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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">f4P5RfjG6yTtjpph79PSHHP</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00018</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007000200018</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08800218</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007000200018</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cardiovascular na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Shiozaki</surname>
            <given-names>Afonso Akio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kim</surname>
            <given-names>Raymond J.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Parga</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Rodrigues</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tassi</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Marinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Arteaga</surname>
            <given-names>Edmundo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Servi&#231;o de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica e Tomografia Computadorizada Cardiovascular dos Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S.A.</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">Carolina do Norte</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Cardiovascular de Duke</institution>
        <country country="">EUA</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>88</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>243</fpage>
      <lpage>248</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>03</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</kwd>
        <kwd>resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>progn&#243;stico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>22</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cardiovascular na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Afonso Akio Shiozaki<sup>I</sup>; Raymond J. Kim<sup>II</sup>; Jos&#233; Rodrigues Parga<sup>I</sup>; Eduardo Marinho Tassi<sup>III</sup>; Edmundo Arteaga<sup>I</sup>; Carlos Eduardo Rochitte<sup>I</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Setor de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica e Tomografia Computadorizada Cardiovascular do Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (InCor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas &#150; FMUSP &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
    <p> IIICentro de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Cardiovascular de Duke, Durham, Carolina do Norte (EUA)</p>
    <p> IIIServi&#231;o de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica e Tomografia Computadorizada Cardiovascular dos Diagn&#243;sticos da Am&#233;rica S.A. &#150; Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#150; Brasil</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, diagn&#243;stico, progn&#243;stico.</p>
    <p>Entre as doen&#231;as card&#237;acas gen&#233;ticas, a cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; a que mais causa morte s&#250;bita em jovens, com incid&#234;ncia de 1:500 na popula&#231;&#227;o adulta. Os crit&#233;rios usados rotineiramente para pior progn&#243;stico apresentam sensibilidade e especificidade limitadas. Assim, o risco estimado de evolu&#231;&#227;o para cardiomiopatia dilatada ou morte s&#250;bita &#233; um tanto impreciso, gerando d&#250;vidas quanto ao tratamento adequado a ser institu&#237;do nos portadores de CMH. Portanto, um m&#233;todo n&#227;o-invasivo acurado para o diagn&#243;stico de CMH, com valor progn&#243;stico, adquire grande import&#226;ncia. </p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cardiovascular (RMC) tem sido considerada n&#227;o apenas uma ferramenta diagn&#243;stica, mas tamb&#233;m um estudo com valor progn&#243;stico, pois caracteriza a fibrose mioc&#225;rdica com bastante exatid&#227;o em portadores de cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. Al&#233;m disso, a RMC tamb&#233;m identifica os diversos padr&#245;es de hipertrofia, analisa a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, estima o gradiente intraventricular e permite a determina&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico diferencial com outras causas que levam &#224; cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Entre as doen&#231;as card&#237;acas gen&#233;ticas, a cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) &#233; considerada a principal respons&#225;vel pelos casos de morte s&#250;bita em jovens<sup>1</sup>, com incid&#234;ncia relativamente freq&#252;ente de 1:500 em adultos<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>O car&#225;ter polig&#234;nico da doen&#231;a, com mais de 200 muta&#231;&#245;es<sup>3</sup>, leva a uma express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica extremamente vari&#225;vel<sup>4</sup>. Embora alguns indiv&#237;duos permane&#231;am assintom&#225;ticos durante toda a vida, outros apresentam morte s&#250;bita como primeira manifesta&#231;&#227;o<sup>5</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os fatores de risco comumente usados para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes<sup>6</sup> s&#227;o: morte s&#250;bita e antecedentes familiares de CMH; s&#237;ncope inexplicada; taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada; resposta anormal da press&#227;o arterial durante teste de esfor&#231;o na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica em indiv&#237;duos com mais de 40 anos; e presen&#231;a de grande hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (&gt; 30 mm ao ecocardiograma). Esses crit&#233;rios s&#227;o &#250;teis para orientar os m&#233;dicos no tratamento de portadores de cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. </p>
    <p>Entretanto, a exatid&#227;o desses crit&#233;rios &#233; limitada, gerando d&#250;vidas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao verdadeiro risco de morte s&#250;bita. </p>
    <p>Desta forma, &#233; de fundamental import&#226;ncia contar com novos m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos com poder progn&#243;stico suficiente para identificar indiv&#237;duos que apresentam maior risco de morte s&#250;bita e dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Essa abordagem permitiria a implementa&#231;&#227;o de uma terapia mais agressiva nesse grupo de indiv&#237;duos.</p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica cardiovascular (RMC) emergiu como um instrumento bastante preciso no diagn&#243;stico de CMH, sendo considerada o exame de escolha<sup>7</sup>. A RMC avalia os diversos padr&#245;es de hipertrofia, a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e o gradiente press&#243;rico entre a via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e a aorta, al&#233;m de ser extremamente &#250;til no diagn&#243;stico diferencial com outras entidades. Pela primeira vez, um m&#233;todo n&#227;o-invasivo &#233; capaz de identificar e quantificar a distribui&#231;&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica que &#233; caracter&#237;stica nessa doen&#231;a<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>Papel da resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Recentemente, a Sociedade Europ&#233;ia de Cardiologia (<italic>Consensus Panel Report</italic>)<sup>7</sup> e, mais tarde, o <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic>/<italic>American Heart Association</italic> (<italic>Clinical Competence Statement on Cardiac Imaging with Magnetic Resonance</italic>)<sup>19</sup>, indicaram a RMC como exame de primeira escolha ou no m&#237;nimo equivalente a outros m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos na abordagem de diversas cardiomiopatias, inclusive CMH. </p>
    <p>A grande precis&#227;o da RMC na an&#225;lise anatomofuncional dos ventr&#237;culos esquerdo e direito na quantifica&#231;&#227;o do volume e da massa ventricular<sup>10-12</sup> aumentou a sensibilidade e especificidade do diagn&#243;stico de CMH (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>), permitindo a identifica&#231;&#227;o precisa de formas diversas de hipertrofia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">figs. 2</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">3</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04">4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05">5</xref>) e a determina&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico diferencial.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig05">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Um estudo comparativo entre o ecocardiograma bidimensional e a RMC em portadores de CMH revelou maior exatid&#227;o da RMC no diagn&#243;stico e na diferencia&#231;&#227;o de diversos padr&#245;es de hipertrofia. Quando a hipertrofia era mais acentuada na parede livre do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, o ecocardiograma n&#227;o fez o diagn&#243;stico de CMH, e quando a hipertrofia estava confinada &#224; parede &#226;ntero-lateral esse exame subestimou a espessura da parede em compara&#231;&#227;o com a RMC<sup>13</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04">figs. 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05">5</xref>).</p>
    <p>Dois outros estudos demonstraram menor sensibilidade do ecocardiograma comparado &#224; RMC. No diagn&#243;stico de cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica apical, o ecocardiograma n&#227;o avaliou de forma adequada o segmento apical em at&#233; 40% dos portadores de CMH<sup>14,15</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">fig. 2</xref>).</p>
    <p>Recentemente, Petersen e cols.<sup>16</sup> compararam os &#237;ndices geom&#233;tricos do VE pela RMC em portadores de CMH, volunt&#225;rios sadios e atletas profissionais com hipertrofia fisiol&#243;gica, estenose a&#243;rtica e cardiopatia hipertensiva. Esses autores demonstraram baixa sensibilidade para as medidas cl&#225;ssicas utilizadas no diagn&#243;stico de CMH, como a espessura m&#225;xima da parede no final da di&#225;stole acima de 13 mm (sensibilidade de 40%) e a rela&#231;&#227;o da espessura m&#225;xima da parede sobre a parede posterior (sensibilidade de 28%). No entanto, quando um novo &#237;ndice geom&#233;trico foi aplicado, que constitui a raz&#227;o entre o &#237;ndice de espessura m&#225;xima da parede e o volume diast&#243;lico final do VE indexado, os resultados foram promissores. Eles utilizaram esse &#237;ndice em atletas profissionais com hipertrofia do VE que tinham participado de esportes altamente competitivos - remo, nata&#231;&#227;o, corrida e ciclismo - pelo menos nos 18 meses anteriores, com m&#233;dia de treinamento semanal de 19,2 &#177; 6,8 horas durante no m&#237;nimo 8,5 &#177; 4,9 anos, e compararam com portadores de CMH, estenose a&#243;rtica e hipertensos com hipertrofia de VE. Tanto nos volunt&#225;rios sadios quanto nesses atletas, esse &#237;ndice ficou abaixo de 0,15 mm x m<sup>2 </sup>x ml.</p>
    <p>&#205;ndices superiores a 0,15 mm x m<sup>2</sup> x ml foram observados em todas as hipertrofias patol&#243;gicas, com sensibilidade de 80%, especificidade de 99%, valor preditivo negativo de 94% e valor preditivo positivo de 95% na determina&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre o cora&#231;&#227;o dos portadores de CMH e o cora&#231;&#227;o dos atletas<sup>16</sup>. </p>
    <p>Uma das principais contribui&#231;&#245;es da RMC, al&#233;m dos dados anatomofuncionais e &#237;ndices geom&#233;tricos, &#233; o delineamento da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica da CMH, que apresenta padr&#245;es espec&#237;ficos<sup>8</sup>. A presen&#231;a de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica aumenta ainda mais a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e revela o progn&#243;stico<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>A t&#233;cnica que permite a identifica&#231;&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pela RMC, denominada realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico, foi desenvolvida por Kim e cols.<sup>17-21</sup> para cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica. Esses autores demonstraram a exist&#234;ncia de uma estreita rela&#231;&#227;o entre a fibrose mioc&#225;rdica detectada pela RMC e a fibrose observada nos estudos histol&#243;gicos<sup>22</sup>. Al&#233;m do mais, um importante estudo realizado por Kim e cols.<sup>23</sup> definiu uma rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre a extens&#227;o da fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pela RMC e o potencial para recupera&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til ap&#243;s revasculariza&#231;&#227;o. Gra&#231;as a esses dados, bem como dados provenientes de outros estudos<sup>24,</sup> a RMC com realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico &#233; considerada um padr&#227;o de refer&#234;ncia para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica na doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.</p>
    <p>As t&#233;cnicas de realce tardio usam meios de contraste com distribui&#231;&#227;o extracelular que acentuam a diferen&#231;a das caracter&#237;sticas de relaxa&#231;&#227;o do tecido entre o mioc&#225;rdio normal e o mioc&#225;rdio infartado. Ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa, o contraste difunde-se rapidamente do compartimento intravascular para o compartimento extracelular. V&#225;rios minutos ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o, o gadol&#237;nio no mioc&#225;rdio normal, onde o espa&#231;o extracelular &#233; pequeno, sofre elimina&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, enquanto nas &#225;reas com espa&#231;o extracelular aumentados, como nas &#225;reas de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica ou necrose, essa elimina&#231;&#227;o &#233; lenta<sup>18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Choudhury e cols.<sup>18</sup> foram os primeiros a empregar a t&#233;cnica do realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico, detectando &#225;reas de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica em 81% dos portadores de CMH assintom&#225;ticos ou oligossintom&#225;ticos. Al&#233;m disso, esses autores observaram que o padr&#227;o de realce tardio era bastante peculiar, apresentando m&#250;ltiplos focos. O realce tardio mioc&#225;rdico na CMH n&#227;o respeitava nenhum territ&#243;rio coron&#225;rio espec&#237;fico, e na maior parte dos portadores dessa doen&#231;a ocorria particularmente na jun&#231;&#227;o entre o septo interventricular e a parede livre do ventr&#237;culo direito (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06">fig. 6</xref>). Esses dados foram demonstrados previamente por estudos de necropsia de CMH, que mostravam desarranjo das fibras mioc&#225;rdicas e fibrose mais acentuada nessas &#225;reas<sup>18,24-26</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig06">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf06.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Uma vez que a fibrose &#233; visualizada pela RMC em portadores de CMH, o realce tardio teria alguma implica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica?</p>
    <p>Na doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, Bello e cols.<sup>27</sup> demonstraram que a fibrose detectada pela RMC nas &#225;reas infartadas identifica pacientes com substrato para taquicardia ventricular monom&#243;rfica de maneira mais importante do que a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE.</p>
    <p>Assim como na cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica, as arritmias ventriculares observadas nos portadores de CMH<sup>28</sup> provavelmente decorrem das m&#250;ltiplas &#225;reas de condu&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica anormal causadas pela fibrose mioc&#225;rdica, que podem causar morte s&#250;bita<sup>29</sup>. Estudos de necropsia em portadores de CMH revelaram uma porcentagem mais elevada de fibrose nos indiv&#237;duos vitimados por morte s&#250;bita do que nos que morreram de causas n&#227;o-card&#237;acas<sup>30</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em 2003, Moon e cols.<sup>31</sup> demonstraram a presen&#231;a de realce tardio representando &#225;reas de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica pela RMC em 79% dos portadores de CMH. Estudos anteriores demonstraram que a morte s&#250;bita na CMH est&#225; relacionada com diversos fatores de risco<sup>32</sup>. A porcentagem de realce tardio era significativamente maior quando os pacientes apresentavam mais de dois fatores de risco para morte s&#250;bita (15,7% <italic>vs.</italic> 8,6% <italic>p</italic> = 0,02). O mesmo ocorria em pacientes com doen&#231;a progressiva, na forma de dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular (28,5% <italic>vs.</italic> 8,7%<italic> p</italic> &lt; 0,001). Essa diferen&#231;a manteve-se estatisticamente significante quando os indiv&#237;duos com mais de dois fatores de risco para morte s&#250;bita ou cardiomiopatia dilatada progressiva foram exclu&#237;dos.</p>
    <p>Esses autores tamb&#233;m constataram o padr&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplos focos do realce tardio relatado anteriormente. Al&#233;m disso, eles observaram dois padr&#245;es distintos. O primeiro foi denominado realce tardio confluente, um padr&#227;o mais localizado e homog&#234;neo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06">fig. 6</xref>), e o segundo, realce tardio difuso, um padr&#227;o mais focal e heterog&#234;neo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig07">fig. 7</xref>). No padr&#227;o confluente, havia uma concentra&#231;&#227;o significativa de pacientes com menor risco de morte s&#250;bita (menos de dois fatores de risco), comparado com o padr&#227;o difuso, mais freq&#252;ente nos indiv&#237;duos com maior risco (dois fatores de risco ou mais) de morte s&#250;bita.</p>
    <fig id="fig07">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf07.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Assim, portadores de CMH com realce tardio difuso foram relacionados com porcentagem mais elevada de fibrose e pior progn&#243;stico para morte s&#250;bita e dilata&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, ao contr&#225;rio dos portadores de CMH com realce tardio confluente.</p>
    <p>Concluindo, a RMC fornece um grande n&#250;mero de informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a anatomia, fun&#231;&#227;o e caracteriza&#231;&#227;o do tecido mioc&#225;rdico, melhorando sobremaneira o diagn&#243;stico de CMH. De import&#226;ncia especial &#233; a capacidade singular apresentada pela RMC de detectar e quantificar a fibrose mioc&#225;rdica em portadores de CMH, o que parece ser de grande valor progn&#243;stico. </p>
    <p>Estudos futuros definir&#227;o se a RMC pode ajudar a prever a ocorr&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita, levando a mudan&#231;as na conduta do tratamento atual de pacientes com CMH.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Carlos Eduardo Rochitte </p>
        <p> InCor - Setor de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica e Tomografia Comp. Cardiovascular </p>
        <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 </p>
        <p> 05403-000 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="rochitte@incor.usp.br">rochitte@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Artigo recebido em 23/05/06; revisado recebido em 18/06/06; aceito em 03/07/06.</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</kwd>
        <kwd>magnetic resonance</kwd>
        <kwd>diagnosis</kwd>
        <kwd>prognosis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Afonso Akio Shiozaki<sup>I</sup>; Raymond J. Kim<sup>II</sup>; Jos&#233; Rodrigues Parga<sup>I</sup>; Eduardo Marinho Tassi<sup>III</sup>; Edmundo Arteaga<sup>I</sup>; Carlos Eduardo Rochitte<sup>I</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Computed Tomography Sector of the Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o of the Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas &#150; HCFMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Duke Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Center, Durham, North Carolina - EUA</p>
      <p> IIICardiovascular Magnetic Resonance and Computed Tomography Sector of the Diagn&#243;sticos da America S.A.- Rio de Janeiro, RJ</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy; magnetic resonance; diagnosis; prognosis.</p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is the most frequent genetic cardiac disease that causes sudden death in young people, with an incidence of 1:500 adults. </p>
      <p>The routinely used criteria for worst prognosis have limited sensitivity and specificity. Thus, the estimated risk of evolving to dilated cardiomyopathy or sudden death is somewhat inaccurate, leading to management uncertainty of HCM patients.</p>
      <p>Therefore, an accurate noninvasive method for the diagnosis of HCM with prognostic value is of great importance. </p>
      <p>In the last years, Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance (CMR) emerged not only as a diagnostic tool, but also as a study with prognostic values, by characterizing myocardial fibrosis with great accuracy in HCM patients. Additionally, CMR identifies the types of hypertrophy, analyses the ventricular function, estimates the intraventricular gradient and allows the determination of differential diagnosis. Moreover, CMR can uniquely access myocardial fibrosis in HCM. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) is a genetic cardiac disease which is the major responsible for sudden death among youth<sup>1</sup>, with relatively frequent incidence of 1:500 in adults<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>The polygenic character of the disease with over 200 mutations<sup>3</sup>, leads to an extremely varied phenotypic expression<sup>4</sup>. While some subjects remain asymptomatic for their whole lives, others present sudden death as the first presentation<sup>5</sup>. </p>
      <p>The common risk factors used to stratify patients are: cardiac sudden death and family history of HCM; unexplained syncope; non-sustained ventricular tachycardia; abnormal blood pressure response during upright exercise testing in subjects &lt; 40 years old; and presence of severe left ventricular hypertrophy (&gt; 30 mm by echocardiogram). These criteria are very useful to physicians in guiding treatment of HCM subjects<sup>6</sup>. </p>
      <p>However, the accuracy of these criteria is limited, leading to uncertainty about the real risk of sudden death. </p>
      <p>Therefore, it is crucially important to have new diagnostic methods with enough prognostic power to identify potential subjects with higher risk of sudden death and ventricular dilatation form. This approach would allow more aggressive therapy with this group of subjects.</p>
      <p>In the last few years cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) has emerged as a very accurate tool in the diagnosis of HCM, even being considered as the first choice exam<sup>7</sup>. CMR evaluates several hypertrophic patterns, the ventricular function, the pressure gradient between the left ventricular outflow tract and aorta and is extremely useful for the differential diagnosis with other entities. Besides, for the first time, a non-invasive method identifies and quantifies the distribution of myocardial fibrosis found in this disease<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>The role of cardiovascular magnetic resonance in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy</p>
      <p>Recently the European Society of Cardiology (Consensus Panel Report)<sup>7</sup> and later the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association (Clinical Competence Statement on Cardiac Imaging with Magnetic Resonance)<sup>9</sup> indicated CMR as first choice exam or at least equivalent to other diagnostic methods in the approach of several cardiomyopathies, including HCM.</p>
      <p>The excellent accuracy of CMR in anatomical and functional analysis of the left and right ventricles to quantify ventricular volume and mass<sup>10-12</sup> has increased the sensitivity and specificity of the diagnosis of HCM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Figure1</xref>). This has allowed precise identification of several forms of hypertrophy (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Figures 2</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">3</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04-body2">4</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05-body2">5</xref>) and determination of differential diagnosis.</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig05-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>A comparative study of two-dimensional echocardiograms and CMR among HCM subjects demonstrated the greater accuracy of CMR in diagnosing and differentiating several patterns of hypertrophy. In cases where LV hypertrophy is more accentuated on the free wall, the echocardiogram did not permit diagnosis of HCM and among subjects with confined hypertrophy in anterolateral wall underestimated the thickness of the wall in relation to CMR<sup>13</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04-body2">Figures 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05-body2">5</xref>).</p>
      <p>Two other studies demonstrated that echocardiograms have lower sensitivity compared to that of CMRs. In the diagnosis of apical hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, echocardiograms did not properly evaluate the apical segment in up to 40% of HCM subjects<sup>14,15</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
      <p>Recently, Petersen et al<sup>16</sup> compared geometric LV indices by CMR in HCM subjects, healthy volunteers, competitive athletes with physiologic hypertrophy, aortic stenosis and hypertensive heart disease. These authors pointed to the low sensitivity in the classic measurements used in diagnosis of HCM, such as the maximal end-diastolic wall thickness over 13mm (40% sensitivity) and wall thickness ratio (28% sensitivity). However, when a new geometric index was applied using the maximal end-diastolic thickness-to-left ventricular end-diastolic volume index ratio, the results were promising. They compared this index among athletes participating in high-level competitive sports, which were principally rowing, swimming, running, and cycling for at least the previous 18 months with an average of 19.2 &#177; 6.8 hours of training per week for the last 8.5 &#177; 4.9 years with that of the HCM subjects. This index for healthy volunteers and athletes was lower than 0.15 mm x m<sup>2</sup> x ml.</p>
      <p>Indices higher than 0.15mm x m<sup>2</sup> x ml was observed in all pathological hypertrophies and presented a sensitivity of 80%, specificity of 99%, negative predictive value of 94%, and positive predictive value of 95% in determining the differential diagnosis between HCM and the athletes&#146; hearts<sup>16</sup>. </p>
      <p>One of the major contributions of CMR, besides the anatomical and functional data and geometric indices, is the delineation of myocardial fibrosis in HCM, which follows specific patterns<sup>8</sup>. The presence of myocardial fibrosis increases even more the diagnostic accuracy and provide an insight on the prognosis.</p>
      <p>The technique that allows the identification of myocardial delayed enhancement (MDE) in ischemic heart disease was developed by Kim et al<sup>17-21</sup>. They demonstrated a close correlation between myocardial fibrosis by CMR and the fibrosis seen in histology<sup>22</sup>. Moreover, a landmark study by Kim et al<sup>23</sup> defined a direct relationship between the extent of myocardial fibrosis by CMR and the potential for contractility recovery after revascularization. This data and other are the basis for considering CMR MDE as a gold-standard for myocardial viability in coronary artery disease<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>The MDE technique uses contrast based agents that have extracellular distribution and accentuate the difference in tissue relaxation characteristics between infarcted and normal myocardium. Following intravenous administration, the contrast agent diffuses rapidly from the intravascular to the extracellular compartment. Several minutes after injection, gadolinium in the normal myocardial, which has small extracellular space, washes out rapidly, while slow wash out occurs within areas with enlarged extracellular space, such as areas of myocardial fibrosis or necrosis<sup>17</sup>. </p>
      <p>Choudhury et al<sup>8</sup> were the first to use the MDE technique to detect myocardial fibrosis areas in 81% of asymptomatic or mild symptomatic HCM subjects. Furthermore, these authors observed that the delayed enhancement pattern was very peculiar, with multiple foci standard. The myocardial hyperenhancement in HCM did not respect any specific coronary territory and in the majority of HCM subjects was found mostly at the junction between the interventricular septum and right ventricular free wall (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06-body2">Figure 6</xref>). This was previously demonstrated by HCM necropsy studies that showed myocardial disarray and highly accentuated fibrosis in these areas<sup>8,24-26</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig06-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf06-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Once the fibrosis is visualized in the HCM by CMR, would the delayed enhancement have any prognostic implication?</p>
      <p>In coronary artery disease, Bello et al <sup>27</sup> showed that fibrosis measured by CMR in infarcted areas are better identifiers of patients who have a substrate for monomorphic ventricular tachycardia than LV ejection fraction.</p>
      <p>Similar to ischemic cardiomyopathy, the probable origin of ventricular arrhythmias in HCM subjects<sup>28</sup> is the multiple areas of electrical abnormal conduction caused by myocardial fibrosis, which could lead to sudden death<sup>29</sup>. Necropsy studies of HCM subjects demonstrated a higher fibrosis percentage in subjects who had sudden death when compared to those who died from non-cardiac causes<sup>30</sup>.</p>
      <p>Moon et al, in 2003<sup>31</sup>, demonstrated the presence of delayed enhancement representing myocardial fibrosis areas by CMR in 79% of HCM patients. Previous studies demonstrated that sudden death in HCM correlates to a number of risk factors<sup>32</sup>. The percentage of delayed enhancement was significantly higher when patients presented more than 2 risk factors for sudden death (15.7% vs. 8.6% p = 0.02). It was also significantly higher in patients who presented with progressive disease, in the form of ventricular dilatation (28.5% vs. 8.7% p &lt; 0.001). This difference remained statistically significant when the subjects with more than 2 risk factors for sudden death or those with progressive dilated form were excluded.</p>
      <p>These authors have also found the multiple foci delayed enhancement pattern previously related. Furthermore, they also observed 2 distinct patterns. The first pattern was denominated confluent hyperenhancement, a more localized and homogeneous pattern (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig06-body2">Figure 6</xref>); the second, diffuse hyperenhancement, a more patchy and heterogeneous pattern (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig07-body2">Figure 7</xref>). In the confluent pattern, there was a significant concentration of patients with lower risk for sudden death. (less than 2 risk factors), compared to the diffuse pattern, that was more frequent with higher risk (2 or more risk factors) for sudden death.</p>
      <fig id="fig07-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-02-0243-00018-gf07-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Thus, HCM subjects with diffuse delayed enhancement correlated to a higher percentage of fibrosis and to a worse prognosis for sudden death and left ventricular dilatation, while the HCM subjects with confluent delayed enhancement did not.</p>
      <p>In conclusion, CMR provides a large amount of information on myocardial anatomy, function and tissue characterization that crucially improves HCM diagnosis. Of special importance is the singular CMR capability of detecting and quantifying myocardial fibrosis in HCM patients, which seems to be of great prognostic value.</p>
      <p>Further studies will define if CMR can improve prediction of sudden death that will lead to changes in the current of management of HCM patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing Address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Carlos Eduardo Rochitte</p>
          <p> InCor - Setor de Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica e Tomografia Computadorizada Cardiovascular </p>
          <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44</p>
          <p> 05403-000 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="rochitte@incor.usp.br">rochitte@incor.usp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p> Received for publication on May 23, 2006; revised manuscript received June 18, 2006; accepted July 3, 2006</p>
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