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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">npHz6LFJh5cLvhT8WC4XKHd</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007001300013</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08900113</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007001300013</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Infec&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio operat&#243;rio em cirurgia card&#237;aca</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gelape</surname>
            <given-names>Cl&#225;udio L&#233;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>89</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>e3</fpage>
      <lpage>e9</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Infec&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio operat&#243;rio em cirurgia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Cl&#225;udio L&#233;o Gelape</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Belo Horizonte, MG - Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Cirurgia card&#237;aca, cirurgia tor&#225;cica, infec&#231;&#227;o da ferida operat&#243;ria.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento das infec&#231;&#245;es no s&#237;tio cir&#250;rgico ainda representa um desafio. Os avan&#231;os alcan&#231;ados at&#233; o momento propiciaram novas op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento que diminu&#237;ram a morbidade e mortalidade de infec&#231;&#245;es graves. As evid&#234;ncias indicam que abordagens agressivas e precoces associadas ao uso de antimicrobianos representam importantes formas de tratamento. A equipe respons&#225;vel pela condu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nico-cir&#250;rgica desses pacientes deve utilizar as melhores evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis para individualizar o tratamento com seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia.</p>
    <p>A infec&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio cir&#250;rgico &#233; o processo pelo qual o microorganismo penetra, se estabelece e se multiplica na incis&#227;o operat&#243;ria. Os tecidos normais podem tolerar a presen&#231;a de at&#233; 10<sup>5</sup> bact&#233;rias/grama de tecido sem que se desenvolva infec&#231;&#227;o. A infec&#231;&#227;o da ferida operat&#243;ria &#233; uma das complica&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas mais freq&#252;entes e &#233; respons&#225;vel por alta taxa de morbidade e mortalidade, com conseq&#252;ente aumento dos gastos m&#233;dico-hospitalares<sup>1</sup>. V&#225;rios fatores podem influenciar o estabelecimento e a gravidade do processo infeccioso. Diabete melito, obesidade, desnutri&#231;&#227;o, extremos de idade e tabagismo s&#227;o os principais fatores de risco associados ao aumento da incid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o no s&#237;tio cir&#250;rgico, devendo ser identificados preferencialmente, no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio<sup>2</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="q1">quadro 1</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="q1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o, os cirurgi&#245;es, especialmente o cardiovascular, v&#234;m atuando de maneira crescente em pacientes com co-morbidades associadas, o que aumenta substancialmente o risco e a gravidade das infec&#231;&#245;es no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. Por isso, os princ&#237;pios fundamentais da di&#233;rese, hemostasia e s&#237;ntese, devem ser seguidos rigorosamente para obten&#231;&#227;o de resultados satisfat&#243;rios com menor morbidade, favorecendo a pronta recupera&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes, tanto do ponto de vista funcional como do est&#233;tico.</p>
    <p>Para profilaxia das infec&#231;&#245;es de ferida operat&#243;ria, deve-se reduzir ao m&#237;nimo a contamina&#231;&#227;o que tem origem nas salas cir&#250;rgicas. A circula&#231;&#227;o laminar do ar ambiente, utiliza&#231;&#227;o de raios UV, desinfec&#231;&#227;o de pisos e paredes, esteriliza&#231;&#227;o correta do material cir&#250;rgico e restri&#231;&#227;o do n&#250;mero de pessoas que transitam nas salas de cirurgia s&#227;o medidas que devem ser adotadas<sup>3</sup>. A correta escova&#231;&#227;o das m&#227;os de toda a equipe envolvida nos cuidados com o paciente, especialmente da equipe cir&#250;rgica, causa grande impacto na diminui&#231;&#227;o da contamina&#231;&#227;o da ferida. Esse procedimento visa retirar a flora bacteriana transit&#243;ria e diminuir a flora permanente das m&#227;os.</p>
    <p>A pele do paciente constitui-se na principal fonte de contamina&#231;&#227;o end&#243;gena da ferida operat&#243;ria. Os microorganismos t&#234;m acesso ou se implantam no campo cir&#250;rgico no per&#237;odo entre a incis&#227;o e seu completo fechamento. Portanto, a prepara&#231;&#227;o adequada da pele &#233; fundamental. Deve-se evitar a raspagem dos p&#234;los com l&#226;mina que ocasiona pequenas les&#245;es e pode aumentar a incid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria. Atualmente, considera-se a tonsura dos p&#234;los, logo antes da incis&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, o procedimento ideal. Na sala de opera&#231;&#227;o deve-se realizar a escova&#231;&#227;o da pele com PVPI degermante, seguido do uso de PVPI alco&#243;lico para facilitar a dispers&#227;o do iodo<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Consensualmente, os antimicrobianos profil&#225;ticos s&#227;o recomendados, com o objetivo de diminuir a incid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas nas opera&#231;&#245;es classificadas como potencialmente contaminadas e contaminadas. A cirurgia card&#237;aca, classificada como cirurgia limpa, constitui-se em exce&#231;&#227;o para utiliza&#231;&#227;o de antimicrobianos profil&#225;ticos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="q2">quadro 2</xref>). Esses devem ser utilizados, pois a cirurgia card&#237;aca &#233; um procedimento complexo, demorado e que utiliza freq&#252;entemente materiais prot&#233;ticos, o que justifica o uso de antimicrobianos<sup>4</sup>. As cefalosporinas s&#227;o a classe de antimicrobianos profil&#225;ticos mais utilizados, considerando-se seu amplo espectro de a&#231;&#227;o contra bact&#233;rias Gram-negativa e Gram-positiva. Outras op&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o ampicilina, tetraciclinas e vancomicina<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="q2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Para diagn&#243;stico precoce de infec&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria &#233; necess&#225;rio um alto grau de suspeita. Em geral, as infec&#231;&#245;es de feridas cir&#250;rgicas surgem entre o quinto e o s&#233;timo dias de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. O paciente pode apresentar queda do estado geral, anorexia e febre. A despeito de sua natureza pouco espec&#237;fica, a febre &#233; o sinal cl&#237;nico inicial mais comum de infec&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio normal de cirurgia card&#237;aca, febre pode ocorrer na aus&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o por at&#233; quatro a cinco dias e, excepcionalmente, pode haver persist&#234;ncia de febre por semanas. Rea&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas, flebite, atelectasia e embolia pulmonar, bem como s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-pericardiotomia constituem-se nas principais causas de febre ap&#243;s sexto dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Principais infec&#231;&#245;es em s&#237;tios cir&#250;rgicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Safenectomia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de condutos arteriais para enxertos na cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio tenha crescido nos &#250;ltimos anos, a safenectomia, t&#233;cnica utilizada para a obten&#231;&#227;o de enxerto venoso durante a interven&#231;&#227;o operat&#243;ria, &#233; um dos procedimentos mais realizados em todo o mundo<sup>6,7</sup>. Habitualmente, a dissec&#231;&#227;o da veia safena magna &#233; realizada por t&#233;cnica aberta, com incis&#245;es &#250;nicas ou escalonadas<sup>8</sup>. Complica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica ocorrem em at&#233; 30% dos pacientes submetidos a safenectomia. Dados da Sociedade de Cirurgia Tor&#225;cica de 1999<sup>9</sup>, que consideraram somente as complica&#231;&#245;es observadas durante o per&#237;odo de perman&#234;ncia hospitalar, relatam uma taxa de 4,5% de complica&#231;&#245;es nos s&#237;tios de safenectomia. Hematoma, seroma, deisc&#234;ncia de sutura, necrose das bordas das incis&#245;es ou infec&#231;&#245;es, aumentam a estada hospitalar e atrasam a reabilita&#231;&#227;o do paciente<sup>10</sup>. DeLaria e cols.<sup>11</sup> demonstraram um aumento de 12 dias na estada hospitalar em raz&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es nos s&#237;tios de safenectomia. Houve aumento m&#233;dio de 9.900 d&#243;lares/paciente nos custos hospitalares desses pacientes.</p>
    <p>As infec&#231;&#245;es podem apresentar-se como celulite localizada at&#233; um franco acometimento de partes moles, com drenagem de secre&#231;&#245;es e &#225;reas de necrose extensa<sup>8</sup>. As infec&#231;&#245;es ocorrem em 1% a 5 % das safenectomias e os processos de m&#225; cicatriza&#231;&#227;o podem chegar a 10%. Olsen e cols.<sup>12</sup> identificaram idade acima de 75 anos, obesidade (IMC&gt;35), sexo feminino, acidente vascular cerebral pr&#233;vio, diabete insulino-dependente, parada card&#237;aca durante o procedimento cir&#250;rgico e a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de mais de cinco concentrados de hem&#225;cias para transfus&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea como fatores de risco independentes, de infec&#231;&#227;o nas safenectomias. N&#227;o houve aumento da mortalidade por problemas relacionados &#224; safenectomia, o que pode indicar a natureza superficial das infec&#231;&#245;es em sua grande maioria.</p>
    <p>Novas t&#233;cnicas de safenectomia v&#234;m sendo propostas com o objetivo de diminuir as complica&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias. Chukwuemeka e John<sup>13</sup> propuseram iniciar a incis&#227;o na perna 5 cm acima do mal&#233;olo medial, e estend&#234;-la proximalmente, evitando a &#225;rea mais distal. A safenectomia com pequenas incis&#245;es escalonadas foi uma das primeiras t&#233;cnicas propostas. Constitui-se na realiza&#231;&#227;o de m&#237;nimas incis&#245;es intercaladas, no trajeto da veia safena, com interposi&#231;&#227;o de "ilhas" de pele. Essa t&#233;cnica ganhou poucos adeptos, provavelmente por ser mais demorada e com resultados duvidosos. Inicialmente observava-se avuls&#227;o de ramos venosos e hematomas nos t&#250;neis de pele. Com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de clipes para ligadura dos ramos da safena, houve melhora dessas complica&#231;&#245;es e maior aceita&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica. Alguns instrumentais cir&#250;rgicos foram desenvolvidos para facilitar a safenectomia com pequenas incis&#245;es. Tevaearai e cols.<sup>14</sup> relataram recupera&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica mais precoce com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de mini-incis&#245;es que, por evitarem grandes retalhos de pele e promoverem menor grau de les&#245;es em vasos linf&#225;ticos, proporcionam melhor resultado est&#233;tico. Esses autores prop&#245;em a utiliza&#231;&#227;o dessa t&#233;cnica preferencialmente em pacientes com membros isqu&#234;micos.</p>
    <p>T&#233;cnicas minimamente invasivas realizadas por meio de instrumental endosc&#243;pico e n&#227;o-endosc&#243;pico, com o objetivo de diminuir ainda mais as incis&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas e melhorar a visibiliza&#231;&#227;o da veia safena, v&#234;m sendo preconizadas desde 1996<sup>15</sup>. H&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o do trauma aos tecidos gordurosos, diminui&#231;&#227;o das les&#245;es aos vasos nutridores da pele e das infec&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-operat&#243;rias. Pagni e cols.<sup>8</sup> demonstraram redu&#231;&#227;o de 60% no risco de infec&#231;&#227;o nos pacientes safenectomizados com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnica v&#237;deo-assistida. A taxa de convers&#227;o do grupo v&#237;deo-assistido para grupo aberto variou de 5% a 22%. Esses autores recomendaram uma an&#225;lise de custo da t&#233;cnica, bem como da qualidade dos enxertos no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, antes de recomend&#225;-la como rotineira. Embora o grupo v&#237;deo-assistido apresentasse n&#250;mero maior de complica&#231;&#245;es menores (hematoma, celulite, seroma), esses pacientes apresentaram resultado est&#233;tico mais satisfat&#243;rio e deambula&#231;&#227;o mais precoce com menor &#237;ndice de infec&#231;&#245;es graves.</p>
    <p>Dor, eritema, calor, drenagem de secre&#231;&#245;es, endurecimento das incis&#245;es e febre que se iniciam no terceiro ou quarto dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio s&#227;o os sinais mais freq&#252;entes de infec&#231;&#227;o no s&#237;tio de safenectomia. As infec&#231;&#245;es ap&#243;s 14&#176; dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio s&#227;o raras, por&#233;m, h&#225; casos que ocorrem ap&#243;s meses ou at&#233; anos. O diagn&#243;stico definitivo pode ser realizado pelo exame cl&#237;nico e deve se seguir por avalia&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica imediata. As bact&#233;rias mais prevalentes s&#227;o os G+ tais como <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> e <italic>Streptococcus</italic>, bacilos aer&#243;bios G- e G+, <italic>Enterococcus</italic> e <italic>E. coli</italic>. Nos processos de celulite a inflama&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos d&#233;rmicos e subcut&#226;neos pode ser grave, comumente n&#227;o havendo supura&#231;&#227;o macrosc&#243;pica. Apresenta-se com febre moderada, acometimento do estado geral, edema da ferida e hiperemia intensa com aumento da sensibilidade local, o que dificulta a deambula&#231;&#227;o<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>O tratamento da infec&#231;&#227;o de ferida com presen&#231;a de exsuda&#231;&#227;o consiste na abertura da incis&#227;o cir&#250;rgica e drenagem de secre&#231;&#245;es. &#201; importante a retirada manual dos tecidos necrosados, fios cir&#250;rgicos, hematomas e co&#225;gulos. Nos processos de celulite, o tratamento &#233; basicamente a eleva&#231;&#227;o do membro, aplica&#231;&#227;o de calor local que tem o objetivo de aumentar o aporte de oxig&#234;nio para a &#225;rea acometida, al&#233;m do uso de antimicrobianos de largo espectro que deve ser individualizado de acordo com o perfil de isolamento e resist&#234;ncia bacteriana de cada servi&#231;o<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento da ferida aberta</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O processo cicatricial &#233; sist&#234;mico e din&#226;mico e est&#225; diretamente relacionado &#224;s condi&#231;&#245;es gerais do organismo. Para sua melhor caracteriza&#231;&#227;o, &#233; dividido em fases. A fase de inflama&#231;&#227;o, que dura de quatro a cinco dias, &#233; caracterizada pelo aumento da permeabilidade vascular com abundante exsuda&#231;&#227;o. Observa-se migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas que promover&#227;o limpeza biol&#243;gica. No per&#237;odo de 48 a 72 horas h&#225; forma&#231;&#227;o de tecido epitelial que n&#227;o confere for&#231;a de tens&#227;o &#224; ferida. A fase de fibroplasia estende-se do quinto ao 15&#176; dias e caracteriza-se por abundante forma&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno. A fase de contra&#231;&#227;o e matura&#231;&#227;o est&#225; praticamente completa no 28&#176; dia, por&#233;m sua remodela&#231;&#227;o continua at&#233; um ano, ocasi&#227;o em que a for&#231;a de tens&#227;o da ferida &#233; m&#225;xima. O tratamento da ferida aberta &#233; um processo que depende de avalia&#231;&#245;es sistematizadas, prescri&#231;&#245;es distintas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; freq&#252;&#234;ncia e tipo de curativo, de acordo com cada momento da evolu&#231;&#227;o do processo cicatricial.</p>
    <p>A proposta atual do tratamento da ferida constitui-se na oclus&#227;o da les&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o do meio &#250;mido para cicatriza&#231;&#227;o. O meio &#250;mido facilita a migra&#231;&#227;o celular, forma&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos de granula&#231;&#227;o e reepiteliza&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m de proteger as termina&#231;&#245;es nervosas superficiais reduzindo a dor, acelerando a cicatriza&#231;&#227;o, prevenindo a desidrata&#231;&#227;o e morte celular e promovendo a fibrin&#243;lise. O curativo &#250;mido impede a forma&#231;&#227;o de crostas, estrutura que pode acarretar atraso no processo de cura.</p>
    <p>As finalidades dos curativos s&#227;o: limpeza da ferida, prote&#231;&#227;o de traumas mec&#226;nicos, preven&#231;&#227;o da contamina&#231;&#227;o ex&#243;gena, absor&#231;&#227;o de secre&#231;&#245;es, diminui&#231;&#227;o do ac&#250;mulo de fluidos por compress&#227;o local e imobiliza&#231;&#227;o da ferida. A realiza&#231;&#227;o dos curativos deve seguir os princ&#237;pios b&#225;sicos de assepsia. Recomenda-se a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas est&#233;reis quando o paciente encontra-se em ambiente hospitalar, e a t&#233;cnica limpa quando ele est&#225; em ambiente domiciliar.</p>
    <p>Nas feridas com cicatriza&#231;&#227;o em primeira inten&#231;&#227;o, por exemplo, nas incis&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas secas, recomenda-se a simples limpeza com soro fisiol&#243;gico (SF) a 0,9% e cobertura com gaze est&#233;ril. O curativo deve ser trocado diariamente ou sempre que apresentar satura&#231;&#227;o. A manuten&#231;&#227;o de curativos no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio se justifica por um per&#237;odo m&#225;ximo de 72 horas, quando a ferida deve ser mantida aberta.</p>
    <p>De modo geral, nas feridas abertas, PVPi (povidine) e clorexidina t&#243;pica n&#227;o devem ser usados. O PVPi &#233; neutralizado rapidamente na presen&#231;a de mat&#233;ria org&#226;nica, pus ou necrose, e a clorexidina pode alterar o processo de cicatriza&#231;&#227;o, danificando e reduzindo a for&#231;a de tens&#227;o dos tecidos. Podem ainda causar irrita&#231;&#227;o da pele e rea&#231;&#245;es al&#233;rgicas. Nas feridas abertas e com pouca exsuda&#231;&#227;o, recomenda-se a lavagem com jatos de soro fisiol&#243;gico 0,9% para evitar atrito. A retirada de tecido desvitalizado deve ser feita manualmente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="q3">quadro 3</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="q3">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Os curativos com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de triglic&#233;rides de cadeia m&#233;dia (TCM), Dersani<sup>&#174;</sup> foram institu&#237;dos desde 1994 por Declair<sup>16</sup>. Essas subst&#226;ncias aceleram o processo de granula&#231;&#227;o tecidual, promovem a quimiotaxia e a angiog&#234;nese. N&#227;o existem contra-indica&#231;&#245;es &#224; sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o, em feridas com presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de sinais de infec&#231;&#227;o. Recomenda-se lavagem inicial com SF e cobertura da ferida com gazes embebidas com DERSANI. As trocas se fazem diariamente e sempre que necess&#225;rio.</p>
    <p>Os curativos com hidrocol&#243;ide t&#234;m em sua camada interna um meio bom para absor&#231;&#227;o de secre&#231;&#245;es e manuten&#231;&#227;o de um ambiente &#250;mido (gelatina e pectina) estimulando a angiog&#234;nese e o desbridamento autol&#237;tico. A camada externa composta de espuma de poliuretano serve como barreira t&#233;rmica a gases e l&#237;quidos. Devem ser utilizados em feridas limpas, sem processo infeccioso ou tecidos necrosados. As trocas devem ser feitas sempre que o gel extravasar ou o curativo deslocar-se e no m&#225;ximo em sete dias.</p>
    <p>Os curativos a base de alginato de c&#225;lcio s&#227;o derivados das algas marinhas marrons. Feridas com muita exsuda&#231;&#227;o, com ou sem processo infeccioso e les&#245;es cavit&#225;rias, representam suas melhores indica&#231;&#245;es. Possuem alto poder de absor&#231;&#227;o e auxiliam no processo autol&#237;tico. As trocas devem ser feitas diariamente em feridas infectadas. Nas les&#245;es com pouca exsuda&#231;&#227;o podem ser feitas a cada tr&#234;s ou quatro dias.</p>
    <p>Existem no mercado v&#225;rios produtos, e outros est&#227;o em franco processo de produ&#231;&#227;o e pesquisa, para utiliza&#231;&#227;o nos diferentes tipos de feridas. &#201; necess&#225;ria a an&#225;lise criteriosa dos diversos produtos para selecionar o melhor tratamento.</p>
    <p>Com o objetivo de evitar complica&#231;&#245;es maiores, recomenda-se: identificar pacientes de risco; avaliar, quando necess&#225;rio, a anatomia vascular perif&#233;rica e definir o melhor s&#237;tio cir&#250;rgico para realizar a safenectomia; utilizar t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica meticulosa; reconhecer prontamente as complica&#231;&#245;es e instituir precocemente o tratamento recomendado<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Mediastinite</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A mediastinite &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o infecciosa grave e freq&#252;entemente desastrosa, que envolve o espa&#231;o mediastinal e o esterno. Algumas caracter&#237;sticas anatomofisiol&#243;gicas favorecem o car&#225;ter grave da infec&#231;&#227;o no mediastino<sup>18</sup>. A grande quantidade de tecido celular frouxo favorece a difus&#227;o da infec&#231;&#227;o. A abundante rede vascular permite a absor&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e maci&#231;a de toxinas. As varia&#231;&#245;es press&#243;ricas no interior da cavidade mediastinal contribuem para mobiliza&#231;&#227;o de l&#237;quidos s&#233;pticos.</p>
    <p>A despeito de v&#225;rios protocolos de controle de infec&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, da melhora no tratamento com antimicrobianos e dos cuidados com antissepsia operat&#243;ria, a incid&#234;ncia de deisc&#234;ncia e infec&#231;&#227;o esternal profunda n&#227;o tem diminu&#237;do nos &#250;ltimos anos. A incid&#234;ncia de mediastinite varia entre 0,15% e 8%, com m&#233;dia de 1% a 2%<sup>18</sup>. Nos procedimentos concomitantes, a incid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o pode chegar a 3%. A infec&#231;&#227;o aumenta a estada e os custos hospitalares. A m&#233;dia de gastos com os pacientes que apresentam mediastinite &#233; tr&#234;s vezes maior do que os pacientes sem infec&#231;&#227;o<sup>19</sup>. A mortalidade permanece alta (10% a 47%), a despeito dos &#250;ltimos avan&#231;os para o seu tratamento<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>O exato mecanismo fisiopatol&#243;gico da mediastinite &#233; provavelmente multifatorial e ainda n&#227;o foi definido. Entretanto, o desrespeito &#224;s t&#233;cnicas de assepsia provavelmente &#233; a maior causa de deisc&#234;ncia esternal e mediastinite.</p>
    <p>Alguns fatores de risco, pr&#233; e p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios, contribuem para o aumento da infec&#231;&#227;o no mediastino (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="q4">quadro 4</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="q4">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>O risco de mediastinite aumenta com a idade. Pacientes abaixo de 50 anos, entre 50 e 70 anos e acima de 70 anos apresentam incid&#234;ncia de 0,9%, 2,7% e 3,1%, respectivamente<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>O sexo masculino est&#225; sob maior risco de mediastinite, provavelmente pela maior tens&#227;o da ferida esternal no homem. Pessoas obesas (&gt;20% do peso ideal) apresentam maior incid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o esternal, provavelmente pela presen&#231;a do tecido adiposo que pode funcionar como substrato para a infec&#231;&#227;o<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>O tabagismo cr&#244;nico associado &#224; DPOC causa problemas ventilat&#243;rios, levando &#224; instabilidade do esterno, favorecendo maior incid&#234;ncia de mediastinite<sup>21</sup>. No grupo do Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, houve 4,8 vezes mais infec&#231;&#227;o nos pacientes internados na UTI por mais de 48 horas no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, quando comparados aos pacientes com menor tempo de perman&#234;ncia<sup>20</sup>. A presen&#231;a de infec&#231;&#227;o em outro local no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio aumenta em oito vezes o risco de o paciente apresentar mediastinite no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, provavelmente por deslocamento hematol&#243;gico das bact&#233;rias<sup>22</sup>.</p>
    <p>O paciente diab&#233;tico apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es na microcircula&#231;&#227;o e na cicatriza&#231;&#227;o, contribuindo para maior incid&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o operat&#243;ria. A incid&#234;ncia de mediastinite quando se utilizam duas art&#233;rias tor&#225;cicas internas, principalmente em pacientes diab&#233;ticos, &#233; significativamente maior<sup>21</sup>. Pode-se explicar esse fato pelo comprometimento de 90% da irriga&#231;&#227;o do hemiesterno quando se utiliza a art&#233;ria tor&#225;cica interna para revascularizar o mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
    <p>A reopera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva aumenta a incid&#234;ncia de mediastinite de 1% a 2% para 20%. A reopera&#231;&#227;o por sangramento agudo no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato tamb&#233;m tem sido associada &#224; mediastinite<sup>1,4,5,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Alguns outros fatores de dif&#237;cil mensura&#231;&#227;o podem estar implicados no aumento da incid&#234;ncia de mediastinite, a saber: disfun&#231;&#227;o renal p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria; hemodi&#225;lise; disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e s&#237;ndrome de baixo d&#233;bito; utiliza&#231;&#227;o excessiva de bisturi el&#233;trico e m&#225; t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica. A necessidade de traqueostomia p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria est&#225; diretamente relacionada &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de mediastinite, sendo descrita incid&#234;ncia de 8,6% e mortalidade associada de 43%. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de traqueostomia percut&#226;nea melhora esses resultados<sup>19</sup>. Bhatti e cols.<sup>23</sup> enfatiza a necessidade de se utilizar a cera de osso criteriosamente, uma vez que seu uso esteve associado a maior incid&#234;ncia de mediastinite e emboliza&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica em trabalhos experimentais.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diagn&#243;stico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>De acordo com o Centro de Controle de Doen&#231;as dos Estados Unidos (CDC), os crit&#233;rios que definem mediastinite s&#227;o: isolamento e cultivo de microorganismos nos tecidos mediastinais ou nas secre&#231;&#245;es colhidas por pun&#231;&#227;o com agulha fina; evid&#234;ncia de mediastinite vista durante a cirurgia ou por meio de estudo histopatol&#243;gico; instabilidade esternal, dor tor&#225;cica, febre (&gt;38&#176; graus) associada &#224; cultura de secre&#231;&#227;o esternal e/ou hemocultura positiva<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Segundo Braxton e cols.<sup>25</sup>, mediastinite inclui a presen&#231;a de dois dos seguintes achados: identifica&#231;&#227;o de microorganismos no flu&#237;do colhido do espa&#231;o mediastinal; cultivo de microorganismos dos tecidos mediastinais; evid&#234;ncia radiol&#243;gica de infec&#231;&#227;o e deisc&#234;ncia mediastinal que requeira reopera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Algumas vezes os sinais de mediastinite s&#227;o pouco aparentes e o pronto-reconhecimento da infec&#231;&#227;o requer alto &#237;ndice de suspei&#231;&#227;o. Habitualmente os pacientes apresentam febre persistente ap&#243;s o quarto dia de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. S&#227;o comuns toxemia, leucocitose com desvio &#224; esquerda e drenagem de secre&#231;&#245;es pela ferida esternal. A deisc&#234;ncia da ferida cir&#250;rgica &#233; o achado mais freq&#252;ente, ocorrendo em 70% a 90% dos casos, e normalmente associa-se a outros achados locais, como dor tor&#225;cica e instabilidade esternal<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, al&#233;m do exame f&#237;sico realizam-se m&#233;todos de imagem. A tomografia computadorizada do t&#243;rax (TC) e a resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica (RNM) s&#227;o m&#233;todos pouco sens&#237;veis e espec&#237;ficos no aux&#237;lio diagn&#243;stico<sup>15</sup>. Achados tomogr&#225;ficos ap&#243;s esternotomia podem incluir hematoma retroesternal e cole&#231;&#227;o fluida. N&#227;o &#233; sempre f&#225;cil diferenciar esses achados benignos de abscessos e cole&#231;&#245;es infectadas. Entretanto, sinais de deisc&#234;ncia e eros&#245;es &#243;sseas, bem como cole&#231;&#245;es subcut&#226;neas e derrame pleural bilateral podem indicar processo infeccioso<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em 2003, Benlolo e cols.<sup>27</sup> avaliaram prospectivamente o m&#233;todo de pun&#231;&#227;o esternal para o diagn&#243;stico precoce de infec&#231;&#227;o. A agulha era acoplada a uma seringa de 10 ml e a aspira&#231;&#227;o ocorria ap&#243;s introdu&#231;&#227;o da agulha por um cent&#237;metro de profundidade. Houve alta taxa de positividade permitindo diagn&#243;stico e tratamento precoce.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Classifica&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Oakley e Wright<sup>19</sup> propuseram uma classifica&#231;&#227;o de mediastinite com o objetivo de estabelecer os melhores par&#226;metros de diagn&#243;stico e tratamento.</p>
    <p>1) <italic>Deisc&#234;ncia mediastinal</italic> - Consiste na abertura da ferida operat&#243;ria de forma espont&#226;nea na aus&#234;ncia de evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica ou microbiol&#243;gica de infec&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>2) <italic>Infec&#231;&#227;o de ferida mediastinal</italic> &#150; Consiste na infec&#231;&#227;o confirmada cl&#237;nica e microbiologicamente dos tecidos pr&#233;-esternais e osteomielite esternal.</p>
    <p><italic>Subtipos</italic> - 2.1) Infec&#231;&#227;o de ferida superficial &#150; infec&#231;&#227;o confinada ao tecido subcut&#226;neo; 2.2) Infec&#231;&#227;o de ferida profunda (mediastinite) &#150; soma-se &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o da ferida osteomielite esternal na presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de infec&#231;&#227;o do espa&#231;o retroesternal. A mediastinite &#233; ainda subdividida em quatro subtipos de acordo com o tempo de sua apresenta&#231;&#227;o, presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de fatores de risco e de tratamento pr&#233;vio (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="q5">quadro 5</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="q5">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>O CDC considera infec&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio cir&#250;rgico incisional superficial ou profunda, ou infec&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio cir&#250;rgico de &#243;rg&#227;o/espa&#231;o. A infec&#231;&#227;o superficial envolve pele e tecido subcut&#226;neo. A infec&#231;&#227;o profunda envolve camadas mais profundas como f&#225;scia muscular. A infec&#231;&#227;o do s&#237;tio cir&#250;rgico &#243;rg&#227;o/espa&#231;o envolve qualquer parte da anatomia al&#233;m da incis&#227;o que foi manipulada ou aberta pelo cirurgi&#227;o<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os germes mais comumente associados s&#227;o bact&#233;rias Gram-positivos em 77% das vezes. Dentre esses, o <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> e o <italic>Staphylococcus epidermides</italic> s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por 49% e 28% dos casos, respectivamente. Os germes Gram-negativos mais comuns s&#227;o <italic>Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia, Enterobacter, Proteus</italic><sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento da mediastinite varia desde o uso simples de terapia com antimicrobianos, sem procedimento cir&#250;rgico associado, at&#233; a completa esternectomia e procedimentos pl&#225;sticos reconstrutivos da parede tor&#225;cica<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos pacientes que apresentam deisc&#234;ncia do subcut&#226;neo sem processo infeccioso estabelecido, deve-se tratar a les&#227;o pelos princ&#237;pios da ferida aberta, podendo-se optar por sutura prim&#225;ria. Nos pacientes que apresentam infec&#231;&#227;o da ferida mediastinal estabelecida, com acometimento apenas subcut&#226;neo, o tratamento consiste na abertura inicial da les&#227;o e an&#225;lise criteriosa do processo infeccioso e sua extens&#227;o, uso direcionado de antimicrobianos seguindo concomitantemente os princ&#237;pios do tratamento da ferida aberta com curativos. Pode-se seguir clinicamente o fechamento prim&#225;rio-retardado da ferida operat&#243;ria.</p>
    <p>Nos casos de mediastinite estabelecida, a conduta deve ser agressiva, indicando-se precocemente a abordagem cir&#250;rgica. A conduta conservadora apresenta mortalidade extremamente elevada. O uso emp&#237;rico de antimicrobianos &#233; iniciado no momento do diagn&#243;stico e posteriormente, norteado mediante a cultura dos tecidos infectados<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>O tratamento cir&#250;rgico da mediastinite tem melhorado gradativamente nos &#250;ltimos 35 anos. Inicialmente a conduta consistia-se na abertura completa da incis&#227;o, desbridamento amplo com retirada dos tecidos necr&#243;ticos, seguida de fechamento por segunda inten&#231;&#227;o. Associavam-se curativos di&#225;rios, o que acarretava alta taxa de morbidade e mortalidade e prolongada estada hospitalar. O &#237;ndice de f&#237;stulas e trajetos do esterno para a pele com drenagem cr&#244;nica de secre&#231;&#245;es era elevado.</p>
    <p>Em 1963, Shumacker e Mandelbaum<sup>30</sup> descreveram t&#233;cnica de abertura da incis&#227;o com retirada dos fios de a&#231;o, limpeza mec&#226;nica dos tecidos necr&#243;ticos, incluindo parte &#243;ssea, e posterior implante de irriga&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua atrav&#233;s de drenos posicionados no mediastino. Eram utilizadas solu&#231;&#245;es de antibi&#243;tico e/ou povidine dilu&#237;do a 0,5%. Habitualmente mantinha-se a irriga&#231;&#227;o por tr&#234;s a quatro dias. A drenagem mediast&#237;nica pode ser realizada de forma fechada com irriga&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua ou com suc&#231;&#227;o<sup>31</sup>. Preconizam-se essas t&#233;cnicas em mediastinites agudas com menos de duas semanas. No sistema de drenagem com suc&#231;&#227;o, utiliza-se um dreno com v&#225;rias perfura&#231;&#245;es, acoplado a um sistema de press&#227;o negativa de -300 mmHg a -600 mmHg, que &#233; mantido no espa&#231;o mediastinal por uma semana. Segundo os autores, n&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa quando comparados os dois sistemas de drenagem. Combes e cols.<sup>32</sup> demonstram que com essa abordagem &#233; poss&#237;vel a cura da mediastinite.</p>
    <p>O desbridamento cir&#250;rgico foi descrito posteriormente ao trabalho de Shumacker e Mandelbaum<sup>30</sup>, seguido por enxerto com omento maior. Essa estrutura anat&#244;mica apresenta vantagens importantes, pois cont&#233;m grande n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas imunol&#243;gicas ativas com alto poder antiinfeccioso. A reconstru&#231;&#227;o mediastinal com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do omento est&#225; associada com menores complica&#231;&#245;es s&#233;pticas<sup>33</sup>.</p>
    <p>Schroeyers e cols.<sup>34</sup> expandiram o conceito da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de enxerto com o omento e preconizaram enxertos musculares para preenchimento de espa&#231;o morto p&#243;s-desbridamento. Podem ser utilizados os m&#250;sculos retos abdominais atrav&#233;s da rota&#231;&#227;o de retalho, bem como os m&#250;sculos peitorais maiores que s&#227;o descolados e trazidos &#224; linha m&#233;dia esternal para serem suturados, proporcionando um fechamento completo da ferida. Em 1998, Gamel e cols.<sup>18</sup> relataram baixa mortalidade com o tratamento da mediastinite associado &#224; mobiliza&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;sculos peitorais maiores.</p>
    <p>Alguns relatos<sup>35</sup> recomendam a combina&#231;&#227;o de tratamentos pr&#233;-estabelecidos como alternativa para casos graves. Esse autor utilizou a irriga&#231;&#227;o com antimicrobianos, associada &#224; transposi&#231;&#227;o omental em pacientes com infec&#231;&#227;o por bact&#233;rias multi-resistentes. Houve bom resultado cir&#250;rgico com completa recupera&#231;&#227;o, precoce e sem &#243;bitos. Outro autor<sup>36</sup> associou omentopexia ao retalho muscular peitoral no tratamento da mediastinite. Houve bons resultados com essa conduta, por&#233;m a agressividade dessa abordagem talvez n&#227;o seja justificada.</p>
    <p>Recomenda-se a manuten&#231;&#227;o do tratamento antibi&#243;tico por no m&#237;nimo seis semanas e, se houver osteomielite, esse deve ser mantido tr&#234;s meses. Em raz&#227;o do alto grau de catabolismo que esses pacientes apresentam, deve-se dar especial aten&#231;&#227;o ao estado nutricional. A dieta por via enteral &#233; estimulada e otimizada. Entretanto, algumas vezes &#233; extremamente valioso o uso da dieta parenteral que contribuir&#225; para melhoria mais precoce dos pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Oxigenoterapia hiperb&#225;rica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A oxigenoterapia hiperb&#225;rica &#233; uma modalidade terap&#234;utica usada desde a d&#233;cada de 1930, e consiste na respira&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio puro (100%) a press&#245;es maiores que a atmosf&#233;rica, com o paciente no interior de uma c&#226;mara especialmente preparada. Com essa situa&#231;&#227;o ocorre um aumento no oxig&#234;nio dissolvido nos tecidos de 10 a 20 vezes, proporcionando um ambiente pouco prop&#237;cio para as bact&#233;rias em geral, e principalmente aos anaer&#243;bios. Recomenda-se esse tratamento em infec&#231;&#245;es necrotizantes dos tecidos moles, celulites graves, fasce&#237;te, miosites, deisc&#234;ncias de sutura e osteomielite cr&#244;nica. Seu mecanismo b&#225;sico de atua&#231;&#227;o &#233; a acelera&#231;&#227;o da forma&#231;&#227;o do tecido de granula&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m de agir como coadjuvante no controle das infec&#231;&#245;es, objetivando um processo de cura mais acelerado.</p>
    <p>Lappa e cols.<sup>37</sup> relataram tratamento de mediastinite utilizando antimicrobianos nasais associados &#224; oxigenoterapia hiperb&#225;rica. Ap&#243;s 30 sess&#245;es de oxigenoterapia, notou-se melhora significativa do tecido de granula&#231;&#227;o na ferida operat&#243;ria, sendo poss&#237;vel a exclus&#227;o do tratamento operat&#243;rio. Ap&#243;s per&#237;odo de seis meses de tratamento houve completo fechamento da ferida. Recomendam-se novos trabalhos com o objetivo de melhor avaliar esses resultados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Progn&#243;stico e preven&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento da mediastinite &#233; ainda problem&#225;tico e controverso. Entretanto, nos &#250;ltimos anos, com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o precoce dos enxertos musculares somados &#224; omentopexia, o tratamento tem apresentado resultados mais satisfat&#243;rios com alta taxa de sucesso e diminui&#231;&#227;o consider&#225;vel da estadia hospitalar. A mortalidade na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada relatada em v&#225;rios trabalhos variou entre 4,8% e 10,8% para ambos os procedimentos, associados &#224; irriga&#231;&#227;o fechada ou com v&#225;cuo. Mortalidade menor que 4% ainda n&#227;o foi relatada.</p>
    <p>Algumas vari&#225;veis determinam sobrevida p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria. An&#225;lises demonstram que tempo de estada na unidade de terapia intensiva acima de oito dias, sangramento p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio acima de 1.000 ml, feridas com cultura positiva e tempo prolongado entre sintoma e abordagem cir&#250;rgica s&#227;o determinantes para mortalidade hospitalar. Outras vari&#225;veis est&#227;o associadas a maior estada hospitalar, como: idade dos pacientes acima de 58 anos; tempo prolongado em ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e em UTI (&gt;de 96 horas). Conclusivamente, o progn&#243;stico da infec&#231;&#227;o esternal profunda depende especialmente do manejo cir&#250;rgico precoce. Curiosamente a presen&#231;a de mediastinite n&#227;o parece diminuir a pat&#234;ncia dos enxertos p&#243;s revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
    <p>Como recomendado no trabalho de Sampaio e cols.<sup>38</sup>, algumas medidas podem ser utilizadas para preven&#231;&#227;o de mediastinite: rigorosa avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria do paciente &#224; procura de processos infecciosos associados; preparo pulmonar adequado evitando o tabagismo; evitar o uso das duas art&#233;rias tor&#225;cicas internas em pacientes diab&#233;ticos; uso de campos pl&#225;sticos iodados aderentes &#224; pele; lavagem freq&#252;ente do mediastino com soro fisiol&#243;gico e do subcut&#226;neo no momento do fechamento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Esse estudo foi financiado com recursos pr&#243;prios do investigador.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica &#224; P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o desse estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Antman EM. Medical management of the patient undergoing cardiac surgery. In Braunwald E. Heart disease: textbook of cardiovascular medicine. 5 th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Company; 1997. p. 1715-41.</p>
    <p>2. De Feo M, Renzulli A, Ismeno G, Gregorio R, Della Corte A, Cotrufo M, et al. Variables Predicting Adverse Outcome in Patients with Deep Sternal Wound Infection. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001; 71: 324-31.</p>
    <p>3. Leite Sobrinho, GB. Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, per-operat&#243;rio, p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. In Fonseca F, Savassi P. Cirurgia ambulatorial. 2&#170; ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara; 1987. p. 5-37.</p>
    <p>4. Bojar RM. Post-ICU care and other complications. In Manual of perioperative care in cardiac surgery. 3rd ed. Malden: Blackwell Science; 1999. p. 371-425.</p>
    <p>5. Kirklin JW. Cardiac surgery: morfology, diagnostic criteria, natural history, techniques, results, and indications. In Kirklin JW, Barrat-Boyes BG. Postoperative care. 2nd ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1992. p. 195-249.</p>
    <p>6. Athanasiou T, Aziz O, Skapinakis P, Perunovic B, Hart J, Casula R, et al. Leg wound infection after coronary artery bypass grafting: a meta-analysis comparing minimally invasive versus conventional vein harvesting. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003; 76: 2141-6.</p>
    <p>7. Perrault LP, Jeanmart H, Bilodeau L, Lesperance J, Tanguay JF, Carrier M, et al. Early quantitative coronary angiography of saphenous vein grafts for coronary artery bypass grafting harvested by means of open versus endoscopic saphenectomy: a prospective randomized trial. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2004; 127: 1402-7.</p>
    <p>8. Pagni S, Ulfe EA, Montgomery WD, VanHimbergen DJ, Fisher DJ, Spence PA, et al. Clinical experience with the video-assisted saphenectomy procedure for coronary bypass operations. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 66: 1626-31.</p>
    <p>9. Allen KB. Saphenectomy wound complications: the real story. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2004; 127: 1535.</p>
    <p>10. Coppoolsea R, Reesa W, Krechb R, Hufnagela M, Seuferta K, Warnecke H. Routine minimal invasive vein harvesting reduces postoperative morbidity in cardiac bypass procedures: clinical report of 1400 patients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1999; 16 (Suppl 2): S61-6.</p>
    <p>11. DeLaria GA, Hunter JA, Goldin, Serry C, Javid H, Najafi H. Leg wound complications associated with coronary revascularization. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1981; 81: 403-7.</p>
    <p>12. Olsen MA, Sundt TM, Lawton JS, Damiano RJ, Hopkins-Broyles D, Lock-Buckley P, et al. Risk factors for leg harvest surgical site infections after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003; 126: 992-9.</p>
    <p>13. Chukwuemeka A, John L. Modified incision for long saphenous vein harvest. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 66: 279.</p>
    <p>14. Tevaearai HT, Mueller XM, von Segesser LK. Minimally invasive harvest of the saphenous vein for coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg. 1997; 63 (6 Suppl): S119-21.</p>
    <p>15. Lumsden AB, Eaves FF III, Ofenloch JC, Jordan WD. Subcutaneous video-assisted saphenous vein harvest: report of the first 30 cases. Cardiovasc Surg. 1996; 4 (6): 771-6.</p>
    <p>16. Declair V. Aplica&#231;&#227;o do triglicer&#237;dios de cadeia m&#233;dia (TCM) na preven&#231;&#227;o de ulceras de dec&#250;bito. Rev Bras Enf.1994;47(1):27-30.</p>
    <p>17. Paletta CE, Huang DB, Fiore AC, Swartz MT, Rilloraza FL, Gardner JE. Major Leg Wound Complications After Saphenous Vein Harvest for Coronary Revascularization. Ann Thorac Surg. 2000; 70: 492-7.</p>
    <p>18. El Gamel A, Yonan NA, Hassan R, Jones MT, Campbell CS, Lawson RA, et al. Treatment of mediastinitis: early modified robicsek closure and pectoralis major advancement flaps. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 65: 41-7.</p>
    <p>19. Oakley RM, Wright JE. Postoperative mediastinitis: classification and management. Ann Thorac Surg. 1996; 61: 1030-6.</p>
    <p>20. Abboud CS, Wey SB, Baltar VT. Risk factors for mediastinitis after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004; 77: 676-83.</p>
    <p>21. Loop FD, Lytle BW, Cosgrove DM, Mahfood S, McHenry MC, Taylor PC, et al. Sternal wound complications after isolated coronary artery bypass grafting: early and late mortality, morbidity, and cost of care. Ann Thorac Surg. 1990; 49: 179-86.</p>
    <p>22. Baskett RJF, MacDougall CE, Ross DB. Is mediastinitis a preventable complication? A 10-year review. Ann Thorac Surg. 1999; 67: 462-5.</p>
    <p>23. Bhatti F, Dunning J. Does liberal use of bone wax increases the risk of mediastinitis? Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. 2003; 2: 410-2.</p>
    <p>24. Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, Silver LC, Jarvis WR. Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control. 1999; 27: 97-132.</p>
    <p>25. Braxton JH, Marrin CAS, McGrath PD, Ross CS, Morton JR, Norotsky M, et al. The Northern New England Cardiovascular Disease Study Group Mediastinitis and Long-Term Survival After Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2000; 70: 2004-7.</p>
    <p>26. Misawa Y, Fuse K, Hasegawa T. Infectious mediastinitis after cardiac operations: computed tomographic findings. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 65: 622-4.</p>
    <p>27. Benlolo S, Mate&#180;o J, Raskine L, Tibourtine O, Bel A, Payen D, et al. Sternal puncture allows an early diagnosis of poststernotomy mediastinitis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003; 125: 611-7.</p>
    <p>28. Gardlunda B, Bitkoverb CY, Vaageb J. Postoperative mediastinitis in cardiac surgery - microbiology and pathogenesis. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2002; 22: 825-30.</p>
    <p>29. Luciani N, Lapenna E, Bonis M, Possati GF. Mediastinitis following graft replacement of the ascending aorta: conservative approach by omental transposition. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2001; 20: 418-20.</p>
    <p>30. Shumacker HB, Mandelbaum I. Continuous antibiotic irrigation in the treatment of infection. Arch Surg. 1963; 86: 384-7.</p>
    <p>31. Berg HF, Brands WGB, van Geldorp TR, Kluytmans-VandenBergh MFQ, Kluytmans JAJW. Comparison between closed drainage techniques for the treatment of postoperative mediastinitis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2000; 70: 924-9.</p>
    <p>32. Combes A, Trouillet J, Baudot J, Mokhtari M, Chastre J, Gibert C. Is it possible to cure mediastinitis in patients with major postcardiac surgery complications? Ann Thorac Surg. 2001; 72: 1592-7.</p>
    <p>33. Milano CA, Georgiade G, Muhlbaier LH, Smith PK, Wolfe WG. Comparison of omental and pectoralis flaps for poststernotomy mediastinitis. Ann Thorac Surg. 1999; 67: 377-81.</p>
    <p>34. Schroeyers P, Wellens F, Degrieck I, Geest RD, Praet FV, VermeulenY, et al. Aggressive primary treatment for poststernotomy acute mediastinitis: our experience with omental- and muscle flaps surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2001; 20: 743-6.</p>
    <p>35. Hirata N, Hatsuoka S, Amemiya A, Ueno T, Kosakai Y. New strategy for treatment of MRSA mediastinitis: one-stage procedure for omental transposition and closed irrigation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003; 76: 2104-6.</p>
    <p>36. Szerafin T, Jaber O, Petterfy A. Technical refinements of omentopexy and pectoralis myoplasty for poststenotomy mediastinitis. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2002; 21: 765-70.</p>
    <p>37. Lappa A, Malpieri MR, Cicco M, Bucci A, Malpieri M, Araimo F, et al. An alternative inexpensive treatment for deep sternal wound infections after sternotomy. Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. 2003; 2: 629-32.</p>
    <p>38. Sampaio DT, Alves JCr, Silva AF, Lobo NC Jr, Sim&#245;es D, Faria W, et al. Mediastinite em cirurgia card&#237;aca: tratamento com ep&#237;plon. Rev Bras Cir Cardiovasc. 2000; 15 (1): 23-31.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Cl&#225;udio L&#233;o Gelape </p>
        <p> Av. Alfredo Balena, 190 - Campus Sa&#250;de </p>
        <p> 30130-100 - Belo Horizonte, MG - Brasil </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="clgelape@uai.com.br">clgelape@uai.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 14/09/06; revisado recebido em 26/12/06; aceito em 17/01/07.</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Clinical Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Surgical wound infection following heart surgery</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>CLINICAL UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Surgical wound infection following heart surgery</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cl&#225;udio L&#233;o Gelape</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais - Belo Horizonte, MG - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Cardiac surgery; thoracic surgery; surgical wound infection.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The treatment of surgical wound infections still represents a challenge. The advances made so far have brought about new treatment options which have reduced the morbidity and mortality of severe infections. Evidence indicates that aggressive and early approaches associated with the use of antimicrobial agents represent important forms of treatment. The team in charge of the clinical and surgical care provided to these patients should use the best evidence available to personalize treatment with safety and efficacy.</p>
      <p>Surgical site infection is the process by which a microorganism penetrates, establishes itself and multiplies in the surgical incision. Normal tissues can tolerate the presence of 10<sup>5</sup> bacteria/gram of tissue and no infection develops. The infection of a surgical wound is one of the most frequent surgical complications and accounts for a high rate of morbidity and mortality, with the consequent increase in medical and hospital expenses<sup>1</sup>. Several factors can influence the establishment and severity of the infections process. Diabetes mellitus, obesity, malnutrition, extremes of age and smoking habit are the major risk factors associated with the increase in the incidence of surgical site infections, and should be identified preferably in the preoperative period<sup>2</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="c1-body2">Chart 1</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="c1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>As a consequence of the aging of the population, surgeons, especially cardiovascular ones, have been working with a greater number of patients with associated co-morbidities, which increases the risk and severity of infections postoperatively. This is why the fundamental principles of dieresis, hemostasis and synthesis should be followed strictly so as to allow the obtainment of satisfactory results with lower morbidity, thus favoring the prompt recovery of patients from a functional and esthetic standpoint.</p>
      <p>For the prophylaxis of surgical wounds, the contamination that originates in the operating rooms has to be reduced to a minimum. The laminar circulation of ambient air, the use of UV rays, the disinfection of floors and walls, the correct sterilization of surgical material and the restriction of the number of people that circulate in the operating room are measures that should be adopted<sup>3</sup>. Correct hand scrubbing of all the team involved in the provision of care to the patient, especially of the operating team, has great impact in reducing wound contamination. This procedure aims at removing transitory hand flora and reducing permanent hand flora.</p>
      <p>The patient's skin is the major source of endogenous contamination of the surgical wound. Microorganisms have access to or settle in the operative field in the period between the incision and its complete closure. Therefore, adequate skin preparation is fundamental. The shaving of hair with a blade should be avoided as the blade causes small injuries and may contribute to increase the incidence of postoperative infection. At present, the removal of hair right before the surgical incision is considered the ideal procedure. In the operating room, the skin should be scrubbed with degerming PVP-I, followed by alcoholic PVP-I to facilitate the dispersion of iodine<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>There is a consensus on the recommendation of prophylactic antimicrobial agents with the objective of reducing the incidence of surgical infections in operations that are classified as potentially contaminated and contaminated. Heart surgery, which is classified as a clean surgery, is an exception as regards the use of prophylactic antimicrobial agents (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="c2-body2">Chart 2</xref>). These agents should be used because heart surgery is a complex and long procedure that frequently employs prosthetic materials, which in turn warrants the use of antimicrobial agents<sup>4</sup>. Cephalosporines are the class of prophylactic antimicrobial agents that is used the most because of their broad spectrum of action against Gram- and Gram+ bacteria. Other options are ampicillin, tetracyclines and vancomycin<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="c2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The early diagnosis of postoperative infection requires a high degree of suspicion. In general, surgical wound infections appear between the 5<sup>th</sup> and 7<sup>th</sup> day postoperatively. The patient may present a worsening in his general condition, anorexia and fever. Despite its non-specific nature, fever is the first most common clinical sign of infection. However, in the normal heart surgery postoperative period, fever may occur in the absence of infection for up to 4 to 5 days and it may persist for weeks in exceptional situations. Adverse reaction to drugs, phlebitis, atelectasis and pulmonary embolism in addition to postpericardiotomy syndrome are the major causes of fever after the 6<sup>th</sup> day postoperatively<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Major infections in surgical sites</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Saphenectomy</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although the use of arterial conduits for grafts in myocardial revascularization procedures has grown in recent years, saphenectomy, a technique used to obtain a venous graft during surgery, is one of the most widely used procedures all over the world<sup>6,7</sup>. The dissection of the saphena magna vein is generally performed by means of an open technique, with single or multiple staggered incisions<sup>8</sup>. Complications relating to the surgical technique occur in up to 30% of the patients submitted to saphenectomy. Data from the Society of Thoracic Surgery of 1999<sup>9</sup>, which considered only the complications observed during the hospital stay period, report a 4.5% rate of complications in saphenectomy sites. Hematoma, seroma, suture dehiscence, necrosis of incision borders or infections increase hospital stay and delay the patient's rehabilitation<sup>10</sup>. DeLaria et al<sup>11</sup> demonstrated a 12-day increase in hospital stay due to complications in saphenectomy sites. There was an average increase of U$ 9,900/patient in hospital costs for these patients.</p>
      <p>Infections may present as localized cellulitis or even as a clear involvement of soft parts, with drainage of secretions and areas of extensive necrosis<sup>8</sup>. Infections occur in 1 to 5 % of saphenectomies and bad cicatrization may reach 10 %. Olsen et al<sup>12</sup> identified age above 75, obesity (BMI&gt;35), female gender, previous cerebrovascular accident, insulin-dependent diabetes and the use of more than 5 erythrocyte concentrates for blood transfusion as independent risk factors for infection in saphenectomies. There was no increase in mortality due to problems relating to saphenectomy, which may indicate the superficial nature of most infections.</p>
      <p>New saphenectomy techniques have been proposed to reduce postoperative complications. Chukwuemeka and John<sup>13</sup> proposed to begin the incision on the leg 5 cm above the inner malleolus and extend it proximally, avoiding the more distal area. Saphenectomy with small staggered incisions was one of the first techniques proposed. When this technique is used, small intercalated incisions along the saphena vein are performed, with the interposition of "islands" of skin. This technique had few followers, probably because is more time-consuming and affords dubious results. At first, the avulsion of venous branches and hematoma in skin tunnels were observed. With the use of clips to ligate the branches of the saphena vein, these complications improved and the technique gained more acceptance. Some surgical instruments were developed to facilitate the saphenectomy procedure with small incisions. Tevaearai et al<sup>14</sup> reported that patients recovered earlier from the surgery when mini-incisions were used, since it prevented the formation of large skin flaps, and allowed a smaller degree of injury in lymphatic vessels, thus providing better esthetic results. These authors propose that this technique should be used preferably in patients with ischemic limbs.</p>
      <p>Minimally invasive techniques performed by means of endoscopic and non-endoscopic instruments in an attempt to further reduce surgical incisions and improve the visibility of the saphena vein have been proposed since 1996<sup>15</sup>. There is a reduction in the trauma of adipose tissues, reduction in the injuries to the vessels that feed the skin and in postoperative infections. Pagni et al<sup>8</sup> demonstrated a 60% reduction in the risk of infection in patients undergoing saphenectomy using the video-assisted technique. The conversion rate of the video-assisted group to the open group varied from 5% to 22%. These authors recommended a cost analysis of the technique and of graft quality postoperatively prior to recommending it as a routine procedure. Although the video-assisted group presented a larger number of minor complications (hematoma, cellulitis, seroma), these patients presented a more satisfactory result from a esthetic standpoint in addition to earlier ambulation with a smaller rate of severe infections.</p>
      <p>Pain, erythema, heat, drainage of secretions, hardening of incisions and fever that start in the 3<sup>rd</sup> or 4<sup>th</sup> day postoperatively are the most frequent signs of infection on the site of saphenectomy. Infections after the 14<sup>th</sup> day postoperatively are rare. However, there are cases where they occur after months or even years. The definitive diagnostic may be accomplished on clinical examination and must be followed by immediate surgical assessment. The most prevalent bacteria are G+ ones such as <italic>Staphylococcus</italic> and <italic>Streptococcus</italic>, G- and G+ aerobic bacilli, <italic>Enterococcus</italic> and <italic>E. coli</italic>. In cellulitis processes the inflammation of dermal and subcutaneous tissues can be severe, but typically there is no macroscopic suppuration. Patients present with moderate fever, poor general state, wound edema and intense hyperemia with increased local sensitivity, which makes ambulation difficult<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>The treatment of wounds with the presence of exudation includes removing manually the necrotic tissues, surgical threads, hematomas and clots. In cellulitis processes, the treatment consists basically of elevating the limb, applying heat locally to increase the supply of oxygen into the area affected, and the use of broad-spectrum antimicrobial agents that should be prescribed according to the isolation profile and the bacterial resistance of each department<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Open wound treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The healing process is systemic and dynamic and is directly related to the general conditions of the body. In order to characterize it better, it is divided into three phases. The inflammation phase that lasts 4 to 5 days is characterized by an increase in vascular permeability and abundant exudation. The migration of cells that will promote biological cleaning is observed. Within 48 to 72 hours, epithelial tissue is formed that does not provide tensile strength to the wound. The fibroplasia phase extends from the 5<sup>th</sup> to the 15<sup>th</sup> day and is characterized by abundant formation of collagen. The contraction and maturation phase is practically complete on the 28<sup>th</sup> day. However, remodeling continues for up to one year, when the tensile strength of the wound is at its maximum. The treatment of an open wound is a process that depends on systematic assessments, different prescriptions regarding the frequency and type of dressing, according to each stage of the healing process.</p>
      <p>The current proposal for treating wounds includes the occlusion of the injury and the maintenance of a moist environment for healing. The moist environment facilitates cell migration, the formation of granulation and reephithelization tissues and protects superficial nervous terminations thus reducing pain, accelerating healing, preventing de-hydration and cell death, and promoting fibrinolysis. Moist dressings prevent the formation of crust, a structure that can delay the healing process.</p>
      <p>The purposes of the dressings are: cleaning the wound, protecting it against mechanical traumas, preventing exogenous contamination, absorbing discharges, reducing the accumulation of fluids through local compression and immobilizing the wound. Dressing should be carried out following basic asepsis principles. Sterile techniques are recommended when the patient is in a hospital environment, and the clean technique is advised when the patient is at home.</p>
      <p>In wounds with first intention healing, for example, in dry surgical incisions, cleaning with 0.9% saline solution and dressing with sterile gauze is recommended. The dressing should be changed daily or whenever saturated. Keeping dressings postoperatively is justifiable for a maximum of 72 hours, when the wound should be kept open.</p>
      <p>Generally speaking, in open wounds, PVPi (povidine) and local chlorhexidine should not be used. PVPi is rapidly neutralized by the presence of organic matter, pus or necrosis and chlorhexidine may alter the healing process, harming and reducing the tensile strength of tissues. It can also irritate the skin and cause allergic reactions. In open wounds with little exudation, washing with jets of 0.9% saline solution to prevent friction is recommended. The removal of devitalized tissue should be carried out manually (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="c3-body2">Chart 3</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="c3-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Dressings with long-chain triglycerides (LCTs), DERSANI&#153;, were introduced in 1994 by Declair<sup>16</sup>. These substances accelerate the tissue granulation process, promote chemotaxis and angiogenesis. There are no contraindications to their use in wounds, whether there are signs of infection or not. It is recommended that the wound be washed first with saline solution, and then covered with gauze soaked in DERSANI. The dressing should be changed daily and whenever necessary.</p>
      <p>Dressings with hydrocolloid have an inner layer that is a good environment to absorb discharges and maintain a moist environment (gelatin and pectin) that stimulates angiogenesis and autolytic debridement. The outer layer is composed of polyurethane foam and serves as a thermal barrier against gases and liquids. They should be used on clean wounds, with no infectious processes or necrotic tissues. Dressing should be changed whenever the gel overflows or the dressing is displaced and within 7 days at most.</p>
      <p>Calcium alginate dressings derive from brown marine algae. They're best indicated for wounds with abundant exudation, with or without infection and for cavity injuries. They have a high absorptive power and help in the autolytic process. Dressings should be changed daily in infected wounds. In injuries with little exudation, dressings can be changed every 3 or 4 days.</p>
      <p>There are several products on the market and others in an advanced stage in terms of production and research for use in different types of wounds. Careful analysis of different products is required to select the best treatment.</p>
      <p>With the objective of preventing major complications, it is advisable to identify risk patients; assess, when necessary, the anatomy of peripheral vessels and define the best surgical site to perform the saphenectomy procedure; employ a meticulous surgical technique; recognize complications promptly and begin the recommended treatment early<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mediastinitis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Mediastinitis is a severe and frequently disastrous infectious complication that involves the mediastinal space and the sternum. Some anatomical and physiological characteristics favor the severe nature of infections in the mediastinum<sup>18</sup>. The large quantity of loose cell tissue favors the dissemination of infection. The abundant vascular network allows the fast and massive absorption of toxins. Pressure variations within the mediastinal cavity contribute to mobilize septic liquids.</p>
      <p>Although there are many protocols for hospital infection control, improvement of treatment with antimicrobial agents and of care with operative antisepsis, the incidence of dehiscence and deep sternal infection has not decreased in recent years. The incidence of mediastinitis varies from 0.15 to 8%, with a mean of 1 to 2%<sup>18</sup>. In concomitant procedures the incidence of infection may reach 3%. Infection increases hospital stay and costs. The average expenses with patients who present with mediastinitis are three times higher than with those who have no infection<sup>19</sup>. Its mortality remains high (10% to 47%), despite the latest advances in its treatment<sup>18</sup>.</p>
      <p>The exact physiopathological mechanism of mediastinitis is probably multifactoral and has not been defined yet. However, noncompliance with asepsis techniques is probably the major cause of sternal dehiscence and mediastinitis.</p>
      <p>Some risk factors, pre and postoperative, contribute to the increase of mediastinal infection (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="c4-body2">Chart 4</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="c4-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The risk of mediastinitis increases with age. Patients below 50, between 50 and 70 and above 70 years of age presented an incidence of 0.9%, 2.7%, and 3.1% respectively<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Males are at a higher risk of mediastinitis, probably due to the higher tension (tensile strength) of sternal wounds in males. Obese individuals (&gt;20% of the ideal weight) present a higher incidence of sternal infection, probably due to the presence of adipose tissue that may act as a substrate for infection<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Chronic smoking associated with COPD causes ventilatory problems, leading to sternal instability, and favoring a higher incidence of mediastinitis<sup>21</sup>. In the group of <italic>Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</italic>, the rate of infection was 4.8 times higher in patients kept in the ICU for more than 48 hours postoperatively as compared with patients who remained there for a shorter time<sup>20</sup>. The presence of infection in other sites preoperatively increases the risk of the patient presenting mediastinitis postoperatively by 8 times, probably because of the hematological displacement of/blood-borne bacteria<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>Diabetic patients present alterations in microcirculation and cicatrization, thus contributing to a higher incidence of operative infection. The incidence of mediastinitis when two internal thoracic arteries are used, especially in diabetic patients, is significantly higher<sup>21</sup>. This fact can be explained by the impairment of 90% of the irrigation of the hemisternal when the internal thoracic artery is used in myocardial revascularization.</p>
      <p>Elective heart reoperation increases the incidence of mediastinitis from the range 1% to 2% up to 20%. Reoperation due to acute bleeding in the early postoperative period has also been associated with mediastinitis<sup>1,4,5,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>Some other factors which are difficult to measure may be implied in the increased incidence of mediastinitis, namely: preoperative kidney dysfunction; hemodialysis; heart dysfunction and low output syndrome; excessive use of electrical scalpel and poor surgical technique. The need for postoperative tracheostomy is directly related with the occurrence of mediastinitis, in that an incidence of 8.6% and an associated mortality of 43% have been reported. The use of percutaneous tracheostomy improves these results<sup>19</sup>. Bhatti et al<sup>23</sup> emphasize the need to use bone wax carefully since its use has been associated with a higher incidence of mediastinitis and systemic embolization in experiments.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Diagnosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention of the United States (CDC), the criteria that define mediastinitis are: isolation and culture of microorganisms from mediastinal tissues or secretions obtained through fine needle puncture; evidence of mediastinitis seen during surgery or hystopathological study; sternal instability, chest pain, fever (&gt;38&#176; C) associated with the culture of sternal secretion and/or positive hemoculture<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>According to Braxton et al<sup>25</sup> mediastinitis includes the presence of two of the following findings: identification of microorganisms in the fluid obtained from the mediastinal space; culture of microorganisms from mediastinal tissues; radiological evidence of infection and mediastinal dehiscence that require reoperation.</p>
      <p>Sometimes the signs of mediastinitis are not very apparent and the prompt recognition of infection requires a high rate of suspicion. Patients generally present persistent fever after the 4<sup>th</sup> day postoperatively. Toxemia, left-shifted leukocytosis and drainage of secretions through the sternal wound are common. Dehiscence of surgical wounds is the most frequent finding and occurs in 70% to 90% of the cases, and is normally associated with other local findings such as chest pain and sternal instability<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>For diagnostic confirmation, in addition to the physical examination, imaging tests are performed. Chest computerized tomography (CT) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) have low sensitivity and specificity in diagnostic<sup>15</sup>. Tomographic findings following sternectomy may include retrosternal hematoma and fluid collection. It is not always easy to set benign findings apart from abscesses and infected collections. However, signs of dehiscence and bone erosion, in addition to subcutaneous collections and bilateral pleural effusion may indicate an infectious process<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>In 2003, Benlolo et al<sup>27</sup> assessed prospectively the sternal puncture method to diagnose early infection. The needle was coupled to a 10 ml syringe and the aspiration occurred after the needle was introduced one centimeter deep. There was a high rate of positivity which allowed the diagnostic and early treatment.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Classification</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Oakley et al<sup>19</sup> proposed a classification of mediastinitis with the objective of establishing the best parameters for diagnostic and treatment.</p>
      <p>1) <italic>Mediastinal dehiscence</italic> &#150; Consists of the spontaneous opening of the operative wound with absence of clinical or microbiological evidence of infection.</p>
      <p>2) <italic>Infection of mediastinal wound</italic> &#150; Consists of the infection of presternal tissues and sternal osteomyelitis with clinical and microbiological confirmation.</p>
      <p><italic>Subtypes</italic> - 2.1) Superficial wound infection &#150; infection confined to the subcutaneous tissue. 2.2) Deep wound infection (mediastinitis) &#150; in addition to the wound infection, there is also sternal osteomyelitis with or without infection in the retrosternal space. Mediastinitis is also subdivided into 4 subtypes according to the time of presentation, presence or not of risk factors, and previous treatment (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="c5-body2">Chart 5</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="c5-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-89-01-00e3-00013-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The CDC protocol considers superficial or deep incisional surgical site infections, or infection of surgical site of organ/space. The superficial infection involves the skin and subcutaneous tissues. The deep infection involves deeper layers such as muscular fasciae. The infection of the surgical site of organ/space may involve any part of the anatomy in addition to the incision that was manipulated or opened by the surgeon<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>The germs that are most commonly associated are Gram positive bacteria in 77% of the cases. Among these, <italic>Staphylococcus aureus</italic> and <italic>Staphylococcus epidermides</italic> account for 49% and 28% of the cases, respectively. The most commonly found Gram negative germs are <italic>Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Serratia , Enterobacter, Proteus</italic><sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The treatment of mediastinitis varies from the simple use of therapy with antimicrobial agents, with no surgical procedure associated, to complete sternectomy and plastic procedures to reconstruct the thoracic wall<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>In patients that present dehiscence of subcutaneous tissues without established infectious process, the injury should be treated according to the principles used to treat open wounds, in that primary suture can be an option. In patients who present established infection of the mediastinal wound that affects only the subcutaneous tissue the treatment consists of the initial opening of the injury and the careful analysis of the infectious process and its extension, the targeted use of antimicrobial agents with the concomitant compliance with the principles for treatment of open wounds with dressings. The primary-delayed closure of the operative wound can be followed up clinically.</p>
      <p>In the case of established mediastinitis, the management strategy should be aggressive, and early surgical approach is indicated. Conservative management strategies present extremely high mortality. The empirical use of antimicrobial agents is started at the time of diagnosis and later guided by the culture of infected tissues<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>Surgical treatment of mediastinitis has improved gradually in the last 35 years. The management strategy initially consisted of the complete opening of the incision, broad debridement with removal of necrotic tissues, followed by second intention closure. Daily dressings were associated which caused high morbidity and mortality rates and long hospital stays. There was a high rate of fistula and pathways from the sternum to the skin with chronic drainage of secretions.</p>
      <p>In 1963 Shumacker and Mandelbaum<sup>30</sup> described a technique to open the incision with the removal of steel threads, mechanical cleaning of necrotic tissues, including bones, and the implantation of continuous irrigation through drains placed in the mediastinum. Solutions of antibiotics and/or povidine at 0.5% were used. Irrigation was usually maintained for 3 to 4 days. Mediastinal drainage can be performed in a closed manner with continuous irrigation or with suction<sup>31</sup>. These techniques are recommended for acute mediastinitis, with less than 2 weeks. In the method of drainage with suction, a drain with many perforations was used, coupled with a negative pressure system (from &#150; 300 mmHg to &#150; 600 mmHg) that is maintained in the mediastinal place for one week. According to the authors, there was no statistically significant difference when the two drainage systems were compared. Combs et al<sup>32</sup> demonstrated that this approach enables the cure of mediastinitis.</p>
      <p>Surgical debridement was described after Shumacker and Mandelbaum's study<sup>30</sup>, followed by a greater omentum graft. This anatomical structure has important advantages, since it contains a large number of active immunological cells with a high anti-infectious power. The reconstruction of the mediastinum using the omentum is associated with fewer septic complications<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Schroeyers et al<sup>34</sup> expanded the concept of using omental graft and recommended that muscle graft be used to fill in the space left after debridement. The rectus abdominis muscles can be used by rotating the flap, in addition to the pectoralis major muscles, which are detached and brought to the sternal midline to be sutured, allowing the complete closure of the wound<sup>34</sup>. In 1998 Gamel et al<sup>18</sup> reported low mortality with the treatment of mediastinitis associated with the mobilization of the major pectoralis muscles.</p>
      <p>Some reports<sup>35</sup> recommend the combination of pre-established treatment as an alternative for severe cases. This author used irrigation with antimicrobial agents, associated with omental transposition in patients infected by multi-resistant bacteria. The result of the surgery was good, with complete and early recovery, with no deaths. Another author<sup>36</sup> associated omentopexy to pectoralis muscle flap in the treatment of mediastinitis. This procedure provided good results, but the aggressiveness of this approach might not be justified.</p>
      <p>It is recommended that antibiotic therapy be kept for at least 6 weeks and, if there is osteomyelitis, the therapy should continue for 3 months. Due to the high degree of catabolism that these patients present, special attention should be given to their nutritional state. Enteral diet is stimulated and optimized. However, sometimes the use of parenteral diet is extremely valuable as it contributes to the early improvement of patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Hyperbaric oxygen therapy</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hyperbaric oxygen therapy is a type of therapy that has been used since the 1930's, and consists of breathing pure oxygen (100%) at pressures above atmospheric ones with the patient placed in a special chamber. The amount of oxygen dissolved in tissues increases from 10 to 20 times, thus creating an environment which is not appropriate for bacteria in general, especially anaerobic ones. This treatment is especially recommended in necrotizing infections of soft tissues, severe cellulitis, fasciitis, myosites, suture dehiscence and chronic osteomyelitis. Its basic mechanism of action is the acceleration of the formation of granulation tissue, and it also acts as a coadjuvant in the control of infections to accelerate the healing process.</p>
      <p>Lappa et al<sup>37</sup> reported on the treatment of mediastinitis using nasal antimicrobial agents associated with hyperbaric oxygen therapy. After 30 sessions of oxygen therapy, significant improvement was observed in the granulation tissue of the operative wound, and it was possible to rule out treatment with operation. After a 6-month treatment there was complete closure of the wound. New studies are needed to assess these results better.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prognosis and prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The treatment of mediastinitis is still problematic and controversial. However, in recent years, with the early use of muscle grafts in addition to omentopexy, treatment has presented more satisfactory results with a high rate of success and a considerable reduction in hospital stay. The mortality reported in many papers over the last decade varied between 4.8 and 10.8 % for both procedures, associated with closed irrigation or with vacuum. Mortality at levels lower than 4% has not been reported yet.</p>
      <p>Some variables determine postoperative survival. Analyses demonstrate that length of stay in the intensive care unit above 8 days, postoperative bleeding above 1,000 ml, wounds with positive cultures and the elapsing of a long time between the symptom and the surgical approach are determinants for hospital mortality. Other variables are associated with longer hospital stay such as: age of patients above 58 years; prolonged time on mechanical ventilation and in the ICU (&gt; 96 hours). In conclusion, the prognosis of deep sternal infection depends primarily on early surgical management. Strangely enough the presence of mediastinitis does not seem to reduce the patency of grafts in the period following myocardial revascularization.</p>
      <p>As recommended in the study conducted by Sampaio et al<sup>38</sup>, some measures can be used to prevent mediastinitis: strict preoperative assessment of the patient to look for associated infectious processes; adequate pulmonary preparation avoiding smoking; avoiding the use of the two internal thoracic arteries in diabetic patients; use of iodine-coated plastic fields that adhere to the skin; frequent wash of the mediastinum and the subcutaneous tissue with saline solution at the time of closure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sources of Funding</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was funded with the investigator&#180;s own resources.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Study Association with Graduate Work</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study is not associated with any graduation program.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Antman EM. Medical management of the patient undergoing cardiac surgery. In Braunwald E. Heart disease: textbook of cardiovascular medicine. 5 th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders Company; 1997. p. 1715-41.</p>
      <p>2. De Feo M, Renzulli A, Ismeno G, Gregorio R, Della Corte A, Cotrufo M, et al. Variables Predicting Adverse Outcome in Patients with Deep Sternal Wound Infection. Ann Thorac Surg. 2001; 71: 324-31.</p>
      <p>3. Leite Sobrinho, GB. Pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio, per-operat&#243;rio, p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. In Fonseca F, Savassi P. Cirurgia ambulatorial. 2&#170; ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara; 1987. p. 5-37.</p>
      <p>4. Bojar RM. Post-ICU care and other complications. In Manual of perioperative care in cardiac surgery. 3rd ed. Malden: Blackwell Science; 1999. p. 371-425.</p>
      <p>5. Kirklin JW. Cardiac surgery: morfology, diagnostic criteria, natural history, techniques, results, and indications. In Kirklin JW, Barrat-Boyes BG. Postoperative care. 2nd ed. New York: Churchill Livingstone; 1992. p. 195-249.</p>
      <p>6. Athanasiou T, Aziz O, Skapinakis P, Perunovic B, Hart J, Casula R, et al. Leg wound infection after coronary artery bypass grafting: a meta-analysis comparing minimally invasive versus conventional vein harvesting. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003; 76: 2141-6.</p>
      <p>7. Perrault LP, Jeanmart H, Bilodeau L, Lesperance J, Tanguay JF, Carrier M, et al. Early quantitative coronary angiography of saphenous vein grafts for coronary artery bypass grafting harvested by means of open versus endoscopic saphenectomy: a prospective randomized trial. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2004; 127: 1402-7.</p>
      <p>8. Pagni S, Ulfe EA, Montgomery WD, VanHimbergen DJ, Fisher DJ, Spence PA, et al. Clinical experience with the video-assisted saphenectomy procedure for coronary bypass operations. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 66: 1626-31.</p>
      <p>9. Allen KB. Saphenectomy wound complications: the real story. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2004; 127: 1535.</p>
      <p>10. Coppoolsea R, Reesa W, Krechb R, Hufnagela M, Seuferta K, Warnecke H. Routine minimal invasive vein harvesting reduces postoperative morbidity in cardiac bypass procedures: clinical report of 1400 patients. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 1999; 16 (Suppl 2): S61-6.</p>
      <p>11. DeLaria GA, Hunter JA, Goldin, Serry C, Javid H, Najafi H. Leg wound complications associated with coronary revascularization. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 1981; 81: 403-7.</p>
      <p>12. Olsen MA, Sundt TM, Lawton JS, Damiano RJ, Hopkins-Broyles D, Lock-Buckley P, et al. Risk factors for leg harvest surgical site infections after coronary artery bypass graft surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003; 126: 992-9.</p>
      <p>13. Chukwuemeka A, John L. Modified incision for long saphenous vein harvest. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 66: 279.</p>
      <p>14. Tevaearai HT, Mueller XM, von Segesser LK. Minimally invasive harvest of the saphenous vein for coronary artery bypass grafting. Ann Thorac Surg. 1997; 63 (6 Suppl): S119-21.</p>
      <p>15. Lumsden AB, Eaves FF III, Ofenloch JC, Jordan WD. Subcutaneous video-assisted saphenous vein harvest: report of the first 30 cases. Cardiovasc Surg. 1996; 4 (6): 771-6.</p>
      <p>16. Declair V. Aplica&#231;&#227;o do triglicer&#237;dios de cadeia m&#233;dia (TCM) na preven&#231;&#227;o de ulceras de dec&#250;bito. Rev Bras Enf.1994;47(1):27-30.</p>
      <p>17. Paletta CE, Huang DB, Fiore AC, Swartz MT, Rilloraza FL, Gardner JE. Major Leg Wound Complications After Saphenous Vein Harvest for Coronary Revascularization. Ann Thorac Surg. 2000; 70: 492-7.</p>
      <p>18. El Gamel A, Yonan NA, Hassan R, Jones MT, Campbell CS, Lawson RA, et al. Treatment of mediastinitis: early modified robicsek closure and pectoralis major advancement flaps. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 65: 41-7.</p>
      <p>19. Oakley RM, Wright JE. Postoperative mediastinitis: classification and management. Ann Thorac Surg. 1996; 61: 1030-6.</p>
      <p>20. Abboud CS, Wey SB, Baltar VT. Risk factors for mediastinitis after cardiac surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2004; 77: 676-83.</p>
      <p>21. Loop FD, Lytle BW, Cosgrove DM, Mahfood S, McHenry MC, Taylor PC, et al. Sternal wound complications after isolated coronary artery bypass grafting: early and late mortality, morbidity, and cost of care. Ann Thorac Surg. 1990; 49: 179-86.</p>
      <p>22. Baskett RJF, MacDougall CE, Ross DB. Is mediastinitis a preventable complication? A 10-year review. Ann Thorac Surg. 1999; 67: 462-5.</p>
      <p>23. Bhatti F, Dunning J. Does liberal use of bone wax increases the risk of mediastinitis? Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. 2003; 2: 410-2.</p>
      <p>24. Mangram AJ, Horan TC, Pearson ML, Silver LC, Jarvis WR. Guideline for Prevention of Surgical Site Infection, 1999. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Hospital Infection Control Practices Advisory Committee. Am J Infect Control. 1999; 27: 97-132.</p>
      <p>25. Braxton JH, Marrin CAS, McGrath PD, Ross CS, Morton JR, Norotsky M, et al. The Northern New England Cardiovascular Disease Study Group Mediastinitis and Long-Term Survival After Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery. Ann Thorac Surg. 2000; 70: 2004-7.</p>
      <p>26. Misawa Y, Fuse K, Hasegawa T. Infectious mediastinitis after cardiac operations: computed tomographic findings. Ann Thorac Surg. 1998; 65: 622-4.</p>
      <p>27. Benlolo S, Mate&#180;o J, Raskine L, Tibourtine O, Bel A, Payen D, et al. Sternal puncture allows an early diagnosis of poststernotomy mediastinitis. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg. 2003; 125: 611-7.</p>
      <p>28. Gardlunda B, Bitkoverb CY, Vaageb J. Postoperative mediastinitis in cardiac surgery - microbiology and pathogenesis. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2002; 22: 825-30.</p>
      <p>29. Luciani N, Lapenna E, Bonis M, Possati GF. Mediastinitis following graft replacement of the ascending aorta: conservative approach by omental transposition. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2001; 20: 418-20.</p>
      <p>30. Shumacker HB, Mandelbaum I. Continuous antibiotic irrigation in the treatment of infection. Arch Surg. 1963; 86: 384-7.</p>
      <p>31. Berg HF, Brands WGB, van Geldorp TR, Kluytmans-VandenBergh MFQ, Kluytmans JAJW. Comparison between closed drainage techniques for the treatment of postoperative mediastinitis. Ann Thorac Surg. 2000; 70: 924-9.</p>
      <p>32. Combes A, Trouillet J, Baudot J, Mokhtari M, Chastre J, Gibert C. Is it possible to cure mediastinitis in patients with major postcardiac surgery complications? Ann Thorac Surg. 2001; 72: 1592-7.</p>
      <p>33. Milano CA, Georgiade G, Muhlbaier LH, Smith PK, Wolfe WG. Comparison of omental and pectoralis flaps for poststernotomy mediastinitis. Ann Thorac Surg. 1999; 67: 377-81.</p>
      <p>34. Schroeyers P, Wellens F, Degrieck I, Geest RD, Praet FV, VermeulenY, et al. Aggressive primary treatment for poststernotomy acute mediastinitis: our experience with omental- and muscle flaps surgery. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2001; 20: 743-6.</p>
      <p>35. Hirata N, Hatsuoka S, Amemiya A, Ueno T, Kosakai Y. New strategy for treatment of MRSA mediastinitis: one-stage procedure for omental transposition and closed irrigation. Ann Thorac Surg. 2003; 76: 2104-6.</p>
      <p>36. Szerafin T, Jaber O, Petterfy A. Technical refinements of omentopexy and pectoralis myoplasty for poststenotomy mediastinitis. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2002; 21: 765-70.</p>
      <p>37. Lappa A, Malpieri MR, Cicco M, Bucci A, Malpieri M, Araimo F, et al. An alternative inexpensive treatment for deep sternal wound infections after sternotomy. Interactive Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. 2003; 2: 629-32.</p>
      <p>38. Sampaio DT, Alves JCr, Silva AF, Lobo NC Jr, Sim&#245;es D, Faria W, et al. Mediastinite em cirurgia card&#237;aca: tratamento com ep&#237;plon. Rev Bras Cir Cardiovasc. 2000; 15 (1): 23-31.</p>
      <p>
        <fn id="back-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Cl&#225;udio L&#233;o Gelape</p>
          <p> Av. Alfredo Balena, 190</p>
          <p> 30130-100 - Belo Horizonte, MG - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="clgelape@uai.com.br">clgelape@uai.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received September 14, 2006; revised received December 26, 2006; accepted January 17, 2007.</p>
      <p>A reopera&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca eletiva aumenta a incid&#234;ncia de mediastinite de 1% a 2% para 20%. A reopera&#231;&#227;o por sangramento agudo no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato tamb&#233;m tem sido associada &#224; mediastinite<sup>1,4,5,18</sup>.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
