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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">x8dtBhRKrFD4W87z5FH88KL</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00017</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001900017</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700617</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001900017</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Manejo da HDL: avan&#231;os recentes e perspectivas al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o de LDL</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Ineu</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Lemos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Manenti</surname>
            <given-names>Euler</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Lu&#237;s Vieira da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moriguchi</surname>
            <given-names>Em&#237;lio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">PUC</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital S&#227;o Lucas </institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>6</issue>
      <fpage>788</fpage>
      <lpage>794</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>18</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Manejo da HDL: avan&#231;os recentes e perspectivas al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o de LDL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Marcelo Lemos Ineu; Euler Manenti; Jos&#233; Lu&#237;s Vieira da Costa; Em&#237;lio Moriguchi</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hospital S&#227;o Lucas da PUC - Porto Alegre, RS</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> HDL colesterol, terapia e perspectivas.</p>
    <p>As doen&#231;as ateroscler&#243;ticas constituem uma causa importante de morbidade e mortalidade em todo o mundo<sup>1</sup>. Dentre os fatores de risco cl&#225;ssicos conhecidos, os n&#237;veis elevados de LDL-colesterol (LDL-C), bem como os n&#237;veis reduzidos de HDL-colesterol (HDL-C) est&#227;o relacionados com importante aumento da incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica. Objetivando a diminui&#231;&#227;o desse risco, o principal foco da terap&#234;utica hipolipemiante tem sido a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de LDL-C com o uso de estatinas. No entanto, apesar do importante benef&#237;cio alcan&#231;ado, mesmo considerando-se grandes redu&#231;&#245;es de LDL-C com tratamento hipolipemiante intensivo, um n&#250;mero significativo de eventos ainda n&#227;o pode ser evitado<sup>2,3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dessa forma, h&#225; um grande interesse em identificar terapias capazes de reduzir ainda mais o risco de eventos cardiovasculares. Um alvo terap&#234;utico que tem despertado muito interesse &#233; o aumento nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C, j&#225; que os n&#237;veis reduzidos desse colesterol constituem a anormalidade lip&#237;dica mais freq&#252;entemente encontrada em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) estabelecida. Alguns estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que um aumento nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de HDL-C, da ordem de 1 mg/dl, produz redu&#231;&#227;o de 2%-3% na incid&#234;ncia de DAC<sup>4,5</sup>. Tamb&#233;m foi demonstrado que n&#237;veis elevados de HDL-C podem impedir a progress&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica, promovendo, ali&#225;s, sua regress&#227;o<sup>6</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig17q1">quadro 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="fig17q1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-06-0788-00017-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>O objetivo deste estudo &#233; revisar o metabolismo da HDL, determinar seu papel no desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, bem como abordar o tratamento atual dos baixos n&#237;veis de HDL-C e as perspectivas de novas terapias.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Metabolismo da HDL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O metabolismo end&#243;geno dos lip&#237;deos compreende dois sistemas principais: um respons&#225;vel pelo transporte e forma&#231;&#227;o das part&#237;culas carreadoras de colesterol ligadas &#224; apolipoprote&#237;na (Apo) B100 (VLDL, IDL e LDL), e outro associado &#224; Apo AI e ao metabolismo da HDL.</p>
    <p>As lipoprote&#237;nas de alta densidade (HDL) s&#227;o uma fam&#237;lia de part&#237;culas heterog&#234;neas que variam de tamanho, densidade e composi&#231;&#227;o qu&#237;mica como resultado de suas taxas de s&#237;ntese e catabolismo e de um remodelamento intravascular cont&#237;nuo pela a&#231;&#227;o de enzimas e de prote&#237;nas de transporte. A fun&#231;&#227;o principal da HDL parece ser a remo&#231;&#227;o do excesso de colesterol livre da periferia, a condu&#231;&#227;o ao f&#237;gado e a promo&#231;&#227;o da metaboliza&#231;&#227;o e secre&#231;&#227;o na bile, o que &#233; conhecido como transporte reverso de colesterol.</p>
    <p>As part&#237;culas de HDL s&#227;o originadas a partir de um complexo fosfolip&#237;deo-apolipoprote&#237;na chamado de HDL-nascente. A Apo AI constitui 70%-80% de sua estrutura. Essas part&#237;culas captam colesterol livre pela liga&#231;&#227;o a um receptor das c&#233;lulas perif&#233;ricas conhecido como ABC A-1 <italic>(</italic>ATP Binding Cassette A-1). A enzima LCAT (lecitina:colesterol aciltransferase) age na transforma&#231;&#227;o da HDL-nascente em HDL3 que s&#227;o part&#237;culas pequenas, ainda pobres em colesterol. Essa enzima, al&#233;m de facilitar o transporte de colesterol livre das c&#233;lulas perif&#233;ricas para as part&#237;culas de HDL, tamb&#233;m promove a convers&#227;o do colesterol livre em &#233;steres de colesterol, facilitando uma maior aceita&#231;&#227;o pelas HDL3 que, progressivamente, aumentam de tamanho, transformando-se em HDL2<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>A partir da&#237;, os &#233;steres de colesterol podem ser transferidos para outras lipoprote&#237;nas, que contenham Apo B, pela a&#231;&#227;o da CETP &#150; Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein (prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de &#233;steres de colesterol). Esse colesterol &#233; trocado por triglicer&#237;deos (TG) contidos nas lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em TG (quilomicrons, VLDL e remanescentes), reduzindo o conte&#250;do de colesterol das HDL. O ciclo reverso de colesterol se completa quando as part&#237;culas de HDL s&#227;o captadas pelos receptores hep&#225;ticos SR-B1 (Scavenger Receptor) que removem seu conte&#250;do de colesterol, iniciando o processo de excre&#231;&#227;o do colesterol pela bile.</p>
    <p>Tamb&#233;m tem sido sugerido que a HDL poderia exercer efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos que v&#227;o al&#233;m do transporte reverso de colesterol. Esses incluiriam propriedades antiinflamat&#243;rias, antioxidativas, antiagregantes, anticoagulantes e pr&#243;-fibrinol&#237;ticas, j&#225; demonstradas em estudos <italic>in vitro</italic>, algumas das quais tamb&#233;m presentes com a infus&#227;o de HDL-colesterol <italic>in vivo</italic><sup>8,9</sup>. Fatores ambientais como dieta, obesidade e exerc&#237;cios, assim como fatores gen&#233;ticos e ligados ao g&#234;nero tamb&#233;m exercem influ&#234;ncia nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de HDL-C<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os dist&#250;rbios no metabolismo que promovem baixos n&#237;veis de HDL podem ocorrer em qualquer etapa, incluindo altera&#231;&#245;es em receptores, enzimas e transportadores. Existe a possibilidade de que novas medica&#231;&#245;es possam regular esses dist&#250;rbios, incrementando o transporte reverso de colesterol e acionando os poss&#237;veis efeitos pleiotr&#243;picos obtidos com o aumento dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos do HDL-C.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Papel na doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Existem evid&#234;ncias crescentes mostrando uma rela&#231;&#227;o inversa entre n&#237;veis de HDL-C e risco de DAC<sup>11</sup>. No estudo de Framingham, para cada diminui&#231;&#227;o de 4 mg/dl no HDL-C houve um aumento de 10% na incid&#234;ncia de DAC<sup>12</sup>. O &#250;ltimo relat&#243;rio do National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP-ATPIII) definiu que o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de HDL-C menor que 40 mg/dl &#233; um fator independente de risco para DAC&#185;.</p>
    <p>Recentemente, resultados do estudo MIRACL (Myocardial Ischaemia Reduction with Agressive Cholesterol Lowering) sugerem que os n&#237;veis de HDL-C, na apresenta&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda, t&#234;m maior influ&#234;ncia no progn&#243;stico em curto prazo que os n&#237;veis de LDL-C<sup>13</sup>. Dados de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria do estudo de Helsinki com o uso de gemfibrozil sugeriram que para cada 1% de aumento nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C havia uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 2%-3% na incid&#234;ncia de eventos coronarianos<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>H&#225; alguns anos, o Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS) analisou o uso de lovastatina na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de DAC numa popula&#231;&#227;o com n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de LDL-C e n&#237;veis baixos de HDL-C. A lovastatina comparada ao placebo aumentou em 6% os n&#237;veis de HDL-C e reduziu em 25% os de LDL-C, com uma redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos card&#237;acos de 37%<sup>14,15</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo VA-HIT (Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial) investigou os benef&#237;cios da preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria com genfibrozil em pacientes com DAC e n&#237;veis de HDL-C baixos e de LDL-C menores que 140 mg/dl. Os resultados evidenciaram uma redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de eventos coronarianos em 22% no grupo tratado com genfibrozil<sup>16</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo HATS (HDL-Atherosclerosis Treatment Study) analisou o uso de sinvastatina associada &#224; niacina em pacientes com DAC, n&#237;veis normais de LDL-C e n&#237;veis baixos de HDL-C durante uma m&#233;dia de tr&#234;s anos. Em m&#233;dia, essa associa&#231;&#227;o promoveu redu&#231;&#227;o de 42% nos n&#237;veis de LDL-C e aumento de 26% nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C. Quando comparado com placebo, houve melhora das les&#245;es angiogr&#225;ficas e uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 90% nos eventos cl&#237;nicos maiores. Uma an&#225;lise posterior do estudo comprovou a seguran&#231;a e a tolerabilidade da associa&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com e sem diabetes. Contudo, esse foi um estudo pequeno, planejado apenas para mostrar efeitos nas placas, e n&#227;o melhora de desfechos cl&#237;nicos, o que nos indica cautela na an&#225;lise de seus resultados<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Terapia dos baixos n&#237;veis de HDL</bold>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Modifica&#231;&#227;o no estilo de vida -</italic> Embora as respostas individuais sejam bastante vari&#225;veis, a modifica&#231;&#227;o do estilo de vida tem papel fundamental na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria de eventos cardiovasculares maiores. O &#250;ltimo consenso do NCEP-ATP III refere que a redu&#231;&#227;o de peso aumenta o HDL-C em 5%-20%; o abandono do tabagismo aumenta cerca de 5%; e a atividade f&#237;sica regular pode produzir eleva&#231;&#227;o no HDL-C de at&#233; 30%<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Uso de &#225;lcool -</italic> O consumo moderado de &#225;lcool (30-60 g/dia) produz aumento de 5%-10% nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C e Apo A-I, e esse efeito poderia responder por at&#233; metade do prov&#225;vel benef&#237;cio atribu&#237;do ao &#225;lcool na diminui&#231;&#227;o de DAC. No entanto, pelo grande potencial de v&#237;cio e de outras doen&#231;as secund&#225;rias ao seu consumo, o &#225;lcool n&#227;o pode ser recomendado como m&#233;todo terap&#234;utico em n&#237;vel populacional<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>&#193;cidos graxos &#244;mega-3 -</italic> Os &#225;cidos graxos &#212;mega-3 s&#227;o gorduras poliinsaturadas derivadas principalmente de &#243;leo de peixe com propriedades antitromb&#243;ticas e de melhora no perfil lip&#237;dico, podendo reduzir os n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos em at&#233; 30%. No entanto, os efeitos nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C s&#227;o modestos com aumento de menos de 3% nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Estrog&#234;nio -</italic> Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos e experimentais t&#234;m demonstrado os benef&#237;cios do estrog&#234;nio sobre os n&#237;veis de lip&#237;deos plasm&#225;ticos. A reposi&#231;&#227;o de estrog&#234;nio, al&#233;m de reduzir os n&#237;veis de LDL-C, aumenta o HDL-C em 10%-20%, principalmente pela ativa&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de Apo A-I, e tamb&#233;m reduz os n&#237;veis de LDL-C<sup>18</sup>. Esse efeito &#233; atenuado parcialmente e de forma vari&#225;vel pelo uso concomitante de progestog&#234;nio.</p>
    <p>Os estudos cl&#237;nicos, no entanto, n&#227;o comprovaram o benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico da terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal e, por isso, ela n&#227;o &#233; recomendada para tratamento dos n&#237;veis baixos de HDL-C ou para preven&#231;&#227;o de DAC<sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Niacina (&#193;cido nicot&#237;nico) -</italic> O &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico &#233; o agente em uso cl&#237;nico com a maior capacidade de aumentar o HDL-C (15%-40%), produzindo tamb&#233;m redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de LDL-C (5%-25%) e triglicer&#237;deos (20%-50%). Igualmente, promove aumento no di&#226;metro das part&#237;culas de LDL, reduzindo a concentra&#231;&#227;o das LDL pequenas e densas, tornando o perfil de subclasses de LDL menos aterog&#234;nico.</p>
    <p>O &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico age em v&#225;rias etapas do metabolismo lip&#237;dico, inibindo a mobiliza&#231;&#227;o dos &#225;cidos graxos do tecido adiposo, diminuindo o aporte desses &#225;cidos graxos ao f&#237;gado e, como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia, diminui a produ&#231;&#227;o de VLDL e a forma&#231;&#227;o de LDL. A niacina tamb&#233;m inibe a degrada&#231;&#227;o das part&#237;culas de HDL por mecanismos n&#227;o bem conhecidos. Por tudo isso, pode ser usada no tratamento de todos os tipos de dislipidemia<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos bem conduzidos demonstraram que a niacina &#233; capaz de reduzir o tamanho das placas ateroscler&#243;ticas e os eventos cardiovasculares maiores<sup>21</sup>. &#201; uma boa op&#231;&#227;o de uso nos pacientes com alto risco de desenvolver doen&#231;a coronariana, especialmente naqueles com s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, diab&#233;ticos e obesos que, caracteristicamente, t&#234;m uma tr&#237;ade lip&#237;dica aterog&#234;nica (TG elevados, HDL baixo e part&#237;culas de LDL pequenas e densas).</p>
    <p>Na maioria dos casos, n&#227;o deve ser usada isoladamente, mas em combina&#231;&#227;o com estatinas ou fibratos, objetivando uma melhora global do perfil lip&#237;dico traduzida por eleva&#231;&#227;o do HDL-C, redu&#231;&#227;o de LDL-C e TG e mudan&#231;a para um perfil menos aterog&#234;nico das part&#237;culas de LDL. A combina&#231;&#227;o com estatina &#233; bem tolerada parecendo n&#227;o haver maior potencializa&#231;&#227;o dos seus efeitos colaterais<sup>22</sup>. Quando se usa a apresenta&#231;&#227;o de libera&#231;&#227;o programada, as doses variam de 1-2 g/dia, iniciando-se com 250 a 500 mg de &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico ao dia, ap&#243;s o jantar, e aumentando 250 a 500 mg a cada duas semanas. A associa&#231;&#227;o com fibrato tamb&#233;m tem sido estudada com resultados favor&#225;veis &#224; combina&#231;&#227;o, mas s&#227;o necess&#225;rios estudos maiores para demonstrar benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>A grande limita&#231;&#227;o do uso do &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico s&#227;o os efeitos colaterais freq&#252;entes, que se tornam mais intensos com o aumento da dose. Os efeitos adversos mais comuns s&#227;o as rea&#231;&#245;es cut&#226;neas (<italic>flushing</italic> e prurido), irrita&#231;&#227;o das mucosas e dist&#250;rbios gastrointestinais como diarr&#233;ia e n&#225;usea. Os mais graves s&#227;o hepatotoxicidade, hiperuricemia e hiperglicemia. Uma maneira de reduzir os efeitos colaterais &#233; a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da niacina como prepara&#231;&#227;o de libera&#231;&#227;o programada em dose &#250;nica di&#225;ria antes de dormir. No caso do <italic>flushing</italic>, a incid&#234;ncia pode ser reduzida com o uso concomitante de AAS. A glicemia &#233; alterada com doses mais altas (&gt; 3 g), e estudos recentes em diab&#233;ticos n&#227;o mostraram altera&#231;&#245;es significativas com o uso de doses mais baixas do agente<sup>24,25.</sup></p>
    <p><italic>Estatinas -</italic> A a&#231;&#227;o desses agentes ocorre por inibi&#231;&#227;o da principal enzima envolvida na s&#237;ntese de colesterol, a HMG-CoA redutase, levando a redu&#231;&#245;es de 18%-60% nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LDL-C, e 7%-30% nos triglicer&#237;dios. Sua a&#231;&#227;o no metabolismo da HDL n&#227;o est&#225; bem definida, mas sabe-se que aumenta os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de HDL-C entre 5%-15%<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>As estatinas t&#234;m benef&#237;cio bem definido na redu&#231;&#227;o dos eventos cardiovasculares maiores principalmente em raz&#227;o da a&#231;&#227;o no metabolismo do LDL<sup>27,28</sup>. Estudos t&#234;m demonstrado que a associa&#231;&#227;o de estatina com niacina de libera&#231;&#227;o programada melhora significativamente o perfil lip&#237;dico dos pacientes com boa seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia<sup>29</sup>. A combina&#231;&#227;o com niacina &#233; interessante pela abrang&#234;ncia no tratamento das dislipidemias, pois os agentes n&#227;o s&#227;o antagonistas, mas sim coadjuvantes no tratamento das dislipidemias mistas. Embora a comprova&#231;&#227;o do benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico dessa associa&#231;&#227;o ainda seja pequena, um estudo demonstrou importante redu&#231;&#227;o dos eventos cardiovasculares maiores<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Fibratos -</italic> S&#227;o medica&#231;&#245;es derivadas do &#225;cido f&#237;brico, usadas especialmente no tratamento da hipertrigliceridemia. Possuem metabolismo complexo provocando redu&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; 60% nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de TG, de 5%-20% no LDL-C, e aumento de 10%-35% nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C. Uma das a&#231;&#245;es dos fibratos se d&#225; pelo efeito agonista dos receptores ativados por proliferadores de peroxissomo, conhecidos como PPAR, que ser&#227;o discutidos com detalhes mais adiante.</p>
    <p>Como os fibratos, al&#233;m de aumentarem o HDL-C, tamb&#233;m diminuem lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglicer&#237;deos aterog&#234;nicas que n&#227;o podem ser medidas apenas por triglicer&#237;deos em jejum, &#233; dif&#237;cil atribuir eventual benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico obtido com esse grupo de medicamentos ao aumento isolado do HDL-C.</p>
    <p>Dados de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria originados no Helsinki Heart Study com o uso do genfibrozil demonstraram redu&#231;&#227;o de 37% de infartos fatais e n&#227;o-fatais, mas sem altera&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade total<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estudo VA-HIT, com uso de genfibrozil para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, analisou pacientes com LDL-C e TG pouco elevados e com HDL-C menor que 40 mg/dl, mostrando redu&#231;&#227;o significante nos eventos cardiovasculares maiores, atribu&#237;dos, em parte, ao aumento do HDL. A combina&#231;&#227;o com niacina tem sido considerada, podendo reduzir significativamente os eventos cardiovasculares em pacientes com DAC conhecida<sup>30</sup>. No entanto, no Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention Study, que avaliou o uso de bezafibrato na incid&#234;ncia de eventos coronarianos em pacientes com DAC, com n&#237;veis de CT entre 180-250 mg/dl, TG abaixo de 300 mg/dl e HDL-C menor que 45 mg/dl, n&#227;o foi demonstrado benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico apesar do aumento de 12% nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C, com exce&#231;&#227;o de um subgrupo de pacientes com TG acima de 200 mg/dl, que apresentou redu&#231;&#227;o 40% do desfecho prim&#225;rio com o uso de bezafibrato em uma an&#225;lise <italic>post hoc</italic><sup>31</sup>. Tamb&#233;m um grande estudo de preven&#231;&#227;o em diab&#233;ticos com o uso de fenofibrato n&#227;o mostrou benef&#237;cio na redu&#231;&#227;o de infarto n&#227;o-fatal e morte por DAC<sup>32</sup>. Por isso, mais estudos cl&#237;nicos de grande impacto s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para comprovar os benef&#237;cios cl&#237;nicos.</p>
    <p><italic>Resinas -</italic> Colestipol e colestiramina s&#227;o exemplos de resinas de troca que diminuem a absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal de sais biliares e de colesterol. A maior a&#231;&#227;o &#233; baixar o LDL-C, principalmente se usadas em associa&#231;&#227;o com estatinas<sup>33</sup>. Secundariamente, promovem aumento na s&#237;ntese de Apoprote&#237;na A1 com eleva&#231;&#227;o modestas de 3%-5% nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C. S&#227;o agentes com pouca toxicidade sist&#234;mica, mas com muitos efeitos colaterais no trato gastrointestinal. Tendem a aumentar os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de TG, e por isso s&#227;o contra-indicados em pessoas com disbetalipoproteinemia e com hipertrigliceridemia maior que 400 mg/dl<sup>34</sup>. Podem ser usados em pacientes diab&#233;ticos e ter melhor efeito quando associados ao &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico<sup>35,36</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Ezetimiba -</italic> &#201; um inibidor intestinal da absor&#231;&#227;o de colesterol com pequeno efeito sobre HDL-C, com aumento menor que 5% nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos. Tem sido usado principalmente em combina&#231;&#227;o com estatinas para potencializa&#231;&#227;o do efeito desses agentes, inclusive aumentando os n&#237;veis de HDL-C<sup>37</sup>.</p>
    <p>Avan&#231;os e perspectivas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig17q2"><bold>quadro 2</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="fig17q2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-06-0788-00017-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Pept&#237;deos sint&#233;ticos &#150; Mim&#233;ticos de HDL -</italic> A Apo A-1 &#233; a principal part&#237;cula constituinte da HDL nascente, com importante fun&#231;&#227;o na capta&#231;&#227;o de colesterol livre. Indiv&#237;duos com uma variante natural e incomum dessa prote&#237;na, conhecida com Apo A-1 Milano, foram descorbertos na It&#225;lia. Apesar de apresentarem n&#237;veis baixos de HDL-C, tinham menos aterosclerose do que o esperado para os n&#237;veis de HDL-C.</p>
    <p>A partir dessa descoberta, foram sintetizados pept&#237;deos mim&#233;ticos dessa apoprote&#237;na, que constituem uma forma promissora de terapia dos baixos n&#237;veis de HDL-C. O ETC-216 &#233; um variante sint&#233;tico do HDL, formado por um complexo fosfolip&#237;dico e Apo A-1 Milano recombinante, com finalidade que mimetizar a Apo A-1 Milano.</p>
    <p>Estudos experimentais em ratos t&#234;m mostrado que a infus&#227;o de altas doses de Apo A-1 recombinante mobiliza colesterol tecidual reduzindo o conte&#250;do lip&#237;dico e os macr&#243;fagos das placas<sup>38</sup>. Tamb&#233;m t&#234;m sido mostrado resultados promissores em estudos de fase 2 por meio da an&#225;lise das placas ateroscler&#243;ticas com ultra-som intravascular (USIV), reduzindo o volume das placas em cerca de 4% e impedindo sua progress&#227;o<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>O HDL-recombinante ainda n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel para uso cl&#237;nico. Uma das principais limita&#231;&#245;es, al&#233;m do alto custo, seria a necessidade de administra&#231;&#227;o endovenosa em altas doses. Por isso, outros produtos t&#234;m sido desenvolvidos para tentar a administra&#231;&#227;o via oral e ampliar a possibilidade do uso.</p>
    <p><italic>Agonistas dos PPAR &#150; Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors -</italic> Os receptores PPA t&#234;m importante papel na fun&#231;&#227;o celular, incluindo metabolismo lip&#237;dico, prolifera&#231;&#227;o celular, diferencia&#231;&#227;o, adipog&#234;nese e sinaliza&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria, al&#233;m da intera&#231;&#227;o com algumas medica&#231;&#245;es usadas no tratamento de doen&#231;as metab&#243;licas. Existem tr&#234;s subtipos distintos de PPAR, definidos como alfa, gama e delta.</p>
    <p>A ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores alfa produz aumento nos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de HDL-C e diminui&#231;&#227;o nos TG, enquanto a ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores gama produz diminui&#231;&#227;o na resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica a insulina e eleva&#231;&#227;o modesta no HDL, e a ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores delta produz os tr&#234;s efeitos<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os fibratos possuem a&#231;&#227;o agonista alfa, as glitazonas t&#234;m a&#231;&#227;o gama<sup>40,41</sup>. O ideal seriam agentes com o efeito mais amplo poss&#237;vel sobre esses receptores. Alguns agonistas dos PPAR est&#227;o em desenvolvimento, sendo uma das promessas o tesaglitazar, que &#233; um agente com a&#231;&#245;es alfa e gama, j&#225; em fase avan&#231;ada de pesquisa<sup>42</sup>.</p>
    <p>Uma das preocupa&#231;&#245;es com o desenvolvimento desses novos agentes refere-se aos efeitos colaterais, pois estudos em animais mostraram aumento significativo no desenvolvimento de tumores.</p>
    <p><italic>Inibidores da CETP -</italic> A CETP &#233; uma glicoprote&#237;na plasm&#225;tica com papel fundamental na troca de &#233;steres de colesterol das HDLs por TG das lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em TG. Pessoas com defeitos no gene modulador da CETP, e conseq&#252;ente defici&#234;ncia na sua a&#231;&#227;o, possuem n&#237;veis bastante elevados de HDL-C e Apo A-1 e n&#237;veis baixos de LDL-C. Estudos em fase 2 e 3 com agentes que inibem a CETP t&#234;m mostrado grande aumento na concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de HDL<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <p>O torcetrapib age inibindo a a&#231;&#227;o da CETP sobre HDL, diminuindo sua degrada&#231;&#227;o e provocando aumento de at&#233; 100% nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C. O efeito foi observado com o uso isolado ou em associa&#231;&#227;o com atorvastatina. O efeito cl&#237;nico decorrente da a&#231;&#227;o do torcetrapib est&#225; sendo avaliado e os resultados dos estudos devem ser publicados nos pr&#243;ximos anos. O JTT-705 tamb&#233;m exerce inibi&#231;&#227;o da a&#231;&#227;o da CETP, e estudos de fase 2 mostram eleva&#231;&#245;es entre 35%-40% na concentra&#231;&#227;o s&#233;rica de HDL-C<sup>44</sup>.</p>
    <p>Tem sido estudada uma vacina contra a CETP, promovendo a indu&#231;&#227;o de auto-anticorpos que se ligam especificamente a essa prote&#237;na, promovendo inibi&#231;&#227;o da sua atividade, mas estudos preliminares mostram aumentos modestos de cerca de 8% nos n&#237;veis do HDL-C apenas em pacientes selecionados com HDL-C baixo e LDL-C normal. Os resultados s&#227;o controversos, a experi&#234;ncia &#233; limitada e mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios<sup>45,46</sup>.</p>
    <p>A d&#250;vida em rela&#231;&#227;o a esses agentes &#233; se os HDL formados pela inibi&#231;&#227;o da CETP t&#234;m o mesmo efeito que os naturais. O que se espera &#233; que estudos cl&#237;nicos possam revelar informa&#231;&#245;es mais consistentes sobre o efeito dessas medica&#231;&#245;es, principalmente na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos coronarianos e morte.</p>
    <p><italic>Receptor hep&#225;tico SR-BI -</italic> O SR-BI &#233; um receptor hep&#225;tico de HDL, e sua estimula&#231;&#227;o promove a redu&#231;&#227;o de HDL-C do plasma, mediando o tr&#226;nsito de colesterol do sangue para a bile. Estudos com animais mostraram redu&#231;&#227;o na aterosclerose com a estimula&#231;&#227;o do SR-BI, ao mesmo tempo que a aus&#234;ncia desse receptor aumentou os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de HDL-C, mas produziu piora no processo ateroscler&#243;tico<sup>47</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares s&#227;o as principais causas de morte na atualidade e, segundo previs&#245;es da OMS para os pr&#243;ximos anos, essa lideran&#231;a ser&#225; ainda mais consolidada. Muitos avan&#231;os terap&#234;uticos e preventivos t&#234;m contribu&#237;do para reduzir esses &#237;ndices; entretanto, para diminuirmos de forma substancial as mortes de causas card&#237;acas, h&#225; necessidade de maiores conquistas no controle dos fatores de risco.</p>
    <p>A obesidade e o tabagismo s&#227;o problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica no mundo, mobilizando esfor&#231;os para a sua redu&#231;&#227;o, mas com resultados insatisfat&#243;rios. Entre os diab&#233;ticos, o controle adequado da glicemia produz benef&#237;cios; por&#233;m, no &#226;mbito da mortalidade, os ganhos s&#227;o modestos. A hipertens&#227;o arterial tem um arsenal terap&#234;utico mais definido com metas de controle estabelecidas e benef&#237;cios do tratamento j&#225; amplamente comprovados.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m dessas interven&#231;&#245;es, a esperan&#231;a de redu&#231;&#227;o das mortes por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares recai sobre a a&#231;&#227;o no metabolismo lip&#237;dico. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, os esfor&#231;os da comunidade cient&#237;fica t&#234;m se concentrado na redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C com conquistas importantes na redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade. No entanto, mesmo com redu&#231;&#245;es substanciais de LDL-C, h&#225; um grande n&#250;mero de casos de DAC que ainda n&#227;o &#233; evitado.</p>
    <p>Uma perspectiva a ser seguida &#233; a interven&#231;&#227;o no metabolismo da HDL objetivando um aumento no transporte reverso de colesterol. A terapia atual direcionada ao manejo dos baixos n&#237;veis de HDL-C ainda oferece benef&#237;cio pouco satisfat&#243;rio, pois medica&#231;&#245;es bem toleradas promovem pequeno aumento, enquanto agentes mais potentes carregam mais efeitos adversos impedindo seu uso em at&#233; 30% dos pacientes. Por isso, necessitamos de novos agentes com mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o diferentes, que alterem o metabolismo da HDL e promovam altera&#231;&#245;es mais sustentadas, adicionando benef&#237;cio sobre os agentes j&#225; existentes.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; d&#250;vida que n&#237;veis baixos de HDL-C predisponham a aterosclerose. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias epidemiol&#243;gicas fortes e dados de estudos experimentais e de estudos angiogr&#225;ficos mostrando que o aumento do HDL-C ou a infus&#227;o da Apo AI diminui o ateroma. No entanto, a evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de que a terapia visando ao aumento isolado do HDL-C diminui o risco de doen&#231;a coronariana e a mortalidade cardiovascular ainda &#233; conjetural.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
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    <p>47. Trigatti B, Rayburn H, Vinals M, Braun A, Miettinen H, Penman M, et al. Influence of the high density lipoprotein receptor SR-BI on reproductive and cardiovascular pathophysiology. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1999; 96: 9322-7.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Marcelo Lemos Ineu </p>
        <p> Rua Dr. Pantale&#227;o 233/502 </p>
        <p> 97010-180 - Santa Maria, RS </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="marceloineu@cardiol.br">marceloineu@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Artigo recebido em 12/12/05; revisado recebido em 24/03/06; aceito em 11/04/06.</p>
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        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">HDL management: recent advances and perspectives beyond LDL reduction</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>HDL management: recent advances and perspectives beyond LDL reduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Marcelo Lemos Ineu; Euler Manenti; Jos&#233; Lu&#237;s Vieira da Costa; Em&#237;lio Moriguchi</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital S&#227;o Lucas da PUC - Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> HDL cholesterol, therapy and perspectives.</p>
      <p>Atherosclerotic diseases are a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide<sup>1</sup>. Among the classic risk factors known, elevated levels of LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C), and reduced levels of HDL-cholesterol (HDL-C) are associated with a significant increase in the incidence of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. With the objective of reducing this risk, the main focus of lipid-lowering therapy has been the reduction of LDL-C levels using statins. However, although a major benefit has been obtained, and although there has been significant reductions in LDL-C levels with intensive lipid-lowering treatment, a significant number of events still cannot be prevented<sup>2,3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, there is a great interest in identifying therapies that can reduce the risk of cardiovascular events even further. A therapeutic target that has aroused great interest is the increase in HDL-C levels, since reduced levels of this type of cholesterol constitute the lipid abnormality most widely found in patients with established coronary artery disease (CAD). Some studies have demonstrated that an increase in HDL-C serum levels in the region of 1mg/dl reduces the incidence of CAD by 2-3%<sup>4,5</sup>. It has also been demonstrated that elevated levels of HDL-C may prevent the progression of atherosclerotic plaque and even promote its regression<sup>6</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="e17c1-body2">chart 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="e17c1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-06-0788-00017-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>The objective of this study is to review HDL metabolism, to determine its role in the development of atherosclerotic disease, and to study the current treatment of low levels of HDL-C and the perspectives for new therapies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>HDL metabolism</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The endogenous metabolism of lipids comprises two major systems. One of them is responsible for the transport and formation of cholesterol-carrying particles bound to Apolipoprotein (Apo) B100 (VLDL, IDL and LDL) and the other is associated to Apo AI and to HDL metabolism.</p>
      <p>High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are a family of heterogeneous particles that vary in size, density and chemical composition as a result of their rates of synthesis and catabolism and of continuous intravascular remodeling by the action of enzymes and transport proteins. The main function of HDL seems to be the removal of excess free cholesterol from the periphery, the conduction of cholesterol to the liver and the promotion of its metabolization and secretion into the bile, which is known as reverse cholesterol transport<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>HDL particles originate from a phospholipid-apolipoprotein complex, called nascent-HDL. Apo AI accounts for 70-80% of its structure. These particles capture free cholesterol by binding to a receptor of peripheral cells which is known as ABC A-1 <italic>(ATP Binding Cassette</italic> A-1<italic>).</italic> The LCAT enzyme (lecithin-cholesterol acyltransferase) acts on the transformation, into HDL3, of nascent-HDL, which are small particles, poor in cholesterol. This enzyme, in addition to facilitating the transport of free cholesterol from the peripheral cells to HDL particles, also converts free cholesterol into cholesterol esters, thus facilitating greater acceptance by HDL3 which progressively increase in size to become HDL2 <sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>From this point on, cholesterol esters can be transferred to other lipoproteins that contain Apo B by the action of CETP -<italic>Cholesteryl Ester Transfer Protein</italic>. This cholesterol is exchanged for triglycerides (TG) contained in TG-rich lipoproteins (chylomicrons, VLDL and remnants), thus reducing the cholesterol content of HDL. The reverse cycle of cholesterol is completed when HDL particles are captured by SR-B1 (<italic>Scavenger Receptor)</italic> hepatic receptors that remove their cholesterol content, initiating the process of excretion of cholesterol into the bile.</p>
      <p>It has also been suggested that HDL may have pleiotropic effects beyond the reverse cholesterol transport. These effects include anti-inflammatory, antioxidizing, antiaggregating, anticoagulant and profibrinolytic properties, which have been demonstrated in <italic>in vitro</italic> studies. Some of these properties are also present with infusion of HDL-cholesterol <italic>in vivo</italic><sup>8,9</sup>. Environmental factors such as diet, obesity and exercises, in addition to genetic and gender-related factors also influence HDL-C serum levels<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Metabolic disorders that cause low HDL levels may occur at any stage, including alterations in receptors, enzymes and transporters. It is possible that new medication may control these disorders, increasing reverse cholesterol transport and activating the potential pleiotropic effects obtained with the increase of HDL-C serum levels.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Role in ischemic heart disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There is growing evidence of an inverse relationship between HDL-C levels and the risk of CAD<sup>11</sup>. In Framingham's study, each 4mg/dl decrease in HDL-C levels increases the incidence of CAD by 10%<sup>12</sup>. The last report issued by the <italic>National Cholesterol Education Program</italic> (NCEP-ATPIII) defined that an HDL-C serum level below 40mg/dl is an independent risk factor for CAD&#185;.</p>
      <p>More recently, the results of the MIRACL (<italic>Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering</italic>) study suggest that HDL-C levels, as presented by patients with acute coronary syndrome, have a greater influence on the short-term prognostic than LDL-C levels<sup>13</sup>. Data from the Helsinki study on primary prevention with gemfibrozil suggest that for each 1% increase in HDL-C there was a 2-3% reduction in the incidence of coronary events<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>Some years ago, the <italic>Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention</italic> Study (AFCAPS/TexCAPS) analyzed the use of lovastatin for the primary prevention of CAD in a population with average LDL-C levels and low HDL-C levels. Lovastatin, in comparison with the placebo, increased HDL-C levels by 6% and reduced LDL-C levels by 25%, with a 37% reduction in cardiac events<sup>14,15</sup>.</p>
      <p>The VA-HIT (<italic>Veterans Affairs High-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Intervention Trial</italic>) investigated the benefits of secondary prevention with gemfibrozil in patients with CAD and low HDL-C levels and LDL-C levels below 140mg/dl. The results showed a 22% reduction in the incidence of coronary events in the group treated with gemfibrozil<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>The HATS (<italic>HDL-Atherosclerosis Treatment Study)</italic> analyzed the use of simvastatin combined with niacin in patients with CAD, normal LDL-C levels and low HDL-C levels during 3 years (mean). On average, this combination promoted a 42% reduction in LDL-C levels and a 26% increase in HDL-C levels. When compared with the placebo, there was improvement in the lesions on angiography and a 90% reduction in major clinical events. An analysis carried out after the study demonstrated the safety and tolerability of this combination in patients with and without diabetes. However, this was a small study, designed to show the effects on the plaques rather than the improvement of clinical outcomes, which indicates that we should analyze its results with caution<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Therapy of low HDL levels</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Change in lifestyle -</italic> Although individual responses vary greatly, changing one's lifestyle plays a key role in the primary and secondary prevention of major cardiovascular events. The last NCEP-ATP III consensus states that weight reduction increases HDL-C by 5-20%; smoking cessation increases [HDL-C] by approximately 5% and regular physical activity may increase HDL-C by up to 30%.<sup>1</sup></p>
      <p><italic>Alcohol consumption -</italic> Moderate alcohol consumption (30-60 g/day) increases HDL-C and Apo A-I levels by 5-10%, and this effect may account for up to half the probable benefit attributed to alcohol as regards the reduction of CAD. However, due to its high addictive potential and to other diseases secondary to its consumption, alcohol cannot be recommended as a therapeutic method for the population at large<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Omega-3 fatty acids -</italic> Omega-3 fatty acids are polyunsaturated fats derived primarily from fish oil. They have antithrombotic properties and improve the lipid profile, and may reduce triglyceride levels by up to 30%. They have little effect, however, on HDL-C levels, and increase HDL-C serum levels by less than 3%<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Estrogen -</italic> Epidemiological and experimental studies have demonstrated the benefits of estrogen on serum lipid levels. Estrogen replacement, in addition to reducing LDL-C levels, increases HDL-C by 10-20%, especially because of the activation of Apo A-I production, and it also reduces LDL-C levels<sup>18</sup>. This effect is mitigated in part and in a variable manner by the concurrent use of progestogen.</p>
      <p>However, clinical studies have not proven the clinical benefits of hormone replacement therapy, and therefore, it is not recommended to treat low HDL-C levels or to prevent CAD<sup>19-20</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Niacin (nicotinic acid) -</italic> Nicotinic acid is the drug used in clinical practice which has the greatest ability to increase HDL-C (15-40%). It also reduces LDL-C (5-25%) and triglyceride (20-50%) levels. Likewise it increases the diameter of LDL particles, reducing the concentration of small and dense LDL particles, thus making the profile of LDL subclasses less atherogenic.</p>
      <p>Nicotinic acid acts on many stages of lipid metabolism, inhibiting the mobilization of fatty acids in the adipose tissue and decreasing the influx of these fatty acids into the liver, therefore decreasing the production of VLDL and the formation of LDL. Niacin also inhibits the degradation of HDL particles by mechanisms that are not yet fully known. For all these reasons it can be used to treat all types of dyslipidemia<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>Well conducted studies have demonstrated that niacin is able to reduce the size of atherosclerotic plaques and major cardiovascular events<sup>21</sup>. It is a good choice for patients with a high risk of developing coronary disease, especially those with metabolic syndrome, diabetes and obesity who typically have an atherogenic lipid triad (high TG, low HDL and small and dense LDL particles).</p>
      <p>In most cases, it should not be used in isolation, but rather in combination with statins or fibrates, in order to improve the overall lipid profile which in turn translates into increased HDL-C, reduced LDL-C and TG and shift to a less atherogenic profile of LDL particles. The combination with statin is well tolerated and there seems to be no intensification of its side effects<sup>22</sup>. When the extended release formulation is used, the doses vary from 1-2 g/day, starting with 250 to 500 mg of nicotinic acid per day after dinner and increasing the dose by 250 to 500 mg every two weeks. The combination with fibrate has also been studied with favorable results, but more in-depth studies are required to demonstrate clinical benefits<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>The frequent side effects of nicotinic acid greatly limit its use, as these effects become more intense with the increase in dose. The most common adverse effects are skin reactions (flushing and itching), irritation of mucosae and gastrointestinal disorders such as diarrhea and nausea. The most severe are hepatotoxicity, hyperuricemia and hyperglycemia. One way to reduce side effects is using a single dose of extended-release niacin before bedtime. In the case of flushing, the incidence can be reduced with the concurrent use of ASA. Glycemia is altered with higher doses (&gt;3g) and recent studies with diabetic patients did not show significant alteration with lower doses of the drug<sup>24-25</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Statins -</italic> These drugs act by inhibiting the main enzyme involved in the synthesis of cholesterol, the HMG-CoA reductase, thus reducing LDL-C serum levels by 18-60% and triglyceride levels by 7-30%. Their action on HDL metabolism is not well defined, but it is known that they increase HDL-C serum levels by 5-15%<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>Statins have a well defined benefit in the reduction of major cardiovascular events due primarily to their action on LDL metabolism<sup>27,28</sup>. Some studies have demonstrated that the combination of statin and extended-release niacin significantly improves the lipid profile of patients with good safety and efficacy<sup>29</sup>. The combination with niacin is good due to its coverage in the treatment of dyslipidemias, because the drugs are not antagonist, but rather coadjutants in the treatment of mixed dyslipidemias. Although there is little proof of the benefit of this combination, a study has demonstrated an important reduction in major cardiovascular events<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Fibrates -</italic> These medicines derive from fibric acid, used mainly in the treatment of hypertriglyceridemia. Their metabolism is complex and causes a reduction in TG serum levels of up to 60%, and in LDL-C serum levels of 5-20%. They also cause an increase in HDL-C serum levels of 10-35%. One of the actions of fibrates is due to the agonist effect of receptors activated by peroxysome proliferators, known as PPARs, which will be discussed in detail ahead.</p>
      <p>Because fibrates, in addition to increasing HDL-C also reduce atherogenic triglyceride-rich lipoprotein which cannot be measured only through fasting triglyceride levels, it is difficult to attribute any kind of clinical benefit obtained with this group of medicines to the isolated increase of HDL-C.</p>
      <p>Data from the <italic>Helsinki Heart Study</italic> on primary prevention with the use of gemfibrozil demonstrated a 37% reduction in fatal and non-fatal infarctions, but with no alterations in total mortality<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>The VA-HIT study, with the use of gemfibrozil for secondary prevention, analyzed patients with slightly elevated LDL-C and TG and with HDL-C below 40mg/dl showed a significant reduction in major cardiovascular events which are partly attributed to HDL increase. The combination with niacin has been considered - and may significantly reduce - cardiovascular events in patients with known CAD<sup>30</sup>. However, the <italic>Bezafibrate Infarction Prevention Study</italic>, which evaluated the use of bezafibrate in the incidence of coronary events in patients with CAD, with CT levels between 180-250mg/dl, TG below 300mg/dl and HDL-C below 45mg/dl, demonstrated no clinical benefit despite the 12% increase in HDL-C levels; the exception was a subgroup of patients with TG above 200mg/dl, that presented a 40% reduction in the primary outcome with the use of bezafibrate in a <italic>post hoc</italic> analysis<sup>31</sup>. Additionally, a large prevention study with diabetic subjects with the use of fenofibrate did not show benefits in the reduction of non-fatal infarction and death due to CAD<sup>32</sup>. This is the reason why more clinical trials are required to prove the clinical benefits.</p>
      <p><italic>Resins -</italic> Colestipol and cholestyramine are examples of exchange resins that decrease the intestinal absorption of bile salts and cholesterol. Their major action is to lower LDL-C, especially when used in combination with statins<sup>33</sup>. Secondarily they promote an increase in the synthesis of Apoprotein A1 with little elevation of 3-5% in HDL-C levels. These are drugs with little systemic toxicity, but with many side effects in the gastrointestinal tract. They tend to increase TG serum levels and are therefore contraindicated for people with dysbetalipoproteinemia and with hypertriglyceridemia above 400mg/dl<sup>34</sup>. They can be used in patients with diabetes and have a better effect when combined with nicotinic acid<sup>35-36</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Ezetimibe -</italic> This is an intestinal inhibitor of the absorption of cholesterol with a small effect on HDL-C, with an increase of less than 5% in serum level. It has been used mostly in combination with statins to heighten the effect of these drugs, also increasing HDL-C levels<sup>37</sup>.</p>
      <p>Advances and perspectives (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="e17c2-body2"><bold>chart 2</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="e17c2-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-06-0788-00017-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Synthetic peptides &#150; HDL - mimetic -</italic> Apo A-1 is the major constituting particle of nascent HDL, with an important function in the capture of free cholesterol. Individuals with a natural and uncommon variant of this protein, known as Apo A-1 Milano, have been discovered in Italia. Although they present low HDL-C levels, they had less atherosclerosis than the expected vis a vis their HDL-C levels.</p>
      <p>Based on this discovery, mimetic peptides of this apoprotein were synthesized which are a promising form of therapy for low HDL-C levels. ETC-216 is a synthetic variant of HDL, formed by a phospholipid complex and recombinant Apo A-1 Milano with the purpose of mimicking Apo A-1 Milano.</p>
      <p>Experimental studies with rats have shown that the infusion of high doses of recombinant Apo A-1 mobilizes tissue cholesterol reducing the lipid content and the macrophages in the plaques<sup>38</sup>. Promising results have also been demonstrated in phase 2 studies through the analysis of atherosclerotic plaques by intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) reducing the volume of plaques by approximately 4% and preventing their progression<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Recombinant HDL is not yet available for clinical usage. One of the major limitations, in addition to the high cost, would be the need for intravenous administration in high doses. This is why other products have been developed to try oral administration and increase the possibilities of use.</p>
      <p><italic>PPAR Agonists &#150; peroxisome proliferators - activated receptors -</italic> PPA receptors play an important role in cell function, including lipid metabolism, cell proliferation, differentiation, adipogenesis and inflammatory signaling, in addition to interacting with some medications used in the treatment of metabolic diseases. There are three subtypes of PPARs, defined as alpha, gamma and delta.</p>
      <p>The activation of alpha receptors produces an increase in HDL-C serum levels and a decrease in TG serum levels, whereas the activation of gamma receptors produces a decrease in peripheral insulin resistance and a slight HDL elevation, and the activation of delta receptors produces the three effects<sup>39</sup>.</p>
      <p>Fibrates have an alpha agonist action, glitazones have a gamma action<sup>40,41</sup>. The ideal solution would be to have drugs that have the broadest possible effect on these receptors. Some PPAR agonists are currently being developed, and one of the most promising ones is tesaglitazar, a drug with alpha and gamma actions presently at a very advanced stage of research<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <p>One of the concerns relative to the development of these new drugs has to do with their side effects, since studies with animals have demonstrated that there was a significant increase in the development of tumors.</p>
      <p><italic>CETP inhibitors -</italic> CETP is a serum glycoprotein with a key role in the exchange of cholesterol esters of the HDLs for TGs of TG-rich lipoproteins. People with defects in the CETP-modulating gene and the consequent deficiency in the gene's operation have very high levels of HDL-C and Apo A-1 and low levels of LDL-C. Phase 2 and 3 studies with CETP-inhibitors have shown a great increase in HDL serum concentration<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>Torcetrapib acts by inhibiting the action of CETP on HDL, decreasing its degradation and causing an increase of up to 100% in HDL-C levels. The effect has been observed with the use of CETP in isolation or in combination with atorvastatin. The clinical effect resulting from the action of torcetrapib is currently being assessed and the results of the related studies are to be published in the coming years. JTT-705 also inhibits the action of CETP and phase 2 studies have demonstrated a 35-40% increase in HDL-C serum levels<sup>44</sup>.</p>
      <p>A vaccine against CETP has been studied that promotes the induction of autoantibodies that bind specifically to this protein, promoting the inhibition of its activity, but preliminary studies show slight increases, in the region of 8% in HDL-C levels, only in selected subjects with low HDL-C and normal LDL-C levels. The results are controversial, the experiment is limited, and further studies are required<sup>45-46</sup>.</p>
      <p>The doubt about these drugs is whether HDLs formed through the inhibition of CETP have the same effect as the natural ones. It is expected that clinical studies may reveal more consistent information on the effect of these medications, especially in the prevention of coronary events and death.</p>
      <p><italic>SR-BI hepatic receptor -</italic> SR-BI is an HDL hepatic receptorwhich, when stimulated, promotes a reduction in serum HDL-C, mediating the transport of cholesterol from the blood to the bile. Studies with animals have shown a reduction in atherosclerosis with SR-BI stimulation while the absence of this receptor increased HDL-C serum levels, but produced a worsening of the atherosclerotic process<sup>47</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases are currently the leading causes of death and, according to forecasts of the WHO for the coming years, this leading position will be consolidated further. Many therapeutic and preventive advances have contributed to reduce these rates. However, in order to substantially reduce deaths from heart conditions more advances are required in the control of risk factors.</p>
      <p>Obesity and smoking are public health problems worldwide, and mobilize efforts towards their reduction, but with unsatisfactory results. Among diabetic patients, the adequate control of glycemia produces benefits. However, as regards mortality, the gains are modest. There is a more defined therapeutic arsenal with established control goals for arterial hypertension, for which treatment benefits have also been compellingly proven.</p>
      <p>In addition to these interventions, the hope of decreasing the number of deaths from cardiovascular diseases lies on actions on lipid metabolism. In recent years, the efforts of the scientific community have focused on LDL-C reduction, with major achievements as regards mortality reduction. However, even with substantial reductions in LDL-C levels, a large number of CAD cases have not yet been prevented.</p>
      <p>One perspective to be considered is the intervention on HDL metabolism with a view to increase reverse cholesterol transport. The current therapy, directed at the management of low HDL-C levels still provides unsatisfactory benefits, since well tolerated medications promote a slight increase, while more potent drugs have more adverse effects, which prevents their use in up to 30% of the patients. For these reasons, new drugs are needed that have different mechanisms of action able to alter HDL metabolism and promote more sustained alterations, adding benefits to those of existing drugs.</p>
      <p>There is no doubt that low HDL-C levels predispose patients to atherosclerosis. There is strong epidemiological evidence and data from experimental and angiographic studies showing that the increase of HDL-C levels or the infusion of Apo AI reduces atheroma. However, clinical evidence that the therapy designed to isolatedly increase HDL-C levels reduces the risk of coronary disease and cardiovascular mortality is still hypothetical.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP). Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) final report. Circulation. 2002; 106: 3143-421.</p>
      <p>2. Cannon CP, Braunwald E, McCabe CH, Rader DJ, Rouleau JL, Belder JC, et al. Pravastatin or Atorvastatin Evaluation and Infection Therapy-Thrombolysis in Myocardial Infarction 22 Investigators. Intensive versus moderate lipid lowering with statins after acute coronary syndromes. N Engl J Med. 2004; 350: 1495-504.</p>
      <p>3. LaRosa JC, Grundy SM, Waters DD, Shear C, Barter P, Fruchart JC, et al. Treating to New Targets (TNT) Investigators. Intensive lipid lowering with atorvastatin in patients with stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2005; 352: 1425-35.</p>
      <p>4. Brown BG, Zhao XQ, Chait A, Fisher LD, Cheung MC, Morse JS, et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. HATS. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345: 1583-92.</p>
      <p>5. Frick MH, Elo MO, Haapa K, Heinonen OP, Heinsalmi P, Helo P, et al. Helsinki Heart Study: primary prevention trial with gemfibrozil in middle-aged men with dyslipidemia: safety of treatment, changes in risk factors, and incidence of coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med. 1987; 317: 1237-45.</p>
      <p>6. Johnsen SH, Mathiesen EB, Fosse E, Joakimsen O, Stensland-Bugge E, Njolstad I, et al. Elevated high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels are protective against plaque progression a follow-up study of 1952 persons with carotid atherosclerosis the troms&#248; study. Circulation. 2005; 112: 498-504.</p>
      <p>7. Lewis GF, Rader DJ. New insights into the regulation of HDL metabolism and reverse cholesterol transport. Circ Res. 2005; 96: 1221-32.</p>
      <p>8. Nissen SE, Tsunoda T, Tuzcu EM, Schoenhagen P, Cooper CJ, Yasin M et al. Effect of recombinant ApoA-I Milano on coronary atherosclerosis in patients with acute coronary syndromes: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2003; 290: 2292-300.</p>
      <p>9. Shah PK, Yano J, Reyes O, Chyu KY, Kaul S, Bisgaier CL et al. High-dose recombinant apolipoprotein A-I(milano) mobilizes tissue cholesterol and rapidly reduces plaque lipid and macrophage content in apolipoprotein e-deficient mice. Potential implications for acute plaque stabilization. Circulation. 2001; 103: 3047-50.</p>
      <p>10. Rader DJ. High-density lipoproteins and atherosclerosis. Am J Cardiol. 2002; 90 (Suppl. 8A): 62i&#150;70i .</p>
      <p>11. Olsson AG, Schwartz GG, Szarek M, Sasiela WJ, Ezekowitz MD, Ganz P et al. High-density lipoprotein, but not low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels influence short-term prognosis after acute coronary syndrome: results from the MIRACL trial. Eur Heart J. 2005; 26: 890-6.</p>
      <p>12. Gordon T, Castelli WP, Hjortland MC, Kannel WB, Dawber TR. High density lipoprotein as a protective factor against coronary heart disease: the Framingham Study. Am J Med. 1977; 62: 707-14.</p>
      <p>13. Schwartz GG, Olsson AG, Ezekowitz MD, Ganz P, Oliver MF, Waters D et al. Myocardial Ischemia Reduction with Aggressive Cholesterol Lowering (MIRACL) Study Investigators.Effects of atorvastatin on early recurrent ischemic events in acute coronary syndromes: the MIRACL study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001; 285: 1711-8.</p>
      <p>14. Downs JR, Clearfield M, Weis S, Whitney E, Shapiro DR, Beere PA et al. Primary prevention of acute coronary events with lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels: results of AFCAPS/TexCAPS. Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study. JAMA. 1998; 279: 1615-22.</p>
      <p>15. Walsh J, Coronary events with lipid-lowering therapy: the AFCAPS/TexCAPS trial. Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prevention Study. JAMA. 1999; 281: 416-7.</p>
      <p>16. Robins SJ, Collins D, Wittes JT, Papademetriou V, Deedwania PC, Schaefer EJ, et al. Relation of gemfibrozil treatment and lipid levels with major coronary events: VA-HIT: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2001; 285: 1585-91.</p>
      <p>17. Denke MA. Dietary prescriptions to control dyslipidemias. Circulation. 2002; 105: 132-5.</p>
      <p>18. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA. Estrogen replacement therapy and coronary heart disease: a quantitative assessment of the epidemiologic evidence. Prev Med. 1991; 20: 47-63</p>
      <p>19. Shlipak MG, Chaput LA, Vittinghoff E, Lin F, Bittner V, Knopp RH, et al. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study Investigators. Lipid changes on hormone therapy and coronary heart disease events in the Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS). Am Heart J. 2003; 146: 870-5.</p>
      <p>20. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Furberg C, Herrington D, Riggs B, et al. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. Heart and Estrogen/progestin Replacement Study (HERS) Research Group. JAMA. 1998; 280: 605-13.</p>
      <p>21. Brown G, Albers JJ, Fisher LD, Schaefer SM, Lin JT, Kaplan C, et al. Regression of coronary artery disease as a result of intensive lipid-lowering therapy in men with high levels of apolipoprotein B. N Engl J Med. 1990; 323: 1289-98.</p>
      <p>22. Brown BG, Zhao XQ, Chait A, Fisher LD, Cheung MC, Morse JS, et al. Simvastatin and niacin, antioxidant vitamins, or the combination for the prevention of coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345: 1583-92.</p>
      <p>23. Guyton JR, Blazing MA, Hagar J, Kashyap ML, Knopp RH, McKenney JM, et al. For the Niaspan-Gemfibrozil Study Group. Extended-release niacin vs. gemfibrozil for the treatment of low levels of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Arch Intern Med. 2000; 160: 1177-84.</p>
      <p>24. Grundy SM, Vega GL, McGovern ME. Effects of extended-release niacin on lipoproteins and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: results of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled multicenter trial [abstract]. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 37 (Suppl A): 249A.</p>
      <p>25. Elam MB, Hunninghake DB, Davis KB, Garg R, Johnson C, Egan D, et al. For the ADMIT Investigators. Effect of niacin on lipid and lipoprotein levels and glycemic control in patients with diabetes and peripheral arterial disease: the ADMIT study: a randomized trial. JAMA. 2000; 284: 1263-70.</p>
      <p>26. Long-Term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) Study Group. Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range of initial cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med. 1998; 339: 1349-57.</p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="back-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing Address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Marcelo Lemos Ineu</p>
          <p> Rua Dr. Pantale&#227;o, 233/502</p>
          <p> 97010-180 &#150; Santa Maria, RS - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="marceloineu@cardiol.br">marceloineu@cardiol.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received December 12, 2005; revised manuscript received March 24, 2006; accepted April 11, 2006.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
      </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
