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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">rLzqzR3yCBqSqkHfZLpmhqq</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00029</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007000500029</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08800529</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007000500029</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Uso cl&#237;nico da ecocardiografia com contraste &#224; base de microbolhas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tsutsui</surname>
            <given-names>Jeane Mike</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mathias Junior</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">USP</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">FM </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>88</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>e132</fpage>
      <lpage>e138</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>15</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Uso cl&#237;nico da ecocardiografia com contraste &#224; base de microbolhas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Jeane Mike Tsutsui; Wilson Mathias Junior</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas &#150; FMUSP &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold>Ecocardiografia, arterosclerose coron&#225;ria, microbolhas.</p>
    <p>A ecocardiografia contrastada &#233; uma t&#233;cnica que utiliza agentes de contraste &#224; base de microbolhas injetadas por via endovenosa perif&#233;rica para melhorar o sinal ecocardiogr&#225;fico. Seu uso est&#225; indicado para opacifica&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e melhora da defini&#231;&#227;o dos bordos endoc&#225;rdicos em pacientes com imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica inadequada, tanto em repouso como durante o estresse. Os avan&#231;os tecnol&#243;gicos e o emprego de agentes de contraste comercialmente dispon&#237;veis que possuem maior estabilidade na circula&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m posicionado a ecocardiografia com contraste como uma t&#233;cnica segura e eficaz para avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. As aplica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da ecocardiografia com contraste mioc&#225;rdico incluem a avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria suspeita ou conhecida, a determina&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea de risco e efic&#225;cia das terapias de reperfus&#227;o em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, e a avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s o infarto (identifica&#231;&#227;o do fen&#244;meno de <italic>no-reflow</italic>) e no contexto da doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria cr&#244;nica (identifica&#231;&#227;o de mioc&#225;rdio hibernado). Estudos recentes t&#234;m demonstrado que a an&#225;lise da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pela ecocardiografia com contraste mioc&#225;rdico em tempo real apresenta maior sensibilidade e acur&#225;cia para o diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria que a an&#225;lise da motilidade segmentar pela ecocardiografia sob estresse. A quantifica&#231;&#227;o do fluxo mioc&#225;rdico regional e da reserva de fluxo mioc&#225;rdico pela ecocardiografia contrastada parece apresentar valor adicional para estimar a gravidade da doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A ecocardiografia contrastada &#233; uma t&#233;cnica que utiliza agentes de contraste &#224; base de microbolhas injetados por via endovenosa perif&#233;rica para melhorar o sinal ecocardiogr&#225;fico. O mecanismo prim&#225;rio pelo qual a inje&#231;&#227;o de microbolhas contrasta as diferentes estruturas card&#237;acas &#233; decorrente da introdu&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplas interfaces g&#225;s-l&#237;quido na circula&#231;&#227;o, levando ao aumento da reflex&#227;o do ultra-som e melhorando a qualidade das imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas<sup>1,2</sup>. As microbolhas utilizadas atualmente s&#227;o formadas por envolt&#243;rio proteico ou lip&#237;dico contendo gases de alto peso molecular em seu interior, os perfluorocarbonos, o que lhes confere estabilidade suficiente para atravessar a barreira pulmonar e contrastar as cavidades card&#237;acas esquerdas e a circula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria<sup>3,4</sup>. </p>
    <p>As indica&#231;&#245;es atuais da ecocardiografia com contraste incluem a opacifica&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e o delineamento dos bordos endoc&#225;rdicos em pacientes com janela ecocardiogr&#225;fica sub&#243;tima<sup>2</sup>. O recente desenvolvimento de microbolhas com maior persist&#234;ncia na circula&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea associado ao avan&#231;o das t&#233;cnicas ultra-sonogr&#225;ficas permitiram o estudo da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, ampliando o papel da ecocardiografia contrastada na avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-invasiva da doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria (DAC). Assim, potenciais aplica&#231;&#245;es da ecocardiografia com microbolhas incluem a avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes com DAC cr&#244;nica pela detec&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades de perfus&#227;o e reserva de fluxo coronariano ou com s&#237;ndromes coron&#225;rias agudas pela delimita&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea de risco no infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) e fen&#244;meno de <italic>no-reflow</italic> ap&#243;s reperfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, e, ainda, determina&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tab. 1</xref>). </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Embora as microbolhas melhorem a defini&#231;&#227;o de bordas endoc&#225;rdicas, sua maior contribui&#231;&#227;o para a ecocardiografia sob estresse est&#225; no potencial de permitir a detec&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. O desenvolvimento de contrastes contendo microbolhas de menor di&#226;metro e maior estabilidade associado a avan&#231;os tecnol&#243;gicos como a imagem harm&#244;nica intermitente e a imagem com baixo &#237;ndice mec&#226;nico permitiram o estudo da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pela ecocardiografia<sup>5-7</sup>. Entretanto, estudos multic&#234;ntricos ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para melhor padroniza&#231;&#227;o das t&#233;cnicas de avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e defini&#231;&#227;o de acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica do m&#233;todo para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiografia contrastada para opacifica&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso de agentes de contraste ecocardiogr&#225;fico possibilita melhor defini&#231;&#227;o dos bordos endoc&#225;rdicos, resultando em avalia&#231;&#227;o mais adequada da fun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til global e segmentar do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, e medidas mais acuradas dos volumes ventriculares e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o. Costa e cols.<sup>8</sup> utilizaram a ecocardiografia contrastada em pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica em unidades de terapia intensiva e reportaram que em 77% dos casos de exames n&#227;o-diagn&#243;sticos o uso do contraste permitiu a correta avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o global do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Essa t&#233;cnica tamb&#233;m tem comprovada utilidade na defini&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es da anatomia cardiovascular<sup>9</sup>, podendo ser &#250;til para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de massas intracard&#237;acas como tumores e/ou trombos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>), e para a defini&#231;&#227;o da morfologia dos ventr&#237;culos direito e esquerdo em casos de cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica e displasia do ventr&#237;culo direito. Adicionalmente, a detec&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es do IAM pela ecocardiografia bidimensional, como ruptura mioc&#225;rdica e forma&#231;&#227;o de pseudo-aneurismas, tem sido facilitada com o uso de contraste, como ilustrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">figura 2</xref><sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Os agentes de contraste tamb&#233;m demonstraram benef&#237;cios para melhora do delineamento endoc&#225;rdico durante a ecocardiografia sob estresse farmacol&#243;gico, especialmente para avalia&#231;&#227;o da motilidade segmentar no pico do estresse<sup>11-13</sup>. Seu uso est&#225; indicado quando pelo menos dois segmentos mioc&#225;rdicos n&#227;o s&#227;o adequadamente visibilizados em qualquer dos planos ecocardiogr&#225;ficos apicais em repouso<sup>2</sup>. Mathias e cols.<sup>13</sup> estudaram 68 pacientes submetidos a ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina utilizando a associa&#231;&#227;o da imagem em segunda harm&#244;nica e contraste ecocardiogr&#225;fico PESDA (<italic>Perfluorocarbon-Exposed Sonicated Dextrose and Albumin</italic>). Nesse estudo, 23 pacientes (34%) que apresentavam janela ac&#250;stica inadequada sem o uso de contraste tiveram os exames salvos pelo uso de contraste. Dos 2.176 segmentos mioc&#225;rdicos analisados (1.088 em repouso e 1.088 no pico de infus&#227;o da dobutamina), o preenchimento completo da cavidade ventricular esquerda pelo contraste foi obtido em todos os pacientes. O adequado delineamento dos bordos endoc&#225;rdicos aumentou de 81% dos segmentos analisados sem o contraste para 95% com o uso do contraste. Assim, foi demonstrado que o uso de contraste durante a ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina, em associa&#231;&#227;o com imagem em segunda harm&#244;nica, aumenta o n&#250;mero de exames diagn&#243;sticos e melhora de forma significativa a defini&#231;&#227;o dos bordos endoc&#225;rdicos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiografia contrastada para avalia&#231;&#227;o de perfus&#227;o microvascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora tanto a motilidade segmentar como a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdicas possam ser mantidas sem altera&#231;&#245;es em condi&#231;&#245;es de repouso pelos mecanismos de auto-regula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da reserva do fluxo coron&#225;rio pode ser identificada por indu&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades durante o estresse f&#237;sico ou farmacol&#243;gico em regi&#245;es supridas por art&#233;rias com les&#245;es obstrutivas. A concentra&#231;&#227;o das microbolhas na microcircula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria reflete o volume sangu&#237;neo nas diferentes regi&#245;es do mioc&#225;rdio, e forma a base para avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o pela ecocardiografia com contraste mioc&#225;rdico (ECM). Assim, a diferen&#231;a relativa de perfus&#227;o entre as regi&#245;es supridas por art&#233;rias sem obstru&#231;&#245;es e as supridas por art&#233;rias esten&#243;ticas pode ser detectada pela ECM utilizando diferentes tipos de agentes estressores, como os inotr&#243;picos positivos e os vasodilatadores (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">fig. 3</xref>), ou exerc&#237;cio. Diversos estudos cl&#237;nicos demonstraram boa correla&#231;&#227;o entre as altera&#231;&#245;es regionais de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica obtidas pela ECM e a imagem harm&#244;nica intermitente induzidas por diferentes tipos de estresse farmacol&#243;gico com cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica e angiografia coron&#225;ria<sup>7,14</sup>. A ECM com perfus&#227;o em tempo real &#233; outra modalidade de imagem ecocardiogr&#225;fica desenvolvida recentemente, que utiliza baixo &#237;ndice mec&#226;nico e permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea da motilidade e da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em tempo real. A an&#225;lise da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica por essa t&#233;cnica permite a detec&#231;&#227;o de defeitos perfusionais antes da indu&#231;&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es da motilidade segmentar durante o estresse pela dobutamina<sup>15,16</sup>, de acordo com a seq&#252;&#234;ncia de eventos fisiopatol&#243;gicos conhecida como cascata isqu&#234;mica<sup>17</sup>. </p>
    <fig id="fig03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Em estudo envolvendo grande n&#250;mero de pacientes (n = 1.486), avaliamos a exeq&#252;ibilidade, a seguran&#231;a e a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica da ECM sob estresse pela dobutamina-atropina em compara&#231;&#227;o com a ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina convencional, sem uso de contraste ecocardiogr&#225;fico<sup>18</sup>. Demonstramos que o uso de contraste ecocardiogr&#225;fico permitiu adequada avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica sem qualquer altera&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de efeitos adversos ou arritmias card&#237;acas, quando comparado ao protocolo convencional. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica aumentou a acur&#225;cia da an&#225;lise da motilidade para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC angiograficamente significativa (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tab. 2</xref>). A exeq&#252;ibilidade da an&#225;lise da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica foi de 94% em repouso e de 95% no pico do estresse. O benef&#237;cio dessa t&#233;cnica foi tamb&#233;m demonstrado na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes diab&#233;ticos<sup>6</sup>. Avaliando 128 pacientes com diabetes melito submetidos a ECM com perfus&#227;o em tempo real e angiografia coron&#225;ria quantitativa no intervalo m&#225;ximo de 30 dias, Elhendy e cols.<sup>6</sup> demonstraram que a detec&#231;&#227;o de defeitos de perfus&#227;o apresentou sensibilidade de 89%, especificidade de 52%, e acur&#225;cia de 81% para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC. Em decorr&#234;ncia da boa resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial das imagens ecocardiogr&#225;ficas, &#233; poss&#237;vel detectar defeitos subendoc&#225;rdicos de perfus&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04">fig. 4</xref>). Altera&#231;&#245;es revers&#237;veis da perfus&#227;o foram detectadas em dois ou mais territ&#243;rios vasculares em 44 dos 56 pacientes com DAC e em oito dos 63 pacientes sem DAC multiarterial (sensibilidade de 68%, especificidade de 87%, e acur&#225;cia de 79%). Os autores conclu&#237;ram que a extens&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es perfusionais pela ECM pode identificar pacientes com DAC multiarterial com moderada sensibilidade e alta especificidade. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <fig id="fig04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Em outro estudo, foi demonstrado que a ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina-atropina com estudo da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pode ser utilizada para avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes que chegam &#224; sala de emerg&#234;ncia com dor precordial e suspeita de s&#237;ndrome coron&#225;ria aguda<sup>5</sup>. A an&#225;lise da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica apresentou boa acur&#225;cia para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC e mostrou-se um preditor independente de eventos card&#237;acos. Adicionalmente, a an&#225;lise da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica apresentou boa acur&#225;cia para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC e mostrou-se um preditor independente de eventos card&#237;acos. </p>
    <p>A din&#226;mica da reperfus&#227;o do contraste mioc&#225;rdico em tempo real permite a quantifica&#231;&#227;o de fluxo mioc&#225;rdico, quando usada infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua de contraste. O fluxo mioc&#225;rdico pode ser quantificado utilizando-se modelos matem&#225;ticos a partir da estimativa da intensidade de plat&#244; e a velocidade m&#233;dia de repreenchimento da microcircula&#231;&#227;o pelas microbolhas<sup>19</sup>. O repreenchimento das microbolhas no mioc&#225;rdio em fun&#231;&#227;o do tempo pode ser medido pelo aumento da intensidade ac&#250;stica a cada quadro da seq&#252;&#234;ncia de imagens ap&#243;s a destrui&#231;&#227;o completa das microbolhas no mioc&#225;rdio por um impulso de alta energia ultra-s&#244;nica (<italic>flash</italic> ecocardiogr&#225;fico). A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de programas computacionais espec&#237;ficos para quantifica&#231;&#227;o do contraste mioc&#225;rdico nos permite a an&#225;lise de seq&#252;&#234;ncias de imagens e a quantifica&#231;&#227;o do fluxo mioc&#225;rdico regional, tanto em estado de repouso como ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o de estresse cardiovascular, fornecendo, assim, a quantifica&#231;&#227;o da reserva de fluxo mioc&#225;rdico. Recentemente, nosso grupo<sup>20</sup> estudou o valor da an&#225;lise quantitativa da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC durante o estresse pela dobutamina-atropina e pela adenosina. Os autores demonstraram que a reserva de velocidade de fluxo mioc&#225;rdico obtida pela ecocardiografia com perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em tempo real sob estresse pela dobutamina-atropina apresentou acur&#225;cia semelhante ao estresse pela adenosina para detec&#231;&#227;o de DAC (acur&#225;cia de 80% para ambos os f&#225;rmacos). &#201; interessante notar que a an&#225;lise quantitativa da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica durante o estresse pela dobutamina-atropina apresentou valor adicional significativo para o diagn&#243;stico de DAC em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; an&#225;lise do eletrocardiograma em 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es, &#224; an&#225;lise da motilidade segmentar e &#224; an&#225;lise qualitativa da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Ecocardiografia com contraste mioc&#225;rdico em pacientes com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>H&#225; v&#225;rias aplica&#231;&#245;es potenciais da ecocardiografia em pacientes com IAM. Durante a oclus&#227;o coron&#225;ria aguda, a ECM permite a estratifica&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes pela determina&#231;&#227;o da extens&#227;o da &#225;rea de risco mioc&#225;rdico de necrose. O tamanho final do IAM &#233; resultante da dura&#231;&#227;o da oclus&#227;o coron&#225;ria, da &#225;rea total suprida pela art&#233;ria relacionada ao infarto, e da presen&#231;a de circula&#231;&#227;o colateral<sup>21</sup>. A ECM pode determinar a real &#225;rea em risco, uma vez que as &#225;reas supridas pela circula&#231;&#227;o colateral podem exibir algum grau de fluxo, que mant&#233;m a viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica<sup>22</sup>. Assim, a ECM pode ser &#250;til na diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre pacientes de baixo risco (&#225;rea de risco restrita ou alto grau de fluxo colateral) e aqueles com maior risco de apresentar extensa &#225;rea de infarto caso a reperfus&#227;o n&#227;o seja estabelecida. A ECM tamb&#233;m pode ser utilizada para avaliar a efic&#225;cia da terapia de reperfus&#227;o e ser um indicador de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica. Sabe-se que a pat&#234;ncia angiogr&#225;fica da art&#233;ria relacionada ao infarto n&#227;o necessariamente resulta em restabelecimento da adequada perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica tecidual. A aus&#234;ncia de perfus&#227;o microvascular apesar do restabelecimento da pat&#234;ncia da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria epic&#225;rdica &#233; denominada de fen&#244;meno de <italic>no-reflow<sup>23</sup></italic>. Esse parece ser um marcador de necrose mioc&#225;rdica e tem consistentemente sido associado com menor chance de recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional e pior progn&#243;stico<sup>24-27</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m demonstrado o valor da ECM na avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s IAM. De forma geral, a ECM apresenta alta sensibilidade (62% a 90%) mas baixa especificidade (18% a 67%) para predizer a recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional ap&#243;s o IAM, com alto valor preditivo negativo<sup>28,29</sup>. Senior e Swinburn<sup>28</sup> demonstraram que a sensibilidade e o valor preditivo negativo da ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina para avalia&#231;&#227;o de recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional de segmentos acin&#233;ticos tr&#234;s meses ap&#243;s o IAM melhoraram significativamente quando a opacifica&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica foi observada nos segmentos mioc&#225;rdicos n&#227;o-responsivos ao agente inotr&#243;pico. As sensibilidades da ECM, da ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina e da combina&#231;&#227;o de ambas foram de 58%, 59% e 79%, respectivamente (p &lt; 0,001), e as especificidades foram de 76%, 84% e 69%, respectivamente (p &lt; 0,05 comparado com an&#225;lise da motilidade segmentar), para detec&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica. A combina&#231;&#227;o da an&#225;lise da perfus&#227;o e da motilidade segmentar foi um preditor independente de recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional, sugerindo que a ECM &#233; uma t&#233;cnica que deve ser utilizada para otimiza&#231;&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade ap&#243;s o IAM. Al&#233;m de predizer a recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional, a presen&#231;a de <italic>no-reflow</italic> pela ECM &#233; preditivo de complica&#231;&#245;es agudas ap&#243;s o IAM. Caldas e cols.<sup>29</sup> avaliaram 31 pacientes com primo infarto de parede anterior submetidos a tratamento trombol&#237;tico, com an&#225;lise da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pela ECM e imagem harm&#244;nica intermitente. Os autores demonstraram que a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica determinada nas primeiras 48 horas do infarto foi preditora independente de remodelamento ventricular esquerdo em seis meses de acompanhamento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Identifica&#231;&#227;o de mioc&#225;rdio hibernado</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o de mioc&#225;rdio hibernado em pacientes com DAC cr&#244;nica &#233; de fundamental import&#226;ncia para seu adequado tratamento, uma vez que a cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pode resultar em melhora dos sintomas e diminui&#231;&#227;o de risco para eventos futuros<sup>30</sup>. Muitas modalidades de imagem t&#234;m se mostrado &#250;teis na identifica&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio hibernado, incluindo resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica, ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina, e tomografia com emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons. O fato de a integridade microvascular ser um pr&#233;-requisito para a manuten&#231;&#227;o do metabolismo miocelular nas &#225;reas isqu&#234;micas com potencial de recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional forma a base para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da ECM para avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica. Dessa forma, alguns estudos demonstraram o potencial da ECM para identifica&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio hibernado e como preditor de recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional ap&#243;s a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. Shimoni e cols.<sup>31</sup> recentemente descreveram o valor da ECM quantitativa em compara&#231;&#227;o com a ecocardiografia sob estresse pela dobutamina e cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica com t&#225;lio 201 para a detec&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica. A acur&#225;cia da an&#225;lise quantitativa da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pela ECM foi maior que a interpreta&#231;&#227;o qualitativa da perfus&#227;o, sendo a medida do fluxo mioc&#225;rdico o melhor par&#226;metro para predizer recupera&#231;&#227;o funcional tr&#234;s a quatro meses ap&#243;s a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. Adicionalmente, a an&#225;lise quantitativa da perfus&#227;o apresentou acur&#225;cia semelhante e maior especificidade que a cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tab. 3</xref>). Embora o n&#250;mero de estudos demonstrando o valor da ECM na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com DAC tenha aumentado, &#233; importante enfatizar que estudos multic&#234;ntricos ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para confirmar esses achados.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, a ecocardiografia contrastada com inje&#231;&#227;o endovenosa de microbolhas tem se mostrado uma t&#233;cnica &#250;til para avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com janela ecocardiogr&#225;fica inadequada, permitindo melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o da anatomia card&#237;aca. As microbolhas podem ser caracterizadas como marcadores de fluxo de sangue, permanecendo totalmente dentro do espa&#231;o intravascular, e sua distribui&#231;&#227;o no mioc&#225;rdio reflete a integridade da microcircula&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria. A ECM mostrou-se segura e eficaz para avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, fornecendo dados adicionais aos obtidos pela an&#225;lise da motilidade segmentar no amplo espectro de pacientes com doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria aguda e cr&#244;nica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Becker H, Burns P. Handbook of contrast echocardiography &#150; left ventricular function and myocardial perfusion. New York: Springer-Verlag Publishers; 2000. p.88-108.</p>
    <p>2. Mulvagh SL, DeMaria AN, Feinstein SB, Burns PN, Kaul S, Miller JG, et al. Contrast echocardiography: current and future applications. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2000;13(4):331-42.</p>
    <p>3. Porter TR, Xie F, Kilzer K, Deligonul U. Detection of myocardial perfusion abnormalities during dobutamine and adenosine stress echocardiography with transient myocardial contrast imaging after minute quantities of intravenous perfluorocarbon-exposed sonicated dextrose albumin. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1996;9(6):779-86.</p>
    <p>4 Porter TR, Xie F. Transient myocardial contrast after initial exposure to diagnostic ultrasound pressures with minute doses of intravenously injected microbubbles: demonstration and potential mechanisms. Circulation. 1995;92(9):2391-5.</p>
    <p>5. Tsutsui JM, Xie F, O&#146;Leary EL, Elhendy A, Anderson JR, McGrain AC, et al. Diagnostic accuracy and prognostic value of dobutamine stress myocardial contrast echocardiography in patients with suspected acute coronary syndromes. Echocardiography. 2005;22(6):487-95.</p>
    <p>6. Elhendy A, Tsutsui JM, O&#146;Leary EL, Xie F, McGrain AC, Porter TR. Noninvasive diagnosis of coronary artery disease in patients with diabetes by dobutamine stress real-time myocardial contrast perfusion imaging. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(7):1662-7.</p>
    <p>7. Porter TR, Li S, Kricsfeld D, Armbruster RW. Detection of myocardial perfusion in multiple echocardiographic windows with one intravenous injection of microbubbles using transient response second harmonic imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(4):791-9.</p>
    <p>8. Costa JM, Tsutsui JM, Nozawa E, Morhy SS, Andrade JL, Ramires JF, et al. Contrast echocardiography can save nondiagnostic exams in mechanically ventilated patients. Echocardiography. 2005;22(5):389-94.</p>
    <p>9. Waggoner AD, Williams GA, Gaffron D, Schwarze M. Potential utility of left heart contrast agents in diagnosis of myocardial rupture by 2-dimensional echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1999;12(4):272-4.</p>
    <p>10. Trindade ML, Tsutsui JM, Rodrigues AC, Caldas MA, Ramires JA, Mathias W Jr. Left ventricular free wall impeding rupture in post-myocardial infarction period diagnosed by myocardial contrast echocardiography: case report. Cardiovasc Ultrasound. 2006;4:7.</p>
    <p>11. Porter TR, Xie F, Kricsfeld A, Chiou A, Dabestani A. Improved endocardial border resolution during dobutamine stress echocardiography with intravenous sonicated dextrose albumin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23(6):1440-3.</p>
    <p>12. Falcone RA, Marcovitz PA, Perez JE, Dittrich HC, Hopkins WE, Armstrong WF. Intravenous albunex during dobutamine stress echocardiography: enhanced localization of left ventricular endocardial borders. Am Heart J. 1995;130(2):254-8.</p>
    <p>13. Mathias W Jr, Arruda AL, Andrade JL, Filho OC, Porter TR. Endocardial border delineation during dobutamine infusion using contrast echocardiography. Echocardiography. 2002;19(2):109-14.</p>
    <p>14. Kaul S, Senior R, Dittrich H, Raval U, Khattar R, Lahiri A. Detection of coronary artery disease with myocardial contrast echocardiography: comparison with 99mTc-sestamibi single-photon emission computed tomography. Circulation. 1997;96(3):785-92.</p>
    <p>15. Porter TR, Xie F, Silver M, Kricsfeld D, O&#146;Leary E. Real-time perfusion imaging with low mechanical index pulse inversion Doppler imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(3):748-53.</p>
    <p>16. Shimoni S, Zoghbi WA, Xie F, Kricsfeld D, Iskander S, Gobar L, et al. Real-time assessment of myocardial perfusion and wall motion during bicycle and treadmill exercise echocardiography: comparison with single photon emission computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(3):741-7.</p>
    <p>17. Leong-Poi H, Rim SJ, Le DE, Fisher NG, Wei K, Kaul S. Perfusion versus function: the ischemic cascade in demand ischemia: implications of single-vessel versus multivessel stenosis. Circulation. 2002;105(8):987-92.</p>
    <p>18. Tsutsui JM, Elhendy A, Xie F, O&#146;Leary E, McGrain AC, Porter TR. Safety of dobutamine stress real-time myocardial contrast echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1235-42.</p>
    <p>19. Wei K, Jayaweera AR, Firoozan S, Linka A, Skyba DM, Kaul S. Quantification of myocardial blood flow with ultrasound-induced destruction of microbubbles administered as a constant venous infusion. Circulation. 1998;97(5):473-83.</p>
    <p>20. Kowatsch I, Tsutsui JM, Os&#243;rio AFF, Uchida AH, Marchiori GA, C&#233;sar LAM, et al. Incremental value of quantitative analysis of myocardial perfusion in dobutamine and adenosine stress real-time perfusion echocardiography. [abstracts]. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(4):150A.</p>
    <p>21. Villanueva FS, Glasheen WP, Sklenar J, Kaul S. Assessment of risk area during coronary occlusion and infarct size after reperfusion with myocardial contrast echocardiography using left and right atrial injections of contrast. Circulation. 1993;88(2):596-604.</p>
    <p>22. Coggins MP, Sklenar J, Le DE, Wei K, Lindner JR, Kaul S. Noninvasive prediction of ultimate infarct size at the time of acute coronary occlusion based on the extent and magnitude of collateral-derived myocardial blood flow. Circulation. 2001;104(20):2471-7.</p>
    <p>23. Kloner RA, Ganote CE, Jennings RB. The "no-reflow" phenomenon after temporary coronary occlusion in the dog. J Clin Invest. 1974;54(6):1496-508.</p>
    <p>24. Ito H, Tomooka T, Sakai N, Yu H, Higashino Y, Fujii K, et al. Lack of myocardial perfusion immediately after successful thrombolysis: a predictor of poor recovery of left ventricular function in anterior myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1992;85(5):1699-705.</p>
    <p>25. Ito H, Okamura A, Iwakura K, Masuyama T, Hori M, Takiuchi S, et al. Myocardial perfusion patterns related to thrombolysis in myocardial infarction perfusion grades after coronary angioplasty in patients with acute anterior wall myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1996;93(11):1993-9.</p>
    <p>26. Sabia PJ, Powers ER, Jayaweera AR, Ragosta M, Kaul S. Functional significance of collateral blood flow in patients with recent acute myocardial infarction: a study using myocardial contrast echocardiography. Circulation. 1992;85(6):2080-9.</p>
    <p>27. Sbano JC, Tsutsui JM, Andrade JL, Carlos NJ, Meneghetti JC, Franchini RJ, et al. Detection of functional recovery using low-dose dobutamine and myocardial contrast echocardiography after acute myocardial infarction treated with successful thrombolytic therapy. Echocardiography. 2005;22(6):496-502.</p>
    <p>28. Senior R, Swinburn JM. Incremental value of myocardial contrast echocardiography for the prediction of recovery of function in dobutamine nonresponsive myocardium early after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91(4):397-402.</p>
    <p>29. Caldas MA, Tsutsui JM, Kowatsch I, Andrade JL, Nicolau JC, Ramires JF, et al. Value of myocardial contrast echocardiography for predicting left ventricular remodeling and segmental functional recovery after anterior wall acute myocardial infarction. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2004;17(9):923-32.</p>
    <p>30. Afridi I, Grayburn PA, Panza JA, Oh JK, Zoghbi WA, Marwick TH. Myocardial viability during dobutamine echocardiography predicts survival in patients with coronary artery disease and severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32(4):921-6.</p>
    <p>31. Shimoni S, Frangogiannis NG, Aggeli CJ, Shan K, Verani MS, Quinones MA, et al. Identification of hibernating myocardium with quantitative intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography: comparison with dobutamine echocardiography and thallium-201 scintigraphy. Circulation. 2003;107(4):538-44.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Jeane Mike Tsutsui </p>
        <p> InCor </p>
        <p> Av. Dr En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 </p>
        <p> 05403-000 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="jeane.tsutsui@incor.usp.br">jeane.tsutsui@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 15/06/06; revisado recebido em 24/09/06; aceito em 5/10/06.</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Clinical Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Clinical use of contrast echocardiography with microbubble-based</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>CLINICAL UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Clinical use of contrast echocardiography with microbubble-based</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Jeane Mike Tsutsui; Wilson Mathias Junior</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas - FMUSP &#150; S&#227;o Paulo - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Echocardiography; coronary arteriosclerosis; microbubbles.</p>
      <p>Contrast echocardiography is a technique that uses a peripheral intravenous injection of microbubble contrast agents to improve the echocardiographic signal. It is indicated for left ventricular opacification and to enhance the endocardial border delineation in patients with suboptimal echocardiographic images at rest and during stress. Technological advances and the use of commercially available contrast agents that provide more stability in the circulatory system have established the contrast echocardiography as a safe and efficient technique to assess myocardial perfusion. Clinical applications of myocardial contrast echocardiography include: evaluation of patients with suspected or known coronary artery disease; determination of area at risk and efficacy of reperfusion therapies in patients with acute myocardial infarction; assessment of post-infarction viability (identification of the no-reflow phenomenon); and viability in the setting of chronic coronary artery disease (identification of hibernating myocardium). Recent studies have demonstrated that myocardial perfusion analysis using real-time myocardial contrast echocardiography presents higher sensitivity and accuracy for the detection of coronary artery disease than the analysis of wall motion during stress echocardiography. As an additional benefit, quantification of regional myocardial flow and myocardial flow reserve using contrast echocardiography may also be able to estimate the severity of the coronary disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Contrast echocardiography is a technique that uses peripheral intravenous injection of microbubble contrast agents to improve the echocardiographic signal. The primary mechanism by whichmicrobubbles injection can enhance cardiac structures is based on the introduction of multiple liquid-gas interfaces into the circulation which increases the ultrasound reflection and improves echocardiographic image quality<sup>1,2</sup>. The microbubbles currently used consist of a protein or lipid shell containing high molecular weight gases, the perfluorocarbons, that have sufficient stability to traverse the pulmonary barrier contrasting the left cardiac cavities and coronary circulation<sup>3,4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Current contrast echocardiography indications include left ventricular opacification and endocardial border delineation in patients with suboptimal echocardiography windows<sup>2</sup>. The recent development of microbubbles with greater persistence in the blood circulation as well as improved ultrasound techniques have made the analysis of myocardial perfusion possible, expanding the role of contrast echocardiography for the noninvasive assessment of coronary artery disease (CAD). Consequently, potential applications of contrast echocardiography include: assessment of myocardial ischemia in patients with chronic CAD through the detection of perfusion and coronary flow reserve abnormalities and the evaluation of patients with acute coronary syndromes by defining the acute myocardial infarction (AMI) risk area, the no-flow phenomenon after myocardial reperfusion and determining myocardial viability (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Even though the microbubbles improve endocardial border delineation, their major contribution to stress echocardiography is the ability to detect myocardial perfusion alterations. The development of contrast agents with smaller, more stable microbubbles and the technological advances such as transient response harmonic imaging and low mechanical index imaging have made it possible to evaluate myocardial perfusion<sup>5-7</sup>. Nevertheless, further multicenter studies are required to better standardize myocardial perfusion evaluation techniques and define the diagnostic accuracy for the detection of CAD detection.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Contrast echocardiography for left ventricular opacification</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Echocardiographic contrast agents improve endocardial border delineation enabling a better assessment of global and segmental left ventricular contractile function, as well as more accurate measurements of ventricular volume and ejection fraction. Costa et al used contrast echocardiography on mechanically ventilated patients in intensive care units and reported that the use of these agents made it possible to correctly assess global left ventricular function in 77% of the nondiagnostic tests<sup>8</sup>. This technique has also been used successfully to define cardiovascular anatomical alterations<sup>9</sup> and can be useful for the identification of intracardiac masses such as tumors and/or thrombi (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref>) as well as the definition of right and left ventricular morphology in cases of hypertrophic cardiomyopathies and right ventricular dysplasia. Additionally, the detection of AMI complications by two-dimensional echocardiography, such as myocardial rupture and the formation of pseudoaneurysms, has been facilitated with the use of contrast agents as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref><sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Contrast agents have also been demonstrated to improve endocardial delineation during pharmacologic stress echocardiography, particularly for wall motion evaluation at peak stress<sup>11-13</sup>. Contrast agents are indicated when at least two myocardial segments are not adequately visualized in any of the apical echocardiographic views at rest<sup>2</sup>. Mathias et al<sup>13</sup> studied 68 patients who underwent dobutamine stress echocardiography using second harmonic imaging and PESDA (Perfluorocarbon-Exposed Sonicated Dextrose and Albumin). In this study, 23 patients (34%) that had inadequate acoustic windows without the use of contrast agents, had their images salvaged using contrast agents. From the 2176 myocardial segments analyzed (1088 at rest and 1088 at the peak dobutamine infusion) adequate endocardial border delineation increased from 81% of the segments analyzed without contrast to 95% using contrast agents. Therefore, it was demonstrated that the use of contrast agents during dobutamine stress echocardiography in association with second harmonic imaging increased the number of diagnostic tests and significantly improved endocardial border definition.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Contrast echocardiography to assess microvascular perfusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although coronary self-regulation mechanisms can maintain normal wall motion and myocardial perfusion at rest, a reduced coronary flow reserve can be identified by inducing abnormalities during physical or pharmacological stress in regions supplied by arteries with obstructive lesions.</p>
      <p>Microbubbles concentration in the coronary microcirculation corresponds to the blood volume in the different myocardium regions and is the basis for perfusion assessment using the myocardial contrast echocardiography (MCE). Therefore, the relative perfusion differences between regions supplied by arteries without obstructions and those supplied by stenotic arteries can be detected by the MCE using different types of stressinducing agents such as positive inotropic agents and vasodilators (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">Figure 3</xref>) or exercise. Various clinical studies have demonstrated a positive correlation between regional myocardial perfusion defects detected by MCE using harmonic transient response imaging and those induced by different types of pharmacologic stress using myocardial scintigraphy and coronary angiography<sup>7,14</sup>. The recently developed MCE with real-time perfusion imaging is another echocardiography technique that uses a low mechanical index and is able to simultaneously assess wall motion and myocardial perfusion in real-time. Using this technique, mocardial perfusion defects may be detected before wall motion alterations during dobutamine stress test <sup>15,16</sup> in accordance with the pathophysiological sequence of events known as ischemic cascade<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>In a study involving a large number of patients (n = 1,486), we evaluated the feasibility, safety and diagnostic accuracy of the dobutamine-atropine stress MCE in comparison to the conventional dobutamine stress echocardiography without contrast. (18) We demonstrated that adequate myocardial perfusion assessment can be obtained with contrast echocardiography without changing the incidence of adverse effects or cardiac arrhythmias when compared to the conventional protocol. The myocardial perfusion assessment increased the accuracy for detecting angiographically significant CAD in comparison to wall motion analysis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>). The feasibility of myocardial perfusion analysis was 94% at rest and 95% at peak stress. The value of this technique was also demonstrated in the diabetic patients<sup>6</sup>. Elhendy et all studied 128 patients with diabetes mellitus who underwent MCE with real-time perfusion imaging and quantitative coronary angiography during a maximum interval of 30 days. The authors demonstrated that the detection of perfusion abnormalities had sensitivity of 89%, specificity of 52%, and accuracy of 81% to detect CAD.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Because of the good spatial resolution quality of echocardiographic images, it is possible to detect subendocardial perfusion defects (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04-body2">Figure 4</xref>). Reversible perfusion alterations were detected in two or more vascular regions in 44 of the 56 patients with multivessel CAD and in 8 of the 63 patients without multivessel CAD (sensitivity 68%, specificity 87%, and accuracy 79%). The authors concluded that the extent of perfusion alterations identified by MCE can identify multivessel CAD patients with moderate sensitivity and high specificity.</p>
      <fig id="fig04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>In another study, it was demonstrated that dobutamine-atropine stress echocardiography and MCE can be used to assess patients that arrive at the emergency room with chest pain and suspected acute coronary syndrome<sup>5</sup>. Myocardial perfusion analysis is an accurate method to detect CAD and is an independent predictor of cardiac events.</p>
      <p>The reperfusion dynamic of real-time myocardial contrast enables quantification of myocardial flow when the contrast agent is infused continuously. The myocardial flow can be quantified using mathematical models by estimating the plateau intensity and mean velocity of microcirculation refilling by the microbubbles<sup>19</sup>. The refilling time of the microbubbles in the myocardium can be measured by the increased acoustic intensity of each frame in the image sequence after the microbubbles destruction in the myocardium by a high energy ultra sonic pulse (flash). The use of specific computer programs to quantify myocardial contrast enables us to analyze the image sequences and quantify the regional myocardial flow, both at rest and after inducing cardiovascular stress resulting in determination of myocardial flow reserve. Recently, our group (20) studied the value of quantitative analysis of the myocardial perfusion to detect CAD during dobutamine-atropine and adenosine induced stress.</p>
      <p>The authors demonstrated that the accuracy of myocardial flow velocity reserve obtained by the dobutamine-atropine stress real-time myocardial perfusion imaging was similar to that of adenosine stress test to detect CAD (accuracy of 80% for both drugs). Interestingly, the quantitative myocardial perfusion analysis during dobutamine-atropine stress test was significantly higher for CAD diagnosis in comparison to the 12 lead electrocardiogram, wall motion analysis and qualitative myocardial perfusion analysis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>MCE in AMI patients</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Echocardiography has various potential applications for AMI patients. During acute coronary occlusion, MCE permits the stratification of these patients by determining the extent of the area at risk for myocardial necrosis. The ultimate AMI size is determined by the duration of the coronary occlusion, the total area supplied by the infarct-related artery and the presence of collateral circulation<sup>21</sup>. MCE can determine the actual area at risk since the areas supplied by the collateral circulation can exhibit some degree of flow that maintains myocardial viability<sup>22</sup>. Therefore, MCE has been demonstrated useful to differentiate low risk patients (restricted area at risk or high degree of collateral flow) from those with a higher risk to present an extensive infarcted area if reperfusion is not established. MCE has also been demonstrated useful to evaluate the efficacy of reperfusion therapy and myocardial viability. It is known that the angiographic patency of the infracted-related artery does not necessarily reestablish adequate myocardial tissue perfusion. The absence of microvascular perfusion even though the patency of the epicardical coronary artery has been reestablished is called the no-reflow phenomenon<sup>23</sup>. This seems to be a marker of myocardical necrosis and has been consistently associated with a lower probability of functional recovery and worse prognosis<sup>24-27</sup>.</p>
      <p>Various studies have demonstrated the value of MCE to assess myocardial viability after AMI. Generally, MCE holds high sensitivity (62% to 90%) but low specificity (18% to 67%) to predict post AMI functional recovery, with high negative predictive value<sup>28,29</sup>. Senior et al<sup>28</sup> demonstrated that the sensitivity and negative predictive values of dobutamine stress echocardiography to assess functional recovery of akinetic segments three months after the AMI improved significantly when myocardial opacification was observed in myocardial segments that did not respond to an inotropic agent. For the detection of myocardial viability, the sensitivities of MCE, dobutamine stress echocardiography and combination of the two were 58%, 59%, and 79%, respectively (p &lt; 0.001) and the specificities were 76%, 84%, and 69%, respectively (p &lt; 0.05 compared to wall motion analysis). The combined analysis of perfusion and wall motion was an independent predictor of functional recovery, suggesting that MCE is a technique that should be used to optimize the assessment of viability after AMI. In addition to the prediction of functional recovery, the presence of no-reflow detected by MCE are related to higher incidence of acute complications after AMI. Caldas et al<sup>29</sup> evaluated 31 patients who had suffered their first anterior wall AMI and were submitted to thrombolytic therapy. The analysis of myocardial perfusion was performed with MCE using harmonic intermittent imaging. The authors demonstrated that determination of myocardial perfusion within 48 hours post infarction was an independent predictor for left ventricular remodelling in a six month follow-up period.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Identification of hibernated myocardium</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Identifying hibernated myocardium in patients with chronic CAD is of utmost importance for adequate treatment of these patients, since coronary artery bypass surgery has been demonstrated to improve symptoms and decrease the risk for future events<sup>30</sup>. Many imaging modalities have proven to be accurate for the identification of hibernated myocardium, including magnetic resonance imaging, myocardial scintigraphy, dobutamine stress echocardiography and positron emission tomography. The assessment of myocardial viability by MCE is based on the fact that microvascular integrity is a prerequisite for maintenance of myocellular metabolism in the ischemic areas with viability. Some studies have demonstrated the value of MCE to identify hibernated myocardium and predict functional recovery after revascularization. Shimoni et al<sup>31</sup> recently described the importance of quantitative MCE to detect myocardial viability in comparison with dobutamine stress echocardiography and thallium-201 myocardial scintigraphy.</p>
      <p>The accuracy of quantitative MCE perfusion analysis was higher than the qualitative analysis of myocardial perfusion. The measurement of myocardial blood flow was the best parameter to predict functional recovery within 3 to 4 months after surgical revascularization. In addition, the quantitative analysis of myocardial perfusion had similar accuracy and higher specificity than myocardial scintigraphy (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>). Although an increasing number of studies has demonstrated the importance of MCE to assess patients with CAD, it is important to emphasize that further multicenter studies are required to confirm these findings.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-05-e132-00029-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Final comments</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Throughout the past few years, it has been demonstrated that contrast echocardiography using intravenous injection of microbubbles is an useful technique for the assessment of patients with suboptimal imaging as it enables a better evaluation of the cardiac anatomy. Microbubbles act as blood flow tracer, remaining within the intravascular space, and their distribution in the myocardium indicate the integrity of coronary microcirculation. MCE has proven to be safe and efficient to assess myocardial perfusion, and has incremental value over the analysis of wall motion for the wide spectrum of patients with acute and chronic coronary disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Becker H, Burns P. Handbook of contrast echocardiography &#150; left ventricular function and myocardial perfusion. New York: Springer-Verlag Publishers; 2000. p.88-108.</p>
      <p>2. Mulvagh SL, DeMaria AN, Feinstein SB, Burns PN, Kaul S, Miller JG, et al. Contrast echocardiography: current and future applications. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2000;13(4):331-42.</p>
      <p>3. Porter TR, Xie F, Kilzer K, Deligonul U. Detection of myocardial perfusion abnormalities during dobutamine and adenosine stress echocardiography with transient myocardial contrast imaging after minute quantities of intravenous perfluorocarbon-exposed sonicated dextrose albumin. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1996;9(6):779-86.</p>
      <p>4 Porter TR, Xie F. Transient myocardial contrast after initial exposure to diagnostic ultrasound pressures with minute doses of intravenously injected microbubbles: demonstration and potential mechanisms. Circulation. 1995;92(9):2391-5.</p>
      <p>5. Tsutsui JM, Xie F, O&#146;Leary EL, Elhendy A, Anderson JR, McGrain AC, et al. Diagnostic accuracy and prognostic value of dobutamine stress myocardial contrast echocardiography in patients with suspected acute coronary syndromes. Echocardiography. 2005;22(6):487-95.</p>
      <p>6. Elhendy A, Tsutsui JM, O&#146;Leary EL, Xie F, McGrain AC, Porter TR. Noninvasive diagnosis of coronary artery disease in patients with diabetes by dobutamine stress real-time myocardial contrast perfusion imaging. Diabetes Care. 2005;28(7):1662-7.</p>
      <p>7. Porter TR, Li S, Kricsfeld D, Armbruster RW. Detection of myocardial perfusion in multiple echocardiographic windows with one intravenous injection of microbubbles using transient response second harmonic imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997;29(4):791-9.</p>
      <p>8. Costa JM, Tsutsui JM, Nozawa E, Morhy SS, Andrade JL, Ramires JF, et al. Contrast echocardiography can save nondiagnostic exams in mechanically ventilated patients. Echocardiography. 2005;22(5):389-94.</p>
      <p>9. Waggoner AD, Williams GA, Gaffron D, Schwarze M. Potential utility of left heart contrast agents in diagnosis of myocardial rupture by 2-dimensional echocardiography. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 1999;12(4):272-4.</p>
      <p>10. Trindade ML, Tsutsui JM, Rodrigues AC, Caldas MA, Ramires JA, Mathias W Jr. Left ventricular free wall impeding rupture in post-myocardial infarction period diagnosed by myocardial contrast echocardiography: case report. Cardiovasc Ultrasound. 2006;4:7.</p>
      <p>11. Porter TR, Xie F, Kricsfeld A, Chiou A, Dabestani A. Improved endocardial border resolution during dobutamine stress echocardiography with intravenous sonicated dextrose albumin. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1994;23(6):1440-3.</p>
      <p>12. Falcone RA, Marcovitz PA, Perez JE, Dittrich HC, Hopkins WE, Armstrong WF. Intravenous albunex during dobutamine stress echocardiography: enhanced localization of left ventricular endocardial borders. Am Heart J. 1995;130(2):254-8.</p>
      <p>13. Mathias W Jr, Arruda AL, Andrade JL, Filho OC, Porter TR. Endocardial border delineation during dobutamine infusion using contrast echocardiography. Echocardiography. 2002;19(2):109-14.</p>
      <p>14. Kaul S, Senior R, Dittrich H, Raval U, Khattar R, Lahiri A. Detection of coronary artery disease with myocardial contrast echocardiography: comparison with 99mTc-sestamibi single-photon emission computed tomography. Circulation. 1997;96(3):785-92.</p>
      <p>15. Porter TR, Xie F, Silver M, Kricsfeld D, O&#146;Leary E. Real-time perfusion imaging with low mechanical index pulse inversion Doppler imaging. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(3):748-53.</p>
      <p>16. Shimoni S, Zoghbi WA, Xie F, Kricsfeld D, Iskander S, Gobar L, et al. Real-time assessment of myocardial perfusion and wall motion during bicycle and treadmill exercise echocardiography: comparison with single photon emission computed tomography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001;37(3):741-7.</p>
      <p>17. Leong-Poi H, Rim SJ, Le DE, Fisher NG, Wei K, Kaul S. Perfusion versus function: the ischemic cascade in demand ischemia: implications of single-vessel versus multivessel stenosis. Circulation. 2002;105(8):987-92.</p>
      <p>18. Tsutsui JM, Elhendy A, Xie F, O&#146;Leary E, McGrain AC, Porter TR. Safety of dobutamine stress real-time myocardial contrast echocardiography. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005;45:1235-42.</p>
      <p>19. Wei K, Jayaweera AR, Firoozan S, Linka A, Skyba DM, Kaul S. Quantification of myocardial blood flow with ultrasound-induced destruction of microbubbles administered as a constant venous infusion. Circulation. 1998;97(5):473-83.</p>
      <p>20. Kowatsch I, Tsutsui JM, Os&#243;rio AFF, Uchida AH, Marchiori GA, C&#233;sar LAM, et al. Incremental value of quantitative analysis of myocardial perfusion in dobutamine and adenosine stress real-time perfusion echocardiography. [abstracts]. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2006;47(4):150A.</p>
      <p>21. Villanueva FS, Glasheen WP, Sklenar J, Kaul S. Assessment of risk area during coronary occlusion and infarct size after reperfusion with myocardial contrast echocardiography using left and right atrial injections of contrast. Circulation. 1993;88(2):596-604.</p>
      <p>22. Coggins MP, Sklenar J, Le DE, Wei K, Lindner JR, Kaul S. Noninvasive prediction of ultimate infarct size at the time of acute coronary occlusion based on the extent and magnitude of collateral-derived myocardial blood flow. Circulation. 2001;104(20):2471-7.</p>
      <p>23. Kloner RA, Ganote CE, Jennings RB. The "no-reflow" phenomenon after temporary coronary occlusion in the dog. J Clin Invest. 1974;54(6):1496-508.</p>
      <p>24. Ito H, Tomooka T, Sakai N, Yu H, Higashino Y, Fujii K, et al. Lack of myocardial perfusion immediately after successful thrombolysis: a predictor of poor recovery of left ventricular function in anterior myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1992;85(5):1699-705.</p>
      <p>25. Ito H, Okamura A, Iwakura K, Masuyama T, Hori M, Takiuchi S, et al. Myocardial perfusion patterns related to thrombolysis in myocardial infarction perfusion grades after coronary angioplasty in patients with acute anterior wall myocardial infarction. Circulation. 1996;93(11):1993-9.</p>
      <p>26. Sabia PJ, Powers ER, Jayaweera AR, Ragosta M, Kaul S. Functional significance of collateral blood flow in patients with recent acute myocardial infarction: a study using myocardial contrast echocardiography. Circulation. 1992;85(6):2080-9.</p>
      <p>27. Sbano JC, Tsutsui JM, Andrade JL, Carlos NJ, Meneghetti JC, Franchini RJ, et al. Detection of functional recovery using low-dose dobutamine and myocardial contrast echocardiography after acute myocardial infarction treated with successful thrombolytic therapy. Echocardiography. 2005;22(6):496-502.</p>
      <p>28. Senior R, Swinburn JM. Incremental value of myocardial contrast echocardiography for the prediction of recovery of function in dobutamine nonresponsive myocardium early after acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol. 2003;91(4):397-402.</p>
      <p>29. Caldas MA, Tsutsui JM, Kowatsch I, Andrade JL, Nicolau JC, Ramires JF, et al. Value of myocardial contrast echocardiography for predicting left ventricular remodeling and segmental functional recovery after anterior wall acute myocardial infarction. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2004;17(9):923-32.</p>
      <p>30. Afridi I, Grayburn PA, Panza JA, Oh JK, Zoghbi WA, Marwick TH. Myocardial viability during dobutamine echocardiography predicts survival in patients with coronary artery disease and severe left ventricular systolic dysfunction. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998;32(4):921-6.</p>
      <p>31. Shimoni S, Frangogiannis NG, Aggeli CJ, Shan K, Verani MS, Quinones MA, et al. Identification of hibernating myocardium with quantitative intravenous myocardial contrast echocardiography: comparison with dobutamine echocardiography and thallium-201 scintigraphy. Circulation. 2003;107(4):538-44.</p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Jeane Mike Tsutsui</p>
          <p> InCor </p>
          <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 </p>
          <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="jeane.tsutsui@incor.usp.br">jeane.tsutsui@incor.usp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received June 15, 2006; revised received September 24, 2006; accepted October 5, 2006.</p>
      <p>4 Porter TR, Xie F. Transient myocardial contrast after initial exposure to diagnostic ultrasound pressures with minute doses of intravenously injected microbubbles: demonstration and potential mechanisms. Circulation. 1995;92(9):2391-5.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
