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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">tH8c7mv4j36N6f3qFcZ7mSr</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00015</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007001400015</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08900215</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007001400015</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Dengue: manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas e implica&#231;&#245;es na terap&#234;utica antitromb&#243;tica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pesaro</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>D&#8217;Amico</surname>
            <given-names>&#201;lbio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff04"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aranha</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Fernando C.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff05"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">FMUSP</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff05">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>89</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>e12</fpage>
      <lpage>e15</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>05</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>PONTO DE VISTA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dengue: manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas e implica&#231;&#245;es na terap&#234;utica antitromb&#243;tica</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Antonio Eduardo Pesaro<sup>I, II</sup>; &#201;lbio D&#146;Amico<sup>III</sup>; Luis Fernando C. Aranha<sup>I, IV</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas e Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da FMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p><sup>IV</sup>Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - UNIFESP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> Dengue, febre hemorr&#225;gica da Dengue/complica&#231;&#245;es, arritmias, bloqueio atrioventricular, fibrinol&#237;ticos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A dengue &#233; causada por v&#237;rus do g&#234;nero Flavivirus, g&#234;nero esse composto por v&#237;rus RNA transmitidos, na maioria das vezes, por um artr&#243;pode, podendo causar doen&#231;a em humanos. Outros v&#237;rus que causam doen&#231;a de import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica s&#227;o os da febre amarela e da encefalite japonesa<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>A dengue tem ampla distribui&#231;&#227;o em &#225;reas tropicais, ocorrendo de forma end&#234;mica e eventualmente epid&#234;mica. &#201; transmitida por mosquitos do g&#234;nero <italic>Aedes</italic>, principalmente <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic>, cuja distribui&#231;&#227;o e adapta&#231;&#227;o em ambientes urbanos e peridomiciliares explica a predomin&#226;ncia da dengue em cidades. A doen&#231;a ocorre com a introdu&#231;&#227;o de paciente vir&#234;mico em ambiente onde h&#225; concentra&#231;&#227;o suficiente de vetores, e torna-se epid&#234;mica com grandes aumentos na concentra&#231;&#227;o desses. O v&#237;rus subdivide-se em quatro sorotipos, que n&#227;o conferem imunidade cruzada.</p>
    <p>No Brasil, &#224; semelhan&#231;a de outros pa&#237;ses da faixa tropical, a doen&#231;a &#233; end&#234;mica com per&#237;odos epid&#234;micos. Neste ano, segundo dados do Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de, foram notificados, at&#233; 12 de mar&#231;o, 85.018 casos, representando um aumento de quase 30% em rela&#231;&#227;o ao mesmo per&#237;odo do ano anterior. Os estados com maior n&#250;mero de casos s&#227;o, pela ordem, Mato Grosso do Sul (50,4%), Mato Grosso (7,2%), Rio de Janeiro (5,2%), Paran&#225; (4,7%), Minas Gerais (4,6%) e S&#227;o Paulo (3,6%). Rio Grande do Sul e Santa Catarina s&#227;o os &#250;nicos sem documenta&#231;&#227;o de transmiss&#227;o aut&#243;ctone. Em raz&#227;o da inespecificidade da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica dos casos mais leves, esses n&#250;meros certamente s&#227;o subestimados<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aspectos cl&#237;nicos da dengue</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A maioria dos casos de dengue &#233; autolimitada, cursando com quadro inespec&#237;fico de febre, mal-estar e fraqueza. Mais caracteristicamente, intensa dor muscular e cefal&#233;ia retro-ocular podem ocorrer, com ou sem <italic>rash</italic> cut&#226;neo. Laboratorialmente, aumento de enzimas hep&#225;ticas, leucopenia e plaquetopenia s&#227;o altera&#231;&#245;es compat&#237;veis, mas n&#227;o espec&#237;ficas da dengue<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>As formas mais graves incluem a s&#237;ndrome do choque por dengue e a dengue hemorr&#225;gica. O choque &#233; decorrente de importante altera&#231;&#227;o da permeabilidade capilar e grande extravasamento de plasma para s&#237;tios extravasculares, e est&#225; associado &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o imune com elevados n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de receptor de fator de necrose tumoral-a (TNF), interleucina (IL)-8 e outros fatores.</p>
    <p>A dengue hemorr&#225;gica desenvolve-se, em geral, em conjunto com choque e ocorre ap&#243;s per&#237;odo de dois a sete dias ap&#243;s defervesc&#234;ncia. Clinicamente, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel distinguir aqueles pacientes que v&#227;o evoluir com a forma hemorr&#225;gica daqueles com manifesta&#231;&#227;o autolimitada. No Brasil, este ano (de janeiro a maio), apenas 55 casos de dengue hemorr&#225;gica foram reportados, com seis &#243;bitos<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fisiopatologia da dengue hemorr&#225;gica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A dengue hemorr&#225;gica &#233; manifesta&#231;&#227;o rara e ocorre quase que exclusivamente em pacientes com experi&#234;ncia anterior, sugerindo fisiopatologia associada a hiper-resposta imune mediada por anticorpos heter&#243;logos. Aumento de TNF, IL-2 e CD8 sol&#250;vel sugerem hiperativa&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas CD4 e CD8 de mem&#243;ria. H&#225; evid&#234;ncia de hiperexpress&#227;o de receptores Fc e ant&#237;genos MHC classes I e II e aumento s&#233;rico de v&#225;rios mediadores inflamat&#243;rios como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de lise de c&#233;lulas endoteliais e mononucleares. O resultante da hiper-resposta imunol&#243;gica &#233; uma combina&#231;&#227;o de vasculopatia e coagulopatia de consumo. A di&#225;tese hemorr&#225;gica da dengue &#233; causada por vasculopatia, trombocitopenia e coagulopatia leve, que s&#227;o respons&#225;veis pelos sangramentos cut&#226;neos e mucosos<sup>3</sup>. O aumento da fragilidade vascular &#233; provavelmente decorrente da a&#231;&#227;o direta do v&#237;rus, que j&#225; ocorreria na fase de viremia ou est&#225;gio inicial febril.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Plaquetopenia e plaquetopatia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Quanto &#224;s plaquetas, pode haver plaquetopenia e plaquetopatia. A plaquetopenia pode ser secund&#225;ria &#224; menor produ&#231;&#227;o medular de plaquetas e tamb&#233;m da maior destrui&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica. J&#225; se evidenciou que durante a fase aguda febril da dengue hemorr&#225;gica, a medula &#243;ssea apresenta-se acentuadamente hipocelular, com redu&#231;&#227;o de todas as linhagens celulares. Esses achados foram, posteriormente, demonstrados como devidos &#224; a&#231;&#227;o direta viral sobre as c&#233;lulas do estroma medular e sobre as c&#233;lulas progenitoras hematopo&#233;ticas. Dois dias antes do per&#237;odo de defervesc&#234;ncia, observa-se hipercelularidade da medula &#243;ssea, com aumento das c&#233;lulas precursoras das tr&#234;s linhagens celulares medulares. A presen&#231;a de hemofagocitose pode ainda justificar a redu&#231;&#227;o da contagem plaquet&#225;ria, que tamb&#233;m pode ocorrer por destrui&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica (anticorpos antiplaquet&#225;rios da classe IgM e anticorpos espec&#237;ficos contra a dengue). A contagem plaquet&#225;ria retorna aos seus valores normais sete a dez dias ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de defervescen&#231;a<sup>4,5</sup>. </p>
    <p>S&#227;o ainda descritas altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais das plaquetas, evidenciadas atrav&#233;s de hipoagrega&#231;&#227;o induzida pelo ADP, com menor secre&#231;&#227;o de ADP intraplaquet&#225;rio, e aumento das concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de betatromboglobulina e fator plaquet&#225;rio 4. Esses achados s&#227;o compat&#237;veis com ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria <italic>in vivo</italic> decorrente de ativa&#231;&#227;o por imunocomplexos. A fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria retorna &#224;s suas condi&#231;&#245;es normais duas a tr&#234;s semanas ap&#243;s a fase inicial do per&#237;odo de convalescen&#231;a<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Altera&#231;&#245;es da coagula&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Durante o per&#237;odo febril, observam-se redu&#231;&#245;es vari&#225;veis da atividade de diferentes fatores da coagula&#231;&#227;o, como fibrinog&#234;nio, fator V, fator VII, fator VIII, fator IX e fator X, al&#233;m da antitrombina e da a<sub>2</sub>-antiplasmina. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es justificam os prolongamentos discretos do tempo de protrombina e tempo de tromboplastina parcial ativada. S&#227;o descritas eleva&#231;&#245;es das concentra&#231;&#245;es dos produtos de degrada&#231;&#227;o do fibrinog&#234;nio/fibrina (PDF) e dos d&#237;meros-D<sup>5</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em decorr&#234;ncia dessas altera&#231;&#245;es da hemostasia, o uso do &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico, de antiinflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o-hormonais e administra&#231;&#227;o de grandes quantidades de expansores de volume (Dextran 40 e Haemacel) s&#227;o considerados fatores de risco para sangramentos<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Imunidade e inflama&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o s&#227;o bem compreendidos os mecanismos respons&#225;veis pelo desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a hemorr&#225;gica grave, por&#233;m &#233; aceito que uma infec&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria por outro sorotipo seja o principal fator de risco para a ocorr&#234;ncia da dengue hemorr&#225;gica e da s&#237;ndrome do choque da dengue. Anticorpos de uma infec&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via com reatividade cruzada, mas n&#227;o neutralizantes, ligam-se ao novo sorotipo, aumentando sua capta&#231;&#227;o por mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos, resultando em amplifica&#231;&#227;o da cascata de citoquinas e ativa&#231;&#227;o do complemento<sup>7</sup>. Contudo, como somente de 2% a 4% dos indiv&#237;duos com uma segunda infec&#231;&#227;o desenvolvem doen&#231;a grave, o incremento dependente de anticorpos n&#227;o pode isoladamente explicar o processo total. Observam-se diferen&#231;as em anticorpos, citoquinas e respostas de c&#233;lulas T entre pacientes com a forma n&#227;o-complicada e aqueles com as formas complicadas.</p>
    <p>Os mon&#243;citos, linf&#243;citos B e mast&#243;citos infectados pelo v&#237;rus da dengue produzem diferentes citoquinas, sendo demonstrado, por alguns autores, maiores aumentos das concentra&#231;&#245;es de TNF-a, IL-2, IL-6 e interferon (IFN)-g nos primeiros tr&#234;s dias de doen&#231;a, com aparecimento posterior de IL-10, IL-5 e IL-4. Os pacientes com a forma hemorr&#225;gica apresentam maiores concentra&#231;&#245;es de TNF-a, IL-6, IL-13, IL-18 e fator citot&#243;xico, estando essas citoquinas implicadas no aumento da permeabilidade vascular e no choque que ocorrem durante a infec&#231;&#227;o. Ainda mais, o fator citot&#243;xico, produzido c&#233;lulas T CD4+, induz os macr&#243;fagos a produzirem IL-1a, TNF-a e IL-8. As concentra&#231;&#245;es de IL-6 (de origem endotelial e de mast&#243;citos) s&#227;o maiores nos pacientes com choque e dengue hemorr&#225;gica. Os n&#237;veis mais elevados de TNF-a e de IL-10 correlacionam-se com as manifesta&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas e plaquetopenia, respectivamente. A IL-10 tamb&#233;m reduz a fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e contribui para os defeitos plaquet&#225;rios da dengue<sup>4</sup>. </p>
    <p>Existem muitas evid&#234;ncias interligando a inflama&#231;&#227;o com a coagula&#231;&#227;o, sendo as principais interfaces o fator tecidual (FT), o sistema da prote&#237;na C e o sistema fibrinol&#237;tico. Citocinas proinflamat&#243;rias podem afetar todos esses mecanismos da coagula&#231;&#227;o e proteases ativadas da coagula&#231;&#227;o, anticoagulantes fisiol&#243;gicos ou componentes do sistema fibrinol&#237;tico podem modular a inflama&#231;&#227;o atrav&#233;s de receptores celulares espec&#237;ficos.</p>
    <p>Os principais mediadores inflamat&#243;rios envolvidos na ativa&#231;&#227;o da coagula&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o a IL-6, na ativa&#231;&#227;o da coagula&#231;&#227;o, e o TNF-a e a IL-1 na regula&#231;&#227;o dos anticoagulantes fisiol&#243;gicos. V&#225;rios estudos demonstram a import&#226;ncia da IL-6 na indu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o do FT por v&#225;rias c&#233;lulas, como as mononucleares, levando &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica da coagula&#231;&#227;o. Uma vez expresso o FT, &#233; desencadeada a cascata da coagula&#231;&#227;o e a forma&#231;&#227;o dos complexos enzim&#225;ticos que se formam sobre uma superf&#237;cie fosfolip&#237;dica que, de maneira ideal, &#233; apresentada pelas plaquetas. Durante o processo inflamat&#243;rio as plaquetas podem ser diretamente ativadas por endotoxinas, pela trombina e por mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, como o fator ativador de plaquetas. As plaquetas ativadas ao expressar a P-seletina ir&#227;o mediar a ades&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria ao endot&#233;lio e leuc&#243;citos. Essa liga&#231;&#227;o das plaquetas ativadas aos neutr&#243;filos e c&#233;lulas mononucleares causa ativa&#231;&#227;o do fator nuclear kB, aumentando a express&#227;o de FT pelos mon&#243;citos. Durante o processo inflamat&#243;rio grave, as concentra&#231;&#245;es de antitrombina est&#227;o marcantemente reduzidas por menor s&#237;ntese, degrada&#231;&#227;o por elastase dos neutr&#243;filos ativados e consumo. O sistema da prote&#237;na C tamb&#233;m &#233; bloqueado, uma vez que a express&#227;o endotelial da trombomodulina encontra-se reduzida por a&#231;&#227;o do TNF-a e da IL-1b. O TNF-a e a IL-1b tamb&#233;m t&#234;m papel na regula&#231;&#227;o dos inibidores e ativadores do plasminog&#234;nio. As citoquinas promovem a secre&#231;&#227;o de tPA e uPA dos seus s&#237;tios de estoque nas c&#233;lulas endotelais. Contudo, esse aumento da ativa&#231;&#227;o fibrinol&#237;tica &#233; contrabalan&#231;ado por aumento retardado e mantido do PAI-1<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas da dengue</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O acometimento card&#237;aco pela dengue &#233; considerado raro. Em 1996, durante uma epidemia na &#205;ndia, 206 pacientes foram avaliados e apenas um manifestou sintomas card&#237;acos<sup>8</sup>. Na literatura, h&#225; publica&#231;&#245;es de relatos de casos isolados de dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular (ritmo juncional e bloqueio atrioventricular), arritmias supraventriculares e miocardites<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por sua vez, a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular associada &#224; fase aguda da dengue hemorr&#225;gica foi descrita por diversos autores, e provavelmente &#233; subdiagnosticada na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica corriqueira. Durante a epidemia de 1996, 54 crian&#231;as com dengue e graus variados de severidade cl&#237;nica foram submetidas &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Aproximadamente 16% delas apresentaram fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o inferior a 50%<sup>10</sup>. Na mesma ocasi&#227;o, 17 indiv&#237;duos com dengue hemorr&#225;gica ou choque relacionado &#224; dengue foram avaliados com cintilografia do mioc&#225;rdio, e observou-se hipocinesia difusa em 70% dos pacientes, com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia ao redor de 40%<sup>11</sup>. Ap&#243;s tr&#234;s semanas, todos os pacientes apresentaram normaliza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. Mais recentemente, 24 pacientes com dengue hemorr&#225;gico foram avaliados e submetidos a ecocardiogramas seriados durante a infec&#231;&#227;o aguda e convalescen&#231;a. No estudo, observou-se redu&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular e do &#237;ndice card&#237;aco durante a infec&#231;&#227;o<sup>12</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em conclus&#227;o, apesar de raramente haver manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas espec&#237;ficas na dengue, a depress&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica &#233; freq&#252;ente nos casos de doen&#231;a hemorr&#225;gica ou choque associado. A "s&#237;ndrome do choque relacionado &#224; dengue" ocorre em raz&#227;o do aumento da permeabilidade vascular e padr&#227;o hipovol&#234;mico<sup>13</sup>. Entretanto, a adequada abordagem da instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica relacionada &#224; dengue requer, al&#233;m de vigorosa expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica, avalia&#231;&#227;o e tratamento da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular associada, aos moldes do tratamento atual da sepse.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Implica&#231;&#245;es da interrup&#231;&#227;o de antitromb&#243;ticos em cardiopatas com dengue</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A decis&#227;o de interromper antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios e anticoagulantes em pacientes com dengue depende de uma complexa avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco-benef&#237;cio dessas terap&#234;uticas. Devemos considerar paralelamente o risco da interrup&#231;&#227;o de antitromb&#243;ticos em diversos cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos, e o risco hemorr&#225;gico da infec&#231;&#227;o viral aguda.</p>
    <p>Pacientes com angioplastias recentes, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial cr&#244;nica (FAC) e portadores de pr&#243;teses valvares met&#225;licas s&#227;o os que mais se beneficiam de antiagregantes e anticoagulantes, em longo prazo. A interrup&#231;&#227;o do tratamento promove incremento do risco tromb&#243;tico de modo diferente em cada cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico descrito a seguir.</p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a coloca&#231;&#227;o de um <italic>stent</italic>, o tratamento com &#225;cido acetilsalis&#237;lico (AAS) e tienopirid&#237;nicos (ticlopidina ou clopidogrel) &#233; obrigat&#243;rio e reduz drasticamente o risco de trombose aguda e subaguda intra-<italic>stent</italic>, al&#233;m de eventos cardiovasculaes adversos<sup>14</sup>. Um estudo com 1.653 pacientes submetidos a angioplastia com <italic>stent</italic> evidenciou redu&#231;&#227;o de 3,6% para 0,5% no risco de eventos adversos em 30 dias, quando tienopirid&#237;nicos foram associados ao AAS<sup>15</sup>. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es atuais sugerem que, al&#233;m do AAS, clopidogrel seja utilizado por no m&#237;nimo um m&#234;s ap&#243;s <italic>stents</italic> n&#227;o-farmacol&#243;gicos, tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s <italic>stents</italic> revestidos com sirolimus, seis meses para plaxitel e, idealmente, 12 meses para todos, se n&#227;o forem de alto risco hemorr&#225;gico<sup>16</sup>. Recentemente, a ocorr&#234;ncia de trombose tardia (ap&#243;s um ano) de <italic>stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos levantou a discuss&#227;o sobre a possibilidade de tratamento prolongado por tempo indeterminado com clopidogrel. Entretanto, a interrup&#231;&#227;o precoce de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios, no primeiro m&#234;s ap&#243;s o tratamento com <italic>stents</italic>, pode ser devastadora, com incid&#234;ncia de at&#233; 30% de trombose aguda ou subaguda intra-<italic>stent</italic><sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes com FAC devem ser tratados com antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios ou anticoagulantes, para preven&#231;&#227;o de trombose atrial e acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) cardioemb&#243;lico. Os anticoagulantes devem ser preferidos naqueles pacientes com maior risco emb&#243;lico (disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, idosos, hipertensos, diab&#233;ticos, valvopatas, ou com AVC pr&#233;vio). Conforme a quantidade de fatores de risco, o risco anual de AVC em pacientes n&#227;o anticoagulados pode variar entre 3% e 20%<sup>18</sup>. Uma metan&#225;lise demonstrou redu&#231;&#227;o de 62% no risco de AVC com anticoagulantes em pacientes com FAC<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes submetidos a implante de pr&#243;teses valvares met&#225;licas beneficiam-se de anticoagula&#231;&#227;o para preven&#231;&#227;o de trombose valvar. Aqueles com pr&#243;teses em posi&#231;&#227;o mitral t&#234;m maior risco do que em posi&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica. A presen&#231;a de pr&#243;tese de Starr-Edwards, antecedente de FAC, tromboembolismo pr&#233;vio, mais de uma v&#225;lvula mec&#226;nica e posi&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide tamb&#233;m conferem maior risco tromb&#243;tico. Entretanto, mesmo em pacientes com v&#225;lvulas mec&#226;nicas, o risco de trombose anual sem a prote&#231;&#227;o da varfarina &#233; de cerca de 20%<sup>20</sup>. Portanto, a interrup&#231;&#227;o de varfarina por alguns dias n&#227;o representa risco tromb&#243;tico proibitivo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o e recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em virtude da baixa incid&#234;ncia de dengue hemorr&#225;gica e da dificuldade de predizer, inicialmente, quais pacientes v&#227;o evoluir com quadro hemorr&#225;gico, podemos sugerir as seguintes medidas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; suspens&#227;o de antitromb&#243;ticos nas seguintes situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas cardiol&#243;gicas:</p>
    <p>
      <bold>1) Todos os pacientes com dengue</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O AAS deve ser evitado nos pacientes com Dengue por dois motivos:</p>
    <p>O primeiro deles &#233; a possibilidade da S&#237;ndrome de Reye. Apesar de rara, a s&#237;ndrome de Reye, grave encefalopatia associada a hepatite, pode ser desencadeada por AAS em pacientes com diversas viroses, tais como varicela, influenza e dengue. Apesar de mais comum nas crian&#231;as, adultos tamb&#233;m podem ser acometidos. </p>
    <p>O segundo motivo &#233; o risco de plaquetopenia pela dengue, que pode ser agravada pelo uso concomitante de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios.</p>
    <p><bold>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Todos os pacientes com dengue devem evitar AAS por uma semana, para redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de s&#237;ndrome de Reye e plaquetopenia grave. Em pacientes com alto risco de trombose, antiagregantes podem ser mantidos desde que as plaquetas sejam monitorizadas periodicamente (ver adiante).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2) Pacientes com dengue e alto risco de trombose em curto prazo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#149; Pacientes submetidos a angioplastia coron&#225;ria com <italic>stents</italic> recentemente (um m&#234;s para n&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico, e tr&#234;s a seis meses para farmacol&#243;gico).</p>
    <p>&#149; Portadores de pr&#243;teses valvares mec&#226;nicas, particularmente em posi&#231;&#227;o mitral, tric&#250;spide, ou com FAC associada, tromboembolismo pr&#233;vio ou mais de uma v&#225;lvula mec&#226;nica.</p>
    <p>&#149; Portadores de FAC com m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco tromb&#243;tico (disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, idosos, hipertensos, diab&#233;ticos, valvopatas, AVC pr&#233;vio, trombo intracavit&#225;rio).</p>
    <p><bold>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Manter clopidogrel e AAS, naqueles que j&#225; recebiam. Suspender warfarina e substituir por heparina assim que INR estiver abaixo da faixa terap&#234;utica. Reintroduzir varfarina ap&#243;s uma semana. Monitorizar seriadamente plaquetas e coagulograma at&#233; uma semana. Suspender as medica&#231;&#245;es, se contagem plaquet&#225;ria igual ou inferior a 50.000/mm<sup>3</sup>, sangramento ou choque. Pode-se considerar a suspens&#227;o do clopidogrel e AAS de acordo com a intensidade da redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva do n&#250;mero de plaquetas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3) Pacientes com dengue e pequeno risco de trombose em curto prazo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#149; Portadores de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria est&#225;vel.</p>
    <p>&#149; Pacientes submetidos a angioplastia coron&#225;ria com <italic>stents</italic> h&#225; mais de seis meses.</p>
    <p>&#149; Portadores de FAC sem fatores de risco tromb&#243;ticos (ou com um apenas).</p>
    <p>&#149; Portadores de pr&#243;tese valvar biol&#243;gica.</p>
    <p><bold>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Suspender AAS. Considerar suspens&#227;o de clopidogrel e varfarina por uma semana.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4) Pacientes com dengue hemorr&#225;gica</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Suspens&#227;o imediata de todos os antitromb&#243;ticos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Tsai TF, Vaughn DW, Solomon T. Flaviviruses, In Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (eds.). Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2005.</p>
    <p>2. Brasil. Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de. Combate a dengue. [acesso em 2006 julho 10]. Dispon&#237;vel em URL: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://portal.saude.gov.br">http://portal.saude.gov.br</ext-link>.</p>
    <p>3. Isarangkura P, Mahasandana C, Chuansumrit A, Angchaisuksiri P. Acquired bleeding disorders: the impact of health problems in the developing world. Haemophilia. 2004; 10 (Suppl. 4): 188-95.</p>
    <p>4. Malavige GN, Fernando S, Fernando DJ, Seneviratne SL. Dengue viral infections. Postgrad Med J. 2004; 80: 588-601.</p>
    <p>5. Chuansumrit A, Tangnararatchakit K. Pathophysiology and management of dengue hemorrhagic fever. Transfusion Alternatives in Transfusion Medicine. 2006; 8 (Suppl 1): 3-11.</p>
    <p>6. Wilder-Smith A, Schwartz E. Dengue in travelers. N Engl J Med. 2005; 353: 924-32.</p>
    <p>7. Levi M, van der Poll T. Two-way interactions between inflammation and coagulation. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2005; 15 (7): 254-9.</p>
    <p>8. Agarwal R, Kapoor S, Nagar R, Misra A, Tandon R, Mathur A, et al. A clinical study of the patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever during the epidemic of 1996 at Lucknow, India. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1999; 30 (4):735-40.</p>
    <p>9. Khongphatthallayothin A, Chotivitayatarakorn P, Somchit S, Mitprasart A, Sakolsattayadorn S, Thisyakorn C. Morbitz type I second degree AV block during recovery from dengue hemorrhagic fever. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2000; 31: 642-5. </p>
    <p>10. Kabra SK, Juneja R, Madhulika JY, Singhal T, Dar L, Kothari SS, et al. Myocardial dysfunction in children with dengue haemorrhagic fever. Natl Med J India. 1998; 11: 59-61. </p>
    <p>11. Wali JP, Biswas A, Chandra S, Malhotra A, Aggarwal P, Handa R, et al. Cardiac involvement in dengue haemorrhagic fever. Int J Cardiol. 1998; 64: 31-6. </p>
    <p>12. Khongphatthanayothin A, Suesaowalak M, Muangmingsook S, Bhattarakosol P,Pancharoen C. Hemodynamic profiles of patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever during toxic stage: an echocardiographic study. Intensive Care Med. 2003; 29: 570-4. </p>
    <p>13. Kalayanarooj S, Vaughn DW, Nimmannitya S, Green S, Suntayakorn S, Kunentrasai N. Early clinical and laboratory indicators of acute dengue illness. J Infect Dis. 1997; 176: 313-21.</p>
    <p>14. Grines CL, Bonow RO, Casey DE Jr, Gardner TJ, Lockhart PB, Moliterno DJ, et al. Prevention of premature discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronary artery stents: a science advisory from the American Heart Association, American College of Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, American College of Surgeons, and American Dental Association, with representation from the American College of Physicians. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49:734-9. </p>
    <p>15. Leon MB, Baim DS, Popma JJ, Gordon PC, Cutlip DE, Ho KK, et al. for the Stent Anticoagulation Restenosis Study Investigators. A clinical trial comparing three antithrombotic-drug regimens after coronary-artery stenting. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339: 1665-71.</p>
    <p>16. Smith SC Jr, Feldman TE, Hirshfeld JW Jr, Jacobs AK, Kern MJ, King SB 3rd, et al. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force of Practice Guidelines, ACC/AHA/SCAI Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention. Circulation. 2006; 113 (7): e166-286.</p>
    <p>17. Iakovou I, Schmidt T, Bonizzoni E, Sangiorgi GM, Stankovic G, Airoldi F, et al. Incidence, predictors, and outcome of thrombosis after successful implantation of drug-eluting stents. JAMA. 2005; 293 (17): 2126-30.</p>
    <p>18. van Walraven WC, Hart RG, Wells GA, Wells GA, Petersen P, Koudstaal PJ, et al. A clinical prediction rule to identify patients with atrial fibrillation and a low risk for stroke while taking aspirin. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163 (8): 936-43.</p>
    <p>19. Hart RG, Benavente O, McBride R, Pearce LA. Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 1999; 131 (7): 492-501.</p>
    <p>20. Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Kanu C, de Leon AC Jr, Faxon DP, Freed MD, et al. ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines Circulation. 2006; 114: e84-231.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Antonio Eduardo Pesaro </p>
        <p> InCor </p>
        <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 </p>
        <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="eduardopesaro@hotmail.com">eduardopesaro@hotmail.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 21/05/07, aceito em 21/05/07.</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Point of View</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Dengue: cardiac manifestations and implications in antithrombotic treatment</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>POINT OF VIEW</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Dengue: cardiac manifestations and implications in antithrombotic treatment </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Antonio Eduardo Pesaro<sup>I, II</sup>; &#201;lbio D&#146;Amico<sup>III</sup>; Luis Fernando C. Aranha<sup>I, IV</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Heart Institute of the Medical School of the University of S&#227;o Paulo</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas of the Medical School of the University of S&#227;o Paulo</p>
      <p><sup>IV</sup>FMUSP and Medical School of the Federal University of S&#227;o Paulo - UNIFESP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Dengue; dengue hemorrhagic fever/complications; arrhytmia; heart block; fibrinolytic agents.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Dengue is a disease caused by a virus of the <italic>Flavivirus </italic>genus that consists of an RNA virus transmitted mostly by arthropods. Other clinically important diseases caused by these viruses are yellow-fever and Japanese encephalitis<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>Dengue is widely disseminated, occurring endemically or sometimes epidemically in tropical regions. It is transmitted by mosquitoes of the <italic>Aedes </italic>genus, mainly <italic>Aedes aegypti</italic>, and its distribution and adaptation in urban and domestic environments help to explain the predominance of dengue in cities. The disease occurs when a viremic patient enters an environment where there is a sufficiently large concentration of vectors, and becomes epidemic when there is a significant increase in the number of vectors. The virus is subdivided in 4 serotypes that do not provide cross-immunity.</p>
      <p>In Brazil, similar to other countries in the tropical zone, the disease is endemic with epidemic outbreaks. According to data from the Ministry of Health, until March 12th of this year, 85,018 cases had been reported, which represents an increase of nearly 30% relative to the same period of 2006. The states with the largest numbers of cases are: Mato Grosso do Sul (50.4%), Mato Grosso (7.2%), Rio de Janeiro (5.2%), Paran&#225; (4.7%), Minas Gerais (4.6%), and S&#227;o Paulo (3.6%). The only states where autochthonous transmission of dengue has not been documented are Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina. Due to the unspecific clinical presentation of milder cases, most certainly these numbers are underestimated<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical aspects of dengue</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Most cases of dengue are self-limited, and the course of the disease is a nonspecific febrile state, general malaise and weakness. Patients may feel severe muscle pain and retro-orbital pain, with or without skin rash. Laboratory tests may reveal increased hepatic enzyme levels, leukopenia and thrombocytopenia, which are abnormalities consistent with but nonspecific for dengue fever<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>The most severe forms of the disease are dengue shock syndrome and dengue hemorrhagic fever. The shock syndrome is due to an important alteration in capillary permeability and significant capillary leakage of plasma into extra-vascular spaces, and is associated with immune activation and high serum levels of tumor necrosis factor-a (TNF) receptor, interleukin (IL)-8, and other factors.</p>
      <p>Dengue hemorrhagic fever typically develops together with shock and occurs 2 to 7 days after defervescence. From a clinical point of view, it is not possible to distinguish those patients who will progress to the hemorrhagic form of the disease from those with the self-limited illness. This year in Brazil (from January to May), only 55 cases of dengue hemorrhagic fever and 6 deaths were reported<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Physiopathology of dengue hemorrhagic fever</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The hemorrhagic form of dengue is rare and affects almost exclusively patients with a prior episode, suggesting a physiopathology associated with an exacerbated immune response mediated by heterologous antibodies. Increases in TNF, IL-2, and soluble CD8 are suggestive of hyperactivation of memory CD4 and CD8 cells. There is evidence of overexpression of Fc receptors and class I and II MHC antigens, as well as a serum increase of several inflammatory mediators, as a result of endothelial and mononuclear cell lysis. The result of the immune over-response is a combination of vasculopathy and consumption coagulopathy. The hemorrhagic diathesis in dengue is caused by vasculopathy, thrombocytopenia, and mild coagulopathy, which are responsible for skin and mucous membrane bleeding<sup>3</sup>. The greater vascular fragility is probably a result of the direct action of the virus, which would occur as early as the viremic or initial febrile phases.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Thrombocytopenia and platelet disorders</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As to platelets, there may be thrombocytopenia and platelet disorders. Thrombocytopenia may be secondary to decreased platelet production by the bone marrow, as well as increased peripheral destruction of platelets. It has already been observed that during the acute febrile phase of dengue hemorrhagic fever, bone marrow is markedly hypocellular, with a drop in the production of all cell lines. These findings were later shown to result from direct action of the virus on the medullary stroma and on the hematopoietic progenitor cells. Two days before the defervescence phase, bone marrow hypercellularity is noted, with an enhanced production of precursor cells of the three medullary cell lines. Hemophagocytosis is another possible explanation for the reduced platelet count, which can also occur due to immune destruction (IgM class antiplatelet antibodies and dengue-specific antibodies). Platelet counts return to normal within 7 to 10 days after the defervescence phase<sup>4,5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Alterations in platelet function are also described; these are evidenced by ADP-induced platelet hypoaggregation, a drop in the secretion of intra-platelet ADP, and a rise in plasma concentrations of b-thromboglobulin and platelet factor-4. These findings are consistent with <italic>in vivo</italic> platelet activation resulting from activation by immune complexes. Platelet function resumes its normal conditions 2 to 3 weeks after the initial convalescence period<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Alterations in coagulation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>During the febrile period, variable reductions are observed in the different coagulation factors, such as fibrinogen, factor V, factor VIII, factor IX and factor X, besides antithrombin and a<sub>2</sub>-antiplasmin. These changes explain the discreet prolongation in prothrombin time and activated partial thromboplastin time. Elevations in the concentrations of fibrinogen/fibrin (FDP) degradation products and D5-dimer have also been described<sup>5</sup>. </p>
      <p>Due to these alterations in hemostasis, the use of acetylsalicylic acid, non-hormonal anti-inflammatory agents, and large quantities of volume expanders (Dextran 40 and Haemacel) is considered as risk factors for bleeding<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Immunity and inflammation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The mechanisms involved in the development of severe dengue hemorrhagic disease are not fully understood, but it is suggested that a secondary infection induced by another dengue serotype is the main risk factor for dengue hemorrhagic fever and dengue shock syndrome. Cross-reactive non-neutralizing antibodies from a previous infection bind to the new serotype, increasing capture by monocytes and macrophages, thus resulting in the amplification of the cytokine cascade and activation of the complement<sup>7</sup>. However, as only 2% to 4% of individuals with a second infection develop the severe form of the disease, the antibody-dependent increase alone can not explain the whole process. Significant differences in antibody, cytokine, and T-cell responses are observed between patients with the non-complicated form of the disease and those with the complicated forms.</p>
      <p>Monocytes, B lymphocytes, and mastocytes infected by the dengue virus produce different cytokines, and some authors show that the largest increases in concentrations of TFN-a, IL-2, IL-6, and interferon (IFN)-g take place during the first 3 days of the disease, followed by the appearance of IL-10, IL-5 and IL-4. Patients with the hemorrhagic form of the disease present larger concentrations of TNF-a, IL-6, IL-13, IL-18, and cytotoxic factor, and these cytokines are involved in the increased vascular permeability and shock that occur during the infection. Additionally, by producing T CD4+ cells, the cytotoxic factor induces macrophages to produce IL-1a, TNF-a, and IL-8. Concentrations of IL-6 (of endothelial and mastocyte origin) are higher in patients with shock and dengue hemorrhagic fever. The highest levels of TNF-a and IL-10 correlate with hemorrhagic manifestations and thrombocytopenia, respectively. IL-10 also reduces platelet function and contributes to dengue platelet defects<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>There is much evidence linking inflammation and coagulation, and the main interfaces for this are the tissue factor (TF) pathway, the C-protein system, and the fibrinolytic system. Proinflammatory cytokines can affect all these coagulation mechanisms, whereas activated coagulation proteases, physiological anticoagulants, or components of the fibrinolytic system can modulate inflammation through specific cell receptors.</p>
      <p>The main inflammatory mediators involved are IL-6, in coagulation activation, and TNF-a and IL-1 in physiological anticoagulant regulation. Several studies demonstrate the importance of IL-6 in the induction of TF expression in many cells, such as mononuclear cells, leading to systemic activation of coagulation. Once TF is expressed, the coagulation cascade is triggered, as well as the formation of enzymatic complexes on a phospholipid surface which, ideally, is presented by the platelets. During the inflammatory process, platelets can be directly activated by endotoxins, thrombin, and inflammatory mediators, such as the platelet activating factor. By expressing P-selectin, the activated platelets mediate platelet adhesion to the endothelium and leukocytes. The binding of activated platelets to neutrophils and mononuclear cells induces activation of nuclear factor kB, thus increasing the expression of TF in monocytes. During the acute inflammatory process, concentrations of antithrombin are significantly decreased due to the reduced synthesis, degradation by neutrophil elastase released from activated neutrophils, and consumption. The C-protein system is also blocked, as the endothelial expression of thrombomodulin is reduced by the action of TNF-a and IL-1b. TNF-a and IL-1b also have a role in regulating plasminogen inhibitors and activators. Cytokines induce secretion of tPA and uPA from their storage sites in endothelial cells. However, this increase in fibrinolytic activation is counterbalanced by a delayed and sustained rise in PAI-1<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cardiac manifestations of dengue</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Dengue rarely affects the heart. In 1996, during an epidemic outbreak of dengue in India, 206 patients were evaluated and only one had cardiac symptoms<sup>8</sup>. Medical literature has reports of isolated cases of atrioventricular conduction disorders (junctional rhythm and atrioventricular block), supraventricular arrhythmias, and myocarditis<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, the ventricular dysfunction associated with the acute phase of dengue hemorrhagic fever has been described by several authors and is probably underdiagnosed in clinical practice. During the 1996 epidemic, 54 children with dengue of varied degrees of severity underwent evaluation of the ventricular function. Approximately 16% had ejection fractions under 50%<sup>10</sup>. In that same period, 17 subjects with dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome underwent myocardial scintigraphy, which showed that 70% of them had diffuse hypokinesia, with a mean ejection fraction of 40%<sup>11</sup>. After three weeks, the myocardial function of all patients had normalized. More recently, 24 patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever were evaluated and underwent serial echocardiograms during the acute phase of the infection and convalescence. In the study, a transient reduction in ventricular ejection fraction and in cardiac index during the infection was observed<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although cardiac manifestations specific to dengue are rare, depression of myocardial function is frequent in the hemorrhagic form of the disease or in the associated shock. The "dengue-related shock syndrome" is due to the increased vascular permeability and hypovolemic pattern<sup>13</sup>. However, an adequate approach to the hemodynamic instability associated with dengue requires not only a significant volemic expansion, but also evaluation and treatment of the accompanying ventricular dysfunction, as in the current treatment of sepsis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Implications of the interruption of antithrombotic agents used in cardiac patients with dengue </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The decision to interrupt the use of platelet antiaggregants and anticoagulants in patients with dengue depends on a complex assessment of the risks and benefits of these treatments. The risk of interrupting the use of antithrombotics in different clinical conditions and the risk of hemorrhage in an acute virus infection should also be taken in consideration.</p>
      <p>Patients who have recently undergone angioplasty, with chronic atrial fibrillation (CAF) and those with metal valvar prostheses are the ones who benefit most from the use of antiaggregants and anticoagulants in the long run. Treatment interruption increases the risk of thrombosis in different ways in each of the clinical conditions described below.</p>
      <p>After stent implantation, treatment with acetylsalicylic acid (ASA) and thienopyridines (ticlopidine or clopidogrel) is mandatory, as it significantly reduces the risk of acute and subacute stent thrombosis, as well as adverse cardiovascular events<sup>14</sup>. A study conducted with 1,653 patients who had undergone stent angioplasty revealed a reduction from 3.6% to 0.5% in the risk of adverse events within 30 days, with the use of thienopyridines combined with aspirin<sup>15</sup>. Besides the use of aspirin, current recommendations are to add clopidogrel for at least one month after the implantation of non drug-eluting stents, three months after the implantation of sirolimus-coated stents, six months for plaxitaxel and, ideally, 12 months for all of them, provided they do not represent a high risk of hemorrhage<sup>16</sup>. Recently, the occurrence of late (after one year) drug-eluting stent thrombosis raised a discussion about the possibility of long-term treatment with clopidogrel for an unlimited time. On the other hand, early interruption of treatment with platelet antiaggregants during the first month after stent implantation can be devastating, with an incidence as high as 30% of acute or subacute stent thrombosis<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients with CAF must be treated with platelet antiaggregants or anticoagulants to prevent atrial thrombosis and cardioembolic cerebrovascular accidents (CVA) Anticoagulants should be preferred for patients at a higher risk of embolism (patients with ventricular dysfunction, who are elderly, hypertensive, diabetic, have valvar disorders or a prior CVA). Depending on the number of risk factors, the annual risk of CVA in patients who have not undergone treatment with anticoagulants may vary from 3% to 20%<sup>18</sup>. A meta-analysis demonstrated that patients with CAF had a 62% reduction in the risk of CVA with the use of anticoagulants<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients with metal valvar prostheses may benefit from the use of anticoagulants to prevent valvar thrombosis. Patients with mitral prostheses are at higher risk than those with aortic prostheses. Patients with implanted Starr-Edwards prostheses, prior CAF or thromboembolism, more than one mechanical valve, and tricuspid involvement are also at a higher risk of thromboembolism. However, even in patients with mechanical valves, the annual risk of thrombosis without warfarin protection is approximately 20%<sup>20</sup>. Therefore, interrupting the use of warfarin for a few days does not represent a significant risk of thrombosis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion and recommendations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Due to the low incidence of dengue hemorrhagic fever and the difficulty to initially predict which patients will progress to the hemorrhagic form of the disease, we suggest the following measures regarding the interruption of antithrombotics in these clinical cardiac situations:</p>
      <p>
        <bold>1) All patients with dengue</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The use of AAS should be avoided by patients with dengue for two reasons: the first one, the possibility of developing Reye&#146;s syndrome. Although rare, Reye's syndrome, a severe encephalopathy associated with hepatitis, may be triggered by the use of aspirin in patients with several types of virus infections, such as varicella, influenza and dengue. It is a condition that affects mostly children, but adults may also be affected. The second reason is the risk of thrombocytopenia due to dengue, which can be worsened by the concomitant use of platelet antiaggregant agents.</p>
      <p><bold>Recommendation:</bold> All patients with dengue should avoid using AAS for one week to reduce the risk of developing Reye&#146;s syndrome and severe thrombocytopenia. In patients at high risk of thrombosis, treatment with antiaggregant agents may be maintained provided platelet counts are regularly monitored (see below).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2) Patients with dengue and at a high short term risk of thrombosis:</bold>
      </p>
      <p>&#149; Patients who have recently undergone coronary angioplasty with stent implantation (1 month for non-pharmacological stents, and 3-6 months for pharmacological stents).</p>
      <p>&#149; Patients with mechanical valvar prostheses, especially in a mitral or tricuspid position, or with associated CAF, prior thromboembolism or more than one mechanical valve.</p>
      <p>&#149; Patients with CAF and multiple thrombotic risk factors (patients with ventricular dysfunction, who are elderly, hypertensive, diabetic, have valvar disorders, prior CVA or intracavitary thrombus).</p>
      <p><bold>Recommendation:</bold> Keep clopidogrel and AAS, in those patients already taking these agents. Interrupt warfarin use and replace it with heparin as soon as the INR level is below the therapeutic range. Reintroduce warfarin after one week. Perform serial platelet monitoring and coagulogram during one week. Interrupt use of medications if platelet count is equal to or less than 50,000/mm<sup>3</sup>, and if there is bleeding or shock. Clopidogrel and AAS interruption may be considered depending on the intensity of progressive reduction in the number of platelets.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3) Patients with dengue and at low short term risk of thrombosis:</bold>
      </p>
      <p>&#149; Patients with stable coronary artery disease.</p>
      <p>&#149; Patients who have undergone coronary angioplasty with stent implantation more than six months before.</p>
      <p>&#149; Patients with CAF and no risk factors for thrombosis (or only one risk factor).</p>
      <p>&#149; Patients with biological valvar prostheses.</p>
      <p><bold>Recommendation -</bold> Interrupt the use of aspirin. Consider interrupting clopidogrel and warfarin for one week.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4) Patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Recommendation -</bold> Interrupt immediately the use of all antithrombotic agents.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Tsai TF, Vaughn DW, Solomon T. Flaviviruses, In Mandell GL, Bennett JE, Dolin R (eds.). Principles and practice of infectious diseases. 6th ed. Philadelphia: Elsevier; 2005.</p>
      <p>2. Brasil. Minist&#233;rio da Sa&#250;de. Combate a dengue. [acesso em 2006 julho 10]. Dispon&#237;vel em URL: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://portal.saude.gov.br">http://portal.saude.gov.br</ext-link>.</p>
      <p>3. Isarangkura P, Mahasandana C, Chuansumrit A, Angchaisuksiri P. Acquired bleeding disorders: the impact of health problems in the developing world. Haemophilia. 2004; 10 (Suppl. 4): 188-95.</p>
      <p>4. Malavige GN, Fernando S, Fernando DJ, Seneviratne SL. Dengue viral infections. Postgrad Med J. 2004; 80: 588-601.</p>
      <p>5. Chuansumrit A, Tangnararatchakit K. Pathophysiology and management of dengue hemorrhagic fever. Transfusion Alternatives in Transfusion Medicine. 2006; 8 (Suppl 1): 3-11.</p>
      <p>6. Wilder-Smith A, Schwartz E. Dengue in travelers. N Engl J Med. 2005; 353: 924-32.</p>
      <p>7. Levi M, van der Poll T. Two-way interactions between inflammation and coagulation. Trends Cardiovasc Med. 2005; 15 (7): 254-9.</p>
      <p>8. Agarwal R, Kapoor S, Nagar R, Misra A, Tandon R, Mathur A, et al. A clinical study of the patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever during the epidemic of 1996 at Lucknow, India. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 1999; 30 (4):735-40.</p>
      <p>9. Khongphatthallayothin A, Chotivitayatarakorn P, Somchit S, Mitprasart A, Sakolsattayadorn S, Thisyakorn C. Morbitz type I second degree AV block during recovery from dengue hemorrhagic fever. Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health. 2000; 31: 642-5. </p>
      <p>10. Kabra SK, Juneja R, Madhulika JY, Singhal T, Dar L, Kothari SS, et al. Myocardial dysfunction in children with dengue haemorrhagic fever. Natl Med J India. 1998; 11: 59-61. </p>
      <p>11. Wali JP, Biswas A, Chandra S, Malhotra A, Aggarwal P, Handa R, et al. Cardiac involvement in dengue haemorrhagic fever. Int J Cardiol. 1998; 64: 31-6. </p>
      <p>12. Khongphatthanayothin A, Suesaowalak M, Muangmingsook S, Bhattarakosol P,Pancharoen C. Hemodynamic profiles of patients with dengue hemorrhagic fever during toxic stage: an echocardiographic study. Intensive Care Med. 2003; 29: 570-4. </p>
      <p>13. Kalayanarooj S, Vaughn DW, Nimmannitya S, Green S, Suntayakorn S, Kunentrasai N. Early clinical and laboratory indicators of acute dengue illness. J Infect Dis. 1997; 176: 313-21.</p>
      <p>14. Grines CL, Bonow RO, Casey DE Jr, Gardner TJ, Lockhart PB, Moliterno DJ, et al. Prevention of premature discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy in patients with coronary artery stents: a science advisory from the American Heart Association, American College of Cardiology, Society for Cardiovascular Angiography and Interventions, American College of Surgeons, and American Dental Association, with representation from the American College of Physicians. J Am Coll Cardiol 2007; 49:734-9. </p>
      <p>15. Leon MB, Baim DS, Popma JJ, Gordon PC, Cutlip DE, Ho KK, et al. for the Stent Anticoagulation Restenosis Study Investigators. A clinical trial comparing three antithrombotic-drug regimens after coronary-artery stenting. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339: 1665-71.</p>
      <p>16. Smith SC Jr, Feldman TE, Hirshfeld JW Jr, Jacobs AK, Kern MJ, King SB 3rd, et al. American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force of Practice Guidelines, ACC/AHA/SCAI Writing Committee to Update the 2001 Guidelines for Percutaneous Coronary Intervention. Circulation. 2006; 113 (7): e166-286.</p>
      <p>17. Iakovou I, Schmidt T, Bonizzoni E, Sangiorgi GM, Stankovic G, Airoldi F, et al. Incidence, predictors, and outcome of thrombosis after successful implantation of drug-eluting stents. JAMA. 2005; 293 (17): 2126-30.</p>
      <p>18. van Walraven WC, Hart RG, Wells GA, Wells GA, Petersen P, Koudstaal PJ, et al. A clinical prediction rule to identify patients with atrial fibrillation and a low risk for stroke while taking aspirin. Arch Intern Med. 2003;163 (8): 936-43.</p>
      <p>19. Hart RG, Benavente O, McBride R, Pearce LA. Antithrombotic therapy to prevent stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation: a meta-analysis. Ann Intern Med. 1999; 131 (7): 492-501.</p>
      <p>20. Bonow RO, Carabello BA, Kanu C, de Leon AC Jr, Faxon DP, Freed MD, et al. ACC/AHA 2006 guidelines for the management of patients with valvular heart disease: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines Circulation. 2006; 114: e84-231.</p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing address:</p>
          <p> Antonio Eduardo Pesaro</p>
          <p> InCor</p>
          <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44</p>
          <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="eduardopesaro@hotmail.com">eduardopesaro@hotmail.com</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received May 21, 2007; accepted May 21, 2007.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3) Pacientes com dengue e pequeno risco de trombose em curto prazo</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
