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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">j3jNMppG5VVrMF6wwgbVDYy</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007000600009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08800609</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007000600009</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Mecanismos e tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial refrat&#225;ria</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pimenta</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Calhoun</surname>
            <given-names>David A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oparil</surname>
            <given-names>Suzanne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Birmingham</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">AL</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of Alabama</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Vascular Biology and Hypertension Program </institution>
        <country country="">EUA</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial e Nefrologia </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>88</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>683</fpage>
      <lpage>692</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o/tratamento</kwd>
        <kwd>monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>23</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Mecanismos e tratamento da hipertens&#227;o arterial refrat&#225;ria </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Eduardo Pimenta; David A. Calhoun; Suzanne Oparil</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Departamento de Hipertens&#227;o Arterial e Nefrologia do Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil </p>
    <p> Vascular Biology and Hypertension Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham - Birmingham, AL - EUA</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corr1">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Hipertens&#227;o/tratamento, monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Defini&#231;&#227;o e preval&#234;ncia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A hipertens&#227;o arterial refrat&#225;ria (HAR) &#233; definida como press&#227;o arterial (PA) que permanece acima da meta apesar do uso de tr&#234;s classes de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos e em doses eficazes, incluindo um diur&#233;tico<sup>1</sup>. Os pacientes intolerantes a diur&#233;ticos e com PA n&#227;o-controlada, apesar do uso de tr&#234;s medica&#231;&#245;es anti-hipertensivas de outras classes, tamb&#233;m s&#227;o considerados portadores de HAR. A meta press&#243;rica na popula&#231;&#227;o geral &#233; inferior a 140/90 mmHg, e em pacientes diab&#233;ticos ou com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC) (taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular &lt;60 ml/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>; creatinina s&#233;rica &gt;1,5 mg/dl em homens ou &gt;1,3 mg/dl em mulheres; albumin&#250;ria &gt;300 mg/24h ou &gt;200 mg/g de creatinina) a meta a ser atingida &#233; inferior a 130/80 mmHg<sup>1</sup>. Os pacientes com PA controlada com quatro ou mais classes de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos tamb&#233;m devem ser considerados portadores de HAR. </p>
    <p>Os fatores que predisp&#245;em &#224; refratariedade ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo incluem mudan&#231;as na popula&#231;&#227;o, como maior expectativa de vida, maior incid&#234;ncia de obesidade e menor n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica, bem como fatores relacionados ao profissional de sa&#250;de, como menor aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada e &#224;s metas press&#243;ricas mais agressivas recomendadas pelas diretrizes recentes. Esta revis&#227;o analisa os diversos fatores que contribuem para o desenvolvimento de HAR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">tab. 1</xref>) e suas causas secund&#225;rias (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2">tab. 2</xref>). </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab1">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Pseudo-refratariedade</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Pseudo-refratariedade &#233; a aparente falta de controle press&#243;rico causada por aferi&#231;&#227;o inadequada da PA, doses e associa&#231;&#245;es inapropriadas das medica&#231;&#245;es anti-hipertensivas, n&#227;o-ades&#227;o &#224; terapia prescrita ou efeito do avental branco, e costuma ser erroneamente diagnosticada como HAR. Uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa da pseudo-refratariedade evita a prescri&#231;&#227;o de medicamentos desnecess&#225;rios e o n&#250;mero de visitas excessivas. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento inapropriado</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Tratamento farmacol&#243;gico inapropriado &#233; o principal respons&#225;vel por hipertens&#227;o n&#227;o-controlada e est&#225; freq&#252;entemente relacionado com in&#233;rcia cl&#237;nica, ou seja, falha do m&#233;dico em intensificar a terapia quando a meta do tratamento n&#227;o foi atingida. Um estudo retrospectivo conduzido com 7.253 hipertensos constatou que, em pacientes portadores de hipertens&#227;o n&#227;o-controlada, os m&#233;dicos mais freq&#252;entemente deixaram de instituir novas medica&#231;&#245;es ou n&#227;o aumentaram a dose dos medicamentos receitados nas consultas anteriores<sup>2</sup>. O desconhecimento das diretrizes de tratamento, a subestima&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular (CV) e o uso de raz&#245;es esp&#250;rias para evitar a intensifica&#231;&#227;o da terapia, como a pressuposi&#231;&#227;o por parte do m&#233;dico de que o pacienten&#227;o aceitar&#225; mais medica&#231;&#245;es, est&#227;o relacionados com a falha dos m&#233;dicos em intensificar o tratamento<sup>3,4</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>N&#227;o-ades&#227;o ao tratamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#201; comum pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial n&#227;o tomarem rigorosamente os medicamentos receitados, e essa &#233; uma causa freq&#252;ente de HAR<sup>5</sup>. Em geral, esse problema &#233; mais comum no n&#237;vel de atendimento prim&#225;rio do que entre pacientes atendidos por especialistas<sup>6-8</sup>. O custo do tratamento, um relacionamento m&#233;dico-paciente deficiente, a necessidade de tomar diversos comprimidos e os efeitos adversos dos medicamentos s&#227;o outras causas de n&#227;o-ades&#227;o ao tratamento. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Efeito do avental branco</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O efeito do avental branco, definido pela diferen&#231;a entre os valores da PA aferida no consult&#243;rio e a PA residencial ou obtida pela monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial (MAPA), pode ser calculado como a m&#233;dia da PA de consult&#243;rio menos a m&#233;dia da PA na vig&#237;lia obtida pela MAPA. Uma PA m&#233;dia de vig&#237;lia &lt;135/85 mmHg &#233; considerada normal tanto para o m&#233;todo de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial quanto residencial. A preval&#234;ncia do efeito do avental branco varia de 20% a 40% entre a popula&#231;&#227;o geral de pacientes hipertensos e pode ser ainda maior na HAR. A ocorr&#234;ncia do efeito do avental branco &#233; mais comum em mulheres e idosos. Deve-se suspeitar desse fen&#244;meno em pacientes com sintomas relacionados &#224; hipotens&#227;o, na aus&#234;ncia de valores press&#243;ricos baixos no consult&#243;rio e em pacientes com PA de consult&#243;rio alta sem les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo<sup>9</sup>. </p>
    <p>A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o residencial da PA e a MAPA s&#227;o m&#233;todos importantes para avaliar pacientes com PA n&#227;o-controlada no consult&#243;rio e para descartar a exist&#234;ncia de uma falsa refratariedade ao tratamento. As medidas obtidas por meio de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial e residencial podem evitar o tratamento excessivo e diminuir o n&#250;mero de visitas &#224; cl&#237;nica de pacientes com efeito do avental branco. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores que contribuem para a HAR</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica decorrente de dieta hipers&#243;dica, reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio secund&#225;ria &#224; DRC e/ou falta de uso adequado de diur&#233;ticos pode causar HAR<sup>10-12</sup>. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do volume plasm&#225;tico dos pacientes com HAR pode ajudar na sele&#231;&#227;o e determina&#231;&#227;o de doses mais adequadas dos medicamentos, como instituir ou intensificar o uso de diur&#233;ticos em pacientes com maior volemia ou vasodilatadores/inibidores do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona (SRAA) em pacientes com volemia normal e vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o. A medida da imped&#226;ncia tor&#225;cica pode ser &#250;til nesse aspecto<sup>13</sup>. Um estudo prospectivo selecionou aleatoriamente 104 pacientes portadores de HAR para receber uma sele&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos baseado nos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos ou uma sele&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos definida por um especialista em hipertens&#227;o. Os pacientes tratados com base nos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos apresentaram taxas de controle press&#243;rico significativamente mais elevadas do que os pacientes tratados com base na decis&#227;o do especialista (56% <italic>versus</italic> 33%)<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os diur&#233;ticos s&#227;o a base do tratamento dos pacientes cuja press&#227;o arterial n&#227;o pode ser controlada com diversos agentes de outras classes de f&#225;rmacos. Al&#233;m disso, a redu&#231;&#227;o do sal na alimenta&#231;&#227;o &#233; um bom tratamento auxiliar em pacientes com HAR, sobretudo porque aumenta a pot&#234;ncia dos medicamentos anti-hipertensivos<sup>1,15</sup>. Alguns grupos de pacientes, como idosos, obesos, negros e portadores de DRC, tendem a ser mais sens&#237;veis ao sal e a se beneficiar mais de uma dieta hiposs&#243;dica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Obesidade</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A obesidade &#233; comum em pacientes com HAR. Dados do <italic>Framingham Heart Study </italic>mostraram que os pacientes com &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) <underline>&gt;</underline> 30kg/m<sup>2</sup> apresentavam 50% maior chance de apresentar PA n&#227;o-controlada do que aqueles com IMC normal (&lt; 25kg/m<sup>2</sup>)<sup>16</sup>. O estudo HYDRA, um estudo transversal realizado com 45.125 pacientes que procuraram atendimento prim&#225;rio, revelou que aqueles que tinham IMC &gt;40 kg/m<sup>2 </sup>apresentavam maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o e risco 5,3 e 3,2 vezes maior de requerer o uso de quatro ou tr&#234;s medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, respectivamente, para controlar a PA, quando comparados com os pacientes com peso normal (IMC &lt;25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a09fig01">fig. 1</xref>)<sup>17</sup>. Maior reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio e &#225;gua, ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e estimula&#231;&#227;o do SRAA aparentemente contribuem com o aumento da PA em indiv&#237;duos obesos<sup>18 </sup>. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a09fig01">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Subst&#226;ncias ex&#243;genas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso de uma variedade de f&#225;rmacos e outras subst&#226;ncias ex&#243;genas pode estar associado &#224; HAR (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1">tab. 1</xref>). O questionamento sobre o uso dessas subst&#226;ncias em pacientes com HAR &#233; fundamental. A suspens&#227;o desses medicamentos pode reduzir ou at&#233; mesmo normalizar a PA em alguns pacientes com HAR. </p>
    <p>Os <italic>antiinflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o-hormonais </italic>(AINH), inclusive os inibidores seletivos da cicloxigenase-2 (COX-2), s&#227;o uma causa comum de PA n&#227;o-controlada e de piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal em pacientes hipertensos<sup>19-21</sup>. Os AINH parecem aumentar a PA por meio de reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio e &#225;gua, provavelmente pela inibi&#231;&#227;o das prostaglandinas vasodilatadoras intra-renais. Pacientes idosos e diab&#233;ticos s&#227;o particularmente suscet&#237;veis a esses eventos adversos. O <italic>Nurse's Health Study </italic>analisou prospectivamente o efeito dos analg&#233;sicos n&#227;o-narc&#243;ticos sobre a PA em 51.630 enfermeiras normotensas com idade entre 44 e 69 anos, acompanhadas durante oito anos<sup>22 </sup>. As mulheres que tomavam aspirina, paracetamol ou AINH com freq&#252;&#234;ncia apresentaram um risco de 21%, 20% e 35% de desenvolver hipertens&#227;o arterial, respectivamente, em compara&#231;&#227;o com as que n&#227;o usavam esses f&#225;rmacos. Esse estudo demonstrou claramente que a aspirina e o paracetamol, bem como os AINH convencionais, exercem importantes efeitos sobre a PA. </p>
    <p>Todos os AINH parecem elevar a PA m&#233;dia e antagonizar os efeitos hipotensores dos anti-hipertensivos<sup>23</sup>. Os inibidores seletivos da COX-2 tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associados com eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial. Uma metan&#225;lise de 45.451 pacientes inclu&#237;dos em dezenove estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados e controlados demonstrou que os inibidores da COX-2 elevam a PA em at&#233; ~4/1 mmHg, quando estes foram comparados com placebo, e em at&#233; ~3/1 mmHg quando comparados com os AINH<sup>24</sup>. Os efeitos hipertensores dos AINH e inibidores da COX-2 est&#227;o relacionados com a dose, e alguns agentes parecem exercer efeitos maiores do que outros. Por exemplo, no programa Multinational Etoricoxib and Diclofenac Arthritis Long-term (MEDAL), que selecionou aleatoriamente 34.701 portadores de osteoartrite e artrite reumat&#243;ide para receber etoricoxib ou diclofenaco, os pacientes no grupo etoricoxib foram retirados do estudo com maior freq&#252;&#234;ncia por causa da hipertens&#227;o do que os pacientes no grupo diclofenaco<sup>25</sup>. Dos inibidores seletivos da COX-2, o rofecoxib tende a elevar mais a PA do que o celecoxib em indiv&#237;duos normotensos e hipertensos<sup>26</sup>. Se os pacientes hipertensos necessitarem de analg&#233;sicos, f&#225;rmacos como o tramadol ou hidrocodona e o bloqueio nervoso s&#227;o boas alternativas aos AINH ou inibidores da COX-2. Caso haja necessidade de AINH ou inibidores da COX-2, devem-se receitar as doses m&#237;nimas eficazes. &#201; preciso perguntar a todos os pacientes hipertensos se eles est&#227;o usando medicamentos para controle da dor, a fim de evitar essa forma de HAR iatrog&#234;nica. </p>
    <p>Os <italic>anticoncepcionais orais </italic>provocam pequenos aumentos na PA em toda a popula&#231;&#227;o de usu&#225;rias. Um pequeno n&#250;mero dessas mulheres tem hipertens&#227;o franca e um n&#250;mero muito menor apresenta HAR<sup>27,28</sup>. O <italic>Nurse's Health Study </italic>acompanhou prospectivamente 68.297 enfermeiras normotensas pr&#233;-menop&#225;usicas durante quatro anos para monitorar o desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o<sup>29</sup>. As enfermeiras que usavam anticoncepcionais orais apresentaram um risco 80% maior de desenvolver hipertens&#227;o quando comparadas com as que nunca tinham utilizado essa forma de contracep&#231;&#227;o, mas esse maior risco foi eliminado quase totalmente com a suspens&#227;o da medica&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2">fig. 2</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, o uso de anticoncepcionais orais por mulheres portadoras de hipertens&#227;o arterial est&#225; associado com PA n&#227;o-controlada. Um estudo transversal avaliou a associa&#231;&#227;o entre anticoncepcionais orais e controle press&#243;rico em 171 mulheres hipertensas e constatou que as usu&#225;rias de anticoncepcionais orais tinham pior controle da PA e tendiam a ter hipertens&#227;o mais grave do que as que utilizavam outros m&#233;todos anticoncepcionais ou n&#227;o usavam anticoncepcionais<sup>30</sup>. Os anticoncepcionais orais combinados (estrog&#234;nio + progestina) s&#227;o mais freq&#252;entemente associados com aumentos da PA do que os que cont&#234;m apenas progestina. As progestinas t&#234;m atividade antimineralocortic&#243;ide que pode ser respons&#225;vel por suas a&#231;&#245;es hipotensoras ou neutras em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; PA. Combinada com estradiol, a drospirenona, uma nova progestina de quarta gera&#231;&#227;o, reduz a PA<sup>31</sup>. Com base nesses e em outros dados, recomenda-se o uso de anticoncepcionais orais contendo apenas progestina para mulheres com hipertens&#227;o arterial estabelecida. </p>
    <fig id="fig2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>A Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS)<sup>32 </sup>e o <italic>American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology</italic><sup>33 </sup>recomendam o uso de anticoncepcionais orais combinados contendo baixas doses de estrog&#234;nio para mulheres que n&#227;o t&#234;m doen&#231;a cardiovascular e nem apresentam os principais fatores de risco, inclusive hipertens&#227;o. Os anticoncepcionais orais que cont&#234;m apenas progestina, inclusive dispositivos intra-uterinos, s&#227;o recomendados para mulheres com doen&#231;a cardiovascular estabelecida, alto risco cardiovascular, enxaquecas com sinais neurol&#243;gicos focais ou hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a tromboemb&#243;lica. </p>
    <p>A <italic>terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal </italic>tem efeitos m&#237;nimos sobre a PA e n&#227;o &#233; contra-indicada para mulheres normotensas ou hipertensas. No entanto, &#233; preciso medir a press&#227;o arterial de todas as mulheres hipertensas submetidas &#224; terapia hormonal logo no in&#237;cio do tratamento e depois em intervalos de tr&#234;s a seis meses, dependendo da dificuldade de controle<sup>34</sup>. </p>
    <p>O <italic>consumo excessivo de &#225;lcool </italic>aumenta o risco de desenvolver hipertens&#227;o n&#227;o-controlada. Em uma an&#225;lise transversal, os homens que consumiam uma quantidade excessiva de &#225;lcool (<underline>&gt;</underline> 4 doses por dia) tinham 50% a mais de chance de apresentar controle deficiente da PA<sup>35</sup>. Um estudo prospectivo, que investigou o efeito de um m&#234;s de abstin&#234;ncia de &#225;lcool sobre a PA de 24 horas em bebedores inveterados, documentou uma redu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de 7,2 mmHg na PA sist&#243;lica (PAS) de 24 horas e 6,6 mmHg na PA diast&#243;lica (PAD) de 24 horas<sup>36</sup>. A preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o entre os participantes do estudo diminuiu de 42% para 12%. Recomenda-se modera&#231;&#227;o no consumo de &#225;lcool (<underline>&lt;</underline> 2 doses por dia) como uma modifica&#231;&#227;o no estilo de vida na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, especialmente em pacientes hipertensos, e abstin&#234;ncia total para os bebedores inveterados. </p>
    <p><italic>Outras subst&#226;ncias ex&#243;genas </italic>que contribuem para a hipertens&#227;o, como corticoster&#243;ides, agentes simpatomim&#233;ticos, eritropoetina e antidepressivos, devem ser evitadas em pacientes com PA elevada e, se poss&#237;vel, suspensas por completo nos pacientes com PA n&#227;o-controlada. Em indiv&#237;duos que precisam dessas subst&#226;ncias, podem ser necess&#225;rias avalia&#231;&#245;es mais freq&#252;entes da PA e maiores doses e/ou n&#250;mero de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria &#233; maior em pacientes com HAR do que na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa em geral. As causas secund&#225;rias mais comuns de HAR s&#227;o hiperaldosteronismo, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, estenose da art&#233;ria renal e apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2">tab. 2</xref>). A preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria aumenta com a idade, sobretudo pela maior incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono e estenose da art&#233;ria renal. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hiperaldosteronismo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A s&#237;ndrome de excesso de aldosterona foi descrita pela primeira vez por Jerome Conn, em 1955, em uma paciente com hipopotassemia, hipertens&#227;o grave e tumor adrenal<sup>37</sup>. Entretanto, o conceito moderno de hiperaldosteronismo difere do aldosteronismo prim&#225;rio cl&#225;ssico. N&#227;o s&#227;o mais necess&#225;rios hipopotassemia e tumores adrenais para diagnosticar hiperaldosteronismo. Na verdade, uma porcentagem substancial de pacientes com hiperaldosteronismo tem n&#237;veis normais de pot&#225;ssio. Na experi&#234;ncia de nosso grupo, 50% dos portadores de hiperaldosteronismo e HAR t&#234;m concentra&#231;&#227;o normal de pot&#225;ssio ou nunca precisaram de suplementa&#231;&#227;o de pot&#225;ssio<sup>38</sup>. </p>
    <p>Sabe-se agora que o hiperaldosteronismo &#233; a causa mais freq&#252;ente de hipertens&#227;o secund&#225;ria e que contribui para a resist&#234;ncia ao tratamento<sup>39-45</sup>. Entre pacientes n&#227;o-tratados, a preval&#234;ncia de hiperaldosteronismo aumenta de acordo com a gravidade da hipertens&#227;o: 2% em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o do est&#225;gio 1, 8% em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o do est&#225;gio 2 e 13% em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o do est&#225;gio 3<sup>39</sup>. A preval&#234;ncia de hiperaldosteronismo &#233; ainda maior em pacientes com HAR, variando de 17% a 22% em diversos estudos<sup>46-49</sup>. Em uma avalia&#231;&#227;o prospectiva dos pacientes encaminhados &#224; nossa cl&#237;nica especializada para tratamento de HAR, 18 de 88 (20%) pacientes apresentavam hiperaldosteronismo baseado na atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica suprimida e elevada excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de aldosterona em 24 horas na vig&#234;ncia de uma dieta hipers&#243;dica<sup>46</sup>. </p>
    <p>Tendo em vista sua alta preval&#234;ncia nesse grupo de pacientes, todos os portadores de HAR, mesmo os com pot&#225;ssio normal, devem ser avaliados para hiperaldosteronismo. Um diagn&#243;stico inicial de excesso de aldosterona pode ser feito pela detec&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis elevados de aldosterona plasm&#225;tica e urin&#225;ria na presen&#231;a de atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica suprimida. A rela&#231;&#227;o aldosterona/renina (RAR) apresenta sensibilidade e especificidade suficientes para servir como teste eficaz para triagem de hiperaldosteronismo. Embora os valores exatos do teste de RAR variem bastante entre os estudos, o seu valor preditivo negativo &#233; suficiente para que uma RAR baixa (&lt;20, quando a aldosterona plasm&#225;tica &#233; expressa em ng/dl e a atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica &#233; expressa em ng/ml/min) exclua de forma confi&#225;vel o diagn&#243;stico de hiperaldosteronismo. A especificidade da RAR &#233; menos confi&#225;vel, de modo que uma RAR elevada (&gt;20-30) sugere, mas n&#227;o diagnostica, a exist&#234;ncia de hiperaldosteronismo. Conseq&#252;entemente, uma RAR elevada levanta suspeitas desse quadro, mas o diagn&#243;stico precisa ser confirmado. </p>
    <p>Uma maior taxa de excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de aldosterona em 24 horas confirma o diagn&#243;stico de hiperaldosteronismo em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial<sup>50</sup>. Como uma primeira abordagem, podem-se determinar a RAR, a excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de aldosterona em 24 horas e a concentra&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio em pacientes com dietas normais. (A determina&#231;&#227;o da aldosterona e do s&#243;dio feitas com a mesma amostra de urina requer o uso de conservante n&#227;o-salino, como o &#225;cido ac&#233;tico.) Se as excre&#231;&#245;es de aldosterona e s&#243;dio estiverem altas (<underline>&gt;</underline> 12&#181;g / 24h e <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mEq / 24h, respectivamente), indicando ingest&#227;o elevada cr&#244;nica de sal, n&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;rio adicionar sobrecarga salina para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de hiperaldosteronismo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a09fig03">fig. 3</xref>). Quando a aldosterona est&#225; elevada mas o s&#243;dio est&#225; baixo (&lt;200 mEq/24h) na primeira amostra, repetimos a coleta de urina ap&#243;s suplementa&#231;&#227;o oral de sal suficiente para aumentar a concentra&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mEq / 24h. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a09fig03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a confirma&#231;&#227;o de hiperaldosteronismo pelos exames bioqu&#237;micos, recomenda-se a realiza&#231;&#227;o de tomografia computadorizada com cortes finos para tentar identificar a presen&#231;a de tumores da supra-renal. Mesmo quando o diagn&#243;stico de hiperaldosteronismo &#233; confirmado pelos exames bioqu&#237;micos, as imagens tomogr&#225;ficas t&#234;m pouca especificidade para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de adenoma, e a coleta seletiva de veias supra-renais pode confirmar ou excluir uma lateraliza&#231;&#227;o na excre&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona compat&#237;vel com adenoma unilateral. Em pacientes com adenoma unilateral, deve-se analisar a possibilidade de adrenalectomia laparosc&#243;pica. Para pacientes com contra-indica&#231;&#227;o &#224; cirurgia ou que n&#227;o t&#234;m tumores, o tratamento com antagonistas dos receptores mineralocortic&#243;ides promovem a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA e a regress&#227;o das les&#245;es em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono (AOS), caracterizada por esfor&#231;o respirat&#243;rio preservado e aumentado com oclus&#227;o parcial ou total das vias a&#233;reas superiores, &#233; um achado comum em pacientes com HAR<sup>51,52</sup>. A AOS est&#225; fortemente relacionada com HAR e &#233; capaz de prever hipertens&#227;o em indiv&#237;duos normotensos<sup>53,54</sup>. Um estudo sobre registros polissonogr&#225;ficos noturnos realizados em 41 portadores de HAR n&#227;o-selecionados constatou a presen&#231;a de AOS, definida como &#237;ndice de apn&#233;ia-hipopn&#233;ia <underline>&gt;</underline>10 eventos por hora, em 83% dos pacientes<sup>55</sup>. A preval&#234;ncia e a gravidade do quadro foram significativamente maiores em homens do que em mulheres com HAR. Nossa cl&#237;nica relatou que 85% dos pacientes com HAR t&#234;m AOS, definida como &#237;ndice de apn&#233;ia-hipopn&#233;ia <underline>&gt;</underline>5 eventos por hora<sup>52</sup>. </p>
    <p>Existe uma associa&#231;&#227;o entre excesso de aldosterona, obesidadeeAOS<sup>56,57</sup>. A estimula&#231;&#227;o da libera&#231;&#227;o de aldosterona pela gordura visceral, reten&#231;&#227;o excessiva de s&#243;dio pela ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e hipoxemia s&#227;o poss&#237;veis mecanismos relacionados com essa associa&#231;&#227;o<sup>56</sup>. Os pacientes com hipertens&#227;o arterial e AOS t&#234;m atividade simp&#225;tica aumentada, indicando que a hipoxemia intermitente poderia contribuir para a ativa&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica<sup>58</sup>. Obesidade e/ou dist&#250;rbios respirat&#243;rios do sono tamb&#233;m podem estimular a gl&#226;ndula supra-renal a produzir quantidades inapropriadas de aldosterona. Entretanto, os mecanismos pelos quais a AOS poderia levar &#224; hipertens&#227;o ainda n&#227;o foram totalmente elucidados (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a09fig04">fig. 4</xref>). </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a09fig04">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua nas vias a&#233;reas (CPAP) &#233; o tratamento de refer&#234;ncia para AOS. No entanto, o papel da CPAP no tratamento da hipertens&#227;o ainda n&#227;o foi bem estabelecido. Embora n&#227;o seja poss&#237;vel inferir a rela&#231;&#227;o de causa e efeito entre AOS e HAR, pacientes com HAR e AOS devem ser tratados com CPAP e incentivados a emagrecer. Os resultados da cirurgia orofar&#237;ngea para tratamento de apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono s&#227;o inconsistentes. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A DRC &#233; uma causa comum de HAR e uma conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de controle insuficiente da PA ao longo do tempo. A reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica, ativa&#231;&#227;o excessiva do SRAA e o uso concomitante de medicamentos est&#227;o relacionados com a refratariedade ao tratamento dos pacientes com DRC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="a09fig05">fig. 5</xref>)<sup>59</sup>. </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="a09fig05">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>A taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular estimada deve ser calculada em todos os pacientes com HAR por meio da equa&#231;&#227;o desenvolvida pelo estudo <italic>Modification of Diet in Renal Disease </italic>(MDRD) ou pela equa&#231;&#227;o de Cockcroft-Gault, uma vez que a creatinina s&#233;rica n&#227;o &#233; um marcador confi&#225;vel de DRC, sobretudo em pacientes idosos<sup>60</sup>. A presen&#231;a e a quantifica&#231;&#227;o de albumina na urina tamb&#233;m devem ser avaliadas. A diminui&#231;&#227;o da ingest&#227;o de sal &#233; importante para reduzir a expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica em pacientes com DRC. Os diur&#233;ticos de al&#231;a reduzem a volemia e facilitam o controle press&#243;rico em pacientes com <italic>clearance </italic>de creatinina &lt;30 ml/min. Os inibidores da enzima conversora da angiotensina (ECA) ou bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina (BRA) s&#227;o indicados para pacientes com DRC de leve a grave, principalmente na presen&#231;a de micro ou macroalbumin&#250;ria. O bloqueio do SRAA em portadores de DRC reduz o risco cardiovascular, melhora o controle da PA e reduz a protein&#250;ria e a progress&#227;o para doen&#231;a renal terminal<sup>61</sup>. Redu&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias e geralmente limitadas na taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular podem ocorrer ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da terapia com inibidores da ECA ou BRA e n&#227;o s&#227;o fatores para interromper a terapia. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estenose da art&#233;ria renal </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A doen&#231;a renovascular &#233; um achado comum em hipertensos com m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco e doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica extra-renal, sobretudo em pacientes com HAR<sup>62,63</sup>. Aproximadamente 10% dos casos de estenose da art&#233;ria renal s&#227;o atribu&#237;dos &#224; displasia fibromuscular, e a maior parte desses pacientes &#233; do sexo feminino, tem menos de 50 anos e &#233; tratada com sucesso com revasculariza&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>64</sup>. </p>
    <p>A grande maioria (90%) das les&#245;es de art&#233;ria renal tem etiologia ateroscler&#243;tica e a sua preval&#234;ncia aumenta com a idade<sup>65,66</sup>. Os pacientes com HAR e doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica ou fun&#231;&#227;o renal em decl&#237;nio ou hist&#243;ria de edema agudo de pulm&#227;o t&#234;m maior probabilidade de apresentar doen&#231;a arterial renal ateroscler&#243;tica e devem ser submetidos a angiorresson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica ou Doppler das art&#233;rias renais. A op&#231;&#227;o de tratamento para les&#245;es renais ateroscler&#243;ticas &#233; controversa, pois n&#227;o existem fortes evid&#234;ncias a favor nem do tratamento cl&#237;nico nem da revasculariza&#231;&#227;o para controle press&#243;rico e preserva&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>67,68</sup>. CORAL &#233; um grande estudo cl&#237;nico randomizado que ainda est&#225; em andamento e cujo objetivo &#233; comparar os efeitos do tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado isoladamente com a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria renal com <italic>stent </italic>mais o tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado<sup>69</sup>. Esse estudo avaliar&#225; os desfechos cardiovasculares e renais em pacientes hipertensos com estenose ateroscler&#243;tica da art&#233;ria renal. Os pacientes com HAR devem ser submetidos a exames para detec&#231;&#227;o de estenose da art&#233;ria renal e encaminhados para revasculariza&#231;&#227;o se a anatomia da(s) les&#227;o(&#245;es) for(em) apropriada(s) e a PA n&#227;o puder ser controlada com o tratamento cl&#237;nico. O implante de <italic>stent </italic>endovascular &#233; melhor que a angioplastia com bal&#227;o para les&#245;es ateroscler&#243;ticas da art&#233;ria renal<sup>70</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Feocromocitoma</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia de feocromocitoma na popula&#231;&#227;o hipertensa em geral &#233; baixa (de 0,1% a 0,6%)<sup>71,72</sup>, mas o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento dessa doen&#231;a s&#227;o importantes em virtude da hipertens&#227;o de dif&#237;cil controle, da possibilidade de desencadear crise hipertensiva se o tumor for estimulado e da possibilidade de o tumor ser maligno. Cefal&#233;ia, palpita&#231;&#227;o e sudorese s&#227;o os achados mais comuns, mas a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do feocromocitoma &#233; muito vari&#225;vel<sup>73</sup>. O feocromocitoma est&#225; associado a um aumento da variabilidade press&#243;rica decorrente das flutua&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de norepinefrina secretada pelo tumor. </p>
    <p>Todos os pacientes com HAR e sintomas t&#237;picos de feocromocitoma devem ser avaliados para detectar a sua presen&#231;a. As mulheres gestantes com sintomas e sinais sugestivos antes de vinte semanas de gesta&#231;&#227;o devem ter o diagn&#243;stico de feocromocitoma afastado em raz&#227;o da alta morbidade e mortalidade materna e fetal<sup>74 </sup>. A dosagem de metanefrinas plasm&#225;ticas livre &#233; o melhor exame para rastreamento, com alta sensibilidade (99%) e especificidade (82%)<sup>73</sup>. A remo&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica &#233; o tratamento mais apropriado. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento da HAR</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento de pacientes com HAR inclui a elimina&#231;&#227;o dos fatores que contribuem para esse quadro, o tratamento apropriado das causas secund&#225;rias e a combina&#231;&#227;o eficaz de diversos medicamentos. As terapias n&#227;o-medicamentosas, como perda de peso, exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico, redu&#231;&#227;o do sal na dieta e modera&#231;&#227;o no consumo de &#225;lcool, devem ser encorajadas em todos os pacientes. &#201; preciso suspender o uso de subst&#226;ncias que interferem no tratamento ou reduzir suas doses o m&#225;ximo poss&#237;vel. </p>
    <p>Os fatores relacionados &#224; baixa ades&#227;o terap&#234;utica precisam ser avaliados. Conversar com o paciente sobre o custo e os efeitos adversos dos medicamentos, o n&#250;mero de comprimidos e os objetivos do tratamento pode aumentar a ades&#227;o. Equipes multidisciplinares formadas por enfermeiros, farmac&#234;uticos, nutricionistas, psic&#243;logos, fisioterapeutas e educadores f&#237;sicos podem melhorar os resultados do tratamento<sup>75 </sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento farmacol&#243;gico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Doses m&#225;ximas de combina&#231;&#245;es apropriadas de f&#225;rmacos, como um inibidor da ECA ou BRA, um bloqueador dos canais de c&#225;lcio e um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico, costumam ser bastante eficazes e bem toleradas. Os pacientes com HAR geralmente n&#227;o apresentam sinais cl&#237;nicos de reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica, e uma terap&#234;utica diur&#233;tica eficaz &#233; essencial para o controle da press&#227;o arterial<sup>6,13</sup>. Os diur&#233;ticos tiaz&#237;dicos de a&#231;&#227;o prolongada, como a clortalidona, s&#227;o eficazes na maioria dos portadores de HAR. Os diur&#233;ticos de al&#231;a s&#227;o prefer&#237;veis para os pacientes com DRC se o <italic>clearance </italic>de creatinina for inferior a 30 ml/min. A furosemida tem uma a&#231;&#227;o relativamente curta e deve ser prescrita pelo menos duas vezes ao dia, com monitoriza&#231;&#227;o rigorosa dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de pot&#225;ssio. </p>
    <p>Os antagonistas dos receptores mineralocortic&#243;ides promovem uma redu&#231;&#227;o adicional significativa da PA em pacientes com HAR, independentemente dos n&#237;veis de aldosterona/renina (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig6">fig. 6</xref>)<sup>38,76-78</sup>. Nosso grupo descreveu o efeito de uma dose baixa (de 12,5 a 25 mg/dia) de espironolactona em pacientes com PA n&#227;o-controlada tratados com uma m&#233;dia de quatro classes de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos, incluindo um inibidor da ECA ou BRA e um diur&#233;tico<sup>38</sup>. Ap&#243;s seis meses de acompanhamento, a PAS foi reduzida em at&#233; 25 mmHg e a PAD em at&#233; 12 mmHg. As redu&#231;&#245;es da PA foram semelhantes em pacientes com e sem hiperaldosteronismo, e os valores basais de aldosterona e renina n&#227;o foram preditores da resposta hipotensora &#224; espironolactona. O benef&#237;cio tamb&#233;m foi semelhante em brancos e em negros. Dados do Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT) tamb&#233;m demonstraram um efeito hipotensor significativo da espironolactona como quarto agente terap&#234;utico. A adi&#231;&#227;o de espironolactona ao tratamento anti-hipertensivo reduziu a PAS e a PAD em at&#233; 21,9 e 9,5 mmHg, respectivamente<sup>78</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig6">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>De modo geral, a espironolactona foi bem tolerada nesses estudos, embora tenha ocorrido mastalgia em cerca de 10% dos homens. A eplerenona, um antagonista dos receptores mineralocortic&#243;ides mais espec&#237;fico, &#233; mais bem tolerada do que a espironolactona, com menor incid&#234;ncia de mastalgia, ginecomastia, disfun&#231;&#227;o sexual e irregularidades menstruais, e demonstrou efic&#225;cia na redu&#231;&#227;o da PA<sup>79</sup>. </p>
    <p>A ocorr&#234;ncia de hiperpotassemia, com ou sem nsufici&#234;ncia renal aguda, foi rara, apesar do uso concomitante de inibidor da ECA ou BRA. Pacientes idosos, portadores de DRC ou diabetes apresentam maior risco de hiperpotassemia. Os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de pot&#225;ssio e creatinina devem ser monitorados em pacientes tratados com antagonistas dos receptores mineralocortic&#243;ides, sobretudo se eles estiverem recebendo terapia concomitante com um inibidor da ECA ou BRA. O uso de suplementos de pot&#225;ssio ou substitutos de sal que cont&#234;m pot&#225;ssio deve ser suspenso ou reduzido ao iniciar a terapia com antagonistas dos receptores mineralocortic&#243;ides. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A HAR, definida como press&#227;o arterial n&#227;o-controlada apesar do uso de pelo menos tr&#234;s classes de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, &#233; um problema cada vez mais freq&#252;ente. Hiperaldosteronismo, obesidade, expans&#227;o vol&#234;mica e AOS s&#227;o achados bastante comuns em pacientes com HAR. Os antagonistas dos receptores mineralocortic&#243;ides s&#227;o uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica eficaz para o tratamento de HAR, mesmo que n&#227;o tenha sido detectado excesso de aldosterona. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declara&#231;&#227;o: O dr. Pimenta n&#227;o tem conflitos de interesse. O dr. Calhoun atuou como consultor da Novartis e recebeu apoio financeiro da Novartis, Merck, Astra-Zeneca e Encysive Pharmaceuticals. O dr. Oparil &#233; membro do Conselho Diretor da Encysive Pharmaceuticals. Ele recebeu apoio do Abbott Laboratories, Astra-Zeneca, Aventis, Biovail, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers-Squibb, Forest Laboratories, GlaxoSmithKline, Novartis, Merck &amp; Co, Pfizer, Sankyo Pharma, Sanofi-Synthelabo, Schering-Plough e atuou como consultor do Bristol Myers-Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Merck &amp; Co, Novartis, Pfizer, Sanofi Aventis e The Salt Institute.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
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    <p>
      <fn id="corr1" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Eduardo Pimenta </p>
        <p> 933 19th Street South, Room 115 - Birmigham, AL </p>
        <p> 35294 - EUA </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="eduardo.pimenta@ccc.uab.edu">eduardo.pimenta@ccc.uab.edu</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 3/4/07; revisado recebido em 3/4/07; aceito em 10/4/07. </p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Mechanisms and treatment of resistant hypertension</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertension/therapy</kwd>
        <kwd>blood pressure monitoring, ambulatory</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Mechanisms and treatment of resistant hypertension </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Eduardo Pimenta; David A. Calhoun; Suzanne Oparil</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Department of Hypertension and Nephrology, Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, Vascular Biology and Hypertension Program, University of Alabama at Birmingham - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil - Birmingham, AL - USA</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="corr1-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words</bold>: Hypertension/therapy; blood pressure monitoring, ambulatory. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Definition and prevalence</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Resistant hypertension is defined as blood pressure (BP) that remains above goal in spite of use of three antihypertensive medications in effective doses, usually including a diuretic<sup>1</sup>. Patients who are intolerant of diuretics and have uncontrolled BP on regimens of 3 drugs from other classes are also considered to have resistant hypertension. The BP goal is &lt;140/90 mm Hg in the general population of hypertensives and &lt;130/80 mm Hg in hypertensive patients with diabetes or chronic kidney disease (CKD) (glomerular filtration rate &lt;60 ml/min/1.73m<sup>2</sup>; serum creatinine &gt;1.5 mg/dl in men or &gt;1.3 mg/dl in women; albuminuria &gt;300 mg/24-hr or &gt;200 mg/g creatinine)<sup>1</sup>. Similarly, patients who require 4 or more medications to control their BP are considered to have resistant hypertension. </p>
      <p>Factors that predispose to antihypertensive treatment resistance include population characteristics, such as increased life expectancy, higher obesity rates and decreased physical activity, as well as provider characteristics, including inadequate attention to systolic BP (SBP) elevations and the more aggressive BP goals recommended by recent guidelines. The various contributing factors (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>) and secondary causes related to resistant hypertension (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2-body2">Table 2</xref>) are discussed in this review. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab1-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Pseudoresistance</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Pseudoresistance is the appearance of lack of BP control caused by inaccurate measurement of BP, inappropriate drug choices/doses, nonadherence to prescribed the rapy, or white-coat effect. Pseudoresistance is commonly misdiagnosed as resistant hypertension. Careful assessment of pseudoresistance avoids overtreatment and expensive/excessive evaluation. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Suboptimal treatment </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Suboptimal medical treatment is a major contributing factor to uncontrolled hypertension. Suboptimal treatment is frequently related to clinical inertia defined as the provider's failure to increase therapy when the treatment goal is not reached. A retrospective study conducted in 7,253 hypertensive patients found that in patients with uncontrolled hypertension, providers had frequently failed to begin new medications or increase dosages of current medications during previous visits<sup>2</sup>. Lack of knowledge of treatment guidelines, underestimation of cardiovascular (CV) risk, and the use of spurious reasons to avoid intensification of therapy, such as the physician's perception that the patient will not accept more medications, are related to clinicians failure to intensify treatment<sup>3,4</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nonadherence</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Poor adherence to prescribed medications is a common problem in patients with high blood pressure and a common cause of uncontrolled hypertension<sup>5</sup>. Poor adherence is common at the primary care level, but may be less common among patients who are seen by specialists<sup>6-8 </sup>. Cost of treatment, poor relations between doctor and patient, multiple pills, and adverse effects of medical therapy are additional causes of poor adherence. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>White-coat effect</bold>
      </p>
      <p>White-coat effect, the difference between office BP and ambulatory (ABPM) or home BP measurements, can be calculated as the mean office BP minus mean daytime ambulatory BP. Mean daytime BP &lt;135/85 mm Hg is considered normal for both ambulatory and home BP monitoring methods. The prevalence of significant white-coat effect ranges from 20 to 40% of all hypertensive patients and may be even more common in resistant hypertension. White-coat effect is more prevalent in women and older persons, and should be suspected in patients with symptoms related to hypotension in the absence of low BP recordings at the clinic and in those with high office BP without related target organ damage<sup>9</sup>. </p>
      <p> Ambulatory and home BP monitoring are important methods to evaluate patients with uncontrolled BP and rule out true treatment resistance in clinical practice. ABPM and home BP measurements can avoid overtreatment and excessive visits to the clinic in patients with white-coat effect. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Contributing factors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Volume expansion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Volume expansion related to excessive dietary sodium, sodium retention secondary to CKD and/or failure to use diuretics appropriately can cause resistant hypertension<sup>10-12</sup>. Assessment of plasma volume status in patients with resistant hypertension may be useful in the selection and titration of more appropriate treatment, e.g. initiation or intensification of diuretic therapy in volume expanded patients; renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) inhibitors/vasodilators in euvolemic vasoconstricted patients. Measurement of thoracic impedance can be useful in this regard<sup>13 </sup>. A prospective study that randomized 104 patients with resistant hypertension to drug selection based on hemodynamic measurements or drug selection defined by a hypertension specialist found that patients randomized to treatment based on hemodynamic parameters had significantly higher control rates than patients whose treatment was based on specialist decision (56% <italic>vs</italic> 33%)<sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>Diuretics are the cornerstone of treatment in patients whose BP cannot be controlled with multiple agents from other drug classes. Dietary salt reduction is a useful adjunctive treatment in patients with resistant hypertension, particularly because it enhances the potency of antihypertensive drugs<sup>1,15</sup>. Some demographic groups, including the elderly, the obese, African Americans and patients with CKD tended to be more salt-sensitive and benefit more from dietary salt reduction. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Obesity</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Obesity is common in patients with resistant hypertension. Data from the Framingham Heart Study showed that persons with a body mass index (BMI) <underline>&gt;</underline>30 kg/m<sup>2 </sup>had a 50% higher probability of uncontrolled BP than patients with a normal BMI (&lt;25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>).<sup>16 </sup>Furthermore, the HYDRA study, a cross-sectional study of 45,125 primary care patients, showed that those with a BMI <underline>&gt;</underline>40 kg/m<sup>2 </sup>had a higher prevalence of hypertension, as well as a 5.3 and 3.2 fold higher probability of requiring 4 or 3 antihypertensive drugs, respectively, to achieve BP control compared to patients with normal weight (BMI <underline>&lt;</underline>25 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a09fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>)<sup>17</sup>. Increased sodium and fluid retention, sympathetic activation, and stimulation of the RAAS appear to contribute to high BP in obese subjects<sup>18</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a09fig01-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Exogenous substances</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Use of a variety of prescription drugs and other exogenous substances is commonly related to resistant hypertension (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab1-body2">Table 1</xref>). A history of use of these agents should be queried in all patients with resistant hypertension. With drawal of these agents can reduce or even normalize BP in some patients with resistant hypertension.</p>
      <p><italic><bold>Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)</bold></italic>, including selective cyclooxygenase <bold><italic> (COX-) 2 inhibitors</italic></bold>, are a common cause of uncontrolled BP and renal impairment in hypertensive patients<sup>19-21</sup>. NSAIDs appear to increase BP through volume and sodium retention, likely due to inhibition of vasodilating prostaglandins in the kidney. Elderly and diabetic patients are particularly susceptible to these adverse effects. The Nurses' Health Study prospectively analyzed the BP effect of non-narcotic analgesics in 51,630 normotensive female nurses 44 to 69 years of age followed for 8 years<sup>22+</sup>. Compared with nonusers, women who frequently used aspirin, acetaminophen or NSAIDs had a 21, 20, and 35% increased risk of developing hypertension, respectively. This study clearly demonstrated that aspirin and acetaminophen, as well as conventional NSAIDs, have important BP effects. </p>
      <p>All NSAIDs appear to elevate mean BP and antagonize the BP lowering effects of antihypertensive drugs<sup>23</sup>. Selective COX-2 inhibitors are also associated with BP elevation. A meta-analysis of 45,451 patients enrolled in 19 randomized controlled trials showed that COX-2 inhibitors elevate BP by ~4/1 mm Hg compared to placebo, and by ~3/1 compared to NSAIDs<sup>24</sup>. The BP elevating effects of NSAIDs and COX-2 inhibitors are dose-related and some agents appear to have greater effects than others. For example, in the Multinational Etoricoxib and Diclofenac Arthritis Long-term (MEDAL) program which randomized 34,701 patients with osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis to etoricoxib or diclofenac, patients assigned to etoricoxib discontinued the study due to hypertension more frequently than those assigned to diclofenac<sup>25</sup>. Of the selective COX-2 inhibitors, rofecoxib is more likely to raise BP compared to celecoxib in both normotensive and hypertensive subjects<sup>26</sup>. If analgesics are necessary in hypertensive patients, medications such as tramadol or hydrocodone and nerve block are useful alternatives to NSAID sor COX-s inhibitors. If NSAID sor COX-2 inhibitors are needed, minimal effective doses should be prescribed. Providers must ask all hypertensive patients about use of pain control medications in order to avoid this form of iatrogenic resistant hypertension. </p>
      <p><italic><bold>Oral contraceptives</bold></italic> induce small increases in BP in the entire population of users, with frank hypertension occurring in a small number and resistant hypertension in an even smaller number of subjects<sup>27,28</sup>. The Nurses' Health Study prospectively followed 68,297 normotensive premenopausal female nurses for development of hypertension over 4 years<sup>29 </sup>. Current oral contraceptive users had an 80% increased risk of developing hypertension compared with never-users, but this increased risk resolved almost completely with withdrawal of the medication (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2-body2">Figure 2</xref>). Furthermore, oral contraceptive use in persons with underlying hypertension is associated with uncontrolled BP. A cross-sectional study evaluating the association between oral contraceptives and BP control in 171 hypertensive women found that oral contraceptive users had poorer BP control and tended to have more severe hypertension than users of other contraceptive methods or nonusers<sup>30</sup>. Combined (estrogen + progestin) oral contraceptives are more often associated with BP increases than progestin-only oral contraceptives. Progestins have mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist effects that may account for their BP neutral or BP lowering actions. The new 4<sup>th </sup>generation progestin, drospirenone, when combined with estradiol, has been shown to reduce BP<sup>31</sup>. Based on these and other data, progestin-only contraceptives are recommended for women with established hypertension.</p>
      <fig id="fig2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>The World Health Organization<sup>32 </sup>and the American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology<sup>33 </sup>recommend use of combined oral contraceptives containing low doses of estrogen for women who are free of CV disease and major CV risk factors, including hypertension. Progestin-only contraceptives, including intrauterine devices are recommended for women with established CV disease, at high CV risk, migraine headaches with focal neurologic signs or history of thromboembolic disease.</p>
      <p><italic><bold>Menopausal hormone therapy</bold></italic> has minimal effects on BP and is not contraindicated in either normotensive or hypertensive women. Nevertheless, all hypertensive women treated with menopausal hormone therapy should have their BP measured initially and then at 3-6-month intervals depending on the difficulty of control<sup>34</sup>. </p>
      <p><italic><bold>Heavy alcohol ingestion</bold></italic> in creases the risk of uncontrolled hypertension. In a crosssectional analysis, men with excessive alcohol intake(<underline>&gt;</underline>4gl asses per day) had 50% higher probability of poor BP control<sup>35</sup>. Alcohol cessation promotes BP reduction and improves adherence to treatment. A prospective study of the effect of 1 month of abstinence on 24-hr BP in heavy drinkers documented an average reduction of 7.2 mm Hg in 24-hr SBP and 6.6 mm Hg in 24-hr diastolic BP (DBP).<sup>36 </sup>The prevalence of hypertension among study subjects decreased from 42% to 12%. Moderation in alcohol consumption (<underline>&lt;</underline>2 drinks per day) is recommended as a lifestyle modification in the general population, especially in patients with hypertension, and complete cessation should be advised in the case of heavy drinkers. </p>
      <p><italic><bold>Other exogenous substances</bold></italic> that contribute to hypertension, such as corticosteroids, sympathomimetic agents, erythropoietin, and antidepressants should be avoided in patients with high BP and should be discontinued if at all possible in those with uncontrolled BP. In subjects to whom these substances are essential, more frequent BP evaluations and increased doses and/or numbers of antihypertensive medications may be required. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Secondary hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The prevalence of secondary hypertension is greater in patients with resistant hypertension than in the general hypertensive population. The most common secondary causes of resistant hypertension are hyperaldosteronism, chronic kidney disease, renal artery stenosis and obstructive sleep apnea (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab2-body2">Table 2</xref>). The prevalence of secondary hypertension increases with age, mainly due to increases in chronic kidney disease, obstructive sleep apnea, and renal artery stenosis. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Hyperaldosteronism </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The aldosterone excess syndrome was initially described by Jerome Conn in 1955 in a patient with prolonged hypokalemia, severe hypertension and adrenal tumor<sup>37</sup>. However, the modern syndrome of hyperaldosteronism differs from classical primary aldosteronism. Hypokalemia and adrenal tumors are no longer required for the diagnosis of hyperaldosteronism. Infact, a substantial proportion of patients with hyperaldosteronism have normalp otassium levels. Inour experience 50% of patients with hyperaldosteronism and resistant hypertension have normal potassium levels or have never needed potassium supplementation<sup>38</sup>. </p>
      <p>Hyperaldosteronism is now recognized as the most common cause of secondary hypertension and is a common contributor to treatment resistance<sup>39-45</sup>. Among untreated patients, hyperaldosteronism prevalence increases with increasing hypertension severity, from 2% in patients with stage 1 hypertension to 8% in those with stage 2 hypertension and 13% in those with stage 3 hypertension<sup>39</sup>. The prevalence of hyperaldosteronism is even higher in patients with resistant hypertension, approaching 17-22% in multiple studies<sup>46-49</sup>. In a prospective evaluation of patients referred to our own specialty clinic for resistant hypertension, defined as uncontrolled hypertension despite use of three or more medications, 18 of 88 (prevalence of 20%) patients had hyperaldosteronism based on suppressed renin activity and high 24-hr urinary aldosterone excretion while consuming a high salt diet<sup>46</sup>. </p>
      <p>Because of its high prevalence in this patient group, all patients with resistant hypertension, even those with normokalemia, should be evaluated for hyperaldosteronism. A presumptive diagnosis of aldosterone excess can be made by documenting elevated aldosterone levels in plasma and urine in the setting of suppressed renin activity. Measurement of plasma aldosterone concentration (PAC) level/plasma renin activity (PRA) ratio (ARR) has been shown to have sufficient sensitivity and specificity to serve as an effective screening test for hyperaldosteronism. Al though the exact test characteristics of the ARR have varied widely between studies, its negative predictive value has been such that a low ARR (&lt; 20 when PAC is measured in ng/dl and PRA is measured in ng/ml/min) reliably excludes hyperaldosteronism. The specificity of ARR is less consistent insofar that a high ratio (&gt; 20-30) is suggestive, but not diagnostic of hyperaldosteronism. Accordingly, a high ARR is suspicious of hyperaldosteronism, but the diagnosis must be confirmed. </p>
      <p>Demonstration of increased 24-hr urinary excretion of aldosterone confirms the diagnosis of hyperaldosteronism in patients with resistant hypertension<sup>50</sup>. As a first approach ,PRA, 24-hr excretion of aldosterone and sodium can be measured in patients on their normal diets. (Measuring aldosterone and sodium from the same urine collection requires use of a non-salt preservative such as acetic acid). If the aldosterone excretion (<underline>&gt;</underline> 12 &#181;g/24-hr) and the sodium excretion are both high (<underline>&gt;</underline> 200mEq/24-hr), indicative of chronic high salt in take, it is not necessary to do additional salt loading to confirm hyperaldosteronism (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a09fig03-body2">Figure 3</xref>). If the aldosterone is high but the sodium is low (&lt;200 mEq/24-hr) in the first collection, we repeat the collection after oral salt supplementation sufficient to increase the sodium <underline>&gt;</underline>200 mEq/24-hr. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a09fig03-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>After confirmation of biochemical hyperaldosteronism, thin-section abdominal CT imaging is recommended in an attempt to identify adrenal tumors. Even in the setting of confirmed biochemical hyperaldosteronism, CT imaging has a poor specificity for identifying adenoma and adrenal vein sampling can confirm or exclude lateralization of aldosterone excretion consistent with a unilateral adenoma. Laparoscopic adrenalectomy should be considered in patients with unilateral adenoma. For patients with contraindications to surgery or who do not have tumors, treatment with a mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist promotes BP reduction and regresses target organ damage. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Obstructive sleep apnea</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), characterized by preserved and increased respiratory effort despite partial or complete occlusion of the upper airway, is a common finding in patients with resistant hypertension<sup>51,52</sup>. OSA is strongly related to resistant hypertension and can predict hypertension in normotensive subjects<sup>53,54</sup>. A report of overnight polysomnographic studies in 41 unselected patients with resistant hypertension found OSA, defined as an apnea-hypopnea index of <underline>&gt;</underline>10 events/hour in 83% of patients<sup>55</sup>.The prevalence and severity were significantly higher in men than in women with resistant hypertension. Our clinic reportedt hat 85% of patients with resistant hypertension have OSA defined as an apnea-hypopnea index of <underline>&gt;</underline> 5 events/hour<sup>52</sup>. </p>
      <p>There is an association between aldosterone excess, obesity and sleep apnea<sup>56,57</sup>. Stimulation of aldosterone release by visceral fat, excessive sodium retention stimulated by sympathetic activation and hypoxemia are possible mechanisms related to this association<sup>56</sup>. Sympathetic activity is increased in patients with hypertension and OSA, suggesting that intermittent hypoxemia could contribute to adrenergic activation<sup>58</sup>. Obesity and/or sleep-disordered breathing also may stimulate the adrenal gland to produce inappropriately large amounts of aldosterone. However, the mechanisms by which OSA could lead to hypertension are not completely elucidated (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a09fig04-body2">Figure 4</xref>). </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a09fig04-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Continuous positive airway pressure (CPAP) treatment is the gold standard for management of OSA. However, the role of CPAP in the treatment of hypertension is not well established. While cause and effect between OSA and resistant hypertension cannot be inferred, patients with resistant hypertension and OSA should be treated with CPAP and encouraged to lose weight. Oropharyngeal surgery has proved disappointing as a treatment for obstructive sleep apnea. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Chronic kidney disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>CKD is a common cause of resistant hypertension and a consequence of poor BP control over time. Fluid retention, excessive activation of the RAAS and concomitant medicines are related to treatment resistance in patients with impaired renal function (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_a09fig05-body2">Figure 5</xref>)<sup>59</sup>. </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_a09fig05-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>All patients with resistant hypertension should have their glomerular filtration rate estimated by use of the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study or Cockcroft-Gault equation<sup>60</sup>, since serum creatinine is an unreliable marker of CKD, particularly in elderly patients. Albuminuria should also be assessed. Dietary salt reduction plays an important role in order to decrease the volume expansion. Loop diuretics are indicated to effectively reduce volume and facilitate BP control in patients with creatinine clearance &lt;30 ml/min. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) are indicated in patients with mild to severe CKD, particularly in the presence of micro-or macroalbuminuria. Blockade of the RAAS in patients with CKD reduces cardiovascular risk, improves BP control, and reduces proteinuria and progression to end stage renal disease<sup>61 </sup>. Transitory and usually limitedde creases in glomerular filtration rate can occur after instituting ACE inhibitors or ARBs and are not an indication for cessation of therapy. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Renal artery stenosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Renovascular disease is a common finding in hypertensive patients with multiple risk factors and extra-renal atherosclerotic disease, particularly among patients with resistant hypertension<sup>62,63</sup>. Approximately 10% of cases of renal artery stenosis are attributable to fibromuscular dysplasia. Those patients are more likely to be women, to be younger than 50 years of age, and to be successfully treated with renal revascularization<sup>64</sup>. </p>
      <p>The vast majority (90%) of renal artery lesions are atherosclerotic in etiology, and this prevalence increases with age<sup>65,66</sup>. Patients with resistant hypertension and known atherosclerotic disease, declining renal function, or a history of flash pulmonary edema have an increased likelihood of atherosclerotic renal arterial disease and should be evaluated with Doppler or magnetic resonance angiography of the renal arteries. The choice of treatment for atherosclerotic renal lesions is controversial due to a lack of strong evidence in favor of either medical treatment or revascularization for BP control and preservation of renal function<sup>67,68</sup>. CORAL is a large ongoing randomized clinical trial that is comparing the effects of optimal medical treatment alone to stent revascularization plus optimal medical treatment on a composite cardiovascular and renal endpointin hypertensive patients with atherosclerotic renal artery stenosis<sup>69</sup>. Patients with resistant hypertension should be screened for renal artery stenosis and considered for revascularization if the anatomy of the lesion(s) is appropriate and if the BP cannot be controlled with optimal medical treatment. Stent therapy is superior to balloon angioplasty for atherosclerotic renal arterial lesions<sup>70</sup> . </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pheochromocytoma </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The prevalence of pheochromocytoma in general hypertensive population is low (0.1-0.6%)<sup>71,72</sup>, but diagnosis and treatment are extremely important due to difficult-to-control hypertension, the possibility of precipitating hypertensive crisis if the tumor is stimulated and the possibility that the tumor could be malignant. Headaches, palpitations, and sweating are the most common findings, but the clinical presentation of pheochromocytoma is widely variable<sup>73</sup>. Pheochromocytoma is associated with in creased BP variability due to fluctuations in the levels of norepinephrine secreted by the tumor.</p>
      <p>All patients with resistant hypertension and symptoms typical of pheochromocytoma should be screened. Pheochromocytoma should be ruled out in pregnant women with symptoms and signs of pheochromocytoma before 20 weeks gestation, because pheochromocytoma is related to increased maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality<sup>74 </sup>. Plasma free metanephrine is the best screening test for pheochromocytoma, with high sensitivity (99%) and specificity (82%)<sup>73</sup>. Surgical removal is the appropriate treatment.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Treatment of resistant hypertension</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Treatment of a patient with resistant hypertension includes removal of contributing factors, appropriate treatment of secondary causes and use of effective multi-drug regimens. Nonpharmacologic therapies, such as weight loss, exercise, dietary salt reduction, and moderation of alcohol intake should be encouraged in all patients. Interfering substances should be withdrawn or down-titrated as much as possible and obstructive sleep apnea should de treated. </p>
      <p>Factors related to poor adherence need to be assessed. Discussing the cost and adverse effects of medications, number of pills, and objectives of treatment can improve patient adherence. Multidisciplinary teams, including nurses, pharmacists, nutritionists, psychology, and fitness trainers can improve treatment results<sup>75</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pharmacologic treatment </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Full doses of appropriate combinations such as an ACE or ARB, calcium channel blocker, and a thiazide diuretic are generally very effective and well tolerated. Patients with resistant hypertension often have occult volume retention and effective diuretic therapy is essential for BP control<sup>6,13</sup>. Long-acting thiazide diuretics are effective in most patients with resistant hypertension. Loop diuretics are preferable in patients with CKD if creatinine clearance is &lt;30 ml/ min. Furosemide is relatively short-acting and it should be prescribed at least twice-daily. Serum potassium needs to be monitored closely. </p>
      <p>Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists promote significant additional BP reduction in dependent of aldosterone/renin levels in patients with resistant hypertension (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig6-body2">Figure 6</xref>)<sup>38,76-78</sup>. Our group has described the effec to flow-dose (12.5 to 25mg/day) spironolactone in patients with uncontrolled BP on an average of four medications, including ACE inhibitor or ARB, and a diuretic<sup>38</sup>. After 6 months of follow-up SBP was reduced by 25 mm Hg and DBP by 12 mm Hg. BP reductions were similar in patients with and without hyperaldosteronism, and the BP response to spironolactone was not predicted by baseline PAC or PRA or by 24-hr urinary aldosterone excretion. The benefit was similar in African-American and Caucasian subjects. Data from the Anglo-Scandinavian Cardiac Outcomes Trial-Blood Pressure Lowering Arm (ASCOT) also demonstrated a significant BP lowering effect of spironolactone as fourth-line therapy. SBP and DBP were reduced by 21.9 and 9.5 mm Hg, respectively, with spironolactone treatment in 1,411 participants<sup>78</sup>. </p>
      <fig id="fig6-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-06-0683-00009-gf06-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Spironolactone was generally well tolerated in these studies, although breast tenderness occurred in about 10% of the men. The more selective mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist eplerenone is better tolerated than spironolactone, with a lower incidence of breast tenderness, gynecomastia, sexual dysfunction, and menstrual irregularities, and has been shown to effectively reduce BP<sup>79</sup>. </p>
      <p>Hyperkalemia, with or without acute renal insufficiency was uncommon in spite of concomitant using of an ACE inhibitor or ARB, but older patients and those with CKD or diabetes are at increased risk of developing hyperkalemia. Serum potassium and creatinine levels should be monitored in patients treated with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists, particularly if they are receiving concomitant ACE inhibitor or ARB therapy. Potassium supplementation or salt substitutes that contain potassium should be discontinued or reduced in patients who are started on mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Resistant hypertension defined as uncontrolled BP despite use of at least 3 antihypertensive medications is an increasingly common problem. Hyperaldosteronism, obesity, volume expansion, and OSA are common findings in patients with resistant hypertension. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists are an effective therapeutic option for treatment of resistant hypertension even in the absence of demonstrable aldosterone excess. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential conflict of interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Disclosures: Dr. Pimenta has no conflicts. Dr. Calhoun has served as a consultant for Novartis; has received grant support from Novartis, Merck, Astra-Zeneca and Encysive Pharmaceuticals. Dr. Oparil has received grants-in-aid from Abbott Laboratories, Astra-Zeneca, Aventis, Biovail, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol Myers-Squibb, Forest Laboratories, Glaxo SmithKline, Novartis, Merck &amp; Co, Pfizer, Sankyo Pharma, Sanofi-Synthelabo, Schering-Plough; has served as consultant for Bristol Myers-Squibb, Daiichi Sankyo, Merck &amp; Co, Novartis, Pfizer, Sanofi Aventis, and The Salt Institute, and is a member of Board of Directors for Encysive Pharmaceuticals.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="corr1-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Eduardo Pimenta</p>
          <p> 933 19th Street South, Su&#237;te 115 - Birmingham, AL</p>
          <p> 35294 - USA </p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="eduardopimenta@ccc.uab.edu">eduardopimenta@ccc.uab.edu</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received April 3, 2007; revised received April 3, 2007; accepted April 10, 2007. </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
