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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">DYGmTZzk5JtFv7R8bcLkzBv</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007001400003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08900203</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007001400003</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Obesidade abdominal, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e hipertens&#227;o: impacto sobre a massa e a fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em mulheres</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Eliana A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Flexa</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zanella</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Teresa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Paulista de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>89</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>86</fpage>
      <lpage>92</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o da obesidade central, hiperinsulinemia e hipertens&#227;o arterial (HA) com a massa e a geometria do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em mulheres. M&#201;TODOS: Foram avaliadas 70 mulheres (35 a 68 anos), divididas em quatro grupos de acordo com a presen&#231;a de obesidade central e hipertens&#227;o arterial. Determinou-se a &#225;rea de gordura visceral. A glicose e insulina plasm&#225;ticas foram determinadas antes e 2 h ap&#243;s uma sobrecarga oral de 75 g de glicose. Realizada avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica. RESULTADOS: Comparado ao grupo NT-OB, o grupo HT-OB apresentou insulinemia mais elevada no TOTG de 2 h (127,5 &#177; 73,0 vs 86,8 &#177; 42,7 &#181;U/ml; p = 0,05) e menor rela&#231;&#227;o onda E/A (0,8 &#177; 0,1 vs 1.2 &#177; 0,3; p &lt; 0,05). Comparado ao grupo NT-NO, o grupo HT-NO apresentou insulinemia elevada antes da sobrecarga de glicose (7,46 &#177; 3,1 vs 4,32 &#177; 2,1 &#181;U/ml; p &lt; 0,05), maior &#237;ndice HOMA-r (1,59 &#177; 0,72 vs 0,93 &#177; 0,48 mmol.mU/l&#178;; p = 0,006), maior leptinemia (19,1 &#177; 9,6 vs 7,4 &#177; 3,5 ng/ml; p = 0,028), maior &#225;rea de GV (84,40 &#177; 55,7 vs 37,50 &#177; 23,0 cm&#178;; p = 0,036), maior EDSIV (9,6 &#177; 1,2 vs 8,2 &#177; 1,7 mm; p &lt; 0,05) e maior MVE/alt (95,8 &#177; 22,3 vs 78,4 &#177; 15,5 g/m; p &lt; 0.05). Uma an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla revelou impacto da idade, IMC e glicemia de jejum sobre MVE/altura (R&#178; = 0,59; p&lt;0,05). CONCLUS&#195;O: Nossos resultados indicam uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre HA, obesidade central e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, resultante de ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina</kwd>
        <kwd>hipertrofia ventricular esquerda</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>05</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Obesidade abdominal, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina e hipertens&#227;o: impacto sobre a massa e a fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em mulheres </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Eliana A. Silva; Fernando Flexa; Maria Teresa Zanella</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - UNIFESP, Escola Paulista de Medicina - EPM - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO:</bold> Avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o da obesidade central, hiperinsulinemia e hipertens&#227;o arterial (HA) com a massa e a geometria do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em mulheres. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Foram avaliadas 70 mulheres (35 a 68 anos), divididas em quatro grupos de acordo com a presen&#231;a de obesidade central e hipertens&#227;o arterial. Determinou-se a &#225;rea de gordura visceral. A glicose e insulina plasm&#225;ticas foram determinadas antes e 2 h ap&#243;s uma sobrecarga oral de 75 g de glicose. Realizada avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> Comparado ao grupo NT-OB, o grupo HT-OB apresentou insulinemia mais elevada no TOTG de 2 h (127,5 &#177; 73,0 <italic>vs</italic> 86,8 &#177; 42,7 &#181;U/ml; <italic>p</italic> = 0,05) e menor rela&#231;&#227;o onda E/A (0,8 &#177; 0,1 <italic>vs</italic> 1.2 &#177; 0,3; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0,05). Comparado ao grupo NT-NO, o grupo HT-NO apresentou insulinemia elevada antes da sobrecarga de glicose (7,46 &#177; 3,1 <italic>vs</italic> 4,32 &#177; 2,1 &#181;U/ml; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0,05), maior &#237;ndice HOMA-r (1,59 &#177; 0,72 <italic>vs</italic> 0,93 &#177; 0,48 mmol.mU/l&#178;; <italic>p</italic> = 0,006), maior leptinemia (19,1 &#177; 9,6 <italic>vs</italic> 7,4 &#177; 3,5 ng/ml; <italic>p</italic> = 0,028), maior &#225;rea de GV (84,40 &#177; 55,7 <italic>vs</italic> 37,50 &#177; 23,0 cm&#178;; <italic>p</italic> = 0,036), maior EDSIV (9,6 &#177; 1,2 <italic>vs</italic> 8,2 &#177; 1,7 mm; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0,05) e maior MVE/alt (95,8 &#177; 22,3 <italic>vs</italic> 78,4 &#177; 15,5 g/m; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05). Uma an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla revelou impacto da idade, IMC e glicemia de jejum sobre MVE/altura (R&#178; = 0,59; <italic>p</italic>&lt;0,05). </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Nossos resultados indicam uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre HA, obesidade central e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, resultante de ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. (Arq Bras Cardiol 2007;89(2):86-92)</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Obesidade, hipertens&#227;o, resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A obesidade, reconhecida atualmente como fator de risco independente para doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV), est&#225; fortemente associada com outros fatores de risco, inclusive hipertens&#227;o<sup>1-3</sup>. Mecanismos complexos ligam o aumento crescente do peso corporal com aumento crescente da press&#227;o arterial. A obesidade da parte superior do corpo, em compara&#231;&#227;o com obesidade da parte inferior do corpo, est&#225; mais estreitamente associada com hipertens&#227;o induzida por obesidade, e acredita-se que a hiperinsulinemia esteja envolvida na g&#234;nese da hipertens&#227;o arterial em indiv&#237;duos obesos<sup>2,3</sup>. No estudo Framingham, para cada 4,5 kg de ganho ponderal a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica subiu em m&#233;dia 4,5 mmHg<sup>4</sup>. Alguns autores acreditam que a leptina tamb&#233;m pode aumentar os n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
    <p>Como demonstraram alguns pesquisadores<sup>7-9</sup>, pacientes hipertensos obesos apresentaram anormalidades anat&#244;micas e hemodin&#226;micas em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do excesso de peso, inclusive aumento do volume intravascular, do leito vascular, da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco.</p>
    <p>Acredita-se que o consumo excessivo de oxig&#234;nio, causado por maior metabolismo do tecido adiposo aumentado, associado com hipervolemia contribui para a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda<sup>7</sup>. Existem relatos de que, embora os pacientes hipertensos n&#227;o-obesos apresentem hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo devido a um aumento na p&#243;s-carga<sup>10</sup>, pacientes obesos, mesmo os normotensos, apresentam hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo devido a um aumento na pr&#233;-carga. Pacientes hipertensos obesos podem apresentar esses dois mecanismos. </p>
    <p>O objetivo do estudo foi avaliar a rela&#231;&#227;o da obesidade central, hiperinsulinemia e hipertens&#227;o com a massa e a geometria do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo em mulheres.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>De agosto de 2001 a agosto de 2003, estudamos 70 mulheres entre 35 e 68 anos de idade divididas em quatro grupos: NT-NO (normotensas n&#227;o-obesas; n = 17), NT-OB (normotensas obesas; n = 18), HT-NO (hipertensas n&#227;o-obesas; n = 18) e HT-OB (hipertensas obesas; n = 17). Essas mulheres foram recrutadas das cl&#237;nicas de obesidade e hipertens&#227;o da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP-EPM) e do Hospital do Servidor P&#250;blico Estadual (HSPE). Todas as participantes assinaram um Termo de Consentimento Livre e Esclarecido, e o estudo foi aprovado pelo Conselho de &#201;tica da Institui&#231;&#227;o. Obesidade central foi definida como peso (kg) dividido pela altura (metros) ao quadrado <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup> e cintura &gt; 88 cm. Hipertens&#227;o foi definida como press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica ou diast&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 x 90 mmHg ou relato de uso de medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram auto-relato de diabetes e disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, hep&#225;tica e renal. As medidas de peso, altura, cintura e quadril foram obtidas pelo mesmo observador. A press&#227;o arterial foi aferida ap&#243;s cinco minutos de repouso, em posi&#231;&#227;o sentada, utilizando-se um esfigmoman&#244;metro com manguito de tamanho adequado para a circunfer&#234;ncia do bra&#231;o, sendo considerada a m&#233;dia entre duas medidas.</p>
    <p>Nenhuma paciente tomou medicamentos anti-hipertensivos por um per&#237;odo de pelo menos sete dias antes do estudo. Depois de um jejum de doze horas, os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de glicose (glicose-oxidase/analisador Hitashi) e insulina (Auto Delfia, Perkin Elmer) foram determinados aos 0 e 120 minutos ap&#243;s sobrecarga oral de 75 g de glicose. Foi feita tamb&#233;m a dosagem de leptina de jejum (Linco Research, EUA).</p>
    <p>As pacientes foram submetidas a exames de eletrocardiograma (<italic>Dixtal</italic>) e monitoramento ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial (MAPA) de 24 horas (<italic>Spacelabs</italic>, Redmond, WA). A MAPA registrou a press&#227;o arterial a cada 15 minutos durante o dia (per&#237;odo de vig&#237;lia) e a cada 20 minutos durante a noite (per&#237;odo de sono), com base nos relatos feitos pelas pacientes de suas atividades durante o dia e a noite. A queda da press&#227;o arterial durante o sono (delta PA) foi calculada dividindo-se a diferen&#231;a entre a m&#233;dia da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica de vig&#237;lia e a m&#233;dia da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica de sono pela m&#233;dia da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica de vig&#237;lia (DPA = PAS m&#233;dia de vig&#237;lia &#150; PAS m&#233;dia do sono x 100 / PAS m&#233;dia de vig&#237;lia). </p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma foi realizado pelo mesmo examinador, com a paciente em repouso, em estado de equil&#237;brio e em dec&#250;bito lateral esquerdo, usando-se um transdutor de 2,5 MHz. As seguintes medidas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas, tomadas no modo unidimensional e com o cursor orientado pelo bidimensional, foram feitas de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da Sociedade Americana de Ecocadiografia<sup>11</sup>: di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDVE), espessura diast&#243;lica do septo interventricular (EDSIV) e espessura diast&#243;lica da parede posterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (EDPPVE). A massa ventricular esquerda (MVE) foi estimada pela f&#243;rmula de Devereax<sup>12</sup> e corrigida pela altura (MVE/altura). O valor de corte de <underline>&gt;</underline> 102 g/m para a rela&#231;&#227;o MVE/altura foi adotado para o diagn&#243;stico de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda<sup>13-16</sup>. A rela&#231;&#227;o entre a onda E e onda A (E/A) foi usada como indicador da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Usamos a massa ventricular esquerda corrigida pela superf&#237;cie corporal (IMVE) e a espessura relativa da parede posterior (ERPP), que representa a raz&#227;o entre a espessura diast&#243;lica da parede posterior do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (EDPPVE) e o di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDVE) multiplicada por 2,0 (EDPPVE/DDVE x 2,0) para avaliar a geometria ventricular<sup>17</sup>. Hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica &#233; definida como IMVE <underline>&gt;</underline> 100 g/m<sup>2</sup> e ERPP &lt; 0,45, e hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica &#233; definida como ERPP <underline>&gt;</underline> 0,45.</p>
    <p>A &#225;rea de gordura visceral (densidade de -50 a -250 UH) foi obtida por tomografia computadorizada (Picker International), ao n&#237;vel de L4-L5, e expressa em cm<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>As an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram efetuadas com o programa SPSS vers&#227;o 12.0, e o n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia foi estabelecido em a = 0,05 (p &lt; 0,05). Os seguintes testes estat&#237;sticos foram empregados: ANOVA e Kruskal-Wallis para comparar os quatro grupos; testes de Fisher e qui-quadrado para analisar as vari&#225;veis nominais; testes <italic>t </italic>de <italic>Student</italic> e Mann-Whitney para comparar dois grupos; coeficiente de Pearson para analisar as correla&#231;&#245;es; e an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia da idade, glicemia de jejum e de 2 horas, insulina plasm&#225;tica de 2 horas, IMC, GV e PAS de sono e vig&#237;lia sobre a rela&#231;&#227;o MVE/altura.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os achados cl&#237;nicos, laboratoriais e tomogr&#225;ficos s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela 1</xref>, e as medidas da press&#227;o arterial s&#227;o apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tabela 2</xref>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Apenas 57% de todas as pacientes hipertensas tomaram anti-hipertensivos at&#233; sete dias antes da avalia&#231;&#227;o. As pacientes hipertensas (NO e OB) vinham em uso de inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (16,6% e 29%), hidroclorotiazida (16,6% e 23,5%) e bloquedores dos canais de c&#225;lcio (5,5% e 23,5%), respectivamente.</p>
    <p>Os grupos NT-OB e HT-OB apresentaram valores semelhantes de MVE/altura, valores esses que eram mais elevados do que os do grupo NT-NO (107,2 &#177; 30,7 e 109,1 &#177; 26,0 g/m) mas que n&#227;o diferiam do grupo HT-NO (95,8 &#177; 22,3 g/m) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tab. 3</xref>). No grupo como um todo, os valores de MVE/altura detectaram hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) em 36,51% (1,6% no NT-NO, 12,7% no NT-OB, 11,1% no HT-NO e 11,1% no HT-OB). Dezesseis por cento de todas as pacientes apresentaram hipertrofia exc&#234;ntrica, e 8% apresentaram hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica. As porcentagens de pacientes com uma ou outra forma de hipertrofia nos quatro grupos foram bastante semelhantes.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de insulina obtidos duas horas ap&#243;s sobrecarga oral de glicose foram mais elevados nos grupos HT-NO e HT-OB (49,9 &#177; 25,3 e 127,5 &#177; 73,0 &#181;U/ml), quando comparados aos dos grupos NT-NO e NT-OB (34,7 &#177; 27,3 e 86,8 &#177; 42,7 &#181;U/ml), respectivamente. O grupo HT-NO demonstrou tend&#234;ncia para n&#237;veis mais altos de glicose sang&#252;&#237;nea (111,9 &#177; 27,4 <italic>vs</italic> 87,1 &#177; 29,0 mg/dl; p = 0,057) &#224;s duas horas do TOTG do que o grupo NT-NO.</p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise eletrocardiogr&#225;fica mostrou que os intervalos QRS eram semelhantes em todos os quatro grupos, enquanto no grupo HT-OB, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo NT-NO, os intervalos PR e QTc eram maiores (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tab. 3</xref>).</p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o linear m&#250;ltipla, com MVE/altura como vari&#225;vel dependente e idade, IMC, glicemia de jejum, glicemia de 2 horas, insulina plasm&#225;tica de 2 horas, GV, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) de vig&#237;lia e sono como vari&#225;veis independentes, mostrou que apenas idade, glicemia de jejum e IMC eram determinantes dos valores de MVE/altura (R&#178; = 0,59; p &lt; 0,05; m&#233;todo de elimina&#231;&#227;o regressiva).</p>
    <p>Foram detectadas correla&#231;&#245;es positivas entre press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica durante o sono e n&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos de insulina de 2 horas (r = 0,38; p = 0,01) e entre freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante o sono e glicemia de 2 horas (0,43; p &lt; 0,01).</p>
    <p>As m&#233;dias de MVE/altura e rela&#231;&#227;o E/A dos grupos s&#227;o apresentadas nas <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">figuras 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">2</xref>.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Obesidade e hipertens&#227;o arterial s&#227;o componentes cl&#225;ssicos da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica<sup>2,3,8,18,19</sup>. Alguns autores demonstraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade, bem como hipertens&#227;o arterial, e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, aumentando o risco cardiovascular<sup>10,16,19</sup>. A hiperinsulinemia tem sido considerada a liga&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade, hipertens&#227;o arterial e diabetes tipo 2, por meio de aumento do t&#244;nus adren&#233;rgico e da reabsor&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio<sup>2,18,20-23</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em nosso estudo, as m&#233;dias press&#243;ricas sist&#243;licas e diast&#243;licas foram mais altas nas mulheres hipertensas obesas do que nas hipertensas n&#227;o-obesas, e essas diferen&#231;as tamb&#233;m foram associadas com maior freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no sono e maior concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de insulina. Al&#233;m disso, as pacientes hipertensas obesas apresentaram menor queda de press&#227;o arterial durante o sono e correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre os n&#237;veis de insulina e os valores de PAS do sono. Esses resultados sugerem uma maior atividade simp&#225;tica, que poderia ser causada pela hiperinsulinemia, contribuindo para a eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial durante a noite e reduzindo a queda da press&#227;o arterial que costuma ocorrer durante o sono.</p>
    <p>Comprovou-se que essa menor queda da press&#227;o arterial noturna est&#225; associada com hipertrofia ventricular esquerda em pacientes hipertensos<sup>8</sup>. Embora em nosso estudo n&#227;o tenha sido observada diferen&#231;a nos valores de MVE/altura entre pacientes obesas normotensas e hipertensas, n&#227;o podemos excluir totalmente a participa&#231;&#227;o da atividade simp&#225;tica na determina&#231;&#227;o da massa ventricular, uma vez que 76% das pacientes hipertensas obesas tomaram anti-hipertensivos at&#233; sete dias antes da nossa avalia&#231;&#227;o. As mulheres normotensas obesas apresentaram ind&#237;cios de um pequeno aumento na atividade adren&#233;rgica, que tamb&#233;m poderia ser atribu&#237;do &#224; hiperinsulinemia, com base nos valores mais elevados de press&#227;o arterial de consult&#243;rio e na freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de vig&#237;lia, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o grupo de normotensas n&#227;o-obesas. Essa hiperatividade adren&#233;rgica, em associa&#231;&#227;o com maior volemia, geralmente encontrada em indiv&#237;duos obesos, tamb&#233;m poderia contribuir para o aumento da massa ventricular esquerda. Al&#233;m do aumento do est&#237;mulo simp&#225;tico e da expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica, n&#237;veis mais elevados de glicose sang&#252;&#237;nea tamb&#233;m poderiam favorecer o aumento da massa ventricular esquerda nos dois grupos de mulheres obesas, conforme relatado anteriormente<sup>24</sup>. Os poss&#237;veis mecanismos para explicar essa rela&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o: 1) a&#231;&#227;o direta da glicose s&#233;rica sobre os mi&#243;citos, provocando altera&#231;&#245;es e hipertrofia celulares; 2) hiperatividade do sistema renina-angiotensina e 3) altera&#231;&#245;es na matriz extracelular<sup>25-28</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ao contr&#225;rio dos nossos achados nas mulheres obesas, n&#227;o encontramos evid&#234;ncias de maior atividade simp&#225;tica nas mulheres hipertensas n&#227;o-obesas, que tamb&#233;m apresentaram leves altera&#231;&#245;es na concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de insulina em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s mulheres normotensas n&#227;o-obesas. Portanto, n&#227;o conseguimos encontrar uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre hiperinsulinemia e aumento da massa ventricular esquerda nesse grupo de mulheres hipertensas, como foi demonstrado anteriormente<sup>29</sup>. Entretanto, al&#233;m do aumento da press&#227;o arterial nesse grupo, foram encontrados tamb&#233;m n&#237;veis mais elevados de glicemia ap&#243;s sobrecarga oral de glicose. Isso reflete certo grau de resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica &#224; insulina, que poderia ter contribu&#237;do para o aumento da massa ventricular esquerda.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico de hipertrofia card&#237;aca &#233; objeto de controv&#233;rsia. Diversos estudos usaram o &#237;ndice de massa ventricular esquerda dividida pela superf&#237;cie corporal (IMVE), enquanto alguns autores sugeriram a corre&#231;&#227;o da massa card&#237;aca pela altura (MVE/altura)<sup>8,12,13</sup>. Em indiv&#237;duos obesos, a massa ventricular esquerda pode ser subestimada devido ao excesso de peso quando o IMVE &#233; usado para diagn&#243;stico de HVE<sup>11,12,14</sup>. Como afirmamos anteriormente, o &#237;ndice MVE/altura parece ser o mais apropriado para esse fim<sup>8</sup>. Apesar de ter sido relatado que pacientes obesos geralmente apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es na geometria do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo caracter&#237;sticas de hipertrofia card&#237;aca exc&#234;ntrica e pacientes hipertensos n&#227;o-obesos apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es caracter&#237;sticas de hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica, em nosso estudo n&#227;o foram detectadas diferen&#231;as na geometria do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo entre os dois grupos de pacientes obesas e o grupo de pacientes hipertensas n&#227;o-obesas. Assim, os resultados deste estudo mostraram que obesidade isolada ou hipertens&#227;o isolada pode exercer um impacto semelhante sobre a massa ventricular esquerda, embora a terapia anti-hipertensiva possa ter atenuado os efeitos da hipertens&#227;o sobre a estrutura card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>A hipertens&#227;o superposta &#224; obesidade, entretanto, pode prejudicar a fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica esquerda, como observamos nas mulheres hipertensas obesas. Possivelmente isso reflete a presen&#231;a de anormalidades mais graves do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco, decorrentes da associa&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o arterial elevada com altera&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas e hormonais induzidas pela resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. Conseq&#252;entemente, podem ocorrer anormalidades de condu&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco. Isso poderia explicar o aumento nos intervalos PR e QTc observados no eletrocardiograma das pacientes hipertensas obesas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nossos resultados indicam que hipertens&#227;o e obesidade central causam hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, em decorr&#234;ncia de aumento da atividade simp&#225;tica e da press&#227;o arterial e das anormalidades metab&#243;licas e hormonais que caracterizam a resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina. A associa&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade e hipertens&#227;o arterial aumenta a probabilidade de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica ventricular esquerda e de anormalidades nas propriedades de condu&#231;&#227;o das fibras card&#237;acas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi financiado pela FAPESP.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Esse artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Eliana A. Silva, pela UNIFESP-EPM.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p> Eliana A. Silva </p>
        <p> Rua Borges Lagoa 783/22 </p>
        <p> 04038-031 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="eliapsilva@uol.com.br">eliapsilva@uol.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido 18/01/07; revisado recebido em 09/02/07; aceito em 13/03/07.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Abdominal obesity, insulin resistance and hypertension: impact on left ventricular mass and function in women</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the relationship between central obesity, hyperinsulinemia and arterial hypertension with left ventricular mass and geometry in women. METHODS: This study included 70 women (35-68 years), divided into four groups according to the presence of central obesity and hypertension. Visceral fat area was determined. Blood glucose and plasma insulin were determined before and two hours after an oral 75g glucose load and the patients were submitted to cardilogical evaluation. RESULTS: Compared to NT-OB, HT-OB presented higher levels of plasma insulin at 2h-OGTT (127.5 &#177; 73.0 vs 86.8 &#177; 42.7 &#181;U/ml; p = 0.05), and reduced E wave/A wave ratio (E/A) (0.8 &#177; 0.1 vs 1.2 &#177; 0.3; p &lt; 0.05). Compared to NT-NO, HT-NO showed higher insulin levels before glucose load (7.46 &#177; 3.1 vs 4.32 &#177; 2.1 muU/ml; p &lt; 0.05), higher HOMAr (1.59 &#177; 0.72 vs 0.93 &#177; 0.48 mmol.mU/l&#178;; p = 0.006), higher leptin level (19.1 &#177; 9.6 vs 7.4 &#177; 3.5 ng/ml; p = 0.028), greater VF area (84.40 &#177; 55.7 vs 37.50 &#177; 23.0 cm&#178;; p = 0.036), increased IVSTd (9.6 &#177; 1.2 vs 8.2 &#177; 1.7 mm; p &lt;0.05) and (LVM/height) (95.8 &#177; 22.3 vs 78.4 &#177; 15.5 g/m; p &lt; 0.05). Multiple linear regression analysis showed age, BMI and fasting glucose as determinants on LVM/height (R&#178; = 0.59; p &lt; 0.05). CONCLUSION: Our results indicate an association among hypertension, central obesity and left ventricular hypertrophy through increases in sympathetic activity and insulin resistance.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>insulin resistance</kwd>
        <kwd>hypertrophy, left ventricular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Abdominal obesity, insulin resistance and hypertension: impact on left ventricular mass and function in women</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Eliana A. Silva; Fernando Flexa; Maria Teresa Zanella</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - UNIFESP, Escola Paulista de Medicina - EPM - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE:</bold> To evaluate the relationship between central obesity, hyperinsulinemia and arterial hypertension with left ventricular mass and geometry in women.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> This study included 70 women (35-68 years), divided into four groups according to the presence of central obesity and hypertension. Visceral fat area was determined. Blood glucose and plasma insulin were determined before and two hours after an oral 75g glucose load and the patients were submitted to cardilogical evaluation.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> Compared to NT-OB, HT-OB presented higher levels of plasma insulin at 2h-OGTT (127.5 &#177; 73.0 <italic>vs</italic> 86.8 &#177; 42.7 &#181;U/ml; <italic>p</italic> = 0.05), and reduced E wave/A wave ratio (E/A) (0.8 &#177; 0.1 <italic>vs</italic> 1.2 &#177; 0.3; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05). Compared to NT-NO, HT-NO showed higher insulin levels before glucose load (7.46 &#177; 3.1 <italic>vs</italic> 4.32 &#177; 2.1 &#181;U/ml; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05), higher HOMAr (1.59 &#177; 0.72 <italic>vs</italic> 0.93 &#177; 0.48 mmol.mU/l&#178;; <italic>p</italic> = 0.006), higher leptin level (19.1 &#177; 9.6 <italic>vs</italic> 7.4 &#177; 3.5 ng/ml; <italic>p</italic> = 0.028), greater VF area (84.40 &#177; 55.7 <italic>vs</italic> 37.50 &#177; 23.0 cm&#178;; <italic>p</italic> = 0.036), increased IVSTd (9.6 &#177; 1.2 <italic>vs</italic> 8.2 &#177; 1.7 mm; <italic>p</italic> &lt;0.05) and (LVM/height) (95.8 &#177; 22.3 <italic>vs</italic> 78.4 &#177; 15.5 g/m; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05). Multiple linear regression analysis showed age, BMI and fasting glucose as determinants on LVM/height (R&#178; = 0.59; <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0.05).</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Our results indicate an association among hypertension, central obesity and left ventricular hypertrophy through increases in sympathetic activity and insulin resistance. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Obesity; hypertension; insulin resistance; hypertrophy, left ventricular.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Obesity, now recognized as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD), is strongly associated with other risk factors, including hypertension<sup>1-3</sup>. Complex mechanisms link increasing body weight with increasing blood pressure. Upper-body obesity, as compared to lower-body obesity, is most closely associated with obesity-related hypertension, and hyperinsulinemia has been suggested to be involved in the genesis of arterial hypertension in obese individuals<sup>2,3</sup>. In the Framingham Study, for every 10 lb weight gain (1 lb ~ 0,453 Kg), systolic blood pressure increased , on average, 4.5 mm Hg<sup>4</sup>. Some suggest that leptin may also increase blood pressure<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
      <p>As demonstrated by some investigators<sup>7-9</sup>, hypertensive obese patients show anatomic and hemodynamics abnormalities due to excess weight, including increase in intravascular volume, with enlargement of the vascular bed, as well as increases in heart rate and cardiac output.</p>
      <p>It has been suggested that excessive oxygen consumption, due to higher metabolism in increased adipose tissue, associated with hypervolemia, contributes to left ventricular hypertrophy<sup>7</sup>. It has been reported that while hypertensive non-obese patients show concentric left ventricular hypertrophy due to an increase in afterload<sup>10</sup>, obese patients, even the normotensives, show eccentric left ventricular hypertrophy due to an increase in preload. Hypertensive obese patients may present both these mechanisms.</p>
      <p>The aim of this study was to further evaluate the relation between central obesity, hyperinsulinemia and hypertension with left ventricular mass and geometry in women.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>We studied 70 women, from August 2001 to August 2003, ages ranging from 35-68 years, divided into 4 groups: NT-NO (normotensive non-obese/N=17), NT-OB (normotensive obese/N=18), HT-NO (hypertensive non-obese/N=18) and HT-OB (hypertensive obese/N=17). All were recruited from the obesity and hypertension clinics of the Federal University of S&#227;o Paulo and HSPE. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants, and the study was approved by the Institutional Ethics Committee. Central obesity was defined as weight (Kg) by height (meters) squared <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 Kg/m&#178; and waist circumference &gt; 88 cm. Hypertension was defined as systolic or diastolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 x 90 mm Hg or by self -reported use of antihypertensive medications. Exclusion criteria were self-reported diabetes and cardiac, hepatic and renal dysfunctions. The same observer measured weight, height and waist and hip circumferences. Arterial blood pressure was taken after a five-minute rest in the sitting position, with a sphygmomanometer using an appropriate cuff size for arm circumference. The mean of two measurements was considered.</p>
      <p>No patient used any antihypertensive medication for at least seven days prior to the study. After a 12-hour fast, serum glucose (glucose oxidase/Hitashi analyzer) and serum insulin (Auto Delfia, Perkin Elmer) were determined at 0 and 120 minutes after a 75g oral glucose load. Fasting leptin (Linco Research, USA) was measured. </p>
      <p>Patients were submitted to electrocardiogram (Dixtal), and 24 h-ambulatory blood pressure monitoring (Spacelabs, Redmond, WA) registered blood pressure every 15 minutes during daytime (awake hours) and every 20 minutes during nighttime (sleep hours), based on the patients&#146; report on their activities during day and night. Blood pressure fall during sleep (D BP) was calculated by dividing the difference between mean awake systolic blood pressure and mean sleep systolic blood pressure by mean awake systolic blood pressure (DBP = mean awake SBP &#150; mean sleep SBP x100/mean awake SBP).</p>
      <p>Echocardiogram was performed, by the same examiner, at rest, with the patient at steady state in the left lateral position, using a 2.5 MHz transducer. Two-dimensional guided M-mode measurements of left ventricular diastolic diameter (LVDD), diastolic interventricular septal thickness (IVSTd) and diastolic left ventricular posterior wall (LVPWd) were measured according to the recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography<sup>11</sup>. Left ventricular mass (LVM) was estimated by Devereux&#146;s formula<sup>12</sup> and corrected by height (LVM/ height). The cutoff value of LVM/ height <underline>&gt;</underline> 102 g/m was adopted for the diagnosis of left ventricular hypertrophy<sup>13-16</sup>. The E wave/A wave ratio (E/A) was used as an indicator of diastolic function. We used left ventricular mass corrected by body surface (LVMI) and relative posterior wall thickness (RPWT), which is the ratio between diastolic left ventricular posterior wall (LVPWd) and left ventricular diastolic diameter (LVDD) multiplied by 2.0 (LVPWd/LVDD x 2.0) to assess ventricular geometry<sup>17</sup>. Eccentric hypertrophy is defined by LVMI <underline>&gt;</underline> 100g/m&#178; and RPWT &lt; 0.45, while concentric hypertrophy is defined by RPWT <underline>&gt;</underline> 0.45.</p>
      <p>Visceral fat area (density -50 to -250 HU) was obtained by computed tomography (Picker International), at the L4-L5 level, expressed in cm&#178;.</p>
      <p>Statistical analyses were performed using SPSS 12.0, and significance level was set as a = 0.05 (p &lt; 0.05). We used ANOVA and Kruskal-Wallis for comparisons among the four groups. Fisher and Chi-Square were used to analyse nominal variables. Student&#146;s and Mann-Whitney tests were used to compare two groups. Correlations were analysed through Pearson correlation coefficients. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to determine the influence of age, fasting and 2h- blood glucose, 2h- plasma insulin, BMI, VF and sleep and awake SBP on LVM/ height.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Clinical, laboratorial and tomographic findings are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>. Blood pressure measurements are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Only 57 % of all hypertensive patients were using antihypertensive medication up to seven days before evaluation. Hypertensive non-obese and hypertensive obese patients were using angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (16.6% and 29%), hydrochlorothiazide (16.6% and 23.5%) and calcium channel blockers (5.5% and 23.5%), respectively.</p>
      <p>The NT-OB and HT-OB groups showed similar LVM/ height values, which were higher than those of the NT-NO group (107.2 &#177; 30.7 and 109.1 &#177; 26.0 g/m), but did not differ from the HT-NO group (95.8 &#177; 22.3 g/m) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>). LVM/height values detected LVH in 36.51% (1.6% in the NT-NO, 12.7% in the NT-OB, 11.1% in the HT-NO and 11.1% in the HT-OB) of the group as a whole. In the entire group, 16.0% showed eccentric hypertrophy and 8.0% showed concentric hypertrophy, and the proportions of patients with one or other form of hypertrophy in the four groups were very similar.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Plasma insulin values two hours after glucose load were higher in the HT-NO and HT-OB groups (49.9 &#177; 25.3 and 127.5 &#177; 73.0 &#181;U/ml), compared with NT-NO and NT-OB groups (34.7 &#177; 27.3 and 86.8 &#177; 42.7 &#181;U/ml), respectively. The HT-NO group showed a tendency towards higher blood glucose level (111.9 &#177; 27.4 <italic>vs</italic> 87.1 &#177; 29.0 mg/dl; p = 0.057) at 2h-OGTT than the NT-NO group.</p>
      <p>ECG analysis showed that QRS intervals were similar in all four groups, whereas PR and QTc intervals were longer in the HT-OB than in the NT-NO group (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <p>Multiple linear regression analysis, with LVM/height as the dependent variable, and with age, BMI, fasting glucose, 2h- blood glucose, 2h- plasma insulin, VF, awake and sleep systolic BP (SBP) as independent variables, showed that only age, fasting glucose and BMI were determinants of LVM/height (R&#178;=0.59; p&lt;0.05; Backward).</p>
      <p>Positive correlations were found between sleep systolic blood pressure (SSBP) and 2h- plasma insulin levels (r = 0.38; p = 0.01) and between sleep heart rate and 2h- blood glucose values (0.43; p&lt; 0.01).</p>
      <p>Mean values of LVM/height and E/A ratio in the groups are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Figures 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">2</xref>.</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-02-0086-00003-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Obesity and arterial hypertension are classical components of the metabolic syndrome<sup>2,3,8,18,19</sup>. Some authors have shown an association between obesity, as well as arterial hypertension, and left ventricular hypertrophy, increasing cardiovascular risk<sup>10,16,19</sup>.</p>
      <p>Hyperinsulinemia has been considered the link between obesity, arterial hypertension and type 2 diabetes through increases in adrenergic tonus and in renal sodium reabsorption<sup>2,18,20-23</sup>.</p>
      <p>In our study, mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures were higher in hypertensive obese women than in hypertensive non-obese women, and these differences were also associated with increased heart rate during sleep and higher plasma insulin levels. In addition, a reduced nocturnal blood pressure fall was observed in hypertensive obese patients, and a positive correlation was found between insulin levels and sleep SBP values. These results suggest that high sympathetic activity, which could be influenced by hyperinsulinemia, contributes to increase blood pressure during the night and to reduce the blood pressure falls that usually occur during sleep.</p>
      <p>This reduced nocturnal blood pressure fall has been shown to be associated with left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertensive patients<sup>8</sup>. Although in our study no difference was found in LVM/height between normotensive and hypertensive obese patients, we can not exclude totally the participation of sympathetic activity in the determination of ventricular mass, since 76% of the hypertensive obese patients were on antihypertensive therapy up to seven days before our evaluation. In normotensive obese women, evidence of a small increase in adrenergic activity, which could also be suffering influence from hyperinsulinemia, was found in the higher office blood pressure values and awake heart rate, when compared to normotensive non-obese group. This adrenergic hyperactivity, in association with expanded blood volume usually found in obese individuals, could also be contributing to increase LVM. In addition to increases in sympathetic drive and blood volume expansion, increases in blood glucose levels could also be favoring increases in left ventricular mass in the two groups of obese women, as reported previously<sup>24</sup>. Possible mechanisms to explain this relationship are: 1) direct action of serum glucose on myocytes, leading to cellular changes and hypertrophy; 2) hyperactivity of the renin-angiotensin system and 3) changes in the extracellular matrix<sup>25-28</sup>.</p>
      <p>In contrast to our findings in obese women, no evidence of increased sympathetic activity could be demonstrated in hypertensive non-obese women, who also showed mild changes in plasma insulin levels when compared to normotensive non-obese women. Thus, no relationship could be demonstrated in this hypertensive group between hyperinsulinemia and increased left ventricular mass, as has been shown previously<sup>29</sup>. </p>
      <p>However, in addition to blood pressure elevation in this group, higher blood glucose levels were found after oral glucose load. This reflects a certain degree of peripheral insulin resistance that may have contributed to increased LVM.</p>
      <p>The diagnosis of cardiac hypertrophy is a controversial point. Several studies have used left ventricular mass by corporal surface (LVMI), while some authors suggested the correction of cardiac mass by height (LVM/height)<sup>8,12,13</sup>. Obese subjects may show an underestimated left ventricular mass because of excess weight when LVMI is used for the diagnosis of LVH<sup>11,12,14</sup>. As we have reported before, LVM/height seems to be a more appropriate index for this purpose<sup>8</sup>. Although it has been reported that obese patients usually show changes in left ventricular geometry, which characterize eccentric cardiac hypertrophy, and hypertensive non-obese patients show changes which characterize concentric hypertrophy, in our study no differences in left ventricular geometry were detected among the two obese groups and the hypertensive non-obese group. Thus, in this study, the results have shown that isolated obesity or isolated hypertension may have similar impact on left ventricular mass, although antihypertensive therapy could have attenuated the effects of hypertension on cardiac structure.</p>
      <p>Hypertension superimposed on obesity may, however, interfere with left diastolic function, as we observed in the hypertensive obese women. This possibly reflects the presence of more severe cardiac muscle abnormalities, in result of the association of high blood pressure with metabolic and hormonal changes induced by insulin resistance. Cardiac muscle conduction abnormalities may be observed as a consequence. This may explain the increases in PR and QTc intervals that we observed in the electrocardiogram of hypertensive obese patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Our results indicate that hypertension and central obesity are causes of left ventricular hypertrophy through increases in sympathetic activity and blood pressure, and the metabolic and hormonal abnormalities that characterize insulin resistance. The association of obesity and arterial hypertension results in increased probability of left ventricular diastolic dysfunction and abnormalities in cardiac conduction properties.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded by FAPESP.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This article is part of the thesis doctoral submitted by Eliana A. Silva, from UNIFESP-EPM.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Eliana A. Silva</p>
          <p> Rua Borges Lagoa, 783/22 </p>
          <p> 04038-031 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="eliapsilva@uol.com.br">eliapsilva@uol.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p> Manuscript received January 18, 2007; revised manuscript received February 9, 2007; accepted March 13, 2007.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
