturno da PA) e que alteram o progn&#243;stico dos pacientes em risco.</p>
    <p>A transposi&#231;&#227;o desses resultados para os indiv&#237;duos com DM tem confirmado a maioria dos achados e assim agregado dados novos aos conceitos j&#225; estabelecidos. Os pacientes com DM apresentam uma elevada preval&#234;ncia da HAS mascarada que est&#225; associada com les&#227;o renal e card&#237;aca. A preval&#234;ncia ao efeito da HAS do avental branco nos pacientes com DM ainda necessita de avalia&#231;&#227;o mais criteriosa. Os piores desfechos renais atribu&#237;dos &#224; aus&#234;ncia de descenso noturno da PA parecem ser, na verdade, decorrentes de maiores valores das m&#233;dias de PA na MAPA. A PA noturna e os &#237;ndices N/D da PA parecem ser importantes apenas para o desenvolvimento da RD.</p>
    <p>Em conclus&#227;o, a determina&#231;&#227;o da PA pela MAPA &#233; capaz de estratificar de forma mais adequada os pacientes em risco para o desenvolvimento das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do DM e tornou-se um instrumento indispens&#225;vel para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da PA nesses pacientes. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos com o tratamento da PA baseado no controle de cada um dos par&#226;metros da MAPA s&#227;o necess&#225;rios a fim de estabelecer o real benef&#237;cio renal, ocular e cardiovascular dessa estrat&#233;gia no tratamento de pacientes com DM.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito de interesses.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por Fundo de Incentivo a Pesquisa (FIPE) do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre e CNPq.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Cristiane Bauermann Leit&#227;o, Luis Henrique Santos Canani, Sandra Pinho Silveiro e Jorge Luiz Gross pelo Programa de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas: Endocrinologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Cristiane Bauermann Leit&#227;o </p>
        <p> Servi&#231;o de Endocrinologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre </p>
        <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, n. 2350, pr&#233;dio 12, 4&#186; andar </p>
        <p> 90035-003 - Porto Alegre, RS - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="crisbleitao@yahoo.com.br">crisbleitao@yahoo.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Artigo recebido em 07/03/07; revisado recebido em 15/03/07; aceito em 23/03/07.</p>
  </body>
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          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Leit&#227;o</surname>
              <given-names>CB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Canani</surname>
              <given-names>LH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kramer</surname>
              <given-names>CK</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Boza</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pinotti</surname>
              <given-names>AF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gross</surname>
              <given-names>JL</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B65">
        <mixed-citation>65.  Guimaraes JI, Gomes MA, Mion Junior D, Nobre F, Mendonca MA, Cruz LL, et al. Standardization  of equipments and techniques for exams of ambulatory blood pressure mapping and  home blood pressure monitoring. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2003; 80: 225-33.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Standardization of equipments and techniques for exams of ambulatory blood pressure mapping and home blood pressure monitoring</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>225</fpage>
          <lpage>33</lpage>
          <volume>80</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Guimaraes</surname>
              <given-names>JI</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gomes</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mion Junior</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nobre</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mendonca</surname>
              <given-names>MA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Cruz</surname>
              <given-names>LL</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and type 2 diabetes mellitus</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Hypertension is one of the main risk factors for the onset and progression of chronic complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM). Ambulatory blood pressure (BP) monitoring (ABPM) provides a better correlation with target organ lesions than BP obtained in the office. Furthermore, it allows the evaluation of distinct BP parameters such as the 24-h, daytime and nighttime systolic and diastolic BP means, BP loads and the absence of nocturnal drop of BP, as well as the identification of white-coat and masked hypertension. DM patients have higher daytime and nighttime BP means than non-DM patients. In addition, one third of normotensive type 2 DM patients have masked hypertension, which is associated with an increase in albuminuria and in left ventricle wall thickness. On the other hand, the prevalence and effect of white-coat hypertension in type 2 DM patients have not yet been properly evaluated. The absence of nocturnal drop of BP does not add information to the 24 h, daytime or nighttime BP measurements, but the nighttime BP means seem to be relevant in DM retinopathy. In conclusion, BP determination by ABPM allows better patient risk stratification for the development of DM chronic complications and is an essential instrument for effective BP control in these patients.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Blood pressure monitoring, ambulatory</kwd>
        <kwd>diabetes mellitus type 2</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring and type 2 diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cristiane Bauermann Leit&#227;o; Lu&#237;s Henrique Canani; Sandra Pinho Silveiro; Jorge Luiz Gross</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Servi&#231;o de Endocrinologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertension is one of the main risk factors for the onset and progression of chronic complications in type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM).</p>
      <p> Ambulatory blood pressure (BP) monitoring (ABPM) provides a better correlation with target organ lesions than BP obtained in the office. Furthermore, it allows the evaluation of distinct BP parameters such as the 24-h, daytime and nighttime systolic and diastolic BP means, BP loads and the absence of nocturnal drop of BP, as well as the identification of white-coat and masked hypertension.</p>
      <p> DM patients have higher daytime and nighttime BP means than non-DM patients. In addition, one third of normotensive type 2 DM patients have masked hypertension, which is associated with an increase in albuminuria and in left ventricle wall thickness. On the other hand, the prevalence and effect of white-coat hypertension in type 2 DM patients have not yet been properly evaluated. The absence of nocturnal drop of BP does not add information to the 24 h, daytime or nighttime BP measurements, but the nighttime BP means seem to be relevant in DM retinopathy.</p>
      <p> In conclusion, BP determination by ABPM allows better patient risk stratification for the development of DM chronic complications and is an essential instrument for effective BP control in these patients.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Blood pressure monitoring, ambulatory; diabetes mellitus type 2.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Arterial pressure and diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) is associated with the development of chronic microvascular and macrovascular complications with high rates of morbidity and mortality<sup>1,2</sup>. The classic and most analyzed risk factors for the development and progression of chronic DM complications are DM duration, hyperglycemia, arterial hypertension (AH), dyslipidemia, and smoking, besides genetic factors<sup>3-8</sup>. The treatment of hyperglycemia and SAH results in primary prevention and reduction of the progression of diabetic retinopathy (DR) and diabetic nephropathy (DN)<sup>9,10</sup>. SAH seems to have particular importance, since the decrease in arterial blood pressure (BP) from 154/87 mm Hg to 144/82 mm Hg in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) resulted in a 37% reduction in development of microvascular complications, whereas the drop observed with the intensive treatment of hyperglycemia was merely 25%<sup>9,10</sup>.</p>
      <p>SAH is prevalent in patients with Type 2 DM, and is currently present in 30% of cases at the time of DM diagnosis and in up to 73% during the clinical course<sup>1,11</sup>. However, pressure homeostasis modifications can occur in DM patients with no evidence of renal disease<sup>12,13</sup>.</p>
      <p>The objective of this paper is to review the pressure changes present in DM patients and determine the role of ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (ABPM) in the identification of these changes and the indication of ABPM in clinical practice.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring</bold>
      </p>
      <p>ABPM was first performed in the 1960s, when noninvasive equipment was developed which was capable of measuring BP during 24 hours while the patient was carrying on his habitual daily activities. The first ABPM apparatus was bulky, used an auscultatory method for measuring BP, and required manual cuff inflation<sup>14</sup>. It was only in the 1970s that a portable ABPM system was developed, enabling its use in research and clinical practice. Nevertheless, these devices were still heavy and used the auscultatory method, depending on the presence of a palpable and ample brachial pulse, although they did not require manual cuff inflation.</p>
      <p>Currently, ABPM performs BP measurements for 24 hours by means of a totally automatic portable device comprised of a monitor weighing approximately 350g, attached at the patient's waist and connected to a conventional rubber cuff (such as those used for BP measurement in the medical office) through a flexible rubber cannula. The cuff is placed on the patient's non-dominant arm and measures the BP at intervals adjusted on the software of the monitor used. Typically, measurements are made every 15-30 minutes during the day and night. BP is measured by the oscillometric method, which captures oscillations caused by the blood flow that begins after the cuff is deflated. Oscillations start before the first Korotkoff sound (systolic BP) utilized by the auscultatory method, and end after the fifth Korotkoff sound (diastolic BP). The greatest oscillation captured by the apparatus is the mean BP. The systolic and diastolic BP values registered on the device are derived from mathematical formulas established for each brand of monitor.</p>
      <p>For a monitor to be used in research work or clinical practice, it needs to be validated against measurements obtained by the mercury manometer, which remains the standard method for BP measurement<sup>15</sup>. Monitors validated according to protocols of the British Hypertension Society (BHS) or the Association for the Advancement of Medical Instrumentation (AAMI), can be identified at this website:e <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.dableducational.org/sphygmomanometers/devices_3_abpm.htm">http://www.dableducational.org/sphygmomanometers/devices_3_abpm.htm</ext-link>.</p>
      <p>Most studies correlating BP measurement and the development of target-organ lesions in patients with essential SAH, with or without DM, were carried out using as reference the BP value measured in the medical office<sup>9,16,17</sup>. However, recent studies have shown that BP measured by ABPM presents a better correlation with the outcomes of interest than office BP measurement<sup>18,19</sup>. Additionally, the adoption of ABPM measurements as the parameter for follow-up of patients under treatment for SAH was superior in predicting cardiovascular outcomes, compared to the simple office measurement of BP<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Use of ABPM allows analysis of parameters previously impossible to be recorded by BP measurements in the medical office, such as 24-hour day and night systolic and diastolic BP, pressure loads, and absence of nocturnal BP fall<sup>21</sup>. In addition, it allows identification of two new categories of patients: with white coat arterial hypertension and with masked arterial hypertension. Each of these parameters will be detailed below.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mean pressure values</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Mean pressure values are determined by calculating the means of the measurements obtained over a 24-hour period. Means of daytime and nighttime BP are defined based on the period of alertness and sleep reported by the patient on the day of the test. The values obtained for each one of these measurements correlate with an increase in the left ventricular mass and greater cardiovascular and general mortality of the population as a whole<sup>22,23</sup>. Based on these mean pressure values, it is possible to calculate the pulse pressure (systolic BP &#150; diastolic BP), which is a marker of greater arterial rigidity.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pressure loads</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Pressure loads are defined by the percentage of BP measurements higher than previously defined values: 24 hours and daytime <underline>&amp;gt</underline>140/90 mm Hg and nighttime <underline>&amp;gt</underline>120/80 mm Hg. Pressure loads &lt;20% are considered normal; between 20% and 50% are intermediate; and <underline>&amp;gt</underline>50% are considered elevated. Pressure load elevation is associated with the development of target-organ damage<sup>24,25</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Absence of nocturnal blood pressure fall</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There is a physiological circadian variation of the BP characterized by the lowest BP levels during sleep. Typically, there is a drop in nocturnal BP greater than 10% relative to the mean daytime BP. Thus, the absence of a nocturnal BP fall is defined by a nocturnal BP fall &lt;10% or a night/day index (N/D) (nocturnal BP/daytime BP) &gt;0.9<sup>21</sup>. This calculation is made for the systolic and diastolic readings. The absence of a nocturnal BP fall is associated with the development of target-organ injury and increased mortality in different contexts<sup>26,27</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>White Coat Hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>White coat arterial hypertension is defined as the presence of SAH in office BP measurements (BP <underline>&amp;gt</underline>140/90 mm Hg) in patients with normal BP values by ABPM (BP &lt;135/85 mm Hg in daytime measurements). These patients represent 20% to 30% of the population of hypertensive individuals<sup>28</sup>. Patients with this diagnosis are traditionally considered normotensive and in no need of treatment. This position is based on initial studies that show that these individuals experienced no disfavorable events during the clinical course of the disease<sup>29-31</sup>. However, a careful analysis of these reports shows that patients experienced less target-organ injury compared to those with SAH, but both in the presence of antihypertensive treatment, since, in the logistics of the trials, patients were followed-up and treated by their referring physician, who had no knowledge of the ABPM results and defined treatment based on office BP levels.</p>
      <p>More recent studies have shown that patients with white coat arterial hypertension have greater left ventricular hypertrophy<sup>22</sup> and greater cardiovascular mortality<sup>32</sup>, when compared to normotensive individuals. These findings point to a group of patients with SAH of an intermediate degree of severity in relation to normotensive and hypertensive subjects, i.e., they have greater target-organ injury than normotensive individuals, but when they are treated in the same manner as those with hypertension, they present better clinical outcomes than hypertensive patients do.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Masked hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The most recent category of patients defined by ABPM measurements is that of patients with masked SAH or pseudonormotension. These are individuals with normal office BP levels (&lt;140/90 mm Hg), who are classified as hypertensive by the daytime ABPM measurements of BP (<underline>&amp;gt</underline>135/85 mm Hg) and represent 10% to 20% of individuals with normal office BP values<sup>28</sup>. These patients showed a risk for cardiovascular events similar to that of hypertensive individuals<sup>22,32,33</sup>, reinforcing the superiority of the ABPM measurement in defining cardiovascular risk.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Blood pressure monitoring in diabetes mellitus patients</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Most studies on pressure patterns in DM patients report BP modifications during the 24 hours, even before the diagnosis of SAH<sup>34,35</sup>. The analysis of each one of the ABPM parameters in patients with DM will be discussed in detail below.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mean pressure values and diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Patients with Type 1 DM have higher 24-hour BP means, both systolic and diastolic, in comparison with controls who do not have DM<sup>36,37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The association between DN and an increase in absolute BP values in ABPM was demonstrated even during early stages of renal injury<sup>12</sup>. One study carried out by our group in Type 1 DM subjects showed that normoalbuminuric and hyperfiltrating individuals (glomerular filtration &gt;134 ml/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>) presented higher levels of diastolic nocturnal BP when compared to normofiltrating patients<sup>12</sup>. Similarly, an analysis of 117 normoalbuminuric patients with Type 1 DM in Denmark, grouped according to the median urinary albumin excretion (UAE) (UAE = 4.2 &#181;g/min), showed that patients with higher albuminuria rates presented higher levels of 24-hour systolic BP, both daytime and nighttime, besides higher diastolic BP means over the 24 hours and during the night<sup>38</sup>. These data were confirmed in a prospective study carried out in normoalbuminuric Type 1 DM patients, in which those patients who progressed to microalbuminuria had higher daytime levels of diastolic BP at the initial assessment<sup>39</sup>. Similar results were identified in a cross-section study performed in normoalbuminuric Type 2 DM patients<sup>13</sup>. The 24-hour BP means and the pulse pressures showed positive and significant correlations with the UAE measurement in a sample of 90 Brazilian patients<sup>13</sup>. Likewise, higher 24-hour BP means, both daytime and nighttime, and higher pulse BP and pressure loads were described alongside the progression to more advanced degrees of DN (microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria) in Type 2 DM patients<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>In a cross-section study conducted at our institution with 270 Type 2 DM patients, mean BP values in 24 hours, both daytime and nighttime, presented positive and significant correlations with UAE and with left ventricular mass<sup>41</sup>. The systolic BP results were the most consistent and showed the greatest association magnitude, and remained related after adjustments for possible confounding factors.</p>
      <p>Similar results were described for the association between BP means in ABPM and DR. Increased nocturnal diastolic BP was associated with the presence of DR in a cross-section study in Danish patients with Type 1 DM<sup>42</sup>. In the same way, in a cohort with Brazilian Type 1 DM patients, the diastolic daytime and 24-hour BP predicted the development and progression of DR<sup>43</sup>. In patients with Type 2 DM, a cross-section survey established a progressive increase in 24-hour systolic and diastolic BP values, both daytime and nighttime, according to the severity of the DR<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>The evaluation of the association between mean BP values in ABPM and the presence of macrovascular disease was performed cross-sectionally and in Type 2 DM patients. Systolic and diastolic daytime and nighttime BP means, and pulse BP were greater in patients diagnosed with macrovascular disease<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pressure loads and diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The existence of an association between greater pressure loads and increased UAE was demonstrated in patients with DM Type 1<sup>44,45</sup> and Type 2<sup>13</sup>. Recently, correlations between pressure loads and UAE, left ventricular mass, interventricular thickness, and left posterior ventricular wall in Type 2 DM patients<sup>41</sup> were demonstrated by our group. Similarly, the presence of DR was associated with higher levels of nighttime diastolic pressure loads in this same sample of patients<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Absence of nocturnal dipping pattern of blood pressure fall and diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>An elevated prevalence non-dipping pattern of BP fall absence was observed in patients with Type 1 DM<sup>36,37</sup>, reaching up to 78% of patients, as compared to 39% of the controls who did not have DM<sup>37</sup>. These changes in ABPM measurements correlate with the presence of cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy (CAN)<sup>46-48</sup>. The studies conducted in Type 2 DM patients showed similar results<sup>34</sup>. Fogari et al<sup>34</sup> analyzed 199 individuals (96 with Type 2 DM and 103 without DM) and demonstrated that the DM patients had a higher prevalence of nocturnal BP fall abnormalities (no fall or a paradoxical BP rise during the night) in relation to the controls. This difference was similar in the presence or absence of SAH (30% <italic>versus</italic> 31% in normotensive and hypertensive DM individuals, and 6.0% <italic>versus</italic> 6.4% in normotensive and hypertensive controls without DM, respectively)<sup>34</sup>.</p>
      <p>The greatest prevalence of absence of nocturnal BP fall in the studies carried out in Type 1 DM patients compared to those with Type 2 DM (78% <italic>versus</italic> 30%)<sup>34,37</sup> may be related to greater DM decompensation in the first group. Hyperglycemia modifies circulating plasma volume, and can interfere in renal hemodynamics and blood flow distribution, changing the normal nocturnal BP fall. Additionally, insulin plays an important role in regulating the autonomous nervous system. Improvement in glycemic control for one week in Type 1 DM decreased the ABPM pressure means and increased the BP fall during the night<sup>49</sup>, reinforcing the theory exposed.</p>
      <p>The absence of a BP fall during sleep was studied in children of Type 2 DM patients, and no differences were found in relation to controls, i.e., individuals with no family history of DM<sup>50</sup>. However, a subgroup of non-diabetic subjects with a family history of Type 2 DM who already presented CAN showed a smaller nocturnal BP fall<sup>50</sup>. This confirms the impression that the absence of nocturnal BP fall is a characteristic related to DM, and is present even in individuals who are susceptible, but without the clinical expression of DM, and is determined by the presence of CAN. Later on it was shown that Type 1 DM patients who are normotensive and normoalbuminuric without a nocturnal BP fall presented a greater prevalence of abnormal CAN tests<sup>51</sup>. In these patients, the absence of a nocturnal BP fall was correlated with UAE in the multiple linear regression analysis<sup>51</sup>, suggesting an association between the absence of a nocturnal BP fall and higher UAE levels.</p>
      <p>Nevertheless, the contribution of the absence of a nocturnal BP fall in the development and progression of chronic DM complications remains controversial. Most studies that analyzed this ABPM parameter focused on the development and progression of DN. Some authors found positive results<sup>35,40,52-56</sup>, while others were not able to establish this relationship<sup>44,57,58</sup>. Most studies were carried out cross-sectionally or with cases and controls, merely suggesting an association between the factor under study (nocturnal BP fall) and the outcome (DN), and some presented statistical analysis and data interpretation susceptible to criticism<sup>54,55</sup>. Only two studies were prospective, both in cohorts of Type 1 DM normoalbuminuric patients, and followed the subjects up until de development of microalbuminuria<sup>39,59</sup>. In the first study, the association between the absence of a nocturnal BP fall and microalbuminuria development disappeared after control for DM duration<sup>59</sup>. In the second study, this association was only evident in the ABPM performed during patient follow-up (and not at the baseline assessment), suggesting that the appearance of microalbuminuria and nocturnal BP increased are concomitant<sup>39,60</sup>.</p>
      <p>One aspect not taken into account so far in the interpretation of the data from these studies is the mean BP value of patients without a nocturnal BP fall. Most of the results point to greater systolic and diastolic BP values in the groups of patients that progress to microalbuminuria or more advances stages of renal injury<sup>39,40</sup>, and in this way, the elevation of BP means, and not the absence of a nocturnal BP fall, would be responsible for the worst outcomes. For this reason, we conducted a study in order to determine the relative importance of several pressure parameters regarding microvascular outcomes (DN and DR) and cardiac structural alterations (left ventricular mass, thickness of the interventricular septum, and of the left ventricular posterior wall) in 270 patients with Type 2 DM<sup>41</sup>. The mean BP values, especially systolic ABPM measurements, showed correlations that were more consistent and of greater magnitude with the outcomes than the blood pressure N/D indices. As to UAE and wall thicknesses of the left ventricle, the N/D indices lost their association after adjustments for potential confounding factors. Nocturnal BP and the diastolic blood pressure N/D index were more relevant and added information to the other BP values only when the outcome analyzed was DR.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>White coat hypertension and diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The prevalence of white coat hypertension was first described as being greater in patients with DM, reaching up to 74% of patients with Type 1 DM<sup>61</sup> and 51% of those with Type 2 DM<sup>62</sup>. Later on, these findings were challenged in Type 2 DM patients. Nielsen et al<sup>63</sup>, found 23% white coat prevalence in normoalbuminuric individuals, 8% in microalbuminuric individuals, and 9% in macroalbuminuric patients. Thus, normoalbuminuric patients did not differ from the prevalence expected for essential hypertension patients (20%-30%)<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>The low prevalence of white coat arterial hypertension in patients with microalbuminuria and macroalbuminuria is a consequence of the high incidence of SAH established in these groups. These data were not replicated, and the repercussions of white coat arterial hypertension diagnosis in chronic complications of DM have not yet been adequately evaluated.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Masked hypertension and diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The prevalence of masked SAH in Type 2 DM patients is 30%<sup>64</sup>, greater than that which is described in medical literature for individuals without DM (10%-20%)<sup>28</sup>. The effect of masked SAH on chronic DM complications was only assessed in a study in Brazilian Type 2 DM patients<sup>64</sup>. Greater UAE, greater prevalence of normal-high albuminuria, microalbuminuria, and macroalbuminuria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_12f1-body2">fig. 1</xref>), and greater left ventricular wall thickness were observed. These associations were independent from the office BP measurements.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_12f1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-05-0347-00012-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Indications for ambulatory blood pressure monitoring in patients with diabetes mellitus</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The classic indications for ABPM in patients with Type 1 and Type 2 DM, present in national and international consensuses, are the same as those for patients without DM<sup>21,65</sup>: 1. suspected white coat arterial hypertension; 2. evaluation of resistant SAH (BP not controlled at the office, despite the use of three or more antihypertensive agents with different action mechanisms ); 3. episodic SAH (normal or elevated office BP measurements with a history of greater casual measurements detected at episodic moments); 4. suspected episodes of hypotension; 5. evaluation of antihypertensive treatment efficacy.</p>
      <p>In light of the data exposed in this review, we propose an amplification of the classic indications for use of ABPM in patients with DM. Since 30% of Type 2 normotensive patients had masked SAH associated with an increase of UAE and heart cavities thickness, and the fact that nocturnal BP is associated with the presence of DR, we recommend the use of ABPM in all DM patients, in order to enable the diagnosis of masked SAH and the assessment of nocturnal BP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Final considerations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The study of pressure homeostasis by means of ABPM has made it possible to clarify the role of SAH in the development of target-organ injury in patients with essential SAH. It also allows analysis of new classes of hypertensive individuals (e.g., with white coat arterial hypertension and masked arterial hypertension) and of variables associated with BP that have not yet been studied (e.g., pressure loads and absence of nocturnal BP fall) that alter the prognosis of patients at risk.</p>
      <p>The transposition of these results to individuals with DM has confirmed most of the findings, and has therefore added new data to concepts already established. Patients with DM have a high prevalence of masked SAH that is associated with renal and cardiac damage. The prevalence of the white coat arterial hypertension effect in DM patients needs a more careful evaluation. The worst renal outcomes attributed to the absence of a nocturnal BP fall seem to be, in fact, the results of higher values of BP measured by ABPM. Nocturnal BP and the N/D indices of BP seem to be important only for the development of DR.</p>
      <p>In summary, BP determination by ABPM is capable of more adequately stratifying patients at risk for developing chronic complications of DM, and has become an indispensable instrument for BP measurement in these patients. Clinical studies with BP treatment based on the control of each of the ABPM parameters are necessary in order to establish the true renal, ocular, and cardiovascular benefits of this treatment strategy in patients with DM.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was partially funded by Fundo de Incentivo a Pesquisa (FIPE) do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre e CNPq.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis of doctoral submitted by Cristiane Bauermann Leit&#227;o, from Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="back-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Cristiane Bauermann Leit&#227;o</p>
          <p> Servi&#231;o de Endocrinologia do Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</p>
          <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, n. 2350, pr&#233;dio 12, 4&#186; andar</p>
          <p> 90035-003 &#150; Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="crisbleitao@yahoo.com.br">crisbleitao@yahoo.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p> Manuscript received March 7, 2007; revised manuscript received March 15, 2007; accepted March 23, 2007.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
