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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">F3d9f7bqPpMvvsCyvxW8KBQ</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007001500002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08900302</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007001500002</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Efeitos do betacaroteno e do tabagismo sobre a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca p&#243;s-infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Duarte</surname>
            <given-names>Daniella R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Minicucci</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Matsubara</surname>
            <given-names>Beatriz B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Matsubara</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campana</surname>
            <given-names>&#193;lvaro O.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio A. R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>89</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>151</fpage>
      <lpage>157</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>01</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Analisar os efeitos do betacaroteno no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular ap&#243;s o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), em ratos expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro. M&#201;TODOS: Ap&#243;s o IAM, os animais foram divididos em quatro grupos: 1) grupo C, 24 animais que receberam dieta-padr&#227;o; 2) grupo BC, 26 animais que receberam betacaroteno; 3) grupo EFC, 26 animais que receberam dieta-padr&#227;o e foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro; e 4) grupo BC+EFC, 20 animais que receberam betacaroteno e foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro. Ap&#243;s seis meses, foi realizado estudo morfofuncional. Utilizou-se signific&#226;ncia de 5%. RESULTADOS: Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s &#225;reas diast&#243;licas (AD) e sist&#243;licas (AS), os valores do grupo BC foram maiores que os do grupo C. Considerando a AD/peso corporal (PC) e AS/PC, os valores do grupo BC+EFC foram maiores que os valores de C. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; fra&#231;&#227;o de varia&#231;&#227;o de &#225;rea, foram observadas diferen&#231;as significativas entre EFC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores) e entre BC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores). N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tamanho do infarto. O grupo EFC apresentou valores maiores da &#225;rea seccional dos mi&#243;citos (ASM) que os animais-controle. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, o grupo BC+EFC apresentou maiores valores de ASM que BC, EFC e C. CONCLUS&#195;O: Ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, o tabagismo e o betacaroteno promoveram intensifica&#231;&#227;o do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca; houve potencializa&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos delet&#233;rios no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o com os dois tratamentos em conjunto.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Betacaroteno</kwd>
        <kwd>tabagismo</kwd>
        <kwd>infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>25</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Efeitos do betacaroteno e do tabagismo sobre a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca p&#243;s-infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Leonardo A. M. Zornoff; Daniella R. Duarte; Marcos F. Minicucci; Paula S. Azevedo; Beatriz B. Matsubara; Luiz S. Matsubara; &#193;lvaro O. Campana; Sergio A. R. Paiva</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu da Universidade Estadual de S&#227;o Paulo - Botucatu, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Analisar os efeitos do betacaroteno no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular ap&#243;s o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), em ratos expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Ap&#243;s o IAM, os animais foram divididos em quatro grupos: 1) grupo C, 24 animais que receberam dieta-padr&#227;o; 2) grupo BC, 26 animais que receberam betacaroteno; 3) grupo EFC, 26 animais que receberam dieta-padr&#227;o e foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro; e 4) grupo BC+EFC, 20 animais que receberam betacaroteno e foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro. Ap&#243;s seis meses, foi realizado estudo morfofuncional. Utilizou-se signific&#226;ncia de 5%. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s &#225;reas diast&#243;licas (AD) e sist&#243;licas (AS), os valores do grupo BC foram maiores que os do grupo C. Considerando a AD/peso corporal (PC) e AS/PC, os valores do grupo BC+EFC foram maiores que os valores de C. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; fra&#231;&#227;o de varia&#231;&#227;o de &#225;rea, foram observadas diferen&#231;as significativas entre EFC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores) e entre BC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores). N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tamanho do infarto. O grupo EFC apresentou valores maiores da &#225;rea seccional dos mi&#243;citos (ASM) que os animais-controle. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, o grupo BC+EFC apresentou maiores valores de ASM que BC, EFC e C. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, o tabagismo e o betacaroteno promoveram intensifica&#231;&#227;o do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca; houve potencializa&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos delet&#233;rios no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o com os dois tratamentos em conjunto. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Betacaroteno, tabagismo, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares est&#227;o em primeiro lugar entre as causas de morte no Brasil, correspondendo a 32% do total de &#243;bitos<sup>1</sup>. Entre as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio destaca-se como a patologia com maior &#237;ndice de mortalidade<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Especula-se que o tabagismo tenha influ&#234;ncia na preval&#234;ncia de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio por meio de diversos mecanismos, dentre os quais poder&#237;amos citar les&#227;o ateroscler&#243;tica, aumento da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, aumento dos n&#237;veis das mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o e fibrinog&#234;nio e vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar de a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro e o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ser universalmente aceita, os efeitos do tabagismo ou de compostos produzidos pela queima do cigarro diretamente sobre o cora&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o menos conhecidos. No modelo de agress&#227;o card&#237;aca envolvendo a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro, nosso grupo observou que a suplementa&#231;&#227;o da dieta com betacaroteno atenuou o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca induzido pela exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro em ratos, em parte por sua capacidade de diminuir o estresse oxidativo<sup>5</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em recente estudo de nosso laborat&#243;rio, a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro por seis meses resultou em intensifica&#231;&#227;o da remodela&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s IAM<sup>6</sup>. Nesse contexto, &#233; relevante considerar que o estresse oxidativo &#233; aceito como um dos mais importantes moduladores da remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular ap&#243;s o IAM<sup>7-9</sup>. Dessa forma, subst&#226;ncias com capacidade antioxidante, como o betacaroteno, poderiam atenuar esse processo.</p>
    <p>Considerando que a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro intensifica o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ap&#243;s o infarto, pode-se propor a hip&#243;tese de que a administra&#231;&#227;o de betacaroteno atenuaria as altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca p&#243;s-IAM em ratos expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro. Assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi analisar os efeitos da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de betacaroteno no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, em ratos submetidos ao infarto do mioc&#225;rdio experimental e expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Infarto do mioc&#225;rdio - </italic>O protocolo experimental do presente trabalho foi aprovado pela Comiss&#227;o de &#201;tica em Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal de nossa institui&#231;&#227;o e est&#225; em conformidade com os Princ&#237;pios &#201;ticos na Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal, adotados pelo Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal.</p>
    <p>Foram utilizados ratos Wistar, machos, provenientes do Biot&#233;rio da Unicamp. Os animais foram mantidos em gaiolas para recupera&#231;&#227;o, alimentados com ra&#231;&#227;o comercial padr&#227;o e livre acesso &#224; &#225;gua, com controle de luz (ciclos de 12 horas), de temperatura (aproximadamente 25&#176; C) e de umidade.</p>
    <p>O infarto do mioc&#225;rdio foi produzido de acordo com m&#233;todo descrito previamente<sup>10</sup>. Ap&#243;s o IAM, os animais foram observados por per&#237;odo de seis meses.</p>
    <p><italic>Grupos experimentais - </italic>Quarenta e oito horas ap&#243;s o IAM, os animais foram alocados em quatro grupos experimentais: 1) grupo C, n = 24 - formado pelos animais que receberam a dieta mencionada, sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o de betacaroteno e sem exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro; 2) grupo BC, n = 26 - formado pelos animais que receberam betacaroteno, na forma de cristal adicionado e misturado na dieta, na dose de 500 mg de betacaroteno/kg de dieta e que n&#227;o foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro; 3) grupo EFC, n = 26 - formado pelos animais que receberam a dieta sem suplementa&#231;&#227;o com betacaroteno e que foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro; e 4) grupo BC+EFC, n = 20 - formado pelos animais que receberam betacaroteno na mesma forma que o BC e foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro. A quantidade de dieta oferecida aos grupos "n&#227;o-fumantes" (C e BC) foi ajustada de acordo com as ingest&#245;es di&#225;rias observadas nos grupos "fumantes" (EFC e BC+EFC). </p>
    <p><italic>Exposi&#231;&#227;o ao fumo</italic> - Para expor os animais &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro, foi utilizado o m&#233;todo proposto por Wang e cols.<sup>11</sup>, j&#225; padronizado em nosso laborat&#243;rio<sup>5,7</sup>. No fim do per&#237;odo de estudo experimental, os animais foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de 40 cigarros/dia.</p>
    <p><italic>Avalia&#231;&#227;o morfol&#243;gica e funcional pelo ecocardiograma</italic> - Ap&#243;s seis meses do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, os animais sobreviventes foram submetidos ao estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico. Utilizou-se equipamento da Hewlett-Packard (modelo Sonos 2000) ou da Philips (modelo TDI 5500) dotado de transdutor eletr&#244;nico de 12 MHz. As estruturas card&#237;acas foram medidas de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da American Society of Echocardiography<sup>12 </sup>e j&#225; validadas no modelo de ratos infartados<sup>13</sup>. As &#225;reas diast&#243;licas (AD) e sist&#243;licas (AS) foram medidas no modo bidimensional, por meio de planimetria e ajustadas ao peso corporal (PC) dos animais. A fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foi avaliada calculando-se a fra&#231;&#227;o de varia&#231;&#227;o de &#225;rea (FVA=AD-AS/AD x 100)<sup>13</sup>. </p>
    <p><italic>Avalia&#231;&#227;o funcional por meio do cora&#231;&#227;o isolado</italic> - Entre um e tr&#234;s dias ap&#243;s o estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico, os animais receberam pentobarbital s&#243;dico (50 mg/kg) e heparina (1.000 UI) por via intraperitoneal e foram submetidos a estudo funcional in vitro por meio da t&#233;cnica com o cora&#231;&#227;o isolado. Nessa prepara&#231;&#227;o, em que o cora&#231;&#227;o opera em condi&#231;&#245;es isovolum&#233;tricas, foram obtidos os registros da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica (PS), da derivada positiva (dp/dt) e da derivada negativa (-dp/dt) de press&#227;o m&#225;ximas<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Estudo morfom&#233;trico</italic> - Ap&#243;s o estudo funcional, amostras de tecido card&#237;aco foram fixadas em solu&#231;&#227;o de formol a 10% por per&#237;odo de 48 horas, segundo m&#233;todo j&#225; descrito<sup>15</sup>, para aferi&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea seccional transversa dos mi&#243;citos (ASM) e da fra&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno intersticial (CI).</p>
    <p>A extens&#227;o do m&#250;sculo infartado e vi&#225;vel nas circunfer&#234;ncias endoc&#225;rdica e epic&#225;rdica foi determinada por planimetria. O tamanho do infarto foi calculado pela divis&#227;o das circunfer&#234;ncias ventriculares endoc&#225;rdica e epic&#225;rdica da regi&#227;o infartada pelas circunfer&#234;ncias endoc&#225;rdica e epic&#225;rdica totais. As medidas foram realizadas em cortes transversais do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, cinco a seis mil&#237;metros do &#225;pice, assumindo-se que, nessa regi&#227;o, os cortes apresentam rela&#231;&#227;o linear com a soma das medi&#231;&#245;es das &#225;reas de todos os cortes do cora&#231;&#227;o<sup>16,17</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>M&#233;todo estat&#237;stico</italic> - Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s vari&#225;veis morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais, foi aplicada a an&#225;lise de vari&#226;ncia (ANOVA) de um e de dois fatores. Na ANOVA de uma via, 3 graus de liberdade foram aplicados para detectar diferen&#231;as entre os tratamentos. Ocorrendo intera&#231;&#227;o significativa entre os fatores (p &lt; 0,05), foram realizadas compara&#231;&#245;es m&#250;ltiplas, utilizando-se o teste de Tukey. Quando n&#227;o ocorreu a intera&#231;&#227;o (p &gt; 0,05), as vari&#225;veis estudadas foram testadas quanto aos efeitos dos fatores de modo separado. Os resultados foram apresentados em valores m&#233;dios e em erros-padr&#227;o (SE) da m&#233;dia dos quatro grupos estudados (C, BC, EFC e BC+EFC). O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia adotado foi de 5%. </p>
    <p>Empregou-se, para a an&#225;lise dos testes de ANOVA de uma e de duas vias, o pacote estat&#237;stico SigmaStat for Windows v 2.03 da SPSS.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">2</xref> sumarizam os resultados do estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico. Considerando a an&#225;lise da ANOVA de uma via, podem-se observar diferen&#231;as entre os grupos na rela&#231;&#227;o di&#226;metro do &#225;trio esquerdo (AE) ajustado pelo PC, onda A, freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), AD/PC no eixo menor, AS/PC no eixo menor e FVA. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; AD/PC e AS/PC, os valores do grupo BC foram maiores que os do grupo C; em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; onda A e FAV, os valores do grupo BC foram menores que os dos animais-controle. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; AE/PC, AD/PC e AS/PC, os valores do grupo BC+EFC foram maiores que os valores de C. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; FC, tanto os valores de EFC como os de BC+EFC foram maiores que os valores de C. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Considerando a an&#225;lise ANOVA de duas vias, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; FAV, foram observadas diferen&#231;as significativas entre EFC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores) e entre BC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores). Em adi&#231;&#227;o, houve intera&#231;&#227;o significativa entre os grupos, sugerindo que o efeito do fumo dependeu do betacaroteno. Assim, os valores de FAV foram maiores no grupo BC + EFC do que nos animais que receberam tratamentos isolados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s outras vari&#225;veis, n&#227;o foram observadas intera&#231;&#245;es. N&#227;o tendo ocorrido intera&#231;&#227;o significativa entre fatores (exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro e suplementa&#231;&#227;o da dieta com betacaroteno), entende-se que os efeitos de um fator n&#227;o dependeram do outro fator. Dessa forma, os valores de AE/PC, AD/PC no eixo maior, AD/PC no eixo menor e AS/PC no eixo menor foram maiores, e os valores das ondas A e E foram menores nos animais suplementados com betacaroteno (BC e BC+EFC) que nos animais n&#227;o suplementados com betacaroteno (C e EFC). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; FC, os valores dos animais fumantes (EFC e BC+EFC) foram maiores que os verificados nos animais n&#227;o-fumantes (C e BC).</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Os dados relativos ao estudo funcional do cora&#231;&#227;o isolado est&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tabela 3</xref>. Considerando a ANOVA de uma via, foram observadas diferen&#231;as em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; &#150;dp/dt m&#225;xima, desde que os valores de BC foram menores que os valores de BC+EFC. Considerando a ANOVA de duas vias, ocorreu intera&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa entre o fumo e a suplementa&#231;&#227;o do betacaroteno. A an&#225;lise da &#150;dp/dt m&#225;xima mostrou diferen&#231;as entre o grupo BC (valores menores) em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo BC+EFC (valores maiores) e entre EFC (valores menores) e BC+EFC (valores maiores). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; PS m&#225;xima, houve intera&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa entre o fumo e a suplementa&#231;&#227;o do betacaroteno. Na an&#225;lise, observaram-se diferen&#231;as entre BC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores) e entre BC (valores menores) e BC+EFC (valores maiores). Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao volume m&#225;ximo injetado no bal&#227;o, houve intera&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa entre o fumo e a suplementa&#231;&#227;o do betacaroteno (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">fig. 2</xref>). A an&#225;lise mostrou diferen&#231;as entre os valores de EFC (valores menores) e C (valores maiores) e entre BC (valores menores) e BC+EFC (valores maiores).</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Os dados relativos &#224;s analises morfom&#233;tricas est&#227;o na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab04">tabela 4</xref>. N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tamanho do infarto. Considerando a ANOVA de uma via, observaram-se diferen&#231;as entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao PC, PVD/PC, ASM e teor de &#225;gua dos pulm&#245;es, VD e VE. O grupo EFC apresentou valores maiores de PVD/PC e ASM que os animais-controle. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, o grupo BC+EFC apresentou maiores valores de ASM que BC, EFC e C. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao teor de &#225;gua dos pulm&#245;es, o grupo EFC apresentou valores maiores que C (C = 22,0&#177;3,0, EFC = 29,0&#177;2,0; p &lt; 0,05). Em adi&#231;&#227;o, o grupo BC+EFC apresentou maiores valores de teor de &#225;gua no VD (C = 4,63&#177;0,33, BC+EFC = 5,69&#177;0,14; p &lt; 0,05) e VE (C = 5,11&#177;0,25, BC+EFC = 6,81&#177;0,31; p &lt; 0,05) que o grupo C.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Considerando a ANOVA de duas vias, foi observada intera&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o ao PVC/PC e ASM. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao PVD/PC, observou-se diferen&#231;a significativa entre EFC (valores maiores) e C (valores menores). A rela&#231;&#227;o PVD/PC foi menor no grupo BC+EFC que no grupo EFC. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos valores de ASM, os valores de EFC foram maiores que C, os valores de BC+EFC foram maiores que BC e que EFC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">fig. 3</xref>). Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao teor de &#225;gua, os animais fumantes (EFC e BC+EFC) apresentaram maiores valores que os animais n&#227;o-fumantes (C e BC).</p>
    <fig id="fig03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O objetivo do presente trabalho foi analisar os efeitos da suplementa&#231;&#227;o de betacaroteno no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular, ap&#243;s o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, em ratos expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro. Nossa hip&#243;tese era que os efeitos antioxidantes do betacaroteno resultariam em atenua&#231;&#227;o do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-IAM em animais expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro. Diferentemente da nossa hip&#243;tese, entretanto, nossos resultados sugerem que o betacaroteno intensificou o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca p&#243;s-infarto nessa situa&#231;&#227;o. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, a suplementa&#231;&#227;o de betacaroteno potencializou os efeitos morfol&#243;gicos delet&#233;rios induzidos pelo infarto. </p>
    <p>A remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca pode ser definida como altera&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas que resultam em modifica&#231;&#245;es moleculares, celulares e intersticiais card&#237;acas. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem se manifestar clinicamente como altera&#231;&#245;es de volume, massa, constitui&#231;&#227;o, geometria e/ou de fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca<sup>18-20</sup>. Apesar da extrema complexidade do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, esse termo &#233; freq&#252;entemente utilizado como sin&#244;nimo de crescimento celular, detectado pelo aumento da cavidade ventricular<sup>18-20</sup>. Um aspecto relevante desse processo refere-se ao fato de que a remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular p&#243;s-infarto do mioc&#225;rdio est&#225; associada a pior progn&#243;stico, pois sua presen&#231;a e intensidade est&#227;o relacionadas com fibrose, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular progressiva, arritmias e maior mortalidade<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os mecanismos que modulam o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o infarto n&#227;o est&#227;o completamente esclarecidos. Atualmente &#233; aceito que o aumento do estresse oxidativo, decorrente do ac&#250;mulo das esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio, possa ser um dos mecanismos desencadeantes ou reguladores das adapta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas em resposta &#224; determinada agress&#227;o<sup>22-24</sup>. Assim, situa&#231;&#245;es caracterizadas por aumento do estresse oxidativo ap&#243;s o infarto poderiam potencializar o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Uma das condi&#231;&#245;es caracterizadas por aumento do estresse oxidativo &#233; o h&#225;bito de fumar. Devemos considerar, entretanto, que poucos estudos analisaram os efeitos do tabagismo no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. A nicotina promoveu dilata&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em ratos submetidos ao infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. Aparentemente, esse fen&#244;meno ocorre &#224; custa do aumento da expans&#227;o do infarto, j&#225; que se detectou parede infartada mais delgada nos animais tratados<sup>25</sup>. Em nosso laborat&#243;rio, a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro por seis meses resultou em intensifica&#231;&#227;o da remodela&#231;&#227;o, o que foi acompanhado de piora de vari&#225;veis funcionais<sup>7</sup>. Assim, a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro parece promover remodela&#231;&#227;o tanto em condi&#231;&#245;es normais como em situa&#231;&#245;es de agress&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>No presente trabalho, os animais expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro apresentaram aumento das dimens&#245;es sist&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas do VE e aumento da &#225;rea seccional dos mi&#243;citos em rela&#231;&#227;o aos animais-controle. Portanto, podemos inferir que a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro intensificou o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular ap&#243;s o infarto, em concord&#226;ncia com estudos citados anteriormente<sup>6,7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Considerando que tanto o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio como a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro representam condi&#231;&#245;es de aumento do estresse oxidativo, formulamos a hip&#243;tese de que a administra&#231;&#227;o de betacaroteno atenuaria a remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular secund&#225;ria a essas agress&#245;es. Entretanto, contrariamente &#224; nossa hip&#243;tese, os animais expostos aos dois tratamentos (betacaroteno e exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro) apresentaram intensifica&#231;&#227;o adicional da remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, representada pelo aumento do &#225;trio esquerdo e pela &#225;rea seccional dos mi&#243;citos. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, o grupo suplementado apresentou aumento das dimens&#245;es sist&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas do VE, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos animais do grupo controle. At&#233; o momento, os mecanismos respons&#225;veis por esses efeitos delet&#233;rios do betacaroteno no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-infarto n&#227;o est&#227;o esclarecidos. Por&#233;m, a despeito desse fato, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s perspectivas cl&#237;nicas do estudo, nosso trabalho sugere cautela com o uso de antioxidantes, particularmente o betacaroteno e na presen&#231;a de tabagismo, para prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
    <p>A remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca resulta, invariavelmente, em queda progressiva da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Inicialmente, em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do crescimento celular, a remodela&#231;&#227;o pode contribuir para manter ou restaurar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Cronicamente, entretanto, ocorrem altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas, gen&#233;ticas e estruturais que v&#227;o resultar em disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular progressiva. Em nosso estudo, os resultados funcionais est&#227;o parcialmente discordantes desse conceito. No grupo suplementado com betacaroteno, vari&#225;veis ecocardiogr&#225;ficas e do cora&#231;&#227;o isolado confirmam disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo-controle. No grupo betacaroteno e fumo, entretanto, apesar da mais intensa remodela&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as estatisticamente significativas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo-controle. Entretanto, encontramos melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o em algumas vari&#225;veis desse grupo em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo BC. Uma explica&#231;&#227;o para esse fato pode estar relacionada aos efeitos agudos ou cr&#244;nicos da exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro. </p>
    <p>Em nosso trabalho, tanto o estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico como a an&#225;lise com o cora&#231;&#227;o isolado foram feitos no per&#237;odo da tarde. Entretanto, os animais foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro no per&#237;odo da manh&#227;. Assim, poder&#237;amos inferir que a an&#225;lise funcional pode ter sofrido influ&#234;ncia da estimula&#231;&#227;o inotr&#243;pica positiva aguda do cigarro. Essa limita&#231;&#227;o deve ser considerada na interpreta&#231;&#227;o de nossos resultados. Corroborando essa hip&#243;tese, os animais fumantes apresentaram maior freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e maior teor de &#225;gua em alguns dos &#243;rg&#227;os analisados, compat&#237;vel com situa&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular cr&#244;nica. </p>
    <p>Em suma, os dados obtidos nesse estudo permitem as seguintes conclus&#245;es: a exposi&#231;&#227;o dos ratos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro, ap&#243;s o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, promoveu intensifica&#231;&#227;o do processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca; a suplementa&#231;&#227;o da dieta com betacaroteno resultou em aumento da remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca provocada pelo infarto mioc&#225;rdico experimental; houve potencializa&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos delet&#233;rios no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o com os dois tratamentos em conjunto.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo - FAPESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Esse artigo &#233; parte de tese de livre-doc&#234;ncia de Leonardo A. M. Zornoff, pela Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Leonardo A. M. Zornoff </p>
        <p> Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu </p>
        <p> Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica </p>
        <p> 18618-000 </p>
        <p> Botucatu, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br">lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 18/12/06; revisado recebido em 01/03/07; aceito em 26/03/07.</p>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Effects of beta-carotene and smoking on heart remodeling after myocardial infarction</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To analyze the effects of beta-carotene on the ventricular remodeling process following myocardial infarction (MI) in rats exposed to cigarette smoke. METHODS: After acute myocardial infarction (AMI), the animals were divided into four groups: 1) Group C, 24 animals that were given standard diet; 2) Group BC, 26 animals that were given beta-carotene; 3) Group ECS, 26 animals that were given standard diet and were exposed to cigarette smoke; and 4) Group BC+ECS, 20 animals that were given beta-carotene and were exposed to cigarette smoke. After six months, a morphofunctional study was performed. We used a 5% significance level. RESULTS: As regards diastolic areas (DA) and systolic areas (SA), the values for the BC group were higher than those for the C group. If DA/body weight (BW) and SA/BW are considered, the values for group BC+ECS were higher than the values for group C. As regards the fractional area change, we observed significant differences between ECS (lower values) and C (higher values) and between BC (lower values) and C (higher values). Differences between groups regarding infarction size were not observed. The ECS group presented higher values for myocyte cross-section area (MCA) than control animals. Additionally, the BC+ECS group presented higher MCA values than the BC, ECS and C groups. CONCLUSION: After myocardial infarction, smoking and beta-carotene intensified the heart remodeling process; harmful effects of the remodeling process were heightened when the two treatments were used in conjunction.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Betacarotene</kwd>
        <kwd>smoking</kwd>
        <kwd>myocardial infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>ventricular remodeling</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Effects of beta-carotene and smoking on heart remodeling after myocardial infarction</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Leonardo A. M. Zornoff; Daniella R. Duarte; Marcos F. Minicucci; Paula S. Azevedo; Beatriz B. Matsubara; Luiz S. Matsubara;&#193;lvaro O. Campana; Sergio A. R. Paiva</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu da Universidade Estadual de S&#227;o Paulo, Botucatu, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To analyze the effects of beta-carotene on the ventricular remodeling process following myocardial infarction (MI) in rats exposed to cigarette smoke.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> After acute myocardial infarction (AMI), the animals were divided into four groups: 1) Group C, 24 animals that were given standard diet; 2) Group BC, 26 animals that were given beta-carotene; 3) Group ECS, 26 animals that were given standard diet and were exposed to cigarette smoke; and 4) Group BC+ECS, 20 animals that were given beta-carotene and were exposed to cigarette smoke. After six months, a morphofunctional study was performed. We used a 5% significance level.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> As regards diastolic areas (DA) and systolic areas (SA), the values for the BC group were higher than those for the C group. If DA/body weight (BW) and SA/BW are considered, the values for group BC+ECS were higher than the values for group C. As regards the fractional area change, we observed significant differences between ECS (lower values) and C (higher values) and between BC (lower values) and C (higher values). Differences between groups regarding infarction size were not observed. The ECS group presented higher values for myocyte cross-section area (MCA) than control animals. Additionally, the BC+ECS group presented higher MCA values than the BC, ECS and C groups.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> After myocardial infarction, smoking and beta-carotene intensified the heart remodeling process; harmful effects of the remodeling process were heightened when the two treatments were used in conjunction. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words: </bold>Betacarotene; smoking; myocardial infarction; ventricular remodeling.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases rank first among the causes of death in Brazil, and account for 32% of the total deaths<sup>1</sup>. Among cardiovascular diseases, myocardial infarction stands out as the pathology with the highest mortality rate<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>Smoking is thought to have an influence on the prevalence of myocardial infarction by means of several mechanisms, including atherosclerotic injury, increase in platelet aggregation, increase in the levels of adhesion molecules and fibrinogen and vasoconstriction<sup>3,4</sup></p>
      <p>Although the association between exposure to smoke and myocardial infarction is universally accepted, the direct effects of smoking or of compounds produced during cigarette burning on the heart are less known. In the heart aggression model that involves exposure to cigarette smoke, our group observed that dietary supplementation with beta-carotene mitigated the heart remodeling process induced by cigarette smoke exposure in rats, partly because of its ability to reduce oxidative stress<sup>5</sup>. </p>
      <p>In a recent study carried out in our laboratory, exposure to cigarette smoke for six months after AMI led to intensification in remodeling<sup>6</sup>. In this context, it is important to consider that oxidative stress is accepted as one of the most important modulators of post-AMI ventricular remodeling<sup>7-9</sup>. Thus, antioxidant substances such as beta-carotene might mitigate this process.</p>
      <p>Considering that cigarette smoke exposure intensifies post-infarction heart remodeling process, we advance the hypothesis that the administration of beta-carotene could mitigate alterations relating to post-AMI heart remodeling in rats exposed to cigarette smoke. Therefore,the objective of this study was to analyze the effects of beta-carotene supplementation on the heart remodeling process in rats submitted to experimental myocardial infarction and exposed to cigarette smoke.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Myocardial infarction - </italic>The experimental protocol of this study was approved by the Animal Experiment Ethics Committee of our institution and complies with the Animal Experiment Ethical principles adopted by the Brazilian College for Animal Experiments.</p>
      <p>We used male Wistar rats, from Unicamp&#146;s Laboratory Animal Facility. The animals were kept in cages for recovery, and fed on standard commercial feed and water ad lib, with controlled light (12-hour cycles), temperature (approximately 25&#176; C) and humidity.</p>
      <p>Myocardial infarction was produced according to the method previously described<sup>10</sup>. After AMI, animals were observed for a six-month period.</p>
      <p><italic>Experimental groups - </italic>Forty-eight hours after the AMI the animals were placed in four experimental groups: 1) Group C, n = 24 - formed by animals that were given the diet mentioned above, with no beta-carotene supplements and with no exposure to cigarette smoke; 2) Group BC, n = 26 - formed by animals that were given beta-carotene, in the form of crystal added to and mixed with the diet, at a dosage of 500 mg of beta-carotene/kg of feed, with no exposure to cigarette smoke; 3) Group ECS, n = 26 - formed by the animals that were given feed with no beta-carotene supplementation and were exposed to cigarette smoke; and 4) Group BC+ECS, n = 20 - formed by animals that were given beta-carotene in the same form as Group BC and were exposed to cigarette smoke. The amount of feed offered to the "non smoking" groups (C and BC) was adjusted according to the daily intake observed in the "smoking" groups (ECS and BC+ECS). </p>
      <p><italic>Exposure to smoke </italic>- In order to expose the animals to cigarette smoke we used the method proposed by Wang et al<sup>11</sup>, that had been standardized in our laboratory<sup>5,7</sup>. At the end of the period of the experimental study, the animals had been exposed to the smoke of 40 cigarettes/day.</p>
      <p><italic>Morphological and functional assessment through echocardiogram</italic> - Six months after the myocardial infarction, the surviving animals were submitted to echocardiographic study. We used a Hewlett-Packard (Sonos 2000 model) or Philips (TDI 5500) model, equipped with a 12-MHz electronic transducer. The heart structures were measured according to the recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography<sup>12</sup> which have been validated for the infarcted rat model<sup>13</sup>. Diastolic (DA) and systolic areas (SA) were measured using the bidimensional mode, by means of planimetry and adjusted for the animals&#146; body weight (BW). The left ventricular systolic function was assessed by calculating the variation fraction of the area (FAC=DA-SA/DA x 100)<sup>13</sup>. </p>
      <p>Functional assessment by means of the isolated heart - Between one and three days after the echocardiographic study, the animals were administered sodium pentobarbital (50 mg/kg) and heparin (1,000 UI) intraperitoneally and were submitted to in vitro functional study using the isolated heart technique. In this preparation, where the heart operates in isovolumetric conditions, we obtained the values for systolic pressure (SP), for the positive derivative (dp/dt) and negative derivative (-dp/dt) of the maximum pressures<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Morphometric study - </italic>After the functional study, heart tissue samples were fixated in a 10% formol solution for a 48-hour period, according to the method previously described<sup>15</sup>, to measure the myocyte cross-section area (MCA) and the interstitial collagen fraction (IC).</p>
      <p>The extent of infarcted muscle, as well as of viable muscle in the endocardial and epicardial circumferences was determined by planimetry. Infarction size was calculated by dividing endocardial and epicardial ventricular circumferences in the infarcted area by total endocardial and epicardial circumferences. The measurements were taken in cross-sectional planes of the left ventricle, five to six millimeters from the apex, assuming that in this region the planes present a linear relation with the sum of the measurements of the areas of all the heart planes<sup>16,17</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Statistical method - </italic>As regards morphological and functional variables, we employed analysis of variance (ANOVA) of one and two factors. In the one-way ANOVA, three degrees of freedom were applied to identify differences between treatments. If there was significant interaction between factors (p &lt; 0.05), multiple comparisons were carried out using Tukey test. When there was no interaction (p &gt; 0.05), the variables studied were tested as to the effects of the factors separately. The results were presented as mean values and standard errors (SE) of mean for the four groups studied (C, BC, ECS and BC+ECS). The level of significance adopted was 5%. </p>
      <p>SigmaStat for Windows v 2.03, a statistics software package developed by SPSS, was employed to analyze the one and two-way ANOVA tests.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">2</xref> summarize the results of the echocardiographic study. Considering the one-way ANOVA analysis, we observed differences between the groups regarding the ratio of left atrial diameter (LA) adjusted for BW, A-wave, heart rate (HR), DA/BW on the short axis, SA/BW on the short axis and FAC. As regards DA/BW and SA/BW, the values for Group BC were higher than those found for Group C. As regards the A-wave and FAV, the values found for Group BC were lower than those found for control animals. As regards LA/BW, DA/BW and SA/BW, the values for Group BC+ECS were higher than those found for Group C. As regards HR, the values for ECS and those for BC+ECS alike were higher than those for C. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>As regards FAC in the two-way ANOVA analysis, significant differences were observed between ECS (lower values) and C (higher values) and between BC (lower values) and C (higher values). Additionally, there was significant interaction between the groups, suggesting that the effect of smoke depended on beta-carotene. Therefore, FAC values were higher for Group BC + ECS than for the animals submitted to isolated treatments (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig. 1</xref>). As regards other variables, no interactions were observed. Since no significant interactions occurred between factors (exposure to cigarette smoke and beta-carotene dietary supplements), it is understood that the effects of a factor did not depend on the other one. Thus, the values of LA/BW, DA/BW on the long axis, DA/BW on the short axis and SA/BW on the short axis were higher, and the values of the A and E-wave were lower for animals receiving beta-carotene supplements (BC and BC+ECS) than for animals that did not receive beta-carotene supplements (C and ECS). As regards HR, the values for smoking animals (ECS and BC+ECS) were higher than those observed for non-smoking animals (C and BC).</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Data relating to the functional study of the isolated heart are shown on <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">table 3</xref>. In the one-way ANOVA, differences were observed regarding maximum &#150;dp/dt, since BC values were lower than BC+ECS values. In the two-way ANOVA, there was a statistically significant interaction between smoke and beta-carotene supplements. The analysis of &#150;maximum -dp/dt showed differences between Group BC (lower values) as compared with Group BC+ECS (higher values), and between ECS (lower values) and BC+ECS (higher values). As regards maximum SP, there was a statistically significant interaction between smoking and beta-carotene supplements. In the analysis we observed differences between BC (lower values) and C (higher values) and between BC (lower values) and BC+ECS (higher values). As regards the maximum volume injected into the balloon, there was a statistically significant interaction between smoking and beta-carotene supplements (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">fig. 2</xref>). The analysis showed differences between ECS (lower values) and C (higher values), and between BC (lower values) and BC+ECS (higher values).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Data relating to the morphometric analyses are on <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab04-body2">table 4</xref>. No differences were observed between the groups as regards infarction size. In the one-way ANOVA analysis, we observed differences between the groups regarding BW, RVW/BW, MCA and lung water content, RV and LV. Group ECS presented higher values for RVW/BW and MCA than control animals. Additionally, Group BC+ECS presented higher values for MCA than Groups BC, ECS and C. As regards lung water content, Group ECS presented higher values than Group C (C = 22.0&#177;3.0, ECS = 29.0&#177;2.0; p &lt; 0.05). Additionally, Group BC+ECS presented higher values for water content in RV (C = 4.63&#177;0.33, BC+ECS = 5.69&#177;0.14; p &lt; 0.05) and LV (C = 5.11&#177;0.25, BC+ECS = 6.81&#177;0.31; p &lt; 0.05) than Group C.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>In the two-way ANOVA, we observed interaction as regards PVC/BW and MCA. As concerns RVW/BW, a significant difference was observed between ECS (higher values) and C (lower values). The RVW/BW ratio was smaller for Group BC+ECS than for Group ECS. As for MCA values, values for ECS were higher than for C, values for BC+ECS were higher than for BC and ECS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">fig. 3</xref>). As for water content, smoking animals (ECS and BC+ECS) presented higher values than non-smoking animals (C and BC).</p>
      <fig id="fig03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-03-0151-00002-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The objective of this study was to analyze the effects of beta-carotene supplements on the ventricular remodeling process following acute myocardial infarction in rats exposed to cigarette smoke. Our hypothesis was that the antioxidant effects of beta-carotene would mitigate post-AMI remodeling process in animals exposed to cigarette smoke. Contrary to our hypothesis, however, our results suggest that beta-carotene intensified the heart remodeling process following infarction in this situation. Additionally, beta-carotene supplements heightened the harmful morphological effects induced by infarction.</p>
      <p>Heart remodeling can be defined as genetic alterations that result in changes in heart molecules, cells and interstice. These changes can manifest themselves clinically as changes in volume, mass, constitution, geometry and/or heart function<sup>18-20</sup>. Although the ventricular remodeling process after myocardial infarction is highly complex, this term is frequently used as a synonym for cellular growth, evidenced by the increase of ventricular cavity<sup>18-20</sup>. A relevant aspect of this process relates to the fact that ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction is associated with a worse prognosis, because its presence and intensity are related to fibrosis, progressive ventricular dysfunction, arrhythmias and increased mortality<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>The mechanisms that modulate the post-infarction remodeling process are not yet fully understood. It is currently accepted that the increase in oxidative stress as a result of the accumulation of reactive oxygen species may be one of the mechanisms that trigger or regulate heart adaptations in response to a certain aggression<sup>22-24</sup>. Therefore, situations characterized by an increase in oxidative stress after infarction could heighten the remodeling process. </p>
      <p>An increase in oxidative stress is associated with smoking. We must take into account, however, that few studies analyzed the effects of smoking on the process of ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction. Nicotine promoted left ventricular dilation in rats submitted to myocardial infarction. This phenomenon apparently occurs at the expense of the increase in infarct expansion, since thinner infarcted walls have been found in treated animals<sup>25</sup>. In our laboratory, exposure to cigarette smoke for six months resulted in the intensification of remodeling, which was accompanied by the worsening of functional variables<sup>7</sup>. Thus, exposure to cigarette smoke seems to provoke remodeling in normal conditions and in situations involving heart aggression as well.</p>
      <p>In this study, animals exposed to cigarette smoke presented increased LV systolic and diastolic dimensions and increased myocyte cross-section as compared with control animals. We can therefore infer that exposure to cigarette smoke intensified the process of ventricular remodeling after infarction, which is in agreement with previously mentioned studies<sup>6,7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Considering that acute myocardial infarction and exposure to cigarette smoke alike are conditions where there is increase in oxidative stress, we advanced the hypothesis that the administration of beta-carotene would mitigate ventricular remodeling secondary to these aggressions. However, contrary to our hypothesis, animals exposed to both treatments (beta-carotene and exposure to cigarette smoke) presented additional intensification of heart remodeling, attested by the increase in left atrium area and in myocyte cross-section area. Additionally the group that received supplements presented an increase in LV systolic and diastolic sizes as compared with control group animals. So far, the mechanisms that are responsible for these harmful effects of beta-carotene on the post-infarction remodeling process remain unclear. Despite this fact, however, as regards the clinical perspectives of this study, our paper suggests caution in the administration of antioxidants, especially beta-carotene and in the presence of smoking for cardiovascular protection after myocardial infarction.</p>
      <p>Heart remodeling invariably causes a progressive decrease of ventricular function. At first, as a consequence of cellular growth, remodeling can contribute to maintain or restore heart function. Chronically, however, biochemical, genetic and structural changes occur that result in progressive ventricular dysfunction. In our study, the functional results are in partial disagreement with this concept. In the group that received beta-carotene supplements, echocardiographic and isolated heart variables confirm left ventricular dysfunction as compared with the control group. In the beta-carotene and smoking group, however, despite intense remodeling, no statistically significant differences were observed as compared with the control group. But we observed function improvement in some of the variables for this group as compared with Group BC. An explanation for this fact may have to do with the acute or chronic effects of exposure to cigarette smoke. </p>
      <p>In our study, both the echocardiographic study and the analysis of the isolated heart were performed in the afternoon but the animals had been exposed to cigarette smoke during the morning. We could therefore infer that functional analysis may have been influenced by the acute positive inotropic stimulation of cigarettes. This limitation should be taken into account when interpreting our results. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that smoking animals presented higher heart rates and higher water content in some of the organs analyzed, which is compatible with chronic ventricular dysfunction.</p>
      <p>In summary, the data obtained in this study allow the following conclusions: exposure of rats to cigarette smoke after myocardial infarction intensified the heart remodeling process; beta-carotene dietary supplements increased the heart remodeling process caused by experimental myocardial infarction; the harmful effects of the remodeling process were heightened when the two treatments were employed in conjunction.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo - FAPESP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis associate professor submitted by Leonardo A. M. Zornoff, from Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing address:</p>
          <p> Leonardo A. M. Zornoff </p>
          <p> Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu-Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica </p>
          <p> 18618-000</p>
          <p> Botucatu, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br">lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br </email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received December 18, 2006; revised manuscript received March 1st, 2007; accepted March 26, 2007.</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
