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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">q3rYsCP7V6QLWqb3VXBmHxn</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00017</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007000400017</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08800417</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007000400017</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Custo-efetividade dos stents recobertos por rapamicina em procedimentos percut&#226;neos coronarianos no Brasil</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi Anne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Wainstein</surname>
            <given-names>Marco V.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Pinto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Moinhos de Vento</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Rio Grande do Sul</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>88</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>464</fpage>
      <lpage>474</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2007</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVOS: Comparar as rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade do stent recoberto (SR) por rapamicina com o stent convencional (SC), sob duas perspectivas: medicina suplementar e sistema p&#250;blico (SUS). M&#201;TODOS: Modelo de decis&#227;o anal&#237;tico com tr&#234;s estrat&#233;gias de tratamento de les&#227;o coronariana: interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea (icP) com SC; com SR com rapamicina e SC seguido de SR para manejo de reestenose sintom&#225;tica. Os desfechos foram: sobrevida livre de eventos em um ano e expectativa de vida. As &#225;rvores de decis&#227;o foram constru&#237;das com resultados de registros e ensaios cl&#237;nicos publicados. RESULTADOS: A sobrevida em um ano livre de reestenose foi de 92,7% com SR e de 78,8% com SC. A expectativa de vida estimada das estrat&#233;gias foi muito semelhante, entre 18,5 e 19 anos. Sob a perspectiva n&#227;o-p&#250;blica, a diferen&#231;a de custo no primeiro ano entre SC e SR foi de R$ 3.816, com rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade incremental de R$ 27.403 por evento evitado em um ano. Sob a perspectiva do SUS, o custo por evento evitado em um ano foi de R$ 47.529. Na an&#225;lise de sensibilidade, foram preditores relevantes a probabilidade de reestenose, a redu&#231;&#227;o de risco esperada com SR, o custo do stent e o custo do manejo da reestenose. Os dados por anos de vida demonstraram rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade bastante elevadas na simula&#231;&#227;o de Monte Carlo. CONCLUS&#195;O: As rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade do SR por rapamicina foram elevadas em modelo brasileiro. O uso de SR foi mais favor&#225;vel em pacientes de alto risco de reestenose, com elevado custo do manejo de reestenose e sob a perspectiva n&#227;o-p&#250;blica.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Stents</kwd>
        <kwd>stents farmacol&#243;gicos</kwd>
        <kwd>sirolimo</kwd>
        <kwd>angioplastia transluminal percut&#226;nea coron&#225;ria</kwd>
        <kwd>SUS - Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de - BR</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>24</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Custo-efetividade dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por rapamicina em procedimentos percut&#226;neos coronarianos no Brasil</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Carisi Anne Polanczyk; Marco V. Wainstein; Jorge Pinto Ribeiro</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia da UFRGS e Hospital Moinhos de Vento &#150; Porto Alegre, RS</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVOS:</bold> Comparar as rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade do stent recoberto (SR) por rapamicina com o stent convencional (SC), sob duas perspectivas: medicina suplementar e sistema p&#250;blico (SUS). </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Modelo de decis&#227;o anal&#237;tico com tr&#234;s estrat&#233;gias de tratamento de les&#227;o coronariana: interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea (icP) com SC; com SR com rapamicina e SC seguido de SR para manejo de reestenose sintom&#225;tica. Os desfechos foram: sobrevida livre de eventos em um ano e expectativa de vida. As &#225;rvores de decis&#227;o foram constru&#237;das com resultados de registros e ensaios cl&#237;nicos publicados. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> A sobrevida em um ano livre de reestenose foi de 92,7% com SR e de 78,8% com SC. A expectativa de vida estimada das estrat&#233;gias foi muito semelhante, entre 18,5 e 19 anos. Sob a perspectiva n&#227;o-p&#250;blica, a diferen&#231;a de custo no primeiro ano entre SC e SR foi de R$ 3.816, com rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade incremental de R$ 27.403 por evento evitado em um ano. Sob a perspectiva do SUS, o custo por evento evitado em um ano foi de R$ 47.529. Na an&#225;lise de sensibilidade, foram preditores relevantes a probabilidade de reestenose, a redu&#231;&#227;o de risco esperada com SR, o custo do stent e o custo do manejo da reestenose. Os dados por anos de vida demonstraram rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade bastante elevadas na simula&#231;&#227;o de Monte Carlo. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> As rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade do SR por rapamicina foram elevadas em modelo brasileiro. O uso de SR foi mais favor&#225;vel em pacientes de alto risco de reestenose, com elevado custo do manejo de reestenose e sob a perspectiva n&#227;o-p&#250;blica.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold><italic>Stents/</italic>custo<italic>, stents</italic> farmacol&#243;gicos, sirolimo, angioplastia transluminal percut&#226;nea coron&#225;ria, SUS &#150; Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de - BR</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O implante eletivo de <italic>stents</italic>, comparado com a angioplastia convencional por bal&#227;o, resulta em taxa significativamente maior de sucesso na redu&#231;&#227;o da reestenose angiogr&#225;fica e em diminui&#231;&#227;o da necessidade de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o subseq&#252;ente da les&#227;o-alvo<sup>1-3</sup>. O implante de endopr&#243;teses coron&#225;rias tornou-se a principal modalidade de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica no mundo, chegando a mais de 90% das interven&#231;&#245;es percut&#226;neas por cateter realizadas. O progressivo crescimento do n&#250;mero de <italic>stents</italic> implantados no Brasil est&#225; documentado pelo registro da Central Nacional de Interven&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares (CENIC), sendo de 37% apenas no bi&#234;nio 1999/2000<sup>4</sup>, com aumento de 2,44 vezes de 1996 a 2004<sup>5</sup>. Dados do Departamento de Inform&#225;tica do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (DATASUS) apontam para o uso cada vez maior de <italic>stents</italic>: aproximadamente 33.040 <italic>stents</italic> no per&#237;odo de setembro de 2004 a agosto de 2005, com m&#233;dia de 2.294 por m&#234;s.</p>
    <p>Entretanto, a reestenose intra-<italic>stent</italic> permanece a principal limita&#231;&#227;o dessa forma de interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea. A reestenose &#233; um processo progressivo, que resulta em morbidade e custos adicionais, especialmente pela necessidade de nova revasculariza&#231;&#227;o da les&#227;o-alvo. Diversos ensaios cl&#237;nicos foram conduzidos nos &#250;ltimos anos demonstrando redu&#231;&#227;o significativa da resposta hiperpl&#225;sica ap&#243;s o implante de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por medicamentos<sup>6-8</sup>. O uso de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos reduz a taxa de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do vaso-alvo de modo significativo em compara&#231;&#227;o com o <italic>stent</italic> convencional, sem impacto na mortalidade total ou no infarto do mioc&#225;rdio<sup>9-11</sup>.</p>
    <p>Essa maior efetividade dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por medicamentos &#233;, por&#233;m, acompanhada de maior custo terap&#234;utico dos dispositivos. An&#225;lises econ&#244;micas realizadas nos Estados Unidos demonstram que o uso de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por rapamicina resulta em rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional de aproximadamente US$ 1.650,00 por evento evitado em um ano e de US$ 27.500,00 por anos de vida ajustados para qualidade de vida (QALY &#150; <italic>quality-adjusted life-years</italic>)<sup>12</sup>. Entretanto, estudos de custo-efetividade realizados em outros pa&#237;ses encontraram valores muito d&#237;spares, variando de 58.721 d&#243;lares canadenses/QALYs no Canad&#225; a 73.282 euros/QALYs na Su&#237;&#231;a<sup>13,14</sup>. Na medida em que a estrutura econ&#244;mica e a presta&#231;&#227;o de servi&#231;os do sistema de sa&#250;de no Brasil s&#227;o muito distintas, esses dados n&#227;o podem ser extrapolados para nossa realidade, sendo necess&#225;rios estudos baseados na pr&#225;tica nacional, tanto no setor p&#250;blico como no setor privado. Este estudo, portanto, apresenta uma an&#225;lise da rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade do uso de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por rapamicina em diferentes cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos no Brasil.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Descri&#231;&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o econ&#244;mica -</italic> Um modelo anal&#237;tico de decis&#227;o foi constru&#237;do para comparar os custos e a efetividade de tr&#234;s estrat&#233;gias de tratamento para pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com les&#227;o arterial coronariana: a) interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea com <italic>stent</italic> convencional; b) interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea com <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina; e c) interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea inicialmente com <italic>stent</italic> convencional seguido de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto para manejo de reestenose sintom&#225;tica.</p>
    <p><italic>Modelo populacional -</italic> A popula&#231;&#227;o do modelo foi delineada para coortes de pacientes com les&#227;o em vaso &#250;nico, sintom&#225;ticos, que pudessem ser submetidos a qualquer uma das tr&#234;s estrat&#233;gias. A coorte deveria ser composta por indiv&#237;duos com caracter&#237;sticas semelhantes &#224;quelas descritas nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos, ou seja, les&#245;es de extens&#227;o m&#233;dia de 14 mm, vasos entre 2,5 mm e 3,5 mm de di&#226;metro, com n&#250;mero representativo de diab&#233;ticos<sup>6,7</sup>. O modelo inicial n&#227;o estratifica a popula&#231;&#227;o nesses grupos de risco, embora o impacto da influ&#234;ncia dessas vari&#225;veis de caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas na incid&#234;ncia de reestenose, efetividade e custos globais seja avaliado nas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade.</p>
    <p><italic>Medidas de desfechos cl&#237;nicos</italic> - Os desfechos cl&#237;nicos considerados na avalia&#231;&#227;o foram: sobrevida livre de eventos em um ano, expressa em porcentual; e expectativa de vida, expressa em anos de vida. Essas medidas foram escolhidas para an&#225;lise de custo-efetividade por fornecerem um aspecto prontamente quantific&#225;vel do benef&#237;cio dos procedimentos percut&#226;neos coronarianos, e por se prestarem &#224; an&#225;lise detalhada de custo. A inclus&#227;o do desfecho "anos de vida ajustados para qualidade de vida" (QALYs) n&#227;o p&#244;de ser viabilizada, na medida em que n&#227;o foram encontrados estudos conduzidos na popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira que tenham quantificado a qualidade de vida em indiv&#237;duos com angina ou sintomas de cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica.</p>
    <p><italic>Descri&#231;&#227;o do modelo de decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica -</italic> A &#225;rvore de decis&#227;o cl&#237;nica foi dividida em dois modelos: vers&#227;o a curto prazo e modelo Markov. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figura 1</xref> ilustra as decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas iniciais e os desfechos imediatos e a curto prazo (seis meses) para cada uma das estrat&#233;gias. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">figura 2</xref> ilustra a simula&#231;&#227;o para a coorte que sobreviveu ao procedimento, incluindo aqueles que permaneceram livres de eventos em seis meses ou que tiveram reestenose e foram novamente submetidos a procedimentos de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. Esta segunda parte &#233; um modelo de Markov (estados transicionais) para toda a vida ap&#243;s revasculariza&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea ou cir&#250;rgica. Mortalidade n&#227;o-card&#237;aca por faixa et&#225;ria foi estabelecida de modo id&#234;ntico para todas as estrat&#233;gias e foram estimadas a partir de t&#225;buas de sobrevida da popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira no ano de 2001 (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ibge/diretoria">www.ibge/diretoria de pesquisas</ext-link>). Essa estrutura de modelo foi descrita em outras an&#225;lises econ&#244;micas, com objetivos semelhantes<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Pressupostos do modelo -</italic> Para preparo do modelo, foram consideradas estrat&#233;gias que tentam reproduzir a pr&#225;tica vigente. Na estrat&#233;gia de <italic>stent</italic> convencional, se ocorresse reestenose, as alternativas eram: angioplastia percut&#226;nea com bal&#227;o ou cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. Nesse cen&#225;rio, o uso de <italic>stent</italic> na reestenose s&#243; foi considerado naqueles casos de dissec&#231;&#227;o pelo bal&#227;o ou resultado insatisfat&#243;rio (estimado em 11%). No caso de reestenose nos indiv&#237;duos submetidos a procedimento inicial com <italic>stent</italic> recoberto, as alternativas foram semelhantes, a n&#227;o ser pelo fato de, na necessidade de uso de <italic>stent</italic>, ser utilizado novamente <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina. Na eventualidade de o procedimento percut&#226;neo inicial ou por reestenose falhar (n&#227;o passar, n&#227;o dilatar, apresentar oclus&#227;o), o paciente era encaminhado para cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. Pacientes que apresentassem trombose subaguda do <italic>stent</italic> poderiam evoluir para infarto do mioc&#225;rdio fatal ou seriam encaminhados para procedimento percut&#226;neo. A cirurgia s&#243; foi considerada nesse cen&#225;rio ap&#243;s falha na tentativa com interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea. Durante os primeiros seis meses, os pacientes poderiam apresentar reestenose (recorr&#234;ncia de estenose &gt; 50% no di&#226;metro) sintom&#225;tica ou n&#227;o. Apenas os casos sintom&#225;ticos foram considerados para revasculariza&#231;&#227;o de vaso-alvo. Pacientes com sintomas recorrentes de reestenose poderiam ser submetidos, no m&#225;ximo, a tr&#234;s tentativas de procedimento percut&#226;neo antes de serem encaminhados para revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. Pacientes sem sintomas ap&#243;s os seis meses iniciais eram considerados livres de eventos relacionados ao procedimento e entravam no modelo de Markov da hist&#243;ria natural de cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica ap&#243;s procedimento de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. Foi considerado o per&#237;odo de tr&#234;s a seis meses como tempo m&#233;dio de uso de clopidogrel. No contexto desta an&#225;lise, n&#227;o foi considerada a possibilidade de trombose tardia dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos. Pacientes que entravam no modelo de Markov p&#243;s-revasculariza&#231;&#227;o poderiam considerar quatro estados de sa&#250;de ao longo da vida: morte, est&#225;vel p&#243;s-interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea, est&#225;vel p&#243;s-cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio ou apresentar angina. Os casos de angina eram imediatamente encaminhados para interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea. No modelo de Markov, todos os custos e benef&#237;cios em sa&#250;de futuros foram descontados a uma taxa de 3% ao ano.</p>
    <p><italic>An&#225;lise da efetividade -</italic> Os resultados das principais medidas de desfechos cl&#237;nicos e probabilidades necess&#225;rias para inclus&#227;o no modelo anal&#237;tico de decis&#227;o est&#227;o listados nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">2</xref>. As estimativas foram obtidas da literatura, por meio de revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica dos ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados publicados at&#233; 2003 e que envolveram <italic>stents</italic> convencionais e registros internacionais de procedimentos percut&#226;neos (SIRIUS, C-SIRIUS, E-SIRIUS, Cypher-restenose)<sup>6-9,11</sup>.</p>
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        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Custo do procedimento &#237;ndice -</italic> O custo do procedimento &#237;ndice foi calculado considerando duas diferentes perspectivas para o estudo. Para a perspectiva do pagador n&#227;o-p&#250;blico, foram coletadas informa&#231;&#245;es sobre o custo m&#233;dio hospitalar para interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea com coloca&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stent</italic> convencional e de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina em oito diferentes hospitais do Brasil (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">tab. 2</xref>). Os valores obtidos foram gerais e baseados em informa&#231;&#245;es fornecidas por institui&#231;&#245;es de refer&#234;ncia. A estimativa basal utilizada no modelo foi a obtida da conta anal&#237;tico-financeira de casos semelhantes em um hospital particular, ou seja, o valor efetivamente cobrado pelo prestador de servi&#231;o ao plano de sa&#250;de/paciente (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">tab. 3</xref>). As varia&#231;&#245;es dos custos das outras institui&#231;&#245;es foram utilizadas nas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade. Na perspectiva do pagador p&#250;blico, foram obtidos custos m&#233;dios para as interven&#231;&#245;es, considerando o sistema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica em hospitais do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS) do Brasil, utilizando como refer&#234;ncias valores reembolsados por interna&#231;&#245;es semelhantes. Para procedimentos percut&#226;neos foi feita a an&#225;lise de 436 casos realizados no ano de 2002, sendo 159 cirurgias de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o, 58 infartos agudos do mioc&#225;rdio e 262 interna&#231;&#245;es por insufici&#234;ncia coronariana aguda. Para estrat&#233;gia do uso de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina, foi adicionado o valor de mercado do <italic>stent</italic> ao valor pago pelo procedimento, pelo fato de o mesmo n&#227;o ser contemplado na tabela do SUS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">tab. 3</xref>).</p>
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      <table-wrap id="t3">
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    </p>
    <p>Os honor&#225;rios m&#233;dicos n&#227;o foram considerados nas an&#225;lises basais, levando-se em conta o pressuposto de que estes seriam semelhantes entre as diferentes estrat&#233;gias, independentemente do <italic>stent</italic> empregado. Entretanto, como para os procedimentos de reestenose tamb&#233;m n&#227;o estava contemplado esse dado, poderia haver um desequil&#237;brio na compara&#231;&#227;o. Nesse sentido, foram conduzidas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade paralelas, adicionando um valor fixo (R$ 400,00 a R$ 1.200,00) por procedimento referente a honor&#225;rios m&#233;dicos previstos na tabela da Associa&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica Brasileira (AMB). Na perspectiva do SUS, estes est&#227;o contemplados no valor total do procedimento. Da mesma forma, o custo adicional do antiagregante plaquet&#225;rio clopidogrel por tr&#234;s a seis meses ap&#243;s o procedimento n&#227;o foi considerado custo direto pela perspectiva do pagador, mas foi inclu&#237;do nas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade.</p>
    <p><italic>Custo do manejo da cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica est&#225;vel -</italic> Os custos do manejo da cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica est&#225;vel foram estimados em coorte de pacientes com cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica em acompanhamento cl&#237;nico h&#225; quatro anos em ambulat&#243;rio especializado de cardiologia. Essa coorte permitiu computar o custo m&#233;dio com consultas m&#233;dicas, testes diagn&#243;sticos invasivos e n&#227;o-invasivos, outros exames laboratoriais e medica&#231;&#245;es atualmente prescritas para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria e manejo de casos sintom&#225;ticos<sup>22</sup>. Na estimativa do custo anual para o manejo da cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica tamb&#233;m foram considerados dois cen&#225;rios: valores da tabela do SUS e valores de acordo com a tabela da AMB (an&#225;lises de sensibilidade). Todos os custos inclu&#237;dos consideraram valores m&#233;dios no ano de 2003, em reais (R$).</p>
    <p><italic>An&#225;lise dos dados -</italic> Para cada estrat&#233;gia foram calculados o custo esperado e os desfechos cl&#237;nicos descritos (sobrevida livre de eventos em um ano, expectativa de vida em anos de vida). As estrat&#233;gias foram listadas em ordem crescente de custo, sendo aquelas com benef&#237;cio menor, mas com custo maior, exclu&#237;das por domin&#226;ncia. Para as estrat&#233;gias com custo e benef&#237;cio maiores, foi calculada a rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional em compara&#231;&#227;o com aquela imediatamente de menor valor. Para todas as vari&#225;veis consideradas no modelo, foram realizadas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade de uma e duas entradas, dentro de varia&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis na literatura ou plaus&#237;veis clinicamente. Para estimar com mais precis&#227;o o impacto na expectativa de vida das diferentes estrat&#233;gias, foi conduzida uma simula&#231;&#227;o de Monte Carlo com dez mil tentativas aleat&#243;rias. O modelo e as an&#225;lises foram conduzidos no programa para &#225;rvore de decis&#227;o DATA (Treeage Software Inc., vers&#227;o 4.8, 2003).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Efetividade das estrat&#233;gias -</italic> A sobrevida em um ano livre de reestenose foi de 92,7% com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina, de 78,8% com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional e de 78,8% com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina somente para os casos de reestenose com <italic>stent</italic> convencional (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">tab. 4</xref>). A diferen&#231;a absoluta entre as duas primeiras estrat&#233;gias foi de 14%, semelhante aos resultados do ensaio cl&#237;nico SIRIUS e an&#225;lises agregadas<sup>11</sup>. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa entre as duas &#250;ltimas estrat&#233;gias, pois o benef&#237;cio do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina somente &#233; oferecido ap&#243;s a ocorr&#234;ncia do desfecho reestenose.</p>
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      <table-wrap id="t4">
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    </p>
    <p>Usando esses pressupostos descritos, o modelo anal&#237;tico previu que, para indiv&#237;duos com 50 anos de idade, sintom&#225;ticos, com les&#227;o coronariana e indica&#231;&#227;o de procedimento de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o, a expectativa de vida &#233; muito semelhante entre todas as estrat&#233;gias avaliadas (18,5 a 19 anos de vida), certamente inferior aos 25 anos esperados para a popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira em geral no ano de 2001 (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ibge.com.br">www.ibge.com.br</ext-link>).</p>
    <p><italic>Custos das estrat&#233;gias -</italic> Sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es conveniadas e particulares, o custo no primeiro ano de manejo da les&#227;o coronariana &#237;ndice foi de R$ 14.024,00 com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional, de R$ 15.128,00 com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional seguido de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto nos casos de reestenose, e de R$ 17.840,00 com <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina. A diferen&#231;a de custo entre o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional e de <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina foi de R$ 3.816,00 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">fig. 3</xref>). O custo ao longo da vida estimado para o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional foi de R$ 86.218,00 ou R$ 4.668,00 por ano; para o uso de <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina, o custo total foi de R$ 85.803,00 ou R$ 4.617,00 por ano; e o uso inicial de <italic>stent</italic> convencional seguido de <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina para os casos de reestenose foi de R$ 80.913,00 ou R$ 4.377,00 por ano.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f3">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es p&#250;blicas do SUS, o custo no primeiro ano de manejo da les&#227;o coronariana &#237;ndice foi de R$ 5.788,00 com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional, de R$ 7.102,00 com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional seguido de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto nos casos de reestenose, e de R$ 12.708,00 com o uso de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina. A diferen&#231;a de custo entre usar <italic>stent</italic> convencional e <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina foi de R$ 6.619,00. O custo ao longo da vida estimado para o uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional foi de R$ 47.643,00 ou R$ 2.570,00 por ano; para o uso de <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina, esse custo total foi de R$ 53.565,00 ou R$ 2.877,00 por ano; e para o uso inicial de <italic>stent</italic> convencional seguido de <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina para os casos de reestenose foi de R$ 47.604,00 ou R$ 2.566,00 por ano.</p>
    <p><italic>Custo-efetividade das estrat&#233;gias -</italic> Sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es conveniadas e particulares, a sobrevida livre de eventos em um ano foi superior com o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina, mas a um custo total tamb&#233;m maior, resultando em rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional de R$ 27.403,00 por evento evitado em um ano (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">tab. 4</xref>). A estrat&#233;gia de utilizar <italic>stent</italic> recoberto somente para os casos que tiveram <bold>reestenose ap&#243;s implante de <italic>stent</italic> convencional</bold> teve custo cumulativo maior quando comparado ao do uso de <italic>stent</italic> convencional, mas com o mesmo benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico, tendo sido a rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade considerada dominada do ponto de vista econ&#244;mico neste desfecho em curto prazo.</p>
    <p>Sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es p&#250;blicas, a sobrevida livre de eventos em um ano foi superior com o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina, mas a um custo total tamb&#233;m maior, resultando em rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional de R$ 47.529,00 por evento evitado em um ano. A rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade na estrat&#233;gia de usar <italic>stent</italic> recoberto somente para os casos de <bold>reestenose ap&#243;s implante de <italic>stent</italic> convencional</bold> tamb&#233;m foi considerada dominada nesse cen&#225;rio.</p>
    <p><italic>An&#225;lise de sensibilidade -</italic> Algumas vari&#225;veis tiveram impacto significativo nos resultados. Do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, a probabilidade de sintomas na presen&#231;a de reestenose angiogr&#225;fica, a probabilidade estimada de reestenose basal com o <italic>stent</italic> convencional e a redu&#231;&#227;o de risco esperada com <italic>stent</italic> recoberto tiveram impacto nas estimativas. Quanto maior a probabilidade de sintomas mais favor&#225;vel o uso de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina. Por exemplo, aumentando esse &#237;ndice de probabilidade de sintomas por reestenose angiogr&#225;fica de 60% para 88%, a sobrevida livre de eventos com <italic>stent</italic> convencional cairia de 78% para 71% e com <italic>stent</italic> recoberto, de 93% para 90%, resultando em rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto de R$ 6.744,00 por evento evitado, sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es conveniadas e particulares. A inclus&#227;o dos custos dos honor&#225;rios m&#233;dicos n&#227;o alterou os achados. A rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto em compara&#231;&#227;o com o <italic>stent</italic> convencional passou de R$ 27.403,00 para R$ 26.860,00, considerando-se o valor de R$ 400,00 para essa vari&#225;vel sob a perspectiva dos conv&#234;nios.</p>
    <p>Sob a perspectiva do SUS, o modelo tamb&#233;m se mostrou robusto na maioria das vari&#225;veis e pressupostos considerados. As vari&#225;veis que mais influenciaram os resultados foram: probabilidade de sintomas na presen&#231;a de reestenose angiogr&#225;fica, probabilidade estimada de reestenose basal com o <italic>stent</italic> convencional, e redu&#231;&#227;o de risco esperada com <italic>stent</italic> recoberto. Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao custo, novamente, o custo do <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina e o custo do manejo da reestenose foram determinantes dos achados.</p>
    <p>Sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es particulares e conveniadas, a probabilidade basal de reestenose com <italic>stent</italic> convencional &#233; um determinante da efetividade e do custo de ambas as estrat&#233;gias. Considerando-se a reestenose cl&#237;nica esperada inferior a 20%, a rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade para o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto fica muito mais desfavor&#225;vel, superior a R$ 50.000,00 por sobrevida em um ano livre de eventos. Por outro lado, em situa&#231;&#245;es com reestenose esperada superior a 40%, a rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade &#233; inferior a R$ 15.000,00 por sobrevida em um ano livre de eventos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">fig. 4</xref>). Essa tend&#234;ncia repetiu-se na an&#225;lise sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es p&#250;blicas do SUS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">fig. 4</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f4">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Alguns determinantes econ&#244;micos tamb&#233;m influenciaram os resultados, mudando a propor&#231;&#227;o entre as estrat&#233;gias. Entre eles, o custo do procedimento &#237;ndice, basicamente o custo do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina e do <italic>stent</italic> convencional, bem como sua propor&#231;&#227;o e o custo do tratamento da reestenose tiveram efeito nos dados obtidos. Sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es particulares ou conveniadas, se o valor do <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina fosse inferior a R$ 6.600,00, seu uso seria estrat&#233;gia dominante sob os pontos de vista cl&#237;nico e econ&#244;mico em rela&#231;&#227;o ao <italic>stent</italic> convencional. Na faixa entre R$ 6.600,00 e R$ 8.000,00, resultaria custo adicional inferior a R$ 10.000,00 por evento evitado; entre R$ 8.000,00 e R$ 9.400,00, o custo adicional ficaria entre R$ 10.000,00 e R$ 20.000,00 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">fig. 4</xref>). Modificando-se outro par&#226;metro concomitantemente (probabilidade de reestenose basal quando superior a 40%), esses valores para o <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina seriam de R$ 7.500,00, R$ 9.300,00 e R$ 11.100,00 para as faixas de pre&#231;os acima, respectivamente. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">figura 4</xref> demonstra que as mesmas tend&#234;ncias foram encontradas sob a perspectiva de institui&#231;&#245;es p&#250;blicas do SUS, mas com valores mais elevados.</p>
    <p>O custo da reestenose tamb&#233;m influenciou as rela&#231;&#245;es obtidas. Com o aumento desse custo, semelhante para ambas as estrat&#233;gias, a estrat&#233;gia mais atraente &#233; a do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto. Sob a perspectiva de particulares e conv&#234;nios, se o custo da reestenose for inferior a R$ 10.000,00, o uso do <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina ter&#225; custo adicional superior a R$ 20.000,00 por reestenose evitada; se o custo do manejo da reestenose for entre R$ 10.000,00 e R$ 19.000,00, a rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional para o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto ser&#225; de R$10.000,00 a R$ 20.000,00 por evento evitado; e se o custo da reestenose for superior a R$ 19.000,00, o custo por evento evitado &#233; inferior a R$ 10.000,00.</p>
    <p><italic>Custo-efetividade das estrat&#233;gias por ano de vida salvo -</italic> Sob a perspectiva de conv&#234;nios e particulares, a expectativa de vida foi menor com a interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea com <italic>stent</italic> convencional, seguida do <italic>stent</italic> convencional mais rapamicina em caso de reestenose, e maior com o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina. O custo total foi maior para esta &#250;ltima estrat&#233;gia e menor para o uso do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto somente em casos de reestenose. A compara&#231;&#227;o entre <italic>stent</italic> recoberto nos casos de reestenose e <italic>stent</italic> com rapamicina resultou em rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional de R$ 49.464,00 por ano de vida salvo.</p>
    <p>Sob a perspectiva do SUS, os resultados foram semelhantes, com valores superiores na rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade, resultando em rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional de R$ 356.354,00 por ano de vida salvo.</p>
    <p>&#201; importante ressaltar que, embora as estimativas demonstrem rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade adicional elevada com <italic>stent</italic> recoberto e dominada para o <italic>stent</italic> convencional, a an&#225;lise de Monte Carlo com dez mil simula&#231;&#245;es sugere que as estrat&#233;gias s&#227;o muito semelhantes, pr&#243;ximas a valores entre R$ 0,00 e R$ 10.000,00 por ano de vida salvo. Em mais de 75% das simula&#231;&#245;es, as rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade foram inferiores a esses valores, para ambos os cen&#225;rios.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As t&#233;cnicas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de est&#227;o evoluindo rapidamente, a uma velocidade sem precedentes. Associado a isso, em algumas &#225;reas, como a cardiologia, ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados est&#227;o sendo conduzidos, praticamente, em paralelo &#224; comercializa&#231;&#227;o dos produtos. Isso foi observado em meados da d&#233;cada de 1990 com os <italic>stents</italic> convencionais e agora com os <italic>stent</italic> recobertos por medicamentos. Uma pesquisa realizada pela <italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic> (FDA), nos Estados Unidos, pr&#233;via &#224; libera&#231;&#227;o de registro dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos, sinalizava que, ap&#243;s um ano, o porcentual de uso de <italic>stents</italic> desse tipo alcan&#231;aria 77% do total de dispositivos utilizados em interven&#231;&#245;es percut&#226;neas. Esses dados, embora interessantes, pois refor&#231;am a ades&#227;o dos m&#233;dicos cardiologistas aos avan&#231;os na &#225;rea, s&#227;o percebidos com preocupa&#231;&#227;o no que se refere &#224; sa&#250;de financeira das institui&#231;&#245;es. Por esse motivo, &#233; imprescind&#237;vel a quantifica&#231;&#227;o dos benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos de novas t&#233;cnicas bem como de seus custos, e, em havendo incremento de ambos, se os custos est&#227;o em uma propor&#231;&#227;o razo&#225;vel em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ganho em sa&#250;de que oferecem.</p>
    <p>Neste trabalho, foi avaliada a rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade de tr&#234;s estrat&#233;gias, comparando o emprego de <italic>stent</italic> convencionais e de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por rapamicina por meio de um modelo anal&#237;tico de decis&#227;o aplic&#225;vel &#224; pr&#225;tica da cardiologia intervencionista brasileira. Observou-se que o maior custo inicial do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto &#233; parcialmente compensado ao longo do primeiro ano. Comparativamente, a diferen&#231;a de custos em um ano entre o <italic>stent</italic> convencional e o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina foi de R$ 3.816,00 sob a perspectiva de conv&#234;nios e de R$ 6.619,00 sob a perspectiva do SUS, com rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade em um ano por evento evitado de R$ 27.403,00 para os conv&#234;nios e de R$ 47.643,00 para o SUS. Em nosso meio, n&#227;o est&#227;o estabelecidos quais custos adicionais s&#227;o considerados aceit&#225;veis para determinado benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico de uma interven&#231;&#227;o. Os sistemas de sa&#250;de norte-americano e canadense usam o referencial de US$ 50.000,00 por QALY e, mais recentemente, de US$ 10.000,00 por evento maior evitado<sup>12,15</sup> como um emprego razo&#225;vel dos recursos em sa&#250;de. Com base nessas refer&#234;ncias internacionais, as rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina poderiam ser consideradas economicamente atrativas para conv&#234;nios e particulares.</p>
    <p>A estrat&#233;gia de usar <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina foi ainda mais favor&#225;vel em certos subgrupos de pacientes, como aqueles de alto risco de reestenose e aqueles com elevado custo no manejo de reestenose. Al&#233;m disso, dependendo do valor do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por rapamicina, a estrat&#233;gia do uso rotineiro dessa interven&#231;&#227;o pode ser dominante ou mais atrativa do ponto de vista de custo-efetividade na perspectiva dos conv&#234;nios. Embora a mesma tend&#234;ncia tenha sido observada sob a perspectiva do SUS, os valores foram sempre mais elevados.</p>
    <p>At&#233; o momento, diversos autores j&#225; avaliaram a rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por medicamentos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao <italic>stent</italic> convencional em outros pa&#237;ses. Cohen e cols.<sup>13</sup> demonstraram, em modelo anal&#237;tico, custo por evento evitado de US$ 1.650,00 por procedimento de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o evitado e de US$ 27.500,00 por QALY<sup>12</sup>. Outro estudo americano avaliando o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por paclitaxel apresentou resultados semelhantes, US$ 4.678,00 e US$ 47.798,00, respectivamente<sup>27</sup>. Por outro lado, an&#225;lises econ&#244;micas canadenses demonstraram que, de modo geral, os <italic>stents</italic> recobertos n&#227;o s&#227;o uma t&#233;cnica com boa rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade, exceto talvez quando empregados em pacientes de alto risco. Os resultados apresentados, segundo as perspectivas de diferentes prov&#237;ncias, foram bastante d&#237;spares, variando de 12.000 a 20.000 d&#243;lares canadenses por revasculariza&#231;&#227;o evitada a 438.415 a 2.221.692 d&#243;lares canadenses por QALY<sup>13, 28-30</sup>. N&#227;o muito diferentes dos resultados apresentados por outros pa&#237;ses, como Austr&#225;lia e It&#225;lia<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>At&#233; o momento, n&#227;o h&#225; registro de an&#225;lises econ&#244;micas formais de custo-efetividade no Brasil. Em um estudo observacional, Quadros e cols.<sup>32</sup> estimaram a custo-efetividade da substitui&#231;&#227;o do <italic>stent</italic> convencional por <italic>stent</italic> recoberto em uma coorte de pacientes submetidos a interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea em institui&#231;&#227;o p&#250;blica no Brasil. Calculou-se que se fosse empregado <italic>stent</italic> recoberto, haveria incremento nos custos de R$ 9.524,00 por paciente, com custo por evento evitado superior a R$ 190.000,00. Esses valores foram muito mais elevados que os descritos em outros estudos, provavelmente pelo porcentual observado de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o em vaso-alvo de apenas 5,8% na coorte avaliada com vasos de grande calibre<sup>32</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ao contr&#225;rio dessas avalia&#231;&#245;es econ&#244;micas baseadas em modelos anal&#237;ticos, Kaiser e cols.<sup>15</sup> conduziram ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado pragm&#225;tico sob a perspectiva do sistema de sa&#250;de su&#237;&#231;o, encontrando resultados cl&#237;nicos semelhantes aos dos estudos SIRIUS e TAXUS. Sob a perspectiva do sistema su&#237;&#231;o, o uso de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto teve incremento de 905 euros nos custos acumulados em seis meses, resultando em custo por procedimento evitado de 18.311 euros e de 72.283 euros por QALY ganha. Na interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos autores, os resultados n&#227;o foram favor&#225;veis &#224; incorpora&#231;&#227;o dessa t&#233;cnica.</p>
    <p>Grande parte da varia&#231;&#227;o dos resultados econ&#244;micos pode ser explicada por peculiaridades de cada sistema e, principalmente, pela diferen&#231;a de custo com o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto. Al&#233;m disso, a estimativa inicial dos ensaios cl&#237;nicos sobre o benef&#237;cio dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos varia com a interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos autores sobre o efeito em sua pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o de custo-efetividade insatisfat&#243;ria dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos descrita pode ser aprimorada de tr&#234;s modos: 1) com o aumento da efetividade cl&#237;nica dos mesmos, considerando os resultados em m&#233;dio prazo dos ensaios cl&#237;nicos, em que maior benef&#237;cio poderia ocorrer em termos de sistema de sa&#250;de ap&#243;s os primeiros dois anos; 2) reduzindo os custos dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos, j&#225; que todas as an&#225;lises de sensibilidade apontam para a necessidade de redu&#231;&#227;o de pre&#231;o; e 3) assegurando o uso dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos em subgrupos de pacientes de alto risco, nos quais a incid&#234;ncia de reestenose estimada seria superior a tr&#234;s vezes o valor referencial. Segundo achados deste estudo, seria razo&#225;vel considerar mais custo-efetivo seu emprego em pacientes com diabetes, em pacientes com vasos pequenos ou naqueles candidatos a cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o em caso de desenvolvimento de reestenose.</p>
    <p>Igualmente relevante, embora fuja ao escopo deste estudo, &#233; a estimativa do impacto financeiro da ado&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos nos setores tanto p&#250;blico como privado, caso se opte por sua inclus&#227;o. Por exemplo, na an&#225;lise do impacto econ&#244;mico da substitui&#231;&#227;o total ou parcial dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por drogas utilizando dados de 2005 de procedimentos no SUS, excluindo-se casos de angioplastia sem implante de <italic>stent</italic> e angioplastia prim&#225;ria, foram realizados aproximadamente 27.500 procedimentos. Considerando-se o uso de 1,2 <italic>stent</italic> por procedimento, teriam sido implantados aproximadamente 33.040 <italic>stents</italic> (m&#233;dia de 2.294 por m&#234;s). A substitui&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stent</italic> convencional por <italic>stent</italic> recoberto por medicamentos em 20% dos casos (alto risco), a um custo adicional de R$ 4.020,00, poderia ter impacto superior a R$ 26.000.000,00 no per&#237;odo de um ano, mesmo com o pre&#231;o do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto reduzido &#224; metade do atualmente praticado no mercado brasileiro (R$ 6.600,00 para o recoberto e R$ 2.580,00 para o convencional). Alguns autores argumentam que esse incremento inicial seria parcialmente compensado pela redu&#231;&#227;o de novos procedimentos em futuro pr&#243;ximo e maior efici&#234;ncia do sistema<sup>33</sup>. Entretanto, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel estabelecer se ocorrer&#225; redu&#231;&#227;o real de custos, na medida em que pode haver aumento do n&#250;mero efetivo de pacientes atendidos com doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria.</p>
    <p>Algumas considera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o importantes quando da interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos achados deste estudo. Em primeiro lugar, a estimativa incorporada do benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico do <italic>stent</italic> recoberto foi aquela descrita nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados, em que foi empregada angiografia de controle definida por protocolo. &#201; conhecido que esses ensaios tendem a superestimar a indica&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos percut&#226;neos<sup>31</sup>, fato confirmado na publica&#231;&#227;o de registros de pacientes submetidos a implante de <italic>stent</italic> recoberto em que a redu&#231;&#227;o absoluta das taxas de reestenose tem sido inferior &#224; dos ensaios cl&#237;nicos<sup>33,34</sup>. Em segundo lugar, trata-se de um modelo anal&#237;tico hipot&#233;tico, em que se buscou reconstruir a pr&#225;tica para a maioria das situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, embora reconhecidamente exista muita heterogeneidade nessa &#225;rea. Em terceiro lugar, tanto o sistema p&#250;blico como o de medicina suplementar no Brasil apresentam peculiaridades em algumas regi&#245;es e Estados, que podem n&#227;o ter sido representadas nos pressupostos do modelo. De qualquer forma, foi buscada, como referencial, a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica reconhecida e preconizada em diretrizes, com o emprego de um modelo v&#225;lido em estudos semelhantes.</p>
    <p>Recentemente, evid&#234;ncias t&#234;m emergido indicando a possibilidade de que <italic>stents</italic> recobertos possam apresentar trombose tardia, evento que poderia ser associado &#224; suspens&#227;o da dupla terapia antiagregante plaquet&#225;ria<sup>35</sup>. Estudos de necropsias de pacientes que morreram ap&#243;s implante de <italic>stent</italic> sugerem que o risco de trombose tardia teria como mecanismo fundamental a endoteliza&#231;&#227;o inapropriada no local de implante de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos<sup>36</sup>. Por essa raz&#227;o, alguns autores t&#234;m recomendado que a dupla prote&#231;&#227;o antiplaquet&#225;ria seja mantida por pelo menos um ano ou mais<sup>37</sup>. Adicionalmente, uma meta-an&#225;lise recente<sup>38-40</sup> sugeriu que o uso de <italic>stents</italic> recobertos poderia ser associada a aumento de mortalidade n&#227;o-card&#237;aca a partir de dois anos de acompanhamento. Como esses dados ainda n&#227;o foram confirmados por ensaios cl&#237;nicos espec&#237;ficos, o presente estudo avaliou as rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade considerando a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de dupla prote&#231;&#227;o antiplaquet&#225;ria por tr&#234;s meses para os <italic>stents</italic> recobertos por rapamicina. Entretanto, se houver indica&#231;&#227;o de uso prolongado de dois antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios, os custos calculados para o <italic>stent</italic> recoberto devem ser ainda maiores.</p>
    <p>Apesar de os resultados apresentados sugerirem rela&#231;&#227;o custo-efetividade desfavor&#225;vel para o uso de rotina dos <italic>stents</italic> recobertos, espera-se que no futuro essa t&#233;cnica continue a evoluir, que os custos sejam reduzidos e que os benef&#237;cios sejam otimizados, a exemplo do ocorrido com <italic>stents</italic> convencionais h&#225; uma d&#233;cada. De qualquer forma, &#233; o momento para a comunidade cardiol&#243;gica se mobilizar na coleta prospectiva, validada e representativa de dados sobre a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, desfechos e custos em longo prazo dos procedimentos e das interven&#231;&#245;es realizadas na cardiologia. Seguindo modelos adotados por outros pa&#237;ses<sup>39</sup>, um sistema atuante poder&#225; fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es concretas sobre o benef&#237;cio, o custo e o desempenho das t&#233;cnicas em uso e daquelas emergentes, permitindo o uso seguro e racional baseado na realidade brasileira.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O presente estudo foi patrocinado pela <italic>Cordis do Brasil,</italic> empresa que produz <italic>stent</italic> recoberto com rapamicina. Os autores tiveram plena autonomia na an&#225;lise, interpreta&#231;&#227;o e reda&#231;&#227;o dos resultados.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Carisi Anne Polanczyk </p>
        <p> Rua Gen. Oscar Miranda, 160/1001 </p>
        <p> 90440-160 &#150; Porto Alegre, RS </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="carisi@terra.com.br">carisi@terra.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 14/12/06; artigo revisado recebido em 28/12/06; aceito em 11/01/07.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Cost-effectiveness of sirolimus-eluting stents in percutaneous coronary interventions in Brazil</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVES: To compare the cost-effectiveness ratios of sirolimus-eluting stents (SES) with bare-metal stents (BMS) under two perspectives: the "supplementary medical system" (health plans and private patients) and the public health (SUS) system. METHODS: A decision-analytic model using three different therapeutic strategies for coronary lesions: percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with BMS; with SES; or with BMS followed by SES to treat symptomatic restenosis. Study endpoints were one-year event-free survival and life expectancy. Decision trees were constructed using the results of published registries and clinical trials. RESULTS: One-year restenosis-free survival was 92.7% with SES and 78.8% with BMS. Estimated life expectancy was very similar for all the strategies, ranging from 18.5 to 19 years. Under a nonpublic perspective, the cost difference in the first year between BMS and SES was R$3,816, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of R$27,403 per event avoided in one year. Under the SUS perspective, the cost per event avoided in one year was R$47,529. In the sensitivity analysis, probability of restenosis, risk reduction expected with SES, the price of the stent and cost of treating restenosis were all important predictors. In the Monte Carlo simulation, data per years of life saved showed very high cost-effectiveness ratios. CONCLUSION: In the Brazilian model, the cost-effectiveness ratios for SES were elevated. The use of SES was more favorable for patients with high risk of restenosis, as it is associated with elevated costs in restenosis management of and under a nonpublic perspective.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Stents</kwd>
        <kwd>pharmacologic stents</kwd>
        <kwd>sirolimus</kwd>
        <kwd>angioplasty, transluminal, percutaneous coronary</kwd>
        <kwd>National Health System (BR)</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Cost-effectiveness of sirolimus-eluting stents in percutaneous coronary interventions in Brazil</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Carisi Anne Polanczyk; Marco V. Wainstein; Jorge Pinto Ribeiro</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Programa de P&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o em Cardiologia da UFRGS e Hospital Moinhos de Vento &#150; Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVES:</bold> To compare the cost-effectiveness ratios of sirolimus-eluting stents (SES) with bare-metal stents (BMS) under two perspectives: the "supplementary medical system" (health plans and private patients) and the public health (SUS) system.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> A decision-analytic model using three different therapeutic strategies for coronary lesions: percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with BMS; with SES; or with BMS followed by SES to treat symptomatic restenosis. Study endpoints were one-year event-free survival and life expectancy. Decision trees were constructed using the results of published registries and clinical trials.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> One-year restenosis-free survival was 92.7% with SES and 78.8% with BMS. Estimated life expectancy was very similar for all the strategies, ranging from 18.5 to 19 years. Under a nonpublic perspective, the cost difference in the first year between BMS and SES was R$3,816, with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of R$27,403 per event avoided in one year. Under the SUS perspective, the cost per event avoided in one year was R$47,529. In the sensitivity analysis, probability of restenosis, risk reduction expected with SES, the price of the stent and cost of treating restenosis were all important predictors. In the Monte Carlo simulation, data per years of life saved showed very high cost-effectiveness ratios.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> In the Brazilian model, the cost-effectiveness ratios for SES were elevated. The use of SES was more favorable for patients with high risk of restenosis, as it is associated with elevated costs in restenosis management of and under a nonpublic perspective.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Stents/economics; pharmacologic stents; sirolimus; angioplasty, transluminal, percutaneous coronary; National Health System (BR).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Compared with conventional balloon angioplasty, elective stent implantation results in a significantly higher success rate, decrease in angiographic restenosis, and reduction in subsequent target-lesion revascularization<sup>1-3</sup>. Coronary stenting has emerged as the major myocardial revascularization technique throughout the world, accounting for more than 90% of the catheter-based percutaneous interventions. The ever-growing number of stents implanted in Brazil is documented by the National Registry of Cardiovascular Interventions (CENIC -Central Nacional de Interven&#231;&#245;es Cardiovasculares), from only 37% during the 1999/2000 biennium<sup>4</sup>, with a 2.44-fold increase from 1996 to 2004<sup>5</sup>. Data from the Health Ministry's Unified Health System (DATASUS) show that approximately 33,040 stents were implanted from September 2004 to August 2005 (2294, on average, per month).</p>
      <p>However, in-stent restenosis remains the main limitation of this form of percutaneous intervention. Restenosis is a progressive process, resulting in additional morbidity and costs, particularly due to the need for repeat target-lesion revascularization. A number of clinical trials conducted over the last years have shown a significant reduction in hyperplastic response following drug-eluting stent (DES) implantation<sup>6-8</sup>. The use of DES, as compared with BMS, significantly reduces the rate of target-vessel revascularization, with no effect on all-cause mortality or myocardial infarction<sup>9-11</sup>.</p>
      <p>Nonetheless, this greater effectiveness of drug-eluting stents is associated with higher therapeutic costs. Economic analyses performed in the United States show that the use of sirolimus-eluting stents results in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of approximately US$1,650 per event avoided in one year and US$27,500 per quality-adjusted life years (QALY)<sup>12</sup>. Yet, cost-effectiveness studies conducted in other countries reported widely varying figures, ranging from Can$58,721/QALYs in Canada to &#8364;73,282/QALYs in Switzerland<sup>13,14</sup>. As Brazilian economic structure and delivery of health services are very different from other countries, these data cannot not be extrapolated to our reality, and studies based on national practice, both in the public and private sectors, are needed. Therefore, this study provides a cost-effectiveness analysis of sirolimus(rapamycin)-eluting stenting in different clinical settings in Brazil.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Description of the economic evaluation -</italic> A decision-analytic model was constructed to compare both the costs and effectiveness of three therapeutic strategies for patients with symptomatic coronary artery disease. (a) percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) with bare-metal stent; (b) PCI with sirolimus-eluting stents (c), and PCI with BMS followed by SES for symptomatic restenosis.</p>
      <p><italic>Population model</italic> - The study population was designed for cohorts of patients with symptomatic, single-vessel disease that could undergo any of the three strategies. It was assumed that the cohort would be composed of subjects whose characteristics were similar to those described in clinical trials, that is, mean lesion length of 14 mm, vessels ranging from 2.5 to 3.5 mm in diameter, and a representative number of diabetics <sup>6,7</sup>. Although the initial model does not stratify the study population in these risk groups, the impact of these demographic variables on the incidence of restenosis, effectiveness, and global costs is evaluated in the sensitivity analyses.</p>
      <p><italic>Study endpoints</italic> - Study endpoints were the following: one-year event-free survival, expressed in percentages; and life expectancy, expressed in years of life. These endpoints were selected for the cost-effectiveness analysis because they provide both a readily quantifiable aspect of the benefit afforded by percutaneous coronary interventions and thorough cost analysis. The endpoint "quality-adjusted life years (QALYs)" could not be included, since no quality of life studies in patients with angina or symptoms of ischemic heart disease were found on the Brazilian population.</p>
      <p><italic>Description of the clinical decision model</italic> - The clinical decision tree was divided into two models: the short-term version and the Markov model. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_17f1-body2">Figure 1</xref> shows the early therapeutic decisions, as well as immediate and short-term (6 months) endpoints for each strategy. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_17f2-body2">Figure 2</xref> shows the simulation for the cohort that survived the procedure, including those who remained free of events for six months or experienced restenosis and underwent repeat revascularization. The second part is a Markov Model (transitional states) for the whole life after percutaneous or surgical revascularization. Noncardiac mortality per age group was established identically for all strategies, and survival tables for the Brazilian population in 2001 were estimated (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ibge/diretoria">www. Ibge/diretoria de pesquisas/</ext-link>). This structural model was described in other economic analysis with similar purposes<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_17f1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_17f2-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Model assumptions</italic> - To prepare this model, strategies that attempt to reproduce the current practice were considered. In the bare-metal stent strategy, the following alternatives were offered for restenosis: percutaneous balloon angioplasty or coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. In this scenario, stent implantation for restenosis was considered only in cases of balloon dissection or poor outcome (estimated at 11%). In the event of restenosis in patients who received SES as initial treatment, the alternatives were similar, but if another stent was to be implanted, the same type of stent would be used. If the percutaneous intervention failed, either initially or after restenosis (failure to cross the lesion, failure to dilate the lesion, or occlusion), the patient was referred for CABG. Patients with subacute stent thrombosis would progress to fatal myocardial infarction or be referred for percutaneous intervention. In this study, CABG was considered only after PCI failed. During the first six months, patients might experience symptomatic or asymptomatic restenosis (recurrent stenosis &gt;50% in luminal diameter). Only symptomatic cases were considered for target-vessel revascularization. Patients with recurrent symptoms of restenosis could undergo at most three percutaneous intervention attempts before being referred for CABG. Patients who remained asymptomatic after the first six months were regarded as free of procedure-related events and entered the Markov model of the natural history of ischemic heart disease following revascularization. An average of 3-6 months of exposure to clopidogrel was considered. In the context of this analysis, the possibility of late thrombosis with SES was not taken into account. Patients who entered the Markov model after revascularization could progress to four health states during their lifetime: death, stable after PCI, stable after CABG, or experience angina. Angina patients were immediately referred for PCI. In the Markov Model, all future costs and health benefits were discounted 3% per year.</p>
      <p><italic>Effectiveness analysis</italic> - The results of the main clinical endpoint and probabilities needed in the decision analytic model are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_17t1-body2">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="en_17t2-body2">2</xref>. Estimates were derived from the literature, by means of a systematic review of the randomized clinical trials published up to 2003 involving bare-metal stents and data from multinational registries of PCI (SIRIUS, C-SIRIUS, E-SIRIUS, Cypher-restenose<sup>6-9,11</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_17t1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_17t2-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Index procedure cost - Index procedure cost was calculated assuming two different perspectives for the study. For the perspective of the nonpublic payer, information was collected on the mean hospitalization cost for PCI with bare-metal and sirolimus-eluting stenting in eight different Brazilian hospitals (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_17t2-body2">Table 2</xref>). Values obtained were general and based on information provided by reference institutions. In this model, baseline estimate was derived from financial analysis reports of similar cases in a private hospital, that is to say, the actual amount charged by the health care service provider to the health plan/patient (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_17t3-body2">Table 3</xref>). Cost variations found in other institutions were used in the sensitivity analyses. Under the perspective of the public payer, mean costs of interventions were obtained considering the public health system in Brazilian hospitals affiliated with SUS, using as reference the amounts reimbursed by similar admissions. For percutaneous interventions, a review was carried out of 436 procedures performed during 2002, 159 CABG surgery, 58 acute myocardial infarction, and 262 admissions for acute coronary insufficiency. For the strategy of using SES, the market price of the stent was added to the procedural cost, since it is not listed in the SUS reimbursement table (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_17t3-body2">Table 3</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
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      </p>
      <p>Medical fees were not considered in the baseline analyses, assuming they were similar for the different strategies, regardless of the stent used. However, as this information was also not included for restenosis procedures, there might be a bias in the comparison. In this respect, other sensitivity analyses were conducted by adding a fixed amount (R$400 to R$1,200) per procedure according to the AMB (Brazilian Medical Society) medical fee schedule. Under the SUS perspective, they are included in the total cost of the procedure. Likewise, the additional cost of the anti-platelet agent clopidogrel during three to six month post-procedure was not considered a direct cost under the payer perspective, but was included in the sensitivity analyses.</p>
      <p><italic>Cost of stable ischemic heart disease management -</italic> The costs of treating stable ischemic heart disease were estimated based on a cohort of patients with ischemic heart disease who have been under follow-up for four years in a specialized cardiac outpatient clinic. This cohort provided information on mean medical fees, invasive and non-invasive diagnostic tests, other laboratory tests, and current medication prescribed for secondary prevention and management of symptomatic patients <sup>22</sup>. In estimating the annual cost of ischemic heart disease management, two scenarios were considered, namely: values of the SUS and Brazilian Medical Association reimbursement tables (sensitivity analyses). All costs included took into account the mean values in 2003, in Brazilian reals (R$)</p>
      <p><italic>Data analysis</italic> - For each strategy, the expected cost was calculated and clinical endpoints were described (one-year free-event survival and life expectancy in years of age). Strategies were ranked in increasing order of cost, and those less beneficial and more expensive were excluded by dominance. For the more beneficial and more expensive strategies, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio was calculated and compared with that immediately less expensive. For all variables included in the model, sensitivity analyses of one and two entries were performed, within ranges available in the literature or those clinically plausible. To estimate the impact of the different strategies on life expectancy more accurately, a Monte Carlo simulation was performed with 10,000 random trials. The model and analyses were performed using the DATA program developed by Treeage software Inc. (version 4.8, 2003).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Effectiveness -</italic> One-year restenosis-free survival was 92.7% with the sirolimus-eluting stent strategy, 78.8% with the bare-metal stent strategy, and 78.8% with the sirolimus-eluting stent followed by bare-metal stent strategy for restenosis. The absolute difference between the first two strategies was 14%, similar to that of the SIRUS trial and aggregate analyses <sup>11</sup>. No significant difference was found between the last two strategies, because the benefit of sirolimus-eluting stent was offered only after the restenosis endpoint was reached.</p>
      <p>Based on the above mentioned assumptions, the analytic model predicted that, for 50-year old symptomatic patients with coronary lesion and indication for revascularization, life expectancy is very similar in all strategies assessed - between 18.5 and 19 years of age. This is indeed lower than the 25 years expected for the Brazilian population in general in 2001 (<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.ibge.com.br">www.ibge.com.br</ext-link>).</p>
      <p><italic>Costs</italic> - Under the perspective of non-public institutions, the cost for treating index coronary lesion in the first year was R$14,024 using bare-metal stent, R$15,128 using bare-metal stent followed by sirolimus-eluting stent for restenosis, and R$17,840 using sirolimus-eluting stent. The cost difference between bare-metal and sirolimus-eluting stenting was R$3,816 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig3-body2">Figure 3</xref>). Estimated lifetime cost was R$86,218 (or R$4,668 per year) for bare-metal stent; R$85,803 (or R$4,617 per year) for sirolimus-eluting stent; and R$80,913 (or R$4,377 per year) for bare-metal stent followed by sirolimus-eluting stent for estenosis.</p>
      <fig id="fig3-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Under the perspective of public institutions (SUS), the cost for treating index coronary lesion during the first year was R$5,788 using bare-metal stent, R$7,102 using bare-metal stent followed by sirolimus-eluting stent for restenosis, and R$12,708 using sirolimus-eluting stent. The cost difference between using bare-metal stent and sirolimus-eluting stent was R$6,619. Estimated lifetime cost was R$47.643,00 (or R$2,570 per year) for bare-metal stent; R$53,565 (or R$2,877 per year) for sirolimus-eluting stent; and R$47,604 (or R$2,566 per year) for bare-metal stent followed by sirolimus-eluting stent for restenosis.</p>
      <p><italic>Cost-effectiveness</italic> - Under the perspective of non-public institutions, one-year event-free survival was higher with sirolimus-eluting stent, but at a higher cost, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of R$27,403 per event avoided in one year (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_17t4-body2">Table 4</xref>). The strategy of using sirolimus-eluting stent only for restenosis was associated with a higher cumulative cost than that of bare-metal stent, but yielding the same clinical benefit, so that, in this short-term endpoint, it was considered dominated.</p>
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      </p>
      <p>Under the perspective of public institutions, one-year event-free survival was higher with sirolimus-eluting stent, but at a higher total cost, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of R$47,529 per event avoided in one year. The strategy of using sirolimus-eluting stent only for conventional restenosis was also considered dominated in this scenario.</p>
      <p><italic>Sensitivity analysis</italic> - Some variables had significant impact on the results. From the clinical standpoint, the probability of symptoms in the presence of angiographic restenosis, the estimated probability of baseline restenosis with bare-metal stent, and the expected risk reduction with sirolimus-eluting stent all affected the estimates. The more likely the symptoms, the more favorable the use of sirolimus-eluting stent. For example, raising this probability rate of symptoms caused by angiographic restenosis from 60% to 88%, event-free survival with bare-metal stent would fall from 78% to 71%, and with sirolimus-eluting stent, from 93% to 90%, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for sirolimus-eluting stent of R$6,744 per avoided event, under the perspective of non-public institutions. The inclusion of medical fees did not change these findings. The cost-effectiveness ratio for sirolimus-eluting stent compared with bare-metal stent fell from R$27,403 to R$26,860, assuming an amount of R$400 for this variable under the perspective of health plans.</p>
      <p>Under the SUS perspective, the model also proved to be robust in most variables and assumptions considered. The variables which most influenced the results were the following: probability of symptoms in the presence of angiographic restenosis, estimated probability of baseline restenosis with bare-metal stent, and expected risk reduction with sirolimus-eluting stent. With regard to costs, again, the cost of both sirolimus-eluting stent and restenosis management determined our findings.</p>
      <p>Under the perspective of non-public institutions, the baseline probability of restenosis with bare-metal stent is a determinant of the effectiveness and cost of both strategies. Assuming a 20% lower expected clinical restenosis, the cost-effectiveness of sirolimus-eluting stent becomes much more unfavorable, more than R$50,000 per one-year event-free survival. On the other hand, when expected restenosis is higher than 40%, the cost-effectiveness ratio is less than R$15,000 per one-year event-free survival (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_17f4-body2">Figure 4</xref>). This trend was maintained in the analysis under the perspective of public institutions of the Unified Health System (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_17f4-body2">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_17f4-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-04-0464-00017-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Some economic determinants also influenced our results, changing rates of strategies. Among them, the cost of index procedure, basically that of sirolimus-eluting and bare-metal stents, as well as its rate and the cost of restenosis management affected the resulting data. Under the perspective of non-public institutions, if the sirolimus-eluting stent cost less than R$6,600, its use would be a dominant strategy from both clinical and economic standpoints, as compared with bare-metal stent. Within the range of R$6,600 to R$8,000, it would result in an additional cost of less than R$10,000 per avoided event, and from R$8,000 to R$9,400, between R$10,000 and R$20,000 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_17f4-body2">Figure 4</xref>). Varying another parameter concomitantly, if the probability of baseline restenosis was greater than 40%, these figures for sirolimus-eluting stent would be R$7,500, R$9,300, and R$11,100 for the abovementioned intervals, respectively. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_17f4-body2">Figure 4</xref> shows that the same trends were found under the perspective of SUS institutions, albeit with higher figures.</p>
      <p>The cost of restenosis also influenced the obtained ratios. With an increase in this cost, similarly for both strategies, the drug-eluting stent strategy becomes more attractive. Under the perspective of private patients and health plans, if restenosis management is less than R$10,000, the use of sirolimus-eluting stent has an additional cost greater than R$20,000 per avoided restenosis; if it is between R$10,000 and R$19,000, the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio for the sirolimus-eluting stent ranges between R$10,000 and R$ 20,000 per avoided event; and if it is more than R$19,000, the cost for avoided event is less than R$10,000.</p>
      <p><italic>Strategy cost-effectiveness per year of life saved</italic> - Under the perspective of health plans and private patients, life expectancy was greatest with the PCI strategy with sirolimus-eluting stent, followed by bare-metal plus sirolimus-eluting stent for restenosis and bare-metal stent. Overall cost was highest for the first strategy and lowest for that of sirolimus-eluting stent only in cases of restenosis. The comparison of using sirolimus-eluting stent for restenosis and as initial treatment resulted in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of R$49,464 per year of life saved.</p>
      <p>Under the perspective of the Unified Health System, the results were similar, with greater cost-effectivenss ratios, resulting in an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of R$356,354 per year of life saved.</p>
      <p>It should be emphasized that, although the estimates show an elevated incremental cost-effectiveness ratio with sirolimus-eluting stent and dominated for bare-metal stent, the Monte Carlo analysis with 10,000 simulations suggests that the strategies are very similar, with figures ranging from R$0 to R$10,000 per year of life saved. In more than 75% of the simulations, cost-effectiveness ratios were lower than these, for both scenarios.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Technologies in the health care field are expanding rapidly, at unprecedented speed. In addition, in some specialities, such as cardiology, randomized clinical trials are being conducted virtually concomitantly with the commercialization of the products. This was seen in the mid-90s with bare-metal stents and, now, with drug-eluting stents. A study commissioned by the U.S Food and Drug Administration, before drug-eluting stents were released for use, indicated that, after one year, this stent would account for 77% of all devices used in percutaneous interventions. These data, albeit interesting, since they stimulate cardiologists' adherence to the advances achieved in the field, raise concern regarding the institutions financial health. Therefore, it is imperative that the clinical benefits of new technologies, as well as their costs, be quantified. Also important is whether there is an increment of both and a reasonable cost-benefit ratio.</p>
      <p>In this study, the cost-effectiveness of three different strategies comparing the use of bare-metal stent and sirolimus-eluting stent was assessed using a decision analytic model applicable to the practice of interventional cardiology in Brazil. The initial higher cost of the sirolimus-eluting stent is partially offset over the first year. Comparing bare-metal and sirolimus-eluting stents, cost difference in one year was R$3,816 under the perspective of health plans and R$6,920 under the perspective of SUS, with one-year cost-effectiveness ratios per avoided event of R$27,403 for health plans and R$47,643 for the SUS. The additional costs deemed acceptable for a given clinical benefit derived from an intervention are yet to be established in Brazil. United States and Canada's health care systems use the reference of US$50,000 per quality-adjusted life years saved and, more recently, US$10,000 per major event avoided<sup>12,15</sup> using a reasonable amount of health resources. Based on these international references, the cost-effectiveness ratios of sirolimus-eluting stent could be considered economically attractive for health plans and private patients alike.</p>
      <p>The strategy of using sirolimus-eluting stent was even more favorable in subgroups of patients, such as those at high risk of restenosis and those presenting high cost of restenosis management. Moreover, depending on the price of the sirolimus-eluting stent, the use of this intervention on a routine basis may be dominant or more attractive, from the standpoint of cost-effectiveness, for health plans. Even though the same trend was observed for the SUS, the amounts were always higher.</p>
      <p>Thus far, several authors in other countries have evaluated the cost-effectiveness ratio of drug-eluting stents relative to bare-metal stents. In an analytic model, Cohen et al<italic>.</italic> have shown a cost of US$1,650 per revascularization avoided and US$27,500 per QALYs<sup>12</sup>. Another study conducted in the United States to evaluate paclitaxel-eluting stents has shown similar results, US$4,678 and US$47,798, respectively<sup>27</sup>. On the other hand, economic analyses conducted in Canada revealed that, overall, drug-eluting stents are not a cost-effective technology, perhaps unless used in high-risk patients. Their results for different provinces varied widely, ranging from Can$12,000-20,000 per avoided revascularization to Can$438,415 &#150; 2,221.692 per QALYs<sup>13,28-30</sup>. These figures did not differ significantly from other countries, such as Australia and Italy<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>To date, we have not found any formal economic cost-effectiveness analysis in Brazil. In an observational study, Quadros et al. has estimated the cost-effectiveness of replacing bare-metal stent for drug-eluting stent in a cohort of patients who underwent PCI in a Brazilian public institution. It was estimated that, if drug-eluting stent were used, there would be an increment of R$9,524 per patient, with the cost per event avoided being over R$190,000. These figures were far higher than those described in other studies, probably because the target-vessel revascularization rate in the cohort with large vessels studied was as low as 5.8%<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Unlike these economic analyses based on analytic models, Kaiser et al. conducted a pragmatic randomized clinical trial in the context of the Swiss public health system and found clinical outcomes similar to those of SIRIUS and TAXUS. Under the perspective of the Swiss system, drug-eluting stenting cumulative costs increased by ?905 in six months, resulting in a cost per procedure avoided of ?18,311 and ?72,283 per QALY gained. According to the authors, their results did not favor the incorporation of this technology<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Part of the variance in economic results may be explained by the peculiarities of each system and, particularly, by the difference in terms of cost with sirolimus-eluting stents. In addition, the initial estimate of clinical trials regarding the benefit of drug-eluting stent varies according to the authors' interpretation of its effect in their clinical practice.</p>
      <p>The unfavorable cost-effectivess of drug-eluting stents just described may be enhanced in three ways: (i) increasing their clinical effectiveness &#150; assuming the medium-term results of clinical trials, where a greater benefit could be derived in terms of the health system after the first two years; (ii) reducing their cost &#150; all sensitivity analyses suggest the need for price reduction; (iii) making sure they are used in subgroups of high-risk patients, in whom the estimated incidence of restenosis would be more than three times greater than the reference value. According to our findings, it would be reasonable to say that the use of drug-eluting stent is cost-effective in patients with diabetes, small vessels or candidates for surgical revascularization who might develop restenosis.</p>
      <p>Despite being beyond the scope of this study, it is also important that the financial impact of drug-eluting stents be estimated both in the public and private sectors, if they choose to use them. For example, in the analysis of the economic impact of total or partial replacement of drug-eluting stents using data from 2005 procedures under the SUS, excluding angioplasty without stent implantation and primary angioplasty, a total of 27,500 interventions were performed. Assuming that 1.2 stents were used per procedure, approximately 33,040 stents (2294 per month, on average) were implanted. The replacement of bare-metal stents for drug-eluting stents in 20% of the cases (high risk), at an additional cost of R$4,020.00, could have an impact of over R$26,000.000 in one year, even if the price of drug-eluting stents drops to half its current value in the Brazilian market (R$6,600 for drug-eluting stent and R$2,580 for bare-metal stent). Some authors argue that this initial increment would be partially offset by a decrease in the number of procedures in the near future and greater efficacy of the system <sup>34</sup>. However, whether costs will actually drop remains to be established, since the actual number of patients treated for coronary artery disease may increase.</p>
      <p>Some considerations are relevant to the interpretation of our findings. Firstly, the estimated clinical benefit of the drug-eluting stent incorporated in this study was that described in randomized clinical trials using control angiography defined by protocol. It is known that these clinical trials tend to overestimate the indication for percutaneous procedures<sup>31</sup>, a fact that was confirmed with the publication of patients registries undergoing drug-eluting stent implantations in which the absolute reduction of restenosis rates was lower than those of clinical trials<sup>32,34</sup>. Secondly, this was a hypothetical analytic model that sought to reproduce the practice used in most clinical situations, even though it is known that this area is fraught with heterogeneity. Thirdly, in Brazil, both the public health system and the "supplementary medical system" have distinctive characteristics in some regions, which might not have been represented in the model assumptions. At any rate, we used as reference the recognized clinical practice advocated in guidelines, using a model validated in similar studies.</p>
      <p>Over the last year, evidence has emerged that drug-eluting stents are likely to cause late thrombosis, an event that could be associated with the discontinuation of dual antiplatelet therapy<sup>37</sup>. Autopsy studies of patients who died following drug-eluting stenting suggest that the basic mechanism of late thrombosis is the poor endothelialization at the implantation site<sup>38</sup>. Therefore, some authors recommend that the dual antiplatelet regime be maintained for at least one year, or even longer<sup>39</sup>. Additionally, a recent meta-analysis (40) has suggested that drug-eluting stents may be associated with increased noncardiac mortality as of 2 years of follow-up. As these data have not yet been corroborated by specific clinical trials, the present study evaluated the cost-effectiveness ratios considering the use of dual antiplatelet therapy during three months for drug-eluting stents. However, if long-term use of two antiplatelet agents is indicated, the costs calculated for drug-eluting stents are likely to be even higher.</p>
      <p>Although study results suggest unfavorable cost-effectiveness for the routine use of drug-eluting stents, it is expected that technology will continue to evolve, cost will drop, and benefits will be optimized, as occurred with bare-metal stents a decade ago. Either way, the time has come for the cardiology community to collect prospective, validated data about clinical practice, endpoints, and long-term costs of cardiac procedures and interventions. In keeping with models adopted by other countries<sup>35</sup>, an effective system will be able to provide concrete information about the benefit, cost, and performance of existing and emerging technologies, enabling their safe and rational use based on the Brazilian reality.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study was sponsored by Cordis do Brasil, a company that manufactures drug-eluting stents. The authors were free to analyze, interpret, and report the results.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="back-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Carisi Anne Polanczyk</p>
          <p> Rua Gen. Oscar Miranda, 160/1001</p>
          <p> 90440-160 &#150; Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="carisi@terra.com.br">carisi@terra.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received December 14, 2006; revised manuscript received December 28, 2006; accepted January 11, 2007.</p>
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