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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">kQVmDVZFwLLxSJVkpkSCvNx</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00020</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2007000100020</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(07)08800120</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2007000100020</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Interse&#231;&#227;o cardiorrenal: conflu&#234;ncia para o futuro</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>McCullough</surname>
            <given-names>Peter A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Royal Oak</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MI</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">William Beaumont Hospital</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Divisions of Cardiology, Nutrition and Preventive Medicine </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Department of Medicine</institution>
        <country country="US">USA</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>88</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>117</fpage>
      <lpage>126</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Interse&#231;&#227;o cardiorrenal: conflu&#234;ncia para o futuro</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Peter A. McCullough, MD, MPH, FACC, FACP, FCCP, FAHA</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiology, Nutrition and Preventive Medicine, William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, MI - USA</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Doen&#231;a cardiovascular, doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, aterosclerose, microalbumin&#250;ria, hipertens&#227;o, nefropatia, diabetes, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, esclerose a&#243;rtica, calcifica&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral, arritmias card&#237;acas.</p>
    <p>A pandemia de obesidade est&#225; causando epidemias secund&#225;rias de diabetes tipo 2, s&#237;ndrome dismetab&#243;lica e hipertens&#227;o. Com isso, o n&#250;mero de pacientes com doen&#231;a renal e aterosclerose coronariana est&#225; aumentando cada vez mais. A doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica acelera o curso da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, independentemente dos fatores de risco card&#237;acos tradicionais. Al&#233;m disso, est&#225; associada com hipertrofia ventricular esquerda e fibrose mioc&#225;rdica, valvopatia a&#243;rtica e mitral e arritmias atriais e ventriculares. Conseq&#252;entemente, &#233; comum a ocorr&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita inexplicada em pacientes em hemodi&#225;lise, atribu&#237;da muitas vezes &#224; cardiopatia. Este artigo analisa as evid&#234;ncias de cardiopatia ateroscler&#243;tica acelerada na presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a renal e destaca novos alvos diagn&#243;sticos e terap&#234;uticos para esse quadro.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Aterog&#234;nese acelerada na doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#192; medida que as popula&#231;&#245;es adultas envelhecerem nas d&#233;cadas vindouras, as taxas de praticamente todas as doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas dever&#227;o subir. Atualmente, dezenas de milh&#245;es de pessoas em todo o mundo sofrem de doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) associada com doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (DRC)<sup>1</sup>. S&#243; nos Estados Unidos, mais de 300.000 pessoas est&#227;o sendo submetidas &#224; terapia renal substitutiva (TRS), que aumenta de 5 a 40 vezes o risco de eventos cardiovasculares fatais<sup>2-5</sup>. Doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica geralmente &#233; definida como taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular estimada (TFGe) &lt; 60 ml/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup> ou rela&#231;&#227;o albumina/creatinina elevada (&gt; 30 mg/g) em amostra isolada de urina. Uma redu&#231;&#227;o na TFGe abaixo da esperada para a idade constitui um indicador de menor massa parenquimatosa renal e perda parcial das fun&#231;&#245;es reguladoras normais, como press&#227;o arterial, eritropoese e outros processos vasculoprotetores, resultando em taxas ajustadas mais altas de DCV nas popula&#231;&#245;es (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">Fig. 1</xref>). Um novo medidor da fun&#231;&#227;o de filtra&#231;&#227;o renal &#233; a cistatina C, um inibidor de ciste&#237;na protease produzido por todas as c&#233;lulas nucleadas que &#233; livremente filtrado e completamente reabsorvido no t&#250;bulo proximal. Esse exame de sangue foi aprovado recentemente pelo FDA norte-americano como um novo teste para determina&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o de filtra&#231;&#227;o renal, al&#233;m de creatinina s&#233;rica e nitrog&#234;nio ur&#233;ico sang&#252;&#237;neo (BUN)<sup>6</sup>. Microalbumin&#250;ria &#233; uma conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de les&#227;o endotelial e vascular ao n&#237;vel dos glom&#233;rulos, e est&#225; associada com todos os fatores de risco vasculares relacionados com les&#227;o de vasos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">Fig. 2</xref>). Portanto, essas duas medidas refletem diferentes aspectos do risco cardiorrenal<sup>7</sup>. Embora fatores de risco tradicionais como hipertens&#227;o, diabete melito (DM) e dislipidemia sejam comumente associados com DRC e sua conseq&#252;ente morbidade cardiovascular a longo prazo, esses fatores de risco apenas n&#227;o explicam de todo a preval&#234;ncia de DCV nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Novos fatores de risco, como homocisteinemia (Kcy), n&#237;veis elevados de lipoprote&#237;na (a) [Lp(a)], estresse oxidativo, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, anemia, n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos de fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o de crescimento &#223;1 (TGF-&#223;1), inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica e calcifica&#231;&#227;o vascular, est&#227;o cada vez mais ligados &#224;s taxas aceleradas de aterog&#234;nese na vig&#234;ncia de DRC.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores de riscos cardiovasculares tradicionais na DRC</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>Estilo de vida e alimenta&#231;&#227;o</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Em vista do agrupamento de fatores de risco associados com obesidade e DM tipo 2, a presen&#231;a de adiposidade excessiva decorrente de estilo de vida sedent&#225;rio e h&#225;bitos alimentares inadequados, como ingest&#227;o excessiva de a&#231;&#250;cares, carboidratos simples e gorduras saturadas, &#233; comum em pacientes no in&#237;cio da DRC. Sabe-se agora que a DRC que se desenvolve na vig&#234;ncia da DM come&#231;a a tornar-se evidente no est&#225;gio de s&#237;ndrome dismetab&#243;lica da doen&#231;a. A adiposidade excessiva e seus n&#237;veis aumentados de fatores inflamat&#243;rios foram associados com uma "glomerulopatia relacionada &#224; obesidade"<sup>8</sup>. Essa forma de glomerulopatia &#233; reconhecida pela presen&#231;a de microalbumin&#250;ria com filtra&#231;&#227;o renal preservada, e pode ser revertida mediante perda de peso significativa. Comprovou-se que a redu&#231;&#227;o do peso tamb&#233;m melhora significativamente o controle da glicemia e, em alguns casos, resulta na aparente remiss&#227;o do DM<sup>9</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, programas de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos podem melhorar o perfil de risco card&#237;aco convencional dos receptores de transplante renal<sup>10</sup>. Embora n&#227;o tenham sido realizados estudos comparativos prospectivos sobre o efeito de mudan&#231;as nos h&#225;bitos alimentares e no estilo de vida sobre os desfechos de DCV em portadores de DRC, acredita-se que a normaliza&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal e dos dep&#243;sitos de gordura, uma dieta hiposs&#243;dica e exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos regulares devem exercer um impacto salutar nessa popula&#231;&#227;o crescente de pacientes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">Tab. 1</xref>). Em vista do maior n&#250;mero de novos fatores de risco esperado, como disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, estresse oxidativo e inflama&#231;&#227;o, uma modifica&#231;&#227;o profunda no estilo de vida, inclusive mudan&#231;a nos h&#225;bitos alimentares e realiza&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos regularmente, pode reduzir a incid&#234;ncia de DCV nessa popula&#231;&#227;o<sup>11</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, qualquer agente terap&#234;utico que produza at&#233; mesmo uma leve redu&#231;&#227;o na adiposidade ter&#225; efeitos favor&#225;veis significativos sobre fatores inflamat&#243;rios sist&#234;micos, sensibilidade &#224; insulina, press&#227;o arterial e perfil lip&#237;dico. Um desses agentes &#233; o rimonabante, um antagonista do receptor endocanabin&#243;ide que induziu perda de peso modesta nas popula&#231;&#245;es com sobrepeso e levemente obesa testadas at&#233; agora. Esse f&#225;rmaco atua reduzindo o est&#237;mulo da fome de subst&#226;ncias end&#243;genas semelhantes aos canabin&#243;ides no sistema nervoso central. Infelizmente, quando a administra&#231;&#227;o desse f&#225;rmaco &#233; suspensa, o peso &#233; recuperado<sup>12</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <italic>Hipertens&#227;o </italic>
    </p>
    <p>&#192; medida que a fun&#231;&#227;o renal piora, a press&#227;o arterial, como era de esperar, sobe e fica mais dif&#237;cil de controlar. O sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA) e o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico s&#227;o anormalmente ativados, causando aumento da p&#243;s-carga, hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, maior consumo de oxig&#234;nio mioc&#225;rdico e maior tens&#227;o de cisalhamento no endot&#233;lio em portadores de DRC<sup>13</sup>. Em v&#225;rios pontos, surgem oportunidades para a modula&#231;&#227;o do sistema SRA dentro da &#225;rvore vascular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">Fig. 3</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, muitos portadores de DRC hipertensos desenvolvem hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE), causando aumento da massa mioc&#225;rdica em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie endotelial e uma rela&#231;&#227;o desfavor&#225;vel entre a oferta e demanda de oxig&#234;nio mioc&#225;rdico. A hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do SRA leva &#224; express&#227;o de receptores de lipoprote&#237;nas de baixa densidade oxidadas e &#224; acelera&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">Fig. 3</xref>). &#192; medida a TFGe &#233; reduzida, a press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica sobe, causando tens&#227;o de cisalhamento, maior risco de ruptura da placa e oclus&#227;o coronariana epis&#243;dica. Por esse motivo, atualmente recomenda-se o controle press&#243;rico, com uma meta de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica &lt; 130 mmHg (o ideal &#233; &lt; 120 mmHg) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">Tab. 1</xref>). Como tanto o SRA quanto o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico s&#227;o hiperativados na DRC, o agente terap&#234;utico mais promissor para uso futuro, al&#233;m dos inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina, bloqueadores dos receptores beta-adren&#233;rgicos e antagonistas de receptores da angiotensina II, &#233; o aliskiren, um inibidor da renina<sup>14</sup>. Como o sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico desencadeia a libera&#231;&#227;o de renina das c&#233;lulas justaglomerulares nos rins, a inibi&#231;&#227;o da renina, impedindo que essa enzima converta angiotensinog&#234;nio em angiotensina I, poderia exercer um impacto favor&#225;vel significativo em portadores de DRC.</p>
    <fig id="fig03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <italic>Diabete melito </italic>
    </p>
    <p>Diabete e hipertens&#227;o muitas vezes se desenvolvem ao mesmo tempo no paciente que, mais tarde, desenvolver&#225; DRC. Mais de 40% da doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica terminal (DRCT) &#233; decorrente de nefroesclerose diab&#233;tica, e 48% a 57% dos portadores de DM t&#234;m nefropatia diab&#233;tica sintom&#225;tica<sup>1</sup>. Os portadores de DM t&#234;m n&#237;veis significativamente elevados de insulina s&#233;rica, um potente fator de crescimento de esclerose, al&#233;m de um estado dislipid&#234;mico. A epidemia de DM exerce um impacto t&#227;o grande na DCV que as mais recentes diretrizes do Programa Nacional de Educa&#231;&#227;o em Colesterol dos Estados Unidos (NCEP-ATP-III) relacionaram o DM como um equivalente da DCV e recomendam que os pacientes sejam devidamente tratados com metas de n&#237;veis ainda mais baixos de colesterol ligado &#224; lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-C)<sup>15</sup>. Nos pacientes com adiposidade excessiva e DM do tipo 2, a redu&#231;&#227;o de peso &#233; a interven&#231;&#227;o de escolha para obter a melhora ou remiss&#227;o do quadro diab&#233;tico<sup>9</sup>. Comprovou-se que o controle glic&#234;mico ideal (hemoglobina glicada &lt; 6 %) diminui a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos microvasculares (retinopatia) e, juntamente com a redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial, diminui a incid&#234;ncia de eventos macrovasculares (infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, AVC e morte por DCV) em portadores de DM do tipo 1 ou 2. Os agentes vendidos atualmente nos Estados Unidos que t&#234;m demonstrado sistematicamente uma leve redu&#231;&#227;o no peso (2 a 4 kg) como efeito colateral s&#227;o inibidores da alfa-glicosidase, metformina e exenatide<sup>16</sup>. As formas de insulina aparentemente neutras em rela&#231;&#227;o ao peso corporal s&#227;o a insulina glargina e a insulina detemir, ambas de a&#231;&#227;o bastante prolongada. &#201; importante observar que todas as formas de insulina e tiazolidinedionas de a&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida causam aumento da adiposidade e, apesar de um melhor controle da glicemia e outros poss&#237;veis efeitos favor&#225;veis &#224; DCV, o aumento de peso &#233; um forte impedimento para o seu uso em pacientes obesos<sup>17</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <italic>Dislipidemias</italic>
    </p>
    <p>O ambiente ur&#234;mico afeta diversas &#225;reas do metabolismo lipoprot&#233;ico, inclusive defici&#234;ncia de l&#237;pase lipoprot&#233;ica. As dislipidemias acometem at&#233; 67% dos portadores de DRC<sup>18</sup>. Esses pacientes muitas vezes apresentam n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos de colesterol ligado &#224; lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C), um cardioprotetor, e eleva&#231;&#245;es aterog&#234;nicas em triglic&#233;rides e LDL-C. Em particular, os portadores de DRC t&#234;m concentra&#231;&#245;es aumentadas de apolipoprote&#237;nas AIV e B48. Al&#233;m disso, o estresse ur&#234;mico acarreta n&#237;veis mais elevados de LDL-C oxidado, que &#233; altamente reativo e aterog&#234;nico. Portanto, parece que a hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do SRA, os n&#237;veis elevados de insulina e a dislipidemia da DRC atuam em conjunto para promover a progress&#227;o da aterosclerose em um ritmo mais acelerado do que em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal preservada<sup>19</sup>. N&#227;o se admira que o rim, sendo o &#243;rg&#227;o mais vascularizado do corpo humano, seja afetado pelo processo ateroscler&#243;tico al&#233;m da grande art&#233;ria renal e de seus principais ramos segmentares. Assim, acredita-se que disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e aterosclerose difusas sejam parte da fisiopatologia comum na DRC diab&#233;tica e n&#227;o-diab&#233;tica, principalmente em adultos mais velhos. Uma metan&#225;lise de Fried e colaboradores publicada em 2001, com um total de 362 portadores de DRC em pequenos estudos cl&#237;nicos, indicou que o tratamento de dislipidemia foi associado a um benef&#237;cio relativo de 1,9 ml/min/ano na TFGe, em compara&#231;&#227;o com os controles<sup>20</sup>. Uma an&#225;lise do Programa de Desenvolvimento Cl&#237;nico da Rosuvastatina (Rosuvastatin Clinical Development Program) publicada recentemente analisou os resultados conjuntos de 13 estudos envolvendo 3.956 pacientes tratados com rosuvastatina ou placebo. Nos pacientes com eGFR &lt; 60 ml/min, houve uma melhora de +2,8 ml/min ao longo de 22 meses<sup>21</sup>. O SHARP (Study of Heart and Renal Protection) &#233; um estudo cl&#237;nico prospectivo, aberto e randomizado que ainda est&#225; em andamento (n = 9.000) para testar o efeito terap&#234;utico da redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C na DRC. O principal objetivo desse estudo &#233; avaliar se a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de colesterol com um comprimido misto contento sinvastatina e ezetimiba poder&#225; evitar a ocorr&#234;ncia de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, morte por doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, AVC e revasculariza&#231;&#227;o em portadores de DRC (~ 6.000 pacientes pr&#233;-dial&#237;ticos e ~3.000 dial&#237;ticos). O estudo avaliar&#225; tamb&#233;m o efeito da combina&#231;&#227;o de ezetimiba e sinvastatina sobre o LDL-C, comparado com sinvastatina isoladamente. O estudo SHARP ser&#225; capaz de estudar outros poss&#237;veis efeitos da redu&#231;&#227;o do colesterol, inclusive se essa redu&#231;&#227;o &#233; capaz de retardar a necessidade de di&#225;lise em portadores de DRC. Por fim, como uma baixa concentra&#231;&#227;o de HDL-C &#233; a mais proeminente anormalidade lip&#237;dica na DRC, os agentes que elevam significativamente o HDL-C, como inibidores da prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de colesterol esterificado, s&#227;o particularmente promissores<sup>22</sup>. Grandes estudos cl&#237;nicos est&#227;o sendo realizados atualmente na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral para testar o conceito de que a eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de HDL-C reduz as taxas de eventos cardiovasculares. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">Tabela 1</xref> e a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04">Figura 4</xref> apresentam as diretrizes atuais que fundamentam as metas lip&#237;dicas<sup>15</sup>. </p>
    <fig id="fig04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Novos fatores de risco para doen&#231;a coronariana</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <italic>Homocisteinemia</italic>
    </p>
    <p>A homociste&#237;na (Hcy), um produto do metabolismo da metionina, aumenta de 2 a 4 vezes em portadores de DRC, uma vez que a excre&#231;&#227;o tubular renal normalmente responde por 70% da depura&#231;&#227;o da Hcy<sup>23</sup>. Quando a TFGe cai abaixo de 60 ml/min/1,73 m<sup>2</sup>, os n&#237;veis de Hcy, como era de esperar, sobem. Al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de Hcy aumentam de 14% a 20% nos portadores de DRC com DCV, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos que n&#227;o t&#234;m DCV<sup>23</sup>. Em pacientes com n&#237;veis elevados de Hcy, a taxa de eventos cardiovasculares aumenta de 3 a 4 vezes, e a taxa de eventos cerebrovasculares, 10,9 vezes<sup>24</sup>. Os n&#237;veis de Hcy correlacionam-se inversamente com os n&#237;veis de folato eritrocit&#225;rio. Conseq&#252;entemente, doses supraterap&#234;uticas de &#225;cido f&#243;lico (5 a 20 mg diariamente) e vitamina B<sub>12</sub>, ambos componentes do metabolismo da hemociste&#237;na, podem reduzir os n&#237;veis de Hcy em at&#233; 20% a 55% em portadores de DRCT<sup>25</sup>. Estudos cl&#237;nicos realizados recentemente na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral indicam que a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de homociste&#237;na com as vitaminas mencionadas acima n&#227;o diminui as taxas de eventos cardiovasculares<sup>26</sup>. Dados recentes de portadores de DRC tamb&#233;m confirmam esse conceito<sup>27.</sup> Portanto, apesar dos dados epidemiol&#243;gicos e fisiopatol&#243;gicos sobre homociste&#237;na e DCV, ao que parece essa prote&#237;na n&#227;o ser&#225; um alvo cl&#237;nico no futuro.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>Lipoprote&#237;na (a)</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Os n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;na (a) [Lp(a)] aumentam 43% em pacientes em terapia renal substitutiva (TRS), comparado com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral<sup>28</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, os portadores de DRC t&#234;m n&#237;veis mais elevados de isoformas de baixo peso molecular, cujas caracter&#237;sticas aterog&#234;nicas s&#227;o ainda mais acentuadas. A Lp(a) &#233; elevada em 64% dos pacientes em TRS que t&#234;m DCV, em compara&#231;&#227;o com 3,8% dos que n&#227;o t&#234;m DCV<sup>29</sup>. O suposto mecanismo aterog&#234;nico da Lp(a) abrange produ&#231;&#227;o de macr&#243;fagos espumosos, inibi&#231;&#227;o da fibrin&#243;lise e efeitos adversos sobre a reatividade vascular dependente do endot&#233;lio. Estudos preliminares demonstram que os n&#237;veis de Lp(a) podem ser reduzidos com niceritrol (um pr&#243;-f&#225;rmaco da niacina), plasmaf&#233;rese e transplante renal<sup>30</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, derivados piraz&#243;licos, como os agonistas parciais dos receptores de &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico, podem ser os futuros alvos terap&#234;uticos para a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de Lp(a)<sup>31</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>Estressse oxidativo</italic>
    </p>
    <p>O estresse oxidativo foi implicado em duas &#225;reas cardiovasculares b&#225;sicas: defici&#234;ncia da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e acelera&#231;&#227;o do ac&#250;mulo de lip&#237;dios na placa ateroscler&#243;tica<sup>32</sup>. Portadores de DRC e DRCT sofrem estresse oxidativo consider&#225;vel, manifestado por uma abund&#226;ncia de produtos da glicosila&#231;&#227;o e prote&#237;nas oxidadas, como LDL-C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05">Fig. 5</xref>). O estresse oxidativo tem profundos efeitos aterog&#234;nicos, pois esp&#233;cies de oxig&#234;nio reativo combinam-se com &#243;xido n&#237;trico, causando disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Estudos preliminares realizados em portadores de DRCT demonstraram que a N-acetilciste&#237;na reduz os n&#237;veis de LDL-C oxidado em at&#233; 76% e os desfechos compostos de infarto mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o-fatal, morte por causas cardiovasculares, revasculariza&#231;&#227;o e AVC isqu&#234;mico em at&#233; 40%. Embora os antioxidantes n&#227;o tenham reduzido os eventos cardiovasculares na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, estudos cl&#237;nicos sobre o uso de antioxidantes em portadores de DRCT relataram redu&#231;&#245;es na morbimortalidade<sup>33</sup>. O uso mais promissor dos antioxidantes &#233; na preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a renal aguda causada por nefropatia induzida por contraste. Nessa aplica&#231;&#227;o, os estudos cl&#237;nicos demonstraram que o tratamento com N-acetilciste&#237;na ou &#225;cido asc&#243;rbico antes e depois da exposi&#231;&#227;o ao contraste reduz a taxa de les&#227;o renal nos pacientes de risco<sup>34,35</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig05">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <italic>Disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial</italic>
    </p>
    <p>O endot&#233;lio vascular &#233; o maior &#243;rg&#227;o do corpo humano, e o controle par&#225;crino local da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial parece ser important&#237;ssimo para a sa&#250;de e a doen&#231;a vascular. Pacientes com DRC t&#234;m n&#237;veis aumentados de dimetil-arginina assim&#233;trica, um inibidor da NO s&#237;ntase, e n&#237;veis diminu&#237;dos correspondentes de &#243;xido n&#237;trico, um potente vasodilatador coronariano e importante fator local na fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial<sup>36</sup>. Outras anormalidades na DRC s&#227;o elevada produ&#231;&#227;o de endotelina e menor express&#227;o de trombomodulina. O resultado final &#233; defici&#234;ncia da reserva de fluxo coronariano e da microcircula&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. A hiperativa&#231;&#227;o do SRA anula ainda mais as a&#231;&#245;es do &#243;xido n&#237;trico, inibindo a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o dependente do endot&#233;lio e acelerando a progress&#227;o inexor&#225;vel da doen&#231;a coronariana (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05">Fig. 5</xref>). &#201; importante observar que, no processo de corre&#231;&#227;o da anemia com prote&#237;nas que estimulam a eritropoese (eritropoetina, darbepoetina) mediante suplementa&#231;&#227;o de ferro, os n&#237;veis de dimetil-arginina sobem ainda mais, aumentado a defici&#234;ncia de &#243;xido n&#237;trico<sup>37</sup>. Os resultados dos estudos cl&#237;nicos sobre corre&#231;&#227;o da anemia na vig&#234;ncia de DRC indicaram que, quando os n&#237;veis de hemoglobina foram elevados para n&#237;veis pr&#243;ximos do normal, houve um aumento das taxas de eventos cardiovasculares<sup>38,39</sup>. Portanto, parece que a corre&#231;&#227;o da anemia, devido aos seus efeitos adversos sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, anemia ou hemoglobina n&#227;o ser&#225; um alvo terap&#234;utico para DCV na DRC.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>Fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o de crescimento</italic>
    </p>
    <p>O fator de transforma&#231;&#227;o de crescimento beta&#150;1 (TGF-&#223;1) tem efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos, como inibi&#231;&#227;o da prolifera&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas e da migra&#231;&#227;o de mon&#243;citos e macr&#243;fagos, al&#233;m de exercer um efeito protetor direto sobre o endot&#233;lio vascular. Em portadores de DRCT, os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de TGF-&#223;1 s&#227;o reduzidos em compara&#231;&#227;o com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, o que pode contribuir para uma acelera&#231;&#227;o do processo ateroscler&#243;tico. Os n&#237;veis de TGF-&#223;1 s&#227;o mais baixos em portadores de DRC que t&#234;m DCV ou doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com doen&#231;a coronariana triarterial t&#234;m redu&#231;&#245;es ainda maiores de TGF-&#223;1 s&#233;rico. Para cada redu&#231;&#227;o de 1 ng/ml nos n&#237;veis de TGF-&#223;1 parece haver um aumento correspondente (9%) na taxa de eventos cardiovasculares<sup>40</sup>. Redu&#231;&#245;es do TGF-&#223;1 tamb&#233;m foram associadas com doen&#231;a &#243;ssea<sup>41</sup>. Entretanto, estudos de aterosclerose indicam que a regula&#231;&#227;o do TGF-&#223;1 &#233; alterada pelas citocinas, estando, portanto, implicada na patog&#234;nese da doen&#231;a vascular<sup>42</sup>. At&#233; que essa prote&#237;na sinalizadora seja melhor compreendida, esses dados indicam que o TGF-&#223;1 n&#227;o dever&#225; ser um alvo terap&#234;utico no futuro pr&#243;ximo. </p>
    <p>
      <italic>Inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Adiposidade excessiva, principalmente gordura intra-abdominal, acarreta n&#237;veis elevados de reagentes positivos de fase aguda, como prote&#237;na C reativa (PCR), fibrinog&#234;nio, ferritina, interleucina-6 (IL-6) e Lp(a)<sup>43</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; uma redu&#231;&#227;o correspondente nos reagentes negativos de fase aguda, como albumina, pr&#233;-albumina, colesterol e apolipoprote&#237;nas A1 e B. Secretada pelos adip&#243;citos, a IL-6 induz potencialmente a s&#237;ntese hep&#225;tica de PCR, que se liga ao receptor Fc da prote&#237;na imunoglobulina e, subseq&#252;entemente, ativa a cascata do complemento. &#201; comum ocorrer inflama&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica em portadores de DRCT em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as intercorrentes, como glomerulonefrite e infec&#231;&#227;o, bem de como fatores espec&#237;ficos &#224; terapia renal substitutiva (TRS), como endotoxinas transmitidas pela &#225;gua e membranas dial&#237;ticas bioincompat&#237;veis<sup>44</sup>. N&#237;vel s&#233;rico elevado de PCR &#233; um dos maiores preditores de mortalidade nos pacientes em terapia renal substitutiva, e indica um risco de quatro a seis vezes maior de morte por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares<sup>45</sup>. Al&#233;m de n&#237;veis anormais de PCR, os portadores de DRCT t&#234;m uma probabilidade 10,6 vezes maior de apresentar n&#237;veis elevados de fibrinog&#234;nio como parte da resposta da fase aguda, o que pode causar maior viscosidade plasm&#225;tica, les&#227;o endotelial e trombose. Como mencionado acima, a obesidade sobreposta, pela produ&#231;&#227;o de IL-6, estimula a produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica de PCR e agrava ainda mais o estado inflamat&#243;rio sist&#234;mico. A plasmaf&#233;rese mostrou-se eficaz na redu&#231;&#227;o do fibrinog&#234;nio, um reagente de fase aguda, nos portadores de DRCT. Embora os fatores inflamat&#243;rios possam ser levemente elevados nos pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal, eles s&#227;o desproporcionalmente altos em portadores de DRC e devem ser tratados com terapia de aspirina e estatina<sup>46</sup>. Vale ressaltar que o m&#233;todo isolado mais eficaz para reduzir a PCR consiste em diminuir a adiposidade abdominal por meio de emagrecimento<sup>47</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <italic>Calcifica&#231;&#227;o coronariana</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Pacientes em TRS t&#234;m escores de calcifica&#231;&#227;o coronariana muito superiores aos da popula&#231;&#227;o geral, inclusive de pacientes mais jovens. A ocorr&#234;ncia de calcifica&#231;&#227;o coronariana, determinada por tomografia computadorizada, &#233; observada em 88% dos portadores de DRCT na faixa de 20 a 30 anos de idade, em contraste com 5% dos controles da mesma idade<sup>48</sup>. al&#233;m disso, os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de c&#225;lcio e fosfato, bem como de lip&#237;dios, interagem, exercendo um impacto significativo na calcifica&#231;&#227;o vascular<sup>49</sup>. Portadores de DRCT tratados com quelantes de fosfato isentos de c&#225;lcio apresentaram menor propens&#227;o a ter calcifica&#231;&#227;o vascular no interior das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias (0 versus 37%, <italic>p</italic> = 0,03) e aorta tor&#225;cica (0 versus 75%, <italic>p</italic> = 0,01) ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de acompanhamento de 52 semanas, em compara&#231;&#227;o com portadores de DRCT tratados com quelantes de fosfato &#224; base de c&#225;lcio<sup>50</sup>. Houve uma grande redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis finais de LDL-C com a administra&#231;&#227;o de sevelamer, comparado com quelantes &#224; base de c&#225;lcio, 65 <italic>vs.</italic> 103 mg/dl, respectivamente, <italic>p</italic> &lt; 0,0001. Esse resultado &#233; compat&#237;vel com as conhecidas propriedades seq&#252;estradoras de &#225;cidos biliares do sevelamer. Conseq&#252;entemente, a progress&#227;o de CAC foi atenuada com o sevelamer, sem diferen&#231;as no produto de c&#225;lcio e f&#243;sforo (CPP) ou no paratorm&#244;nio (PTH), indicando que a altera&#231;&#227;o na calcifica&#231;&#227;o das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias (CAC) estava mais relacionada com a redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C. Embora a calcifica&#231;&#227;o vascular n&#227;o possa ser revertida com as terapias atuais, parece que a redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C com sevelamer e estatinas atenua a sua progress&#227;o em seres humanos. Em um estudo de 66 indiv&#237;duos acompanhados durante um per&#237;odo sem tratamento com estatina e depois durante tratamento com doses orais de cerivastatina 0,3 mg uma vez ao dia, a mediana da mudan&#231;a relativa global anualizada foi significantemente maior no intervalo sem tratamento, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o per&#237;odo de tratamento (25% <italic>vs.</italic> 8,8%, <italic>p </italic>&lt; 0,0001)<sup>51</sup>. A mudan&#231;a relativa anualizada no escore de CAC em 32 pacientes que atingiram n&#237;veis de LDL-C &lt; 100 mg/dl diminuiu de 27% para &#150;3,4% (<italic>p</italic> &lt; 0,0001). Callister e colegas descreveram 149 pacientes com DAC, dos quais 105 estavam tomando estatinas e foram submetidos a estudos de tomografia computadorizada por feixe de el&#233;trons no in&#237;cio do estudo e durante o acompanhamento aos 12 a 15 meses<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>O conceito de redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de LDL-C e estabiliza&#231;&#227;o da aterosclerose coronariana foi estendido no estudo DCOR (Dialysis Clinical Outcomes Revisited), o maior estudo cl&#237;nico realizado na popula&#231;&#227;o de hemodi&#225;lise. O estudo de tr&#234;s anos envolvendo mais de 2.100 pacientes comparou a diferen&#231;a nos desfechos de mortalidade e morbidade entre pacientes tratados com cloridrato de sevelamer e pacientes tratados com quelantes de fosfato &#224; base de c&#225;lcio. Apesar da redu&#231;&#227;o no LDL-C observada com o sevelamer, n&#227;o houve redu&#231;&#227;o na mortalidade entre os grupos de tratamento (9% de redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo com o sevelamer, <italic>p</italic> = 0,30)<sup>53</sup>. Portanto, a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o na progress&#227;o da CAC pode ser um benef&#237;cio da redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C; na DRCT n&#227;o parece estar relacionada com altera&#231;&#245;es na mortalidade desse grupo. Os &#250;ltimos resultados foram provenientes do "4D Trial" (Deutsche Diabetes Dialyse Studie), em que 1.255 portadores de DM tipo 2 e DRC foram randomizados para receber atorvastatina 20 mg via oral diariamente ou placebo durante uma mediana de 4 anos<sup>54</sup>. A estatina reduziu com efic&#225;cia o LDL-C s&#233;rico mediano em at&#233; 42% durante todo o per&#237;odo do estudo. Entretanto, o desfecho composto prim&#225;rio - definido como morte por doen&#231;as card&#237;acas, IM n&#227;o-fatal e AVC fatal e n&#227;o-fatal &#150; foi reduzido apenas em at&#233; 8% com atorvastatina, <italic>p</italic> = 0,37. Os pesquisadores do 4D conclu&#237;ram que os resultados negativos podem ter sido conseq&#252;&#234;ncia das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares avan&#231;adas nos portadores de doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica e pelo fato de a terapia com estatina ter sido iniciada tarde demais. Com base nos estudos DCOR e 4D, parece que a redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C na DRCT n&#227;o exerce impacto sobre os eventos cardiovasculares ou a mortalidade, por causa da doen&#231;a avan&#231;ada presente na &#233;poca em que a DRCT, se desenvolve, dos mecanismos cardiovasculares que competem com os eventos terminais na DRCT (arritmias n&#227;o-isqu&#234;micas, bradicardia, etc), e das elevadas taxas de fontes de mortalidade n&#227;o-cardiovasculares (s&#233;psis, tromboembolia venosa, etc).</p>
    <p>
      <italic>Agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria</italic>
    </p>
    <p>A uremia causa redu&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria<sup>55</sup>. Em portadores de DRCT, a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; heparina, membranas dial&#237;ticas bioincompat&#237;veis e deriva&#231;&#245;es arteriovenosas pode resultar em um aumento sobreposto da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. Efeitos semelhantes sobre a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria foram demonstrados em pacientes que estejam se submetendo &#224; di&#225;lise peritoneal ambulatorial cont&#237;nua (DPAC) e portadores de DRC com hipertrigliceridemia. N&#227;o obstante, muitos portadores de DRC que correm o risco de desenvolver DCV n&#227;o recebem terapia com antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios, em vista das preocupa&#231;&#245;es relacionadas com disfun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e a possibilidade de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas. A combina&#231;&#227;o de produ&#231;&#227;o excessiva de trombina e menor agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria faz com que o portador de DRC corra o risco de ter, concomitantemente, eventos tromb&#243;ticos e hemorragia. Em geral, recomenda-se uma dose baixa de aspirina diariamente aos portadores de DRC, uma vez que seu risco &#233; considerado equivalente ao da DCV. Novas fontes de dados indicam que, no portador de DRC com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, a bivalirudina pode ser o agente antitromb&#243;tico com melhor rela&#231;&#227;o entre benef&#237;cio/risco de hemorragia<sup>56</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <italic> Terapias cardioprotetoras</italic>
    </p>
    <p>Os estudos t&#234;m demonstrado sistematicamente que os portadores de DRC que se apresentam com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio s&#227;o os que t&#234;m menor probabilidade de receber terapias convencionais. Por exemplo, a probabilidade de portadores de DRCT receberem medicamentos cardioprotetores, como aspirina, heparina, betabloqueadores e inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina, &#233; menor; al&#233;m disso, eles t&#234;m uma probabilidade 51% menor de receber terapia de reperfus&#227;o para infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio do que os pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal<sup>57</sup>. Em geral, pacientes com DRC tem uma maior redu&#231;&#227;o relativa de risco com aspirina, betabloqueadores, inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA), inibidores de glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa e terapias hipolipemiantes, comparado com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, ap&#243;s um evento coronariano agudo. &#201; preciso que sejam envidados esfor&#231;os no sentido de melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados m&#233;dicos dispensados a cardiopatas com DRC, e os futuros estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados sobre as terapias atuais dever&#227;o ser direcionados para essa popula&#231;&#227;o de risco<sup>58</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A conflu&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a renal levou os pesquisadores a analisar novas abordagens &#224; aterosclerose. Sabe-se que portadores de doen&#231;a renal t&#234;m alta preval&#234;ncia de DCV e suas seq&#252;elas associadas, fato que &#233; explicado apenas parcialmente pelos fatores de risco cardiovasculares tradicionais, como hipertens&#227;o, DM e dislipidemia. Novos fatores de risco de DVC em portadores de DRC parecem desempenhar um papel important&#237;ssimo na acelera&#231;&#227;o do processo ateroscler&#243;tico. A compreens&#227;o dos mecanismos desses novos fatores poder&#225; levar ao desenvolvimento de terapias espec&#237;ficas tanto para os portadores de DRC como para a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral.</p>
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    <p>31. van Herk T, Brussee J, van den Nieuwendijk AM, van der Klein PA, IJzerman AP, Stannek C, Burmeister A, Lorenzen A. Pyrazole derivatives as partial agonists for the nicotinic acid receptor. J Med Chem. 2003; 46(18):3945-51. </p>
    <p>32. Roberts MA, Hare DL, Ratnaike S, Ierino FL. Cardiovascular biomarkers in CKD: pathophysiology and implications for clinical management of cardiac disease. Am J Kidney Dis. 2006; 48(3):341-60. </p>
    <p>33. Tepel M, van der GM, Statz M, et al. The antioxidant acetylcysteine reduces cardiovascular events in patients with end-stage renal failure: a randomized, controlled trial. Circulation 2003;107:992-5.</p>
    <p>34. Marenzi G, Assanelli E, Marana I, Lauri G, Campodonico J, Grazi M, De Metrio M, Galli S, Fabbiocchi F, Montorsi P, Veglia F, Bartorelli AL. N-acetylcysteine and contrast-induced nephropathy in primary angioplasty. N Engl J Med. 2006; 354(26):2773-82.</p>
    <p>35. Spargias K, Alexopoulos E, Kyrzopoulos S, Iokovis P, Greenwood DC, Manginas A, Voudris V, Pavlides G, Buller CE, Kremastinos D, Cokkinos DV. Ascorbic acid prevents contrast-mediated nephropathy in patients with renal dysfunction undergoing coronary angiography or intervention. Circulation. 2004 Nov 2;110(18):2837-42. Epub 2004 Oct 18. Erratum in: Circulation. 2005 Jan 25;111(3):379.</p>
    <p>36. Becker BN, Himmelfarb J, Henrich WL, Hakim RM. Reassessing the cardiac risk profile in chronic hemodialysis patients: a hypothesis on the role of oxidant stress and other non-traditional cardiac risk factors. J Am Soc Nephrol 1997;8:475-86.</p>
    <p>37. Scalera F, Kielstein JT, Martens-Lobenhoffer J, Postel SC, Tager M, Bode-Boger SM. Erythropoietin increases asymmetric dimethylarginine in endothelial cells: role of dimethylarginine dimethylaminohydrolase. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16(4):892-8. Epub 2005 Feb 23.</p>
    <p>38. Singh AK, Szczech L, Tang KL, Barnhart H, Sapp S, Wolfson M, Reddan D; CHOIR Investigators. Correction of anemia with epoetin alfa in chronic kidney disease. N Engl J Med. 2006; 355(20):2085-98.</p>
    <p>39. Drueke TB, Locatelli F, Clyne N, Eckardt KU, Macdougall IC, Tsakiris D, Burger HU, Scherhag A; CREATE Investigators. Normalization of hemoglobin level in patients with chronic kidney disease and anemia. N Engl J Med. 2006; 355(20):2071-84.</p>
    <p>40. Stefoni S, Cianciolo G, Donati G, et al. Low TGF-beta1 serum levels are a risk factor for atherosclerosis disease in ESRD patients. Kidney Int 2002;61:324-35.</p>
    <p>41. Kanaan RA, Kanaan LA. Transforming growth factor beta1, bone connection. Med Sci Monit. 2006; 12(8):RA164-9. Epub 2006 Jul 12.</p>
    <p>42. Andreotti F, Porto I, Crea F, Maseri A. Inflammatory gene polymorphisms and ischaemic heart disease: review of population association studies. Heart. 2002 Feb;87(2):107-12. </p>
    <p>43. Tracy RP. Inflammation, the metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular risk. Int J Clin Pract Suppl. 2003; (134):10-7.</p>
    <p>44. Panichi V, De Pietro S, Andreini B, et al. Cytokine production in haemodiafiltration: a multicentre study. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1998;13:1737-44.</p>
    <p>45. Westhuyzen J, Healy H. Review: Biology and relevance of C-reactive protein in cardiovascular and renal disease. Ann Clin Lab Sci 2000;30:133-43.</p>
    <p>46. McCullough PA. Cardiovascular disease in chronic kidney disease from a cardiologist&#146;s perspective. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens. 2004; 13(6):591-600. NLM CIT. ID: 15483448</p>
    <p>47. Miller WM, Nori Janosz KE, Yanez J, McCullough PA. Effects of weight loss and pharmacotherapy on inflammatory markers of cardiovascular disease. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther. 2005 Jul;3(4):743-59.</p>
    <p>48. Goodman WG, Goldin J, Kuizon BD, et al. Coronary-artery calcification in young adults with end-stage renal disease who are undergoing dialysis. N Engl J Med 2000;342:1478-83.</p>
    <p>49. McCullough PA. Effect of lipid modification on progression of coronary calcification. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005; 16 Suppl 2:S115-9. </p>
    <p>50. Chertow GM, Burke SK, Raggi P. Sevelamer attenuates the progression of coronary and aortic calcification in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2002;62:245-52.</p>
    <p>51. Achenbach S, Ropers D, Pohle K, Leber A, Thilo C, Knez A, Menendez T, Maeffert R, Kusus M, Regenfus M, Bickel A, Haberl R, Steinbeck G, Moshage W, Daniel WG. Influence of lipid-lowering therapy on the progression of coronary artery calcification: a prospective evaluation. Circulation 2002; 106: 1077-82</p>
    <p>52. Callister TQ, Raggi P, Cooil B, Lippolis NJ, Russo DJ. Effect of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors on coronary artery disease as assessed by electron-beam computed tomography. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339(27):1972-8.</p>
    <p>53. Suki W, Zabaneh R, Cangiano J, et al. The DCOR trial - a prospective, randomized trial assessing the impact on outcomes of sevelamer in dialysis patients. Amer Soc Nephrol Renal Week 2005; November 8-13, 2005; Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Abstract PO745.</p>
    <p>54. Wanner C, Krane V, Marz W, Olschewski M, Mann JF, Ruf G, Ritz E; German Diabetes and Dialysis Study Investigators. Atorvastatin in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus undergoing hemodialysis. N Engl J Med. 2005 Jul 21;353(3):238-48. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2005;353(15):1640.</p>
    <p>55. Escolar G, Diaz-Ricart M, Cases A. Uremic platelet dysfunction: past and present. Curr Hematol Rep. 2005; 4(5):359-67.</p>
    <p>56. Chew DP, Bhatt DL, Kimball W, Henry TD, Berger P, McCullough PA, Feit F, Bittl JA, Lincoff AM. Bivalirudin provides increasing benefit with decreasing renal function: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Am J Cardiol. 2003; 92(8):919-23.</p>
    <p>57. McCullough PA. Why is chronic kidney disease the "spoiler" for cardiovascular outcomes? J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003 Mar 5;41(5):725-8.</p>
    <p>58. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, McCulloch CE, Hsu CY. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. N Engl J Med. 2004; 351(13):1296-305.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Peter A. McCullough, M.D., M.P.H. </p>
        <p> Division of Nutrition and Preventive Medicine - William Beaumont Hospital </p>
        <p> 4949 Coolidge Highway </p>
        <p> Royal Oak, MI 48073 - USA </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="pmccullough@beaumont.edu">pmccullough@beaumont.edu</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Cardiorenal intersection: crossroads to the future</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiorenal intersection: crossroads to the future</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Peter A. McCullough, MD, MPH, FACC, FACP, FCCP, FAHA</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Department of Medicine, Divisions of Cardiology, Nutrition and Preventive Medicine, William Beaumont Hospital, Royal Oak, MI - USA</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Cardiovascular disease, chronic kidney disease, atherosclerosis, microalbuminuria, hypertension, nephropathy, diabetes, left ventricular hypertrophy, heart failure, aortic sclerosis, mitral annular calcification, cardiac arrhythmias.</p>
      <p>The pandemic of obesity is driving secondary epidemics of type 2 diabetes, dysmetabolic syndrome, and hypertension. This results in increasing numbers of patients with renal disease and coronary atherosclerosis. Chronic kidney disease accelerates the course of coronary artery disease, independent from conventional cardiac risk factors. In addition, chronic kidney disease is associated with left ventricular hypertrophy and myocardial fibrosis, aortic and mitral valvular disease, and both atrial and ventricular arrhythmias. As a result, for patients on hemodialysis, sudden unexplained death is common and often attributed to heart disease. This article reviews the evidence for accelerated atherosclerotic heart disease in the presence of renal disease and highlights new diagnostic and therapeutic targets at these crossroads.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Accelerated atherogenesis in Cronic Kidney Disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As adult populations age in the coming decades, the rates of virtually all chronic diseases are expected to rise. Currently, tens of millions of persons worldwide have combined cardiovascular disease (CVD) and chronic kidney disease (CKD)<sup>1</sup>. In the United States alone, over 300,000 individuals are on renal replacement therapy (RRT), which confers a 5 to 40-fold increased risk of fatal cardiovascular events<sup>2-5</sup>. CKD is commonly defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) &lt; 60 ml/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>, or the presence of an elevated urinary albumin to creatinine ratio &gt; 30 mg/g on a spot urine sample. A reduction in eGFR below that expected for age is a surrogate for reduced renal parenchymal mass and a partial loss of normal regulatory functions such regulation of blood pressure, erythropoiesis, and other vasculoprotective processes resulting in higher adjusted rates of CVD events in populations (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig. 1</xref>). A new measure of renal filtration function is cystatin-C, a cysteine protease inhibitor produced by all nucleated cells which is freely filtered and completely reabsorbed at the level of the proximal tubule. This blood test has recently been cleared by the US FDA as a new measure of renal filtration function in addition to serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen<sup>6</sup>. Microalbuminuria is a reflection of endothelial and vascular injury at the level of the glomeruli and is associated with all vascular risk factors that relate to vessel damage (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Fig. 2</xref>). Thus these two measures reflect different aspects of cardiorenal risk<sup>7</sup>. Although conventional risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus (DM) and dyslipidemia are commonly associated with CKD and its attendant long-term CVD morbidity, these risk factors alone do not fully explain the prevalence of CVD in this population. Novel risk factors such as homocysteinemia (Hcy), elevated lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)], oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, anemia, diminished transforming growth factor-&#223;1 (TGF-&#223;1), chronic inflammation and vascular calcification are increasingly linked to accelerated rates of atherogenesis in the setting of CKD.</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Increased conventional CVD risk factors in CKD</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <italic>Lifestyle and diet</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Given the clustering of risk factors associated with obesity and type 2 DM, excess adiposity due to a sedentary lifestyle and poor dietary habits, including an excessive intake of sugars, simple carbohydrates, and saturated fats, is common among patients with, at early CKD. It is now widely recognized that the CKD that develops in the setting of DM begins to become manifest at the dysmetabolic syndrome stage of disease. Excess adiposity and its related increased levels of inflammatory factors have been implicated in an "obesity-related glomerulopathy"<sup>8</sup>. This form of glomerulopathy is recognized by the presence of microalbuminuria with preserved renal filtration function and is reversible with significant weight loss. Weight reduction has also been shown to markedly improve blood glucose control and, in some cases, result in the apparent resolution of DM<sup>9</sup>. Moreover, exercise training programs can improve the conventional cardiac risk profile of renal transplant recipients<sup>10</sup>. Although there have been no prospective, comparative studies of diet and lifestyle changes on CVD outcomes in patients with CKD, normalization of body weight and fat stores, reduction in sodium intake, and regular aerobic exercise would be expected to have a salutary impact on this escalating patient population (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Tab. 1</xref>). Given the expected higher rates of novel risk factors including endothelial dysfunction, oxidative stress and inflammation, intensive lifestyle modification, including dietary changes and regular aerobic exercise, may reduce the incidence of CVD in this population<sup>11</sup>. In addition, any therapeutic agent that causes even a mild reduction in adiposity can be expected to have significant favorable effects on systemic inflammatory factors, insulin sensitivity, blood pressure, and lipids. One such therapy is rimonabant, an endocanniboid receptor antagonist which has been demonstrated to induce a modest weight loss in the overweight and mildly obese populations tested thus far. This drug works by reducing the hunger stimulus of endogenous canniboid-like substances in the central nervous system. Unfortunately, when the drug is stopped, the weight is predictably regained<sup>12</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <italic>Hypertension</italic>
      </p>
      <p>As renal function worsens, the blood pressure predictably rises and becomes more difficult to control. The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) and sympathetic nervous system are aberrantly activated, resulting in increased afterload, left ventricular enlargement, greater myocardial oxygen consumption, and augmented sheer stress at the endothelial level in patients with CKD<sup>13</sup>. Opportunities for modulation of the RAS within the vascular tree occur at several points (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">Fig. 3</xref>). Additionally, many CKD patients with hypertension develop left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), resulting in an increased myocardial mass to endothelial surface area, and an unfavorable myocardial oxygen supply and demand relationship. Hyperactivation of the RAS leads to expression of oxidized low-density lipoprotein receptors and acceleration of atherosclerosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">Fig 3</xref>). As eGFR declines, systemic blood pressure rises causing greater sheer stress, increased risk of plaque rupture, and episodic coronary occlusion. Consequently, blood pressure control to a target systolic blood pressure &lt; 130 mmHg (ideally &lt; 120 mmHg) is currently recommended (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Tab. 1</xref>). Since both the RAS and the sympathetic nervous systems are hyperactivated in CKD, the most promising therapeutic agent for future use beyond currently available angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, beta-adrenergic receptors blockers, and angiotensin II receptor antagonists, is the renin inhibitor aliskiren<sup>14</sup>. Since the sympathetic nervous system triggers the release of renin from the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidney, binding renin and impeding its conversion of angiotensinogen to angiotensin I could have a significant favorable impact in patients with CKD.</p>
      <fig id="fig03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <italic>Diabetes Mellitus</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Diabetes and hypertension often develop at the same time in patient who will later develop CKD. Over 40% of end-stage kidney disease (ESKD) is secondary to diabetic nephrosclerosis, and 48 to 57% of patients with DM have overt diabetic nephropathy<sup>1</sup>. Patients with DM have significantly elevated levels of serum insulin, a potent growth factor for atherosclerosis, in addition to a dyslipidemic state. The epidemic of DM so measurably impacts CVD that the most recent National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) adult treatment panel guidelines (ATP-III) listed DM as a CVD equivalent, and recommend treating afflicted patients accordingly to even lower target levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C)<sup>15</sup>. In those with excess adiposity and type 2 DM, weight reduction is the intervention of choice to improve or resolve the diabetic condition<sup>9</sup>. Optimal glycemic control (glycohemoglobin &lt; 6 %) has been shown to reduce microvascular events (retinopathy) and, along with blood pressure lowering, decrease the incidence of macrovascular events (myocardial infarction, stroke, and CVD death) in patients with type 1 or type 2 DM. Currently available agents in the United States which have consistently demonstrated a mild (2-4 kg) drop in weight as a side-effect include alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, metformin, and exenatide<sup>16</sup>. Forms of insulin that appear to be weight neutral are the very long acting glargine insulin and detemir insulin. Importantly, all shorter acting forms of insulin and thiazolidinediones cause increases in adiposity and despite better glucose control and possible other favorable CVD effects, the weight gain is a strong deterrent to their use in the obese patient<sup>17</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <italic>Dyslipidemias</italic>
      </p>
      <p>The uremic environment affects multiple areas of lipoprotein metabolism including an impairment of lipoprotein lipase. Dyslipidemias occur in up to 67% of CKD patients<sup>18</sup>. This patient population often demonstrates diminished levels of cardioprotective high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and atherogenic elevations in triglycerides and LDL-C. In particular, CKD patients have heightened concentrations of apolipoproteins AIV and B48. Furthermore, uremic stress results in increased levels of oxidized LDL-C, a highly reactive and atherogenic species. Thus, it appears that hyperactivation of the RAS, elevated insulin levels, and the dyslipidemia of CKD work in concert to advance atherosclerosis at faster rates than in those with preserved renal function<sup>19</sup>. It is not surprising that the kidney as the most vascular organ is affected by the atherosclerotic process beyond the large renal artery and its major subbranches. Thus, diffuse endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis are believed to be part of the common pathophysiology in diabetic and non-diabetic CKD, particularly in older adults. A meta-analysis by Fried and co-workers published in 2001 in a total of 362 patients with CKD in small trials suggested that treatment of dyslipidemia was associated with a relative 1.9 ml/min/year benefit in sparing of eGFR compared to controls<sup>20</sup>. A recently published analysis from the Rosuvastatin Clinical Development Program analyzed the results pooled from 13 studies involving 3,956 patients treated with rosuvastatin or placebo. In those with an eGFR &lt; 60 ml/min, there was a +2.8 ml/min improvement over 22 months<sup>21</sup>. The Study of Heart and Renal Protection (SHARP) is an ongoing, prospective, open-label randomized trial, n = 9,000, testing the treatment effect of lowering LDL-C in CKD. The main aim of this study is to test whether reducing blood cholesterol with a combination tablet, containing both simvastatin and ezetimibe, can prevent myocardial infarction, cardiac death, stroke, and revascularization in patients with CKD (~6,000 pre-dialysis and ~3,000 on dialysis). Additionally, the trial will test the effect on LDL-C of combining ezetimibe with simvastatin, as compared with simvastatin alone. The trial will also be able to study a number of other potential effects of lowering cholesterol, including whether it can delay the need for dialysis in CKD. Finally, since a low HDL-C is the most prominent lipid abnormality in CKD, agents that significantly raise HDL-C such as cholesterol ester transferase protein inhibitors are particularly promising<sup>22</sup>. Large trials are underway in the general population testing the concept of raising HDL-C to lower rates of incident CVD events. Current guidelines support the lipid targets given in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref> and depicted in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04-body2">Figure 4</xref><sup>15</sup>. </p>
      <fig id="fig04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Novel coronary disease risk factors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <italic>Homocysteinemia</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Homocysteine (Hcy), a product of methionine metabolism, is increased 2 to 4-fold in patients with CKD, as renal tubular excretion normally accounts for 70% of Hcy clearance<sup>w</sup>. When the eGFR drops below 60 ml/min/1.73 m<sup>2</sup>, Hcy is predictably elevated. Furthermore, mean Hcy levels are increased 14 to 20% in ESKD patients with CVD compared to those without<sup>23</sup>. Patients with elevated Hcy levels have a 3 to 4-fold increased CVD event rate and a 10.9-fold increased cerebrovascular event rate<sup>24</sup>. Hcy levels inversely correlate with red blood cell folate levels. Accordingly, supratherapeutic doses of folic acid (5 to 20 mg daily) and vitamin-B12, both components of Hcy metabolism, may decrease Hcy levels by 20 to 55% in ESKD patients<sup>25</sup>. Recent trials in the general population indicate that lowering homocysteine with the vitamins indicated above does not lower rates of CVD events<sup>26</sup>. Emerging data in patients with CKD also confirm this concept<sup>27</sup>. So despite the epidemiologic and pathophysiologic data on homocysteine and CVD, it appears that this protein will not be a clinical target in the future.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Lipoprotein (a)</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Lipoprotein (a) [Lp(a)] levels are increased 43% in patients on RRT as compared with the general population<sup>28</sup>. In addition, CKD patients have higher levels of the low-molecular weight isoforms, which have even more pronounced atherogenic characteristics. Lp(a) is elevated in 64% of RRT patients with CVD in contrast to 3.8% of those without<sup>29</sup>. The putative atherogenic mechanism of Lp(a) includes macrophage foam cell production, inhibition of fibrinolysis, and adverse effects on endothelial-dependent vascular reactivity. Preliminary studies demonstrate that Lp(a) levels may be reduced with niceritrol (a niacin prodrug), plasma apheresis and renal transplantation<sup>30</sup>. In addition, pyrazole derivatives as partial agonists for the nicotinic acid receptor may be future therapeutic targets for decreasing Lp(a) levels<sup>31</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Oxidative stress</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Oxidative stress has been implicated in two basic cardiovascular areas: impaired endothelial function and acceleration of lipid accumulation in atherosclerotic plaque<sup>32</sup>. Patients with CKD and ESKD experience significant oxidative stress manifested by abundant glycosylation products and oxidized proteins such as LDL-C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05-body2">Fig. 5</xref>). Oxidative stress has profound atherogenic effects as reactive oxygen species combine with nitric oxide resulting in endothelial dysfunction. Preliminary studies in ESKD patients have demonstrated that N-acetylcysteine decreases the levels of oxidized LDL-C by 76%, and the composite end-points of non-fatal myocardial infarction, cardiovascular death, revascularization, and ischemic stroke by 40%. While antioxidants have not reduced CVD events in the general population, clinical trials of antioxidant use in ESKD patients reported reductions in morbidity and mortality<sup>33</sup>. The most promising use of antioxidants is in the prevention of acute renal failure due to contrast-induced nephropathy. In this application, clinical trials have demonstrated that pre- and post-contrast exposure treatment with N-acetylcysteine or ascorbic acid reduces the rate of kidney injury in those patients at risk<sup>34,35</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig05-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-88-01-0117-00020-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <italic>Endothelial dysfunction</italic>
      </p>
      <p>The vascular endothelium is the body&#146;s largest organ, and local paracrine control of endothelial function appears to be critical in vascular health and disease. Patients with CKD have increased levels of asymmetric dimethyl arginine, a nitric oxide synthase inhibitor, and correspondingly diminished levels of nitric oxide, a potent coronary vasodilator and an important local factor in endothelial function<sup>36</sup>. Other aberrancies of CKD include elevated endothelin production and reduced thrombomodulin expression. The end-result is impairment of coronary flow reserve and the myocardial microcirculation. Hyperactivation of the RAS further negates the actions of nitric oxide, inhibiting endothelium-dependent vasodilation, and hastening the inexorable progression of coronary disease (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05-body2">Fig 5</xref>). Of note, in the process of anemia correction with erythrocyte stimulating proteins (erythropoietin, darbepoetin) with supplemental iron, levels of asymmetric dimethyl arginine further elevated and there is an even greater impairment of nitric oxide<sup>37</sup>. Results of clinical trials of anemia correction in CKD indicate that near normalization of the hemoglobin level has resulted in higher rates of CVD events<sup>38,39</sup>. Thus it appears that anemia correction, because of its adverse effects on endothelial function, anemia or hemoglobin will not be a CVD therapeutic target in CKD.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Transforming growth factor</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-&#223;1) has pleiotropic effects which include inhibiting smooth muscle cell proliferation and monocyte-macrophage migration as well as providing a direct protective effect on the vascular endothelium. In ESKD patients, serum levels of TGF-&#223;1 are reduced as compared with the general population, and may result in accelerated atherosclerosis. TGF-&#223;1 levels have been shown to be reduced in CKD patients with CVD or peripheral arterial disease. Furthermore, patients with triple vessel coronary artery disease have even greater reductions of serum TGF-&#223;1. For every 1 ng/ml decrease in TGF-&#223;1 there appears to be a corresponding increase (~9%) in the CVD event rate<sup>40</sup>. In addition, decreases in TGF-&#223;1 have been linked to bone disease<sup>41</sup>. However, studies of atherosclerosis indicate that TGF-&#223;1 regulation is altered by cytokines and thus is implicated in the pathogenesis of vascular disease<sup>42</sup>. Until this cell signaling protein is better understood, these data suggest that TGF-&#223;1 is not likely to be a therapeutic target in the near future.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Chronic inflammation</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Excess adiposity, particularly intra-abdominal fat results in increased serum levels of positive acute phase reactants such as C-reactive protein (CRP), fibrinogen, ferritin, interleukin-6 (IL-6) and Lp(a)<sup>43</sup>. In addition, there is a corresponding decrease in negative acute phase reactants such as albumin, prealbumin, cholesterol, and apolipoprotein A1 and B. Secreted by adipocytes, IL-6 potently induces hepatic synthesis of CRP, which binds to the Fc-receptor of the immunoglobulin protein, and subsequently activates the complement cascade. Chronic inflammation commonly occurs in ESKD as a result of intercurrent illnesses such as glomerulonephritis and infection, as well as RRT specific factors, including exposure to water-born endotoxins and bioincompatible dialysis membranes<sup>44</sup>. An elevated serum CRP level is one of the most powerful predictors of mortality in patients on RRT and portends a 4.6-fold increased risk of CVD death<sup>45</sup>. In addition to abnormal CRP levels, ESKD patients are 10.6-fold more likely to have elevated fibrinogen levels as part of the acute phase response, which may result in increased plasma viscosity, endothelial injury and thrombosis. As mentioned above, superimposed obesity, through the production of IL-6 stimulates hepatic production of CRP and further worsens the systemic inflammatory state. Plasma apheresis has been shown to effectively reduce the acute phase reactant fibrinogen in ESKD patients. While inflammatory factors may be slightly elevated in those with normal renal function, they are disproportionately high in CKD and should be treated with aspirin and statin therapy<sup>46</sup>. Importantly, the single most potent method for reducing CRP is reducing abdominal adiposity through weight loss<sup>47</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Coronary calcification</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Patients on RRT have coronary calcification scores far exceeding those of the general population, including those found in younger patients. Coronary calcification as measured by computed tomography is present in 88% of ESKD patients between the ages of 20 and 30 years in contrast to 5% of age-matched controls<sup>48</sup>. In addition, serum calcium and phosphate levels as well and serum lipids interact to significantly impact vascular calcification<sup>49</sup>. ESKD patients on non-calcium based phosphate binders are less likely to have vascular calcification within the coronary arteries (0 versus 37%, p=0.03) and thoracic aorta (0 versus 75%, p=0.01) after a 52-week follow-up period as compared with ESKD patients on calcium-based phosphate binders<sup>50</sup>. There was a large reduction in the final LDL-C levels with sevelamer compared to calcium-based binders, 65 vs 103 mg/dl, respectively, p &lt; 0.0001. This is consistent with the known bile-acid sequestrant properties of sevelamer. Accordingly, there was attenuation of progression of CAC with sevelamer with no differences in CPP or PTH, suggesting the change in CAC was more related to LDL-C reduction. While vascular calcification cannot be reversed with current therapies, it appears that LDL-C reduction with sevelamer and statins attenuates progression in humans. In a study of 66 subjects who were followed during a periods without statin treatment and then during treatment with cerivastatin 0.3 mg p.o. qd, the overall median annualized relative change was significantly higher in the untreated interval compared with the treated interval (25% vs 8.8%, P&lt; 0.0001)<sup>51</sup>. The annualized relative change of the CAC score in 32 patients who achieved an LDL-C level of &lt; 100 mg/dL decreased from 27% to -3.4% (P&lt; 0.0001). Callister and colleagues reported on 149 patients with CAD, 105 of whom were taking statins, undergoing baseline and then follow-up electron beam computed tomography studies at 12-15 months<sup>52</sup>. </p>
      <p>The concept of LDL-C reduction and stabilization of coronary atherosclerosis has been extended to the Dialysis Clinical Outcomes Revisited (DCOR) trial, the largest outcomes study ever conducted in the hemodialysis population. The three-year trial involving more than 2,100 patients compared the difference in mortality and morbidity outcomes for patients receiving sevelamer hydrochloride versus those using calcium-based phosphate binders. Despite the LDL-C reduction with sevelamer, there was no reduction in mortality between the treatment groups (9% relative risk reduction with sevelamer, p = 0.30)<sup>53</sup>. Thus stabilization of the progression of CAC may be a benefit of LDL-C reduction, in ESKD it does not appear to be related to changes in mortality in this group. The latest results came from the "4D Trial" (Deutsche Diabetes Dialyse Studie) where 1,255 type 2 DM patients with new ESKD were randomized to atorvastatin 20 mg p.o. qd or placebo for a median of 4 years<sup>54</sup>. The statin was effective in reducing the median serum LDL-C by 42% throughout the study period. However, the primary endpoint&#151;defined as the composite of cardiac death, nonfatal MI, and fatal or nonfatal stroke&#151;was only reduced by 8% with atorvastatin, p = 0.37. The 4D investigators concluded that the negative results might have been due to the advanced cardiovascular diseases in the chronic HD patients, and because statin therapy was initiated too late. It appears from DCOR and 4D, that LDL-C reduction in ESKD may not impact on cardiovascular events or mortality due to the advanced disease present by the time ESKD develops, competing cardiovascular mechanisms for terminal events in ESKD (nonischemic arrhythmias, bradycardia, etc), and the high rates competing noncardiovascular sources of mortality (sepsis, venous thromboembolism, etc).</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Platelet aggregability</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Uremia causes decreases in platelet aggregation<sup>55</sup>. In ESKD patients, exposure to heparin, bioincompatible dialysis membranes and arteriovenous shunts may result in superimposed increased platelet aggregation. Similar effects on platelet aggregation have been shown in chronic ambulatory peritoneal dialysis patients and CKD patients with hypertriglyceridemia. Nonetheless, many CKD patients at risk for CVD do not receive antiplatelet therapy due to concerns over platelet dysfunction and the potential for bleeding complications. The combination of excess thrombin generation and decreased platelet aggegability make the patient with CKD at risk, simultaneously, for thrombotic events and hemorrhage. In general, low-dose daily aspirin is recommended for those with CKD, since it is considered a CVD-risk equivalent state. Emerging sources of data suggest in the CKD patient with acute coronary syndrome, that bivalirudin may be the antithrombotic with the best benefit to bleeding risk ratio<sup>56</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <italic>Cardioprotective therapies</italic>
      </p>
      <p>Studies have consistently shown that CKD patients presenting with acute myocardial infarction are less likely to receive standard therapies. For example, ESKD patients are less likely to receive cardioprotective medications such as aspirin, heparin, &#223;-blockers and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, and are 51% less likely to receive reperfusion therapy for acute myocardial infarction as compared with patients with normal renal function<sup>57</sup>. In general, patients with CKD have a greater relative risk reduction with aspirin, beta-blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEI), glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors, and lipid lowering therapy as compared with the general population after an acute coronary event. Efforts should be made to improve the quality of medical care to coronary patients with CKD and future randomized trials of contemporary therapies should target this at-risk population<sup>58</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The crossroads between heart and kidney disease have led investigators to consider new approaches to atherosclerosis. Understanding that patients with renal disease have a high prevalence of CVD and its associated sequelae, which is only partially explained by conventional CVD risk factors such as hypertension, DM, and dyslipidemia. Novel CVD risk factors in CKD patients appear to play a critical role in the acceleration of the atherosclerotic process. Understanding the mechanisms of these novel factors may lead to specific therapies both for the CKD and the general population.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing Address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Peter A. McCullough, M.D., M.P.H.</p>
          <p> Division of Nutrition and Preventive Medicine - William Beaumont Hospital</p>
          <p> 4949 Coolidge Highway</p>
          <p> Royal Oak, MI 48073 - USA</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="pmccullough@beaumont.edu">pmccullough@beaumont.edu</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>A uremia causa redu&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria<sup>55</sup>. Em portadores de DRCT, a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; heparina, membranas dial&#237;ticas bioincompat&#237;veis e deriva&#231;&#245;es arteriovenosas pode resultar em um aumento sobreposto da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria. Efeitos semelhantes sobre a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria foram demonstrados em pacientes que estejam se submetendo &#224; di&#225;lise peritoneal ambulatorial cont&#237;nua (DPAC) e portadores de DRC com hipertrigliceridemia. N&#227;o obstante, muitos portadores de DRC que correm o risco de desenvolver DCV n&#227;o recebem terapia com antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios, em vista das preocupa&#231;&#245;es relacionadas com disfun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e a possibilidade de complica&#231;&#245;es hemorr&#225;gicas. A combina&#231;&#227;o de produ&#231;&#227;o excessiva de trombina e menor agregabilidade plaquet&#225;ria faz com que o portador de DRC corra o risco de ter, concomitantemente, eventos tromb&#243;ticos e hemorragia. Em geral, recomenda-se uma dose baixa de aspirina diariamente aos portadores de DRC, uma vez que seu risco &#233; considerado equivalente ao da DCV. Novas fontes de dados indicam que, no portador de DRC com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, a bivalirudina pode ser o agente antitromb&#243;tico com melhor rela&#231;&#227;o entre benef&#237;cio/risco de hemorragia<sup>56</sup>.</p>
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  </sub-article>
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