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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">VRXRYsthBBSJ6htyqZHnQZr</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00018</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001800018</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700518</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001800018</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial: tratamento do seu potencial aterog&#234;nico</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Geloneze</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lamounier</surname>
            <given-names>Rodrigo Nunes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Coelho</surname>
            <given-names>Ot&#225;vio Rizzi</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual de Campinas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">FM </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <fpage>660</fpage>
      <lpage>670</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>06</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2005</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Glicemia p&#243;s-prandial</kwd>
        <kwd>risco cardiovascular</kwd>
        <kwd>aterog&#234;nese</kwd>
        <kwd>estado prandial</kwd>
        <kwd>tratamento p&#243;s-prandial</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>06</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2007</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO DE REVIS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial: tratamento do seu potencial aterog&#234;nico</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Bruno Geloneze<sup>I</sup>; Rodrigo Nunes Lamounier<sup>II</sup>; Ot&#225;vio Rizzi Coelho<sup>III</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Campinas &#150; Unicamp </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Disciplina de Endocrinologia, Faculdade de Medicina da USP </p>
    <p><sup>III</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas- FMUSP, Campinas - S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back10">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Glicemia p&#243;s-prandial, risco cardiovascular, aterog&#234;nese, estado prandial, tratamento p&#243;s-prandial.</p>
    <p>Processos bioqu&#237;micos e fisiol&#243;gicos est&#227;o envolvidos na manuten&#231;&#227;o de um estado de homeostasia visando a sobreviv&#234;ncia do organismo humano. Altera&#231;&#245;es nesse estado de equil&#237;brio s&#227;o percebidas e v&#225;rios sistemas s&#227;o ativados, incluindo o sistema end&#243;crino, a fim de restabelecer o estado de homeostasia.</p>
    <p>Dentre esses sistemas, um dos principais refere-se &#224; nutri&#231;&#227;o para a funcionalidade e crescimento celulares.</p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a alimenta&#231;&#227;o, h&#225; uma estocagem de nutrientes para as necessidades futuras do organismo. A resposta fisiol&#243;gica ao jejum e &#224; alimenta&#231;&#227;o constitui um processo complexo e a sua perturba&#231;&#227;o pode levar a uma s&#233;rie de doen&#231;as: da inani&#231;&#227;o &#224; obesidade, da hipoglicemia ao diabetes mellitus tipo 2. Pode tamb&#233;m haver altera&#231;&#227;o nos processos de crescimento com defici&#234;ncia ou exacerba&#231;&#227;o dos processos proliferativos, tal como na arteriosclerose.</p>
    <p>O diabetes tipo 2 est&#225; claramente associado &#224; presen&#231;a de obesidade e reconhecidamente resulta da combina&#231;&#227;o de defeito secret&#243;rio da c&#233;lula beta e falha na a&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica da insulina<sup>1</sup>. A intensidade da doen&#231;a, bem como o seu potencial em provocar complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas s&#227;o freq&#252;entemente atribu&#237;dos &#224; presen&#231;a da hiperglicemia de jejum, que reflete a altera&#231;&#227;o no processo de homeostasia e fundamentalmente, nos n&#237;veis elevados da hemoglobina glicada (HbA1c), tendo sido esses os principais par&#226;metros para seu tratamento<sup>2,3</sup>. Com o reconhecimento da associa&#231;&#227;o entre o estado p&#243;s-prandial e doen&#231;a cardiovascular<sup>4</sup> em pacientes diab&#233;ticos tipo 2 houve um grande desenvolvimento de novas op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas visando &#224; corre&#231;&#227;o das anormalidades metab&#243;licas p&#243;s-alimentares, dentre as quais os inibidores da alfaglicosidase, os secretagogos de insulina de a&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, insulinas de a&#231;&#227;o ultra-r&#225;pida, entre outros.</p>
    <p>Esta revis&#227;o pretende discutir detalhadamente a import&#226;ncia do estado p&#243;s-prandial no paciente com diabetes tipo 2 desde a progress&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula beta associada &#224; resist&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica at&#233; o desenvolvimento do processo de aterog&#234;nese. Ser&#227;o discutidas as alternativas terap&#234;uticas diet&#233;ticas, comportamentais (exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico) e farmacol&#243;gicas. Por fim, ser&#227;o abordadas as poss&#237;veis perspectivas de tratamento para o futuro.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Regula&#231;&#227;o da glicemia normal</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A regula&#231;&#227;o da glicemia depende basicamente da a&#231;&#227;o de dois horm&#244;nios produzidos nas ilhotas de Langerhans no p&#226;ncreas: a insulina e o glucagon, que promovem o ajuste minuto a minuto da homeostasia da glicose. Em pessoas saud&#225;veis, a a&#231;&#227;o do glucagon &#233; de estimular a produ&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelo f&#237;gado e a a&#231;&#227;o da insulina &#233; de bloquear essa produ&#231;&#227;o e aumentar a capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose pelos tecidos perif&#233;ricos insulino-sens&#237;veis, como o m&#250;sculo e o tecido adiposo. No estado normal de jejum, pequenos aumentos na glicemia levam a supress&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de glucagon e aumento da produ&#231;&#227;o de insulina, enquanto as hipoglicemias levam a um aumento na glucagonemia e redu&#231;&#227;o na insulinemia. A integridade desse "glucostato" &#233; fundamental para a sa&#250;de metab&#243;lica. No jejum e no estado pr&#233;-prandial, o consumo de glicose &#233; representado pelo sistema nervoso central (50 %), m&#250;sculo (25 %) e pelos tecidos espl&#226;ncnicos (25 %)<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
    <p>O estado de jejum normal &#233; caracterizado por n&#237;veis mais elevados de glucagon e baixos de insulina, em conjunto com n&#237;veis fisiol&#243;gicos de horm&#244;nios gastrointestinais como o polipept&#237;deo inibit&#243;rio g&#225;strico (GIP) e o pept&#237;deo semelhante ao glucagon (GLP-1). O resultado desse equil&#237;brio &#233; uma produ&#231;&#227;o aumentada de glicose pelo f&#237;gado e pelo rim, redu&#231;&#227;o na capta&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica de glicose e aumento na prote&#243;lise muscular e na lip&#243;lise adipocit&#225;ria. Essas mudan&#231;as sincronizadas mant&#233;m a glicemia entre 70 e 100 mg/dL, os &#225;cidos graxos livres (produto da lip&#243;lise) entre 300 e 400 &#150;mol/L e os triglic&#233;rides abaixo de 125 mg/dL. Indiv&#237;duos com diabetes tipo 2 apresentam redu&#231;&#227;o na a&#231;&#227;o e produ&#231;&#227;o de insulina, resultando em aumento na glicemia, &#225;cidos graxos livres, triglic&#233;rides e nos amino&#225;cidos no estado de jejum<sup>6,7</sup>.</p>
    <p>H&#225; um aumento fisiol&#243;gico normal na glicemia ap&#243;s uma alimenta&#231;&#227;o, com incremento de at&#233; 50 mg/dL, n&#227;o ultrapassando 140 mg/dL. Esse aumento &#233; dependente da quantidade de glicose ingerida e da produ&#231;&#227;o end&#243;gena de glicose. Nesse momento, o p&#226;ncreas produz uma quantidade maior de insulina, que suprime a produ&#231;&#227;o de glucagon e, conseq&#252;entemente, reduz a produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica de glicose. De outro modo, h&#225; aumento na capta&#231;&#227;o da glicose pelo m&#250;sculo e tecido adiposo. Esse processo depende de uma a&#231;&#227;o eficaz da insulina em seus receptores celulares, e essa resposta metab&#243;lica leva tamb&#233;m ao retorno dos n&#237;veis de l&#237;pides e amino&#225;cidos ao estado basal. Horm&#244;nios gastrointestinais como GIP, GLP-1, e PYY-3-36 participam desse processo, modulando o apetite, o esvaziamento g&#225;strico, a produ&#231;&#227;o de glucagon e insulina e, eventualmente, at&#233; influenciando diretamente a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelos tecidos<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>A hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial &#233; o resultado da produ&#231;&#227;o excessiva de glicose, associada &#224; capta&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica reduzida dessa. Quando a capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose supera a produ&#231;&#227;o, a glicemia volta ao normal. Nas pessoas com intoler&#226;ncia aos carboidratos e naquelas com diabetes tipo 2, a excurs&#227;o glic&#234;mica p&#243;s-prandial &#233; maior e mais prolongada, fazendo que esses indiv&#237;duos estejam a maior parte do tempo no estado p&#243;s-prandial<sup>9,10.</sup> Assim, a hiperglicemia e hipertrigliceridemia p&#243;s-prandiais constituem as altera&#231;&#245;es mais precoces em pacientes que ir&#227;o desenvolver diabetes tipo 2.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Como foi mencionada anteriormente, a excurs&#227;o glic&#234;mica normal depende de uma complexa a&#231;&#227;o de horm&#244;nios pancre&#225;ticos e gastrointestinais. A intoler&#226;ncia a glicose depende da presen&#231;a de defeitos na produ&#231;&#227;o (redu&#231;&#227;o da primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica) e na a&#231;&#227;o da insulina (resist&#234;ncia &#224; insulina). A relativa import&#226;ncia da resist&#234;ncia a insulina nos pacientes diab&#233;ticos &#233; sabidamente mais relevante em raz&#227;o da presen&#231;a de obesidade e distribui&#231;&#227;o centr&#237;peta de gordura que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, prejudicam a a&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica. No entanto, em trabalhos nos quais se fez o ajuste da secre&#231;&#227;o e a&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nicas pelo grau e distribui&#231;&#227;o da adiposidade, a secre&#231;&#227;o deficit&#225;ria de insulina mostrou-se mais importante<sup>11,12</sup>. Em que pese a quest&#227;o, o tratamento do diabetes costuma ser mais eficaz quando os dois mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos s&#227;o tratados conjuntamente.</p>
    <p>A hiperglicemia ocorre pela falha da c&#233;lula beta em compensar a resist&#234;ncia a insulina, com uma resposta secret&#243;ria deficiente ao est&#237;mulo glic&#234;mico. Esse quadro se apresenta tanto no in&#237;cio do processo como tamb&#233;m no poss&#237;vel mecanismo de exaust&#227;o da c&#233;lula beta inerente &#224; pr&#243;pria evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a. Entretanto, modelos animais com aus&#234;ncia (<italic>knock-out</italic>) de receptor de insulina na c&#233;lula beta pancre&#225;tica, chamados de birko, ou seja, em que h&#225; resist&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da insulina na pr&#243;pria c&#233;lula que a produz, apresentam perda da primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina e t&#234;m como achado cl&#237;nico inicial a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-alimentar. Assim, resist&#234;ncia a insulina demanda uma maior produ&#231;&#227;o de insulina, embora eventualmente culmine com a redu&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o da mesma como no diabetes tipo 2 atrav&#233;s de sua evolu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial cr&#244;nica pode levar a um estado de glicotoxidade que se caracteriza pela redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva da secre&#231;&#227;o da c&#233;lula beta, ou a perda progressiva da fun&#231;&#227;o glicost&#225;tica do p&#226;ncreas, ou seja, um ciclo vicioso com piora progressiva do estado hiperglic&#234;mico. Os mecanismos t&#243;xicos da hiperglicemia sobre a c&#233;lula beta se fazem pela redu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o do gene de insulina, redu&#231;&#227;o do processamento da pr&#243;-insulina e deposi&#231;&#227;o de material amil&#243;ide com um aumento do processo de apoptose (morte celular). Esses mecanismos est&#227;o exacerbados na concomit&#226;ncia de um aumento da lipemia p&#243;s-prandial (triglic&#233;rides e &#225;cidos graxos livres) por um mecanismo conhecido como lipotoxicidade<sup>13</sup>. O reconhecido processo de glica&#231;&#227;o aumentada no diabetes, em que a glicose reage de maneira n&#227;o-enzim&#225;tica com diversas prote&#237;nas formando produtos iniciais de glica&#231;&#227;o, chamados produtos de amadori, comumente avaliado pela presen&#231;a de n&#237;veis aumentados de hemoglobina glicada (A1C), tamb&#233;m ocorre no interior da c&#233;lula beta, nos gr&#226;nulos de insulina, levando a secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina glicada, que apresenta uma atividade biol&#243;gica reduzida. Assim, glicotoxicidade na c&#233;lula beta tamb&#233;m deve contribuir para a resist&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o da insulina<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a ingest&#227;o de alimentos, alguns horm&#244;nios s&#227;o produzidos no trato gastrointestinal e estimulam a secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina, sendo conhecidos como incretinas. H&#225; v&#225;rios horm&#244;nios p&#243;s-prandiais, os mais importantes s&#227;o os pept&#237;deos insulinotr&#243;picos dependentes de glicose, ou seja, o polipept&#237;deo g&#225;strico inibit&#243;rio (GIP) e pept&#237;deo semelhante ao glucagon -1 (GLP-1). De fato, h&#225; uma resposta insul&#237;nica aumentada &#224; glicose oral quando comparada &#224; infus&#227;o intravenosa de glicose, e esse fen&#244;meno &#233; conhecido como efeito incretina, o qual contribui com 30% a 60% da secre&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-prandial de insulina. Em pacientes diab&#233;ticos tipo 2, existe uma discreta redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis p&#243;s-prandiais de GIP e uma profunda redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de GLP-1, contribuindo para a defici&#234;ncia de secre&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica nesses indiv&#237;duos<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>A coordena&#231;&#227;o entre ingest&#227;o alimentar e secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina &#233; um mecanismo preciso e intrigante. Esse sincronismo depende de uma fase cef&#225;lica de secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina que precede a ingest&#227;o alimentar, sendo pequena em termos absolutos, mas diretamente relacionada &#224; quantidade total de insulina secretada logo ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio da ingest&#227;o alimentar<sup>16</sup>. Em resposta a uma sobrecarga intravenosa ou oral de glicose existe, portanto, uma secre&#231;&#227;o bif&#225;sica de insulina, caracterizada por um pico inicial entre cinco e sete minutos. Essa primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o dura at&#233; dez ou quinze minutos e &#233; seguida por uma secre&#231;&#227;o prolongada em n&#237;veis mais baixos, usualmente durante at&#233; quatro horas, at&#233; os n&#237;veis de glicose retornarem aos valores basais normais. Em termos absolutos, aproximadamente 1% do conte&#250;do da c&#233;lula beta &#233; secretado na primeira fase, e mais 10% s&#227;o secretados na segunda fase.</p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s sobrecarga oral de glicose, h&#225; uma rela&#231;&#227;o inversa entre a concentra&#231;&#227;o de insulina aos trinta minutos (um marcador da primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o) e a glicemia de duas horas<sup>17</sup>. Entretanto, existe uma rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre o n&#237;vel da insulinemia e glicemia de duas horas, e a perda da primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica pode levar a hiperglicemia e hiperinsulinemia tardia. N&#227;o havendo o pico inicial de insulina, n&#227;o h&#225; supress&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de glucagon e conseq&#252;ente bloqueio da produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica de glicose<sup>18</sup>. A supress&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica em indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos &#233; 50% menor quando comparada a indiv&#237;duos normais. Os efeitos da perda da primeira fase est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">figura 1</xref><sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-05-0660-00018-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Em pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 &#224; &#233;poca do diagn&#243;stico, a primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o est&#225; virtualmente perdida apesar de um aumento na segunda fase e da hiperinsulinemia de jejum. Estudo prospectivo com os &#237;ndios pima do Arizona, que evolu&#237;ram da normalidade ao diabetes ao longo de cinco anos de acompanhamento, revelou que a progress&#227;o do normal &#224; intoler&#226;ncia a glicose e, posteriormente, ao diabetes esteve relacionada ao ganho de peso, &#224; piora da sensibilidade a insulina e &#224; deteriora&#231;&#227;o da primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina<sup>21</sup>. Em resumo, a perda da primeira fase &#233; um evento crucial no defeito secret&#243;rio ligado &#224; g&#234;nese do diabetes tipo 2, relacionando-se com a intoler&#226;ncia a glicose e com a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial e morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A ocorr&#234;ncia em larga escala de doen&#231;a cardiovascular em pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 t&#234;m sido reconhecida h&#225; muito tempo<sup>22,23</sup>. O risco de DCV est&#225; duas a quatro vezes aumentado, comparados a n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos. O risco de mortalidade por DCV &#233; duas a dez vezes maior em pacientes diab&#233;ticos. Estudo caso-controle avaliando fatores de risco para infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) na Regi&#227;o Metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo mostrou que a presen&#231;a de antecedentes de diabetes teve associa&#231;&#227;o independente, o que n&#227;o foi observado em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; medida glic&#234;mica isolada avaliada no estudo. Interessante observar que apesar de o trabalho n&#227;o explicitar, pode-se supor que a medida foi feita em jejum, j&#225; que na mesma amostra foram dosados tamb&#233;m par&#226;metros lip&#237;dicos<sup>24</sup>. Outros trabalhos com popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira mostraram resultados conflitantes<sup>25,26</sup>. A DCV &#233; a principal causa de mortalidade entre pacientes com diabetes, sendo respons&#225;vel por at&#233; 50% das mortes<sup>27-29</sup>. Apesar de a hiperglicemia ter se relacionado a maior risco de eventos cardiovasculares no <italic>United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study</italic> (UKPDS), o tratamento da hiperglicemia n&#227;o conseguiu reduzir de maneira significativa o risco de eventos cardiovasculares nesse importante estudo<sup>30</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos observacionais, entretanto, t&#234;m mostrado que a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial &#233; um fator de risco independente para a DCV<sup>31</sup>. A maioria desses estudos foi feita por meio da avalia&#231;&#227;o da glicemia ap&#243;s o teste oral de toler&#226;ncia a glicose (TOTG). Apesar de o TOTG n&#227;o representar o est&#237;mulo id&#234;ntico ao de uma refei&#231;&#227;o complexa, com fibras e l&#237;pides, estudos mostram boa correla&#231;&#227;o entre os picos glic&#234;micos observados ap&#243;s o teste e ap&#243;s uma refei&#231;&#227;o mista, sendo ent&#227;o o TOTG considerado um marcador substitutivo para a glicemia p&#243;s-prandial.</p>
    <p>Estudos como o <italic>Hoorn Study</italic><sup>32</sup>, o <italic>Honolulu Heart Study</italic><sup>33</sup>, o DECODE (<italic>Diabetes Epidemiology</italic>: <italic>Collaborative Analysis of Diagnostic Criteria in Europe</italic>) Study<sup>34</sup> mostraram que a hiperglicemia de duas horas ap&#243;s sobrecarga de glicose foi importante preditor de risco cardiovascular, dado confirmado tamb&#233;m por Coutinho e cols, em uma metan&#225;lise envolvendo mais de 90 mil indiv&#237;duos<sup>35</sup>. Da mesma maneira, estudos de coorte prospectivos como o <italic>Whitehall Study</italic>, o <italic>Paris Prospective Study</italic> e o estudo dos policiais de Helsinki mostraram que o risco de mortalidade CV foi duas vezes maior naqueles com resposta hiperglic&#234;mica ao teste de est&#237;mulo se comparados &#224;queles com resposta normal &#224; sobrecarga de glicose<sup>36-38</sup>. Assim, ensaios cl&#237;nicos prospectivos com corre&#231;&#227;o da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial poder&#227;o caracterizar o real papel desse controle na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares. Notadamente, a presen&#231;a de m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco associados nos pacientes diab&#233;ticos pressup&#245;e uma interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica intensiva nesses pacientes<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <p>A hip&#243;tese da aterog&#234;nese como um fen&#244;meno p&#243;s-prandial foi levantada j&#225; no final dos anos 1970<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Efeito do estado p&#243;s-prandial em l&#237;pides <italic>(Lipemia P&#243;s-prandial)</italic></bold>
    </p>
    <p>A proposta de caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da aterog&#234;nese como um fen&#244;meno p&#243;s-prandial h&#225; mais de vinte anos levou a um crescente interesse no metabolismo lip&#237;dico p&#243;s-prandial. A progress&#227;o da aterosclerose est&#225; associada a hiperlipidemia p&#243;s-alimentar em estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos e em estudos caso-controle<sup>41,42</sup>. Esse processo depende da deposi&#231;&#227;o direta de res&#237;duos de lipoprote&#237;nas na parede arterial<sup>43</sup>, ou indiretamente, por sua contribui&#231;&#227;o na gera&#231;&#227;o de part&#237;culas de LDL pequenas e densas e de HDL<sub>3</sub> colesterol<sup>44</sup>. Assim, as interven&#231;&#245;es na dislipidemia p&#243;s-prandiais podem ser ben&#233;ficas.</p>
    <p>A hiperlipemia p&#243;s-prandial &#233; uma situa&#231;&#227;o aterog&#234;nica comum aos pacientes com diabetes tipo 2<sup>45,46</sup>. Em condi&#231;&#245;es normais, os n&#237;veis p&#243;s-prandiais de triglic&#233;rides e a convers&#227;o de part&#237;culas de VLDL para LDL s&#227;o controladas por um processo metab&#243;lico din&#226;mico com envolvimento das enzimas lipase lipoprot&#233;ica (LPL) e lipase hep&#225;tica (HPL)<sup>47</sup>. A LPL &#233; respons&#225;vel pela convers&#227;o de lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglic&#233;rides em &#225;cidos graxos livres, permitindo a capta&#231;&#227;o desses pelos tecidos perif&#233;ricos. A HPL retira os triglic&#233;rides e os fosfol&#237;pides dos res&#237;duos de quilom&#237;crons e VLDL aumentando a capta&#231;&#227;o de quilom&#237;crons pelo f&#237;gado<sup>46</sup>. No transporte lipoprot&#233;ico normal ocorre a manuten&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis baixos de triglic&#233;rides e VLDL colesterol, com predomin&#226;ncia das lipoprote&#237;nas LDL e HDL. Ap&#243;s a ingest&#227;o de alimentos ocorre uma esperada eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de lipoprote&#237;nas e aumento da a&#231;&#227;o das l&#237;pases, resultando em retorno ap&#243;s quatro a seis horas aos n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos basais. Nos pacientes com diabetes tipo 2, a presen&#231;a de resist&#234;ncia a insulina est&#225; associada a redu&#231;&#245;es na LPL com uma produ&#231;&#227;o aumentada de VLDL. N&#237;veis elevados de VLDL competem com os quilom&#237;crons para a a&#231;&#227;o da LPL resultando em uma acentuada hiperlipidemia p&#243;s-prandial nesses pacientes. Os n&#237;veis basais de triglic&#233;rides podem ser preditores da intensidade da excurs&#227;o lip&#234;mica p&#243;s-prandial<sup>48</sup>. A associa&#231;&#227;o da aterogenicidade com os n&#237;veis elevados de lipoprote&#237;nas ricas em triglic&#233;rides no estado p&#243;s-prandial foi demonstrada em diversos estudos<sup>49,50</sup>. As principais anormalidades lipoprot&#233;icas do estado p&#243;s-prandial no diabetes<sup>51</sup> est&#227;o mostradas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2">figura 2</xref>.</p>
    <fig id="fig2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-05-0660-00018-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Alguns autores apontam para a presen&#231;a de resist&#234;ncia a insulina, obesidade abdominal e dislipidemia p&#243;s-prandial como fatores inter-relacionados para o risco de doen&#231;a coronariana, nomeando essa condi&#231;&#227;o de "tr&#237;ade mortal"<sup>52</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>O estado p&#243;s-prandial e os fatores de risco cardiovasculares n&#227;o tradicionais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os mecanismos pelos quais os aumentos p&#243;s-prandiais da glicose e l&#237;pides est&#227;o relacionados ao aumento da doen&#231;a macrovascular ser&#227;o discutidos nesta se&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>As concentra&#231;&#245;es extracelulares de um nutriente podem alterar as fun&#231;&#245;es de uma c&#233;lula modificando a estrutura e a fun&#231;&#227;o da membrana celular a partir do aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o desse nutriente no intracelular. A hiperglicemia exemplifica esse processo. Quando as concentra&#231;&#245;es plasm&#225;ticas de glicose est&#227;o elevadas ocorre um aumento da glicosila&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-enzim&#225;tica da membrana celular e de prote&#237;nas circulantes. As c&#233;lulas perme&#225;veis a glicose (nervos, retina e c&#233;lulas glomerulares) por efeito da hiperglicemia ativam a prote&#237;na C quinase (PKC) causando sofrimento celular. Os mecanismos propostos para o dano tecidual da hiperglicemia incluem: ativa&#231;&#227;o da PKC, ativa&#231;&#227;o da via dos poli&#243;is correspondendo aos efeitos intracelulares, al&#233;m de aumento da forma&#231;&#227;o de produtos glicosilados avan&#231;ados (AGE), correspondendo aos efeitos extracelulares da hiperglicemia. O estresse oxidativo aumentado no p&#243;s-prandial est&#225; representado pelo aumento de produtos glico-oxidados e lipo-oxidados no plasma, os AGE s&#227;o esp&#233;cies altamente reativas. O estresse oxidativo intracelular leva a uma ativa&#231;&#227;o de fatores de transcri&#231;&#227;o redox-sens&#237;veis, fator nuclear kB (NFkB) e express&#227;o de fatores de crescimento teciduais<sup>53</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estresse oxidativo da parede arterial e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial p&#243;s-prandial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Por influ&#234;ncia da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial existe uma s&#233;rie de fen&#244;menos que contribuem para o estresse da parede arterial, culminando com um aumento da disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. O estresse oxidativo avaliado pelo aumento s&#233;rico de nitrotirosina em associa&#231;&#227;o &#224; presen&#231;a de produtos avan&#231;ados de glicosila&#231;&#227;o, ativa&#231;&#227;o da via dos poli&#243;is e aumento da PKC leva ao dano da parede arterial<sup>53,54</sup>.</p>
    <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o do endot&#233;lio &#233; essencial na plasticidade da parede do vaso, e sua disfun&#231;&#227;o contribui para o processo de aterosclerose. O endot&#233;lio &#237;ntegro &#233; respons&#225;vel pela regula&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus vascular atrav&#233;s da produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico (NO) que promove vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e de endotelina, que &#233; vasoconstritora. Outras fun&#231;&#245;es referem-se a controle da s&#237;ntese da matriz prot&#233;ica, est&#237;mulo do crescimento e migra&#231;&#227;o celulares, regula&#231;&#227;o da trombog&#234;nese (modula&#231;&#227;o de PAI-1 e da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria) e da resposta inflamat&#243;ria pela produ&#231;&#227;o de citoquinas e mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o. O NO dependente do endot&#233;lio &#233; sintetizado a partir do amino&#225;cido L-arginina atrav&#233;s da enzima NOS (&#243;xido n&#237;trico sintase) e a disponibilidade desse amino&#225;cido pode ser passo limitante para a disponibilidade de NO endotelial.</p>
    <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial est&#225; alterada em pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 e manifesta-se pela ativa&#231;&#227;o da PKC, presen&#231;a aumentada de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o, aumento dos n&#237;veis de endotelina e col&#225;geno tipo IV, al&#233;m da caracter&#237;stica redu&#231;&#227;o de produ&#231;&#227;o de NO endotelial. Em indiv&#237;duos diab&#233;ticos, a resposta vasodilatadora ao est&#237;mulo est&#225; alterada e essa altera&#231;&#227;o relaciona-se com controle glic&#234;mico. A hiperglicemia induz disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial tanto em diab&#233;ticos como em n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos, tendo sido demonstrado aumento da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e diminui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo nos membros, sugerindo vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem estar relacionadas &#224; menor disponibilidade de NO, j&#225; que ela &#233; revertida ap&#243;s infus&#227;o de L-arginina<sup>55</sup>. Esses processos est&#227;o alterados principalmente durante o estado p&#243;s-prandial, sendo igualmente influenciados pela presen&#231;a de hiperglicemia e hiperlipidemia p&#243;s-prandiais<sup>56,57</sup>. Alguns dos efeitos induzidos pela hiperglicemia foram tamb&#233;m revertidos em estudos com a administra&#231;&#227;o de antioxidantes como glutationa<sup>58</sup>, &#225;cido asc&#243;rbico<sup>59</sup> e sinvastatina<sup>60</sup>, sustentando o prov&#225;vel papel etiol&#243;gico do estresse oxidativo na fisiopatologia dessas altera&#231;&#245;es, como a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipercoagulabilidade p&#243;s-prandial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>No estado p&#243;s-prandial em pacientes diab&#233;ticos &#233; encontrada uma s&#233;rie de altera&#231;&#245;es que culminam com a caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de um estado pr&#243;-coagulante. H&#225; aumento de fatores de coagula&#231;&#227;o e marcadores s&#233;ricos da hipercoagula&#231;&#227;o e hipofibrin&#243;lise, tais como: fator VII<sup>61</sup>, protrombina<sup>62</sup>, PAI-1, D-d&#237;mero e aumento da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria<sup>63</sup>. A altera&#231;&#227;o caracteriza-se tamb&#233;m por redu&#231;&#227;o da meia-vida do fibrinog&#234;nio<sup>64</sup>. O resultado desses eventos &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tica nesses pacientes que se manifesta com especial magnitude no estado p&#243;s-prandial.</p>
    <p>Hiperlipemia e hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandiais est&#227;o tamb&#233;m relacionadas ao aumento nos n&#237;veis das mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o celular, que regulam a ades&#227;o dos leuc&#243;citos ao endot&#233;lio<sup>65,66</sup>, como tamb&#233;m ao aumento de nitrotirosina, marcador de estresse oxidativo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Inflama&#231;&#227;o intravascular no estado p&#243;s-prandial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O reconhecimento da presen&#231;a de um estado inflamat&#243;rio cr&#244;nico subcl&#237;nico na obesidade e no diabetes tipo 2 tem ganhado aceita&#231;&#227;o nos meios cient&#237;ficos, sendo responsabilizado por parte da progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica do diabetes. Estudos recentes t&#234;m demonstrado que, durante o per&#237;odo p&#243;s-prandial, existe um maior recrutamento de neutr&#243;filos por influ&#234;ncia independente da hiperlipidemia e da hiperglicemia. Al&#233;m disso, outros marcadores da inflama&#231;&#227;o, como a presen&#231;a aumentada de hidroper&#243;xidos e n&#237;veis elevados de interleucinas (IL<sub>6</sub> e IL<sub>8</sub>), s&#227;o caracter&#237;sticos do estado p&#243;s-prandial<sup>67</sup>.</p>
    <p>Todos esses fen&#244;menos atuando dinamicamente e em conjunto no estado p&#243;s-prandial em pacientes diab&#233;ticos provavelmente correspondem &#224; fisiopatologia da aterog&#234;nese atribu&#237;da &#224; hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial.</p>
    <p>As excurs&#245;es glic&#234;micas anormais podem contribuir para o estresse oxidativo, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, prolongamento do intervalo QT ao eletrocardiograma<sup>56</sup> (marcador de morte s&#250;bita), forma&#231;&#227;o e instabilidade de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas, culminando com o processo de aterog&#234;nese acelerada associada &#224; doen&#231;a arterial coronariana respons&#225;vel pela morte prematura em pacientes diab&#233;ticos tipo 2.</p>
    <p>Assim, al&#233;m de constituir-se num objetivo terap&#234;utico do controle glic&#234;mico em si, a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial pode ser considerada como um marcador dos processos ateroscler&#243;ticos subjacentes. Estudos de longo prazo sobre o tratamento do estado p&#243;s-prandial, com especial enfoque na hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial, poder&#227;o caracterizar o efeito da redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular e da mortalidade associada.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Controle da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O aumento da glicemia p&#243;s-prandial pode estar presente mesmo em condi&#231;&#245;es de glicemia de jejum normal, constituindo um dos est&#225;gios iniciais do diabetes tipo 2. Esse est&#225;gio sabidamente contribui para o desenvolvimento das complica&#231;&#245;es precoces micro e macrovasculares, al&#233;m de acelerar o processo de progress&#227;o para o diabetes sintom&#225;tico atrav&#233;s da glicotoxidade perif&#233;rica e na pr&#243;pria c&#233;lula beta<sup>68</sup>. A identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial e seu controle efetivo constituem um potencial objetivo terap&#234;utico para a preven&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es cr&#244;nicas do diabetes. De acordo com os consensos mais recentes a glicemia p&#243;s-prandial deve ser mantida abaixo de 140 mg/dL para a preven&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es macrovasculares do diabetes, como a doen&#231;a arterial coronariana<sup>69,70</sup>.</p>
    <p>Um estudo prospectivo randomizado de interven&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica foi conduzido visando comparar o tratamento do diabetes baseado no controle glic&#234;mico pr&#233;-prandial com o p&#243;s-prandial em mulheres diab&#233;ticas gestacionais. De Venciana e cols. mostraram uma redu&#231;&#227;o do controle glic&#234;mico global, avaliado pela hemoglobina glicada (A1C), mais intenso no grupo de controle p&#243;s-prandial quando comparado ao pr&#233;-prandial (redu&#231;&#227;o de 3,2 &#177; 2,2 % <italic>versus</italic> 0,6 &#177; 1,6 %). As crian&#231;as nascidas de mulheres controladas no p&#243;s-prandial tiveram menores &#237;ndices de hipoglicemia neonatal e macrossomia, al&#233;m de implicarem menores &#237;ndices de indica&#231;&#227;o de cesarianas por despropor&#231;&#227;o c&#233;falo-p&#233;lvica<sup>71</sup>.</p>
    <p>A terapia focada na redu&#231;&#227;o da glicemia p&#243;s-prandial e n&#227;o na glicemia de jejum pareceu ser mais efetiva em promover uma redu&#231;&#227;o mais intensa nos n&#237;veis de hemoglobina glicada, refor&#231;ando a hip&#243;tese da redu&#231;&#227;o da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial como principal objetivo para a melhora do controle global e poss&#237;vel redu&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es macrovasculares<sup>72</sup>. A contribui&#231;&#227;o relativa da glicemia p&#243;s-prandial ou de jejum para o controle glic&#234;mico global parece variar de acordo com a fase da doen&#231;a, ou com o grau de controle. Em pacientes com HbA1c pr&#243;xima dos n&#237;veis desej&#225;veis, por exemplo, naqueles em fase mais precoce, a glicemia p&#243;s-prandial pode responder por at&#233; 70% do controle glic&#234;mico global<sup>73</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A atividade f&#237;sica &#233; considerada um dos pilares do tratamento do diabete melito tipo 2. O efeito do exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico sobre o controle glic&#234;mico se faz principalmente pelo efeito sensibilizador &#224; insulina dos exerc&#237;cios, bem como pelo est&#237;mulo &#224; capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose independentemente da a&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica. No per&#237;odo p&#243;s-absortivo, a atividade f&#237;sica moderada diminui a glicemia e aumenta a sensibilidade insul&#237;nica<sup>74</sup>. Existem evid&#234;ncias de que o exerc&#237;cio no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-prandial &#233; mais potente em reduzir a glicemia ap&#243;s a refei&#231;&#227;o do que o realizado no estado de jejum sobre a glicemia de jejum<sup>75</sup>. O efeito do exerc&#237;cio sobre a glicemia p&#243;s-prandial est&#225; presente no momento de sua realiza&#231;&#227;o, mas n&#227;o se prolonga para a pr&#243;xima refei&#231;&#227;o. Os efeitos ben&#233;ficos do exerc&#237;cio sobre a homeostasia p&#243;s-prandial da glicose est&#227;o mais relacionados ao total de energia consumida do que com o pico de intensidade do exerc&#237;cio<sup>74.</sup></p>
    <p>Os efeitos de exerc&#237;cios pr&#233;-prandiais, no entanto, n&#227;o parecem t&#227;o relevantes em prevenir a excurs&#227;o lip&#237;dica p&#243;s-prandial. A compara&#231;&#227;o entre o efeito de exerc&#237;cios e restri&#231;&#227;o alimentar sobre a lipemia p&#243;s-prandial mostra a surpreendente vantagem dos exerc&#237;cios realizados ap&#243;s as refei&#231;&#245;es. Em um estudo comparativo, os exerc&#237;cios foram numericamente tr&#234;s vezes mais potentes em reduzir a excurs&#227;o lip&#234;mica p&#243;s-prandial quando comparada &#224; restri&#231;&#227;o cal&#243;rica<sup>76</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Dieta</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O componente diet&#233;tico mais determinante na excurs&#227;o glic&#234;mica p&#243;s-prandial s&#227;o os carboidratos. Outros macronutrientes tamb&#233;m podem influenciar, como o conte&#250;do de fibras e gorduras da dieta que diminuem a velocidade de absor&#231;&#227;o da glicose. A glicemia p&#243;s-prandial depende tanto da quantidade de carboidratos ingeridos em gramas quanto do tipo de carboidratos da dieta (&#237;ndice glic&#234;mico)<sup>77</sup>. Apesar de os carboidratos serem o principal respons&#225;vel pela eleva&#231;&#227;o glic&#234;mica ap&#243;s a refei&#231;&#227;o, dietas pobres em carboidratos n&#227;o s&#227;o recomendadas para diab&#233;ticos, que devem ingerir entre 45%-65% do valor cal&#243;rico di&#225;rio total em carboidratos, m&#237;nimo de 130 g/dia para os adultos. Entretanto, a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da quantidade de carboidratos ingerida &#150; contagem de carboidratos &#150; pode ser uma ferramenta muito importante para auxiliar no tratamento do diabetes. Fibras sol&#250;veis, como goma guar e pectina, pela sua viscosidade e capacidade de retardar a absor&#231;&#227;o de carboidratos, melhoram a glicemia p&#243;s-prandial<sup>78</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na constitui&#231;&#227;o da dieta devem-se considerar a contagem de carboidratos, o estilo de vida (atividade f&#237;sica) e o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico<sup>79</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a substitui&#231;&#227;o de gordura saturada por gordura insaturada (por exemplo: peixes de &#225;gua fria, azeite etc.), o aumento da ingest&#227;o de fibras sol&#250;veis e insol&#250;veis, vegetais e frutas em detrimentos de carboidratos refinados melhoram o perfil de absor&#231;&#227;o glic&#234;mica p&#243;s-refei&#231;&#227;o e s&#227;o ben&#233;ficos do ponto de vista cardiovascular<sup>80</sup>. O consumo de quantidades pequenas e moderadas de &#225;lcool tamb&#233;m est&#225; relacionado &#224; menor preval&#234;ncia de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e melhora da sensibilidade &#224; insulina<sup>81</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agentes antidiab&#233;ticos e seu efeito sobre a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A terapia comportamental por meio de dieta e exerc&#237;cios pode prevenir a progress&#227;o da intoler&#226;ncia a carboidratos para o diabetes<sup>82</sup>. No entanto, no diabetes estabelecido, com a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a h&#225; a necessidade de adi&#231;&#227;o de agentes farmacol&#243;gicos para manter o estado prandial dentro de limites da normalidade.</p>
    <p>Muitas vezes s&#227;o necess&#225;rias algumas combina&#231;&#245;es de agentes antidiab&#233;ticos, posto que em dado paciente existem v&#225;rios mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos atuando em conjunto, tendo como resultado o descontrole metab&#243;lico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">tab. 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="t1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-05-0660-00018-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Secretagogos de insulina <italic>Sulfonilur&#233;ias</italic></bold>
    </p>
    <p>Essas subst&#226;ncias t&#234;m sido amplamente utilizadas no tratamento do diabetes tipo 2. Seu mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o depende de liga&#231;&#227;o e ativa&#231;&#227;o de um receptor na membrana da c&#233;lula beta pancre&#225;tica, no canal de c&#225;lcio K<sub>ATP</sub>-dependente. Agem promovendo a despolariza&#231;&#227;o da membrana com influxo de c&#225;lcio e subseq&#252;ente libera&#231;&#227;o de insulina. Portanto, as sulfonilur&#233;ias, como a glibenclamida, glimepirida e gliclazida, entre outras, agem aumentando os n&#237;veis circulantes de insulina, mas n&#227;o corrigem a eventual defici&#234;ncia de primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o, j&#225; que sua liga&#231;&#227;o no receptor &#233; lenta e prolongada. As sulfas corrigem a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial tardia, mas n&#227;o precoce<sup>83-85</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>
        <italic>Meglitinidas</italic>
      </bold>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Repaglinida</italic> &#150; Foi o primeiro agente da classe a entrar no mercado. Embora tenha um mecanismo de a&#231;&#227;o semelhante ao das sulfonilur&#233;ias, a repaglinida liga-se a um s&#237;tio de liga&#231;&#227;o diferente no canal de pot&#225;ssio da c&#233;lula beta e interage, pouco ou nada, com o canal de pot&#225;ssio do tecido cardiovascular (ao contr&#225;rio do demonstrado por algumas sulfonilur&#233;ias)<sup>86</sup>. A repaglinida permite mimetizar a fisiologia da secre&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica ao estimular uma secre&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e de curta dura&#231;&#227;o de insulina tentando reproduzir a primeira fase de secre&#231;&#227;o, usualmente abolida no diabetes estabelecido. Essa a&#231;&#227;o intensa e de curta dura&#231;&#227;o permite um tratamento que englobe a hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial, minimizando o risco de hipoglicemia entre as refei&#231;&#245;es. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da HbA1c, a repaglinida apresenta efic&#225;cia semelhante &#224;s sulfonilur&#233;ias. A repaglinida &#233; agente de metabolismo hep&#225;tico e, portanto, pode ser usada em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal<sup>87,88</sup>. O tratamento com repaglinida demonstrou melhorar os par&#226;metros do estresse oxidativo em um estudo aberto<sup>89</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Nateglinida</italic> &#150; &#201; um derivado da D-fenilalanina que estimula a secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina rapidamente, permitindo a redu&#231;&#227;o da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial quando tomada antes das refei&#231;&#245;es. Tal qual a repaglinida, &#233; rapidamente absorvida e eliminada, fornecendo uma secre&#231;&#227;o de insulina pr&#243;xima da fisiol&#243;gica; entretanto, parece ter um menor poder redutor sobre a HbA1C e a glicemia de jejum em rela&#231;&#227;o aos outros secretagogos<sup>90,91</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, as glinidas geralmente s&#227;o mais utilizadas em associa&#231;&#227;o a um sensibilizador, como a metformina ou as tiazolidinedionas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sensibilizadores da a&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica</bold>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Biguanidas</italic> &#150; O representante mais utilizado dessa classe terap&#234;utica &#233; a metformina: trata-se do agente oral antidiab&#233;tico mais prescrito em todo o mundo. Essa subst&#226;ncia atua principalmente reduzindo a produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica de glicose e tamb&#233;m melhorando levemente a sensibilidade perif&#233;rica a insulina<sup>92</sup>. A a&#231;&#227;o no f&#237;gado permite contribuir indiretamente para a melhora da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial, embora classicamente seja descrita que sua a&#231;&#227;o &#233; principalmente sobre a glicemia de jejum e sobre o controle glic&#234;mico global<sup>93</sup>. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias, por&#233;m, de que a metformina age tamb&#233;m na excurs&#227;o glic&#234;mica p&#243;s-prandial, principalmente por aumentar a disponibilidade da glicose para os tecidos<sup>94</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a metformina atua ainda em marcadores cardiovasculares n&#227;o cl&#225;ssicos, como redu&#231;&#227;o de PAI-I, e aumento da fibrin&#243;lise<sup>89</sup>. No UKPDS, o tratamento com metformina proporcionou redu&#231;&#227;o de risco de infarto agudo de mioc&#225;rdio de 39% nos pacientes com sobrepeso. Al&#233;m disso, houve diminui&#231;&#227;o de risco de morte relacionada ao diabetes de 42%<sup>95</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Tiazolidinedionas</italic> (TZD) &#150; As TZD atuam reduzindo a resist&#234;ncia a insulina no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, no f&#237;gado e no tecido adiposo. Ao interagir com o receptor nuclear ativado da prolifera&#231;&#227;o do peroxissoma (PPARg), esses agentes modulam a transcri&#231;&#227;o de determinados genes, relacionados &#224; sensibilidade insul&#237;nica<sup>96,97</sup>. V&#225;rios estudos mostram a efic&#225;cia das TZD em promover um bom controle glic&#234;mico no diabetes tipo 2, em monoterapia ou em combina&#231;&#227;o com outros agentes, com redu&#231;&#227;o significativa nas glicemias p&#243;s-prandiais e de jejum<sup>98</sup>. A associa&#231;&#227;o com as glinidas pode potenciar esse benef&#237;cio em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; glicemia p&#243;s-prandial<sup>99</sup>. As TZD t&#234;m tamb&#233;m efeito importante sobre os marcadores da s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, como o aumento da fibrin&#243;lise e melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial<sup>91</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Inibidores da alfaglicosidase</italic> &#150; O inibidor de alfaglicosidade dispon&#237;vel no Brasil &#233; a acarbose, o primeiro agente direcionado especificamente &#224; hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial. Esse agente inibe a a&#231;&#227;o das glucosidases intestinais, limitando a quebra de oligossar&#237;deos em monossacar&#237;deos, retardando a absor&#231;&#227;o da glicose e proporcionando uma menor excurs&#227;o glic&#234;mica p&#243;s-prandial<sup>100</sup>. &#201; eficaz na combina&#231;&#227;o com outros agentes, melhorando o controle glic&#234;mico, apesar de poder haver baixa ader&#234;ncia ao tratamento pelos efeitos colaterais gastrointestinais<sup>101</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Insulina</italic> &#150; Do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, a reposi&#231;&#227;o de insulina consiste em insulina prandial (<italic>bolus</italic>) e basal. A insulina prandial &#233; administrada para restabelecer a resposta fisiol&#243;gica r&#225;pida de insulina &#224; alimenta&#231;&#227;o. A disponibilidade de novos an&#225;logos de insulina como a insulina aspart e a insulina lispro permitiu uma melhor reprodu&#231;&#227;o da secre&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida de insulina &#150; primeira fase &#150; em pacientes com defici&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica. Esses agentes apresentam um pico de a&#231;&#227;o mais precoce e de menor dura&#231;&#227;o, se comparados &#224; insulina humana regular, que tem pico mais tardio e a&#231;&#227;o mais duradoura. Portanto, aproximam-se mais da fisiologia normal permitindo uma supress&#227;o mais adequada da produ&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica de glicose e melhor capta&#231;&#227;o de glicose pelos tecidos perif&#233;ricos. Os an&#225;logos de insulina de a&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida proporcionam um melhor controle da glicemia p&#243;s-prandial e menor risco de hipoglicemia entre as refei&#231;&#245;es<sup>102</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, foi descrita tamb&#233;m uma melhora nos par&#226;metros do estresse oxidativo e da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial com a administra&#231;&#227;o desses an&#225;logos de a&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida<sup>103,104</sup>.</p>
    <p>Uma op&#231;&#227;o diante da dificuldade &#224; ader&#234;ncia ao esquema de m&#250;ltiplas doses de insulina de a&#231;&#227;o prandial e basal &#233; o uso de an&#225;logos pr&#233;-misturados com insulina de a&#231;&#227;o ultra-r&#225;pida, como a insulina Aspartmix30, em que 30% da dose &#233; de insulina aspart ultra-r&#225;pida e o restante de insulina N, ou a Lispromix25. O uso desse tipo de esquema insul&#237;nico, apesar de fixo, pode ser &#250;til no controle glic&#234;mico p&#243;s-prandial e tamb&#233;m como in&#237;cio de terapia insul&#237;nica em pacientes com fal&#234;ncia aos agentes orais, mas com reserva insul&#237;nica m&#237;nima<sup>105,106</sup>. Em janeiro de 2006 foi liberada nos Estados Unidos a primeira insulina inal&#225;vel, que por ser de a&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida tem indica&#231;&#227;o para corre&#231;&#227;o de picos prandiais<sup>107</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>Terapia combinada</italic> &#150; Considerando a fisiopatologia da hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial, h&#225; um racional na utiliza&#231;&#227;o de agentes sensibilizadores da a&#231;&#227;o insul&#237;nica em conjunto com secretagogos de insulina, ou mesmo com a pr&#243;pria insulina. Coerente com o car&#225;ter progressivo do diabetes melito, que via de regra implica um tratamento escalonado de diferentes agentes associados<sup>108</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Outros tratamentos &#150; Perspectivas</bold>
    </p>
    <p><italic>Ginseng</italic> &#150; Agentes herbais para o tratamento do diabetes s&#227;o amplamente utilizados pelos pacientes, em todo o mundo, mesmo ainda n&#227;o havendo evid&#234;ncias m&#233;dicas de sua efic&#225;cia terap&#234;utica. O ginseng americano (<italic>Panax quinquefolius</italic>) mostrou-se eficaz em reduzir a excurs&#227;o glic&#234;mica ap&#243;s a sobrecarga com glicose em pacientes com e sem diabetes tipo 2<sup>109</sup>. Os resultados s&#227;o preliminares e n&#227;o permitem recomenda&#231;&#245;es quanto ao seu uso cl&#237;nico.</p>
    <p><italic>Pramlintide</italic> &#150; Esse agente &#233; um an&#225;logo da amilina, um segundo horm&#244;nio glico-regulat&#243;rio co-secretado com a insulina pela c&#233;lula beta. A adi&#231;&#227;o desse agente em ensaios cl&#237;nicos tem demonstrado efic&#225;cia em promover um melhor controle glic&#234;mico quando em associa&#231;&#227;o com a insulina, sem maior risco de hipoglicemia. O pramlintide foi recentemente liberado para uso cl&#237;nico nos Estados Unidos pelo FDA<sup>110,111</sup>.</p>
    <p><italic>GLP-1</italic> &#150; O exenatide, ou Exendin-4, agonista do receptor do GLP-1 isolado da saliva do lagarto Gila monster, mostrou um efeito redutor sobre as glicemias de jejum e p&#243;s-alimentares, al&#233;m de retardo no esvaziamento g&#225;strico e menor ingest&#227;o cal&#243;rica em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis<sup>112</sup>. Similarmente, a administra&#231;&#227;o do an&#225;logo de longa dura&#231;&#227;o do GLP-1, o liraglutide, em ensaios cl&#237;nicos tem se mostrado eficiente em melhorar o controle glic&#234;mico de pacientes diab&#233;ticos tipo 2 com efic&#225;cia na redu&#231;&#227;o tanto da hiperglicemia de jejum quanto da p&#243;s-prandial<sup>113</sup>. Em indiv&#237;duos com diabetes tipo 2, o exenatide mostrou-se tamb&#233;m eficaz em melhorar ambas as medidas glic&#234;micas<sup>114</sup>. Fisiologicamente, o GLP-1 &#233; rapidamente metabolizado por uma enzima chamada Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (DPP-IV), e um inibidor dessa enzima &#233; um agente em perspectiva para o controle p&#243;s-prandial dos pacientes com diabetes tipo 2, o que vem sendo demonstrado nos primeiros estudos<sup>115</sup>. O exenatide foi liberado em maio de 2005 no mercado norte-americano pelo FDA, como adjuvante no tratamento de pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 em uso de metformina, sulfonilur&#233;ia ou ambas as drogas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais sobre tratamentos dispon&#237;veis</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os m&#233;dicos que tratam de pacientes com diabetes tipo 2 concordam que um dos objetivos do tratamento &#233; manter um controle glic&#234;mico pr&#243;ximo do normal, tanto no jejum como no estado p&#243;s-prandial. A hiperglicemia p&#243;s-prandial desempenha um papel central no desenvolvimento das complica&#231;&#245;es micro e macrovasculares no diabetes tipo 2. O sucesso em manter a excurs&#227;o glic&#234;mica, e talvez tamb&#233;m a lipid&#234;mica, deve ser reconhecido como alvo da terapia.</p>
    <p>A maioria dos tratamentos dispon&#237;veis reduz a glicemia de jejum, mas tem menor efeito sobre as excurs&#245;es alimentares da glicose. Dessa forma, n&#227;o conseguem atingir um bom controle global da homeostasia da glicose. A disponibilidade de novos agentes direcionados ao estado p&#243;s-alimentar, como os mencionados, leva &#224; possibilidade de melhor manejo de longo prazo dos pacientes com diabetes tipo 2, auxiliando na preven&#231;&#227;o da elevada morbidade e mortalidade associada ao diabetes, notadamente a doen&#231;a cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back10" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia:</p>
        <p>Rodrigo Nunes Lamounier </p>
        <p> Rua Castor da Silva, 39 </p>
        <p> 05586-020 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="rnlamounier@uol.com.br">rnlamounier@uol.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Artigo recebido em 14/06/05; revisado recebido em 06/02/06; aceito em 17/03/06.</p>
  </body>
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          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B114">
        <mixed-citation>114. Kolterman OG, Buse JB., Fineman MS, et al. Synthetic Exendin-4 (Exenatide) significantly reduces postprandial and fasting plasma glucose in subjects with type 2 diabetes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003; 88: 3082-89.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Synthetic Exendin-4 (Exenatide) significantly reduces postprandial and fasting plasma glucose in subjects with type 2 diabetes</article-title>
          <source>J Clin Endocrinol Metab</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>3082</fpage>
          <lpage>89</lpage>
          <volume>88</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kolterman</surname>
              <given-names>OG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Buse</surname>
              <given-names>JB.</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fineman</surname>
              <given-names>MS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
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        <mixed-citation>115. Ahr&#233;n    BO, Simonsson E, Larsson H, et al. Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV improves    metabolic control over a 4-week study period in type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care    2002; 25: 869-75.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Inhibition of dipeptidyl peptidase IV improves metabolic control over a 4-week study period in type 2 diabetes</article-title>
          <source>Diabetes Care</source>
          <date>
            <year>2002</year>
          </date>
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          <lpage>75</lpage>
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              <given-names>BO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Simonsson</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Larsson</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
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    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Postprandial hyperglycemia: treating its atherogenic potential</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>REVIEW ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Postprandial hyperglycemia: treating its atherogenic potential</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Bruno Geloneze<sup>I</sup>; Rodrigo Nunes Lamounier<sup>II</sup>; Ot&#225;vio Rizzi Coelho<sup>III</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Universidade de Ci&#234;ncias M&#233;dicas de Campinas &#150; Unicamp</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>Disciplina de Endocrinologia, Faculdade de Medicina da USP</p>
      <p><sup>III</sup>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas- FMUSP, Campinas - S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back10-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Postprandial glycemia, cardiovascular risk, atherogenesis, prandial state, postprandial treatment.</p>
      <p>Biochemical and physiological processes are involved in the maintenance of a homeostasis state aiming at the survival of the human body. The alterations in this state of equilibrium are perceived and several systems are activated, including the endocrine system, aiming at reestablishing the homeostasis.</p>
      <p>Among these systems, one of the most important is nutrition, for cell functionality and growth.</p>
      <p>After a meal, there is a nutrient storage for the future needs of the body. The physiological response to fasting and feeding is a complex process and alterations in this process can lead to several illnesses; from starvation to obesity, from hypoglycemia to diabetes mellitus type 2. There can also be an alteration in the processes of growth with deficiency or exacerbation of the proliferative processes, such as in arteriosclerosis.</p>
      <p>Type 2 diabetes is clearly associated to the presence of obesity and it is acknowledged that it results from a combination of the beta cell secretory defect and failure in the peripheral action of insulin<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>The intensity of the disease, as well as its potential in causing chronic complications is frequently attributed to the presence of fasting hyperglycemia, which reflects the alteration in the process of homeostasis and fundamentally, in the elevated levels of glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), being the main parameters for its treatment<sup>2,3</sup>. The identification of the association between the postprandial state and cardiovascular disease <sup>4</sup> in patients with type 2 diabetes brought the development of new therapeutic options aiming at correcting the postprandial metabolic abnormalities, among which are the alpha-glucosidase inhibitors, fast-acting insulin secretagogues, fast acting insulin analogs and others.</p>
      <p>The present review aims at the detailed discussion of the importance of the postprandial state in patients with type 2 diabetes, from the progression of the beta cell dysfunction associated to insulin action resistance to the development of the process of atherogenesis. Dietary therapeutic alternatives will be discussed as well as behavior (physical exercise) and pharmacological ones. Lastly, the possible perspectives for future therapies will be discussed.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Regulation of normal glycemia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Glycemia regulation depends basically on the action of two hormones produced in the islets of Langerhans in the pancreas: insulin and glucagon, which promote the minute-by-minute adjustment of glucose homeostasis. In healthy individuals, the glucagon action is to stimulate the production of glucose by the liver and the insulin action is to block this production and increase glucose uptake by the peripheral insulin-sensitive tissues, such as muscle and fatty tissue. In a normal fasting state, small increments in glycemia lead to the suppression of glucagon production and increase of insulin production, whereas hypoglycemia lead to an increase in glucagonemia and decrease in insulinemia. The integrity of this "glucostate" is crucial for metabolic health. In the fasting and postprandial states, the glucose consumption is represented by the central nervous system (CNS - 50%), muscle (25%) and splenic tissues (25%)<sup>5,6</sup>.</p>
      <p>The state of normal fasting is characterized by more elevated levels of glucagon and low levels of insulin, together with physiological levels of gastrointestinal hormones such as the gastric inhibitory polypeptide (GIP) and the glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1). The result of this equilibrium is an increased production of glucose by the liver and by the kidney, reduction in the peripheral glucose uptake, and increase in muscular proteolysis and adipocyte lipolysis. These synchronized changes maintain glycemia between 70 and 100 mg/dL, free fatty acids (the product of lipolysis) between 300 and 400 &#150;mol/L and triglycerides below 125 mg/dL. Individuals with type 2 diabetes present a reduction in insulin action and production, resulting in an increase of glycemia, free fatty acids, triglycerides and amino acids in the fasting state<sup>6,7</sup>.</p>
      <p>There is a normal physiological increase in glycemia after a meal, with an increment of up to 50 mg/dL, which does not surpass 140 mg/dL. This increase depends on the amount of glucose consumed and the endogenous glucose production. At this moment, the pancreas produces a higher amount of insulin, which suppresses the glucagon production and consequently reduces the glucose production by the liver. On the other hand, there is an increase in the glucose uptake by muscle and fatty tissues. This process depends on an effective insulin action in its cell receptors, and this metabolic response also causes lipid and amino acid levels to return to the basal state. Gastrointestinal hormones such as GIP, GLP-1 and PYY-3-36 (peripheral hormone peptide YY) participate in this process, modulating appetite, gastric emptying, glucagon and insulin production and, eventually, even directly influencing glucose uptake by tissues<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>Postprandial hyperglycemia is the result of an excessive glucose production associated to its reduced peripheral uptake. When the glucose uptake exceeds its production, the glycemia returns to normal levels. In individuals with carbohydrate intolerance and in those with type 2 diabetes, the postprandial glycemic excursion is higher and more prolonged, submitting these individuals to a long-term postprandial state<sup>9,10</sup>. Thus, the postprandial hyperglycemia and hypertriglyceridemia are the earlier alterations seen in patients who will develop type 2 diabetes.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Physiopathological mechanisms of postprandial hyperglycemia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As mentioned before, the normal glycemic excursion depends on a complex pancreatic and gastrointestinal hormone action. Glucose intolerance depends on the presence of defects in insulin production (reduction of the first phase of insulin secretion) and action (insulin resistance). It is known that the relative importance of insulin resistance in diabetic patients is more relevant due to the presence of obesity and centripetal fat distribution, which impair insulin action. Nonetheless, in studies that adjusted insulin secretion and action by the degree and distribution of adipose tissue, the deficient insulin secretion showed to be more important<sup>11,12</sup>. Considering that, the diabetes treatment is usually more effective when the two physiopathological mechanisms are treated together.</p>
      <p>Hyperglycemia occurs due to a failure of the beta cell to compensate for insulin resistance, with a deficient secretory response to the glycemic stimulation. This picture occurs in the beginning of the process as well as in the possible beta cell exhaustion mechanism, which is inherent to the disease evolution. However, animal models with knockout of the insulin receptor in pancreatic beta cells, called birko, i.e., where there is insulin action resistance in the cell that produces it, showed loss of the first phase of insulin secretion and its initial clinical finding is postprandial hyperglycemia. Thus, insulin resistance demands a higher insulin production, although it will eventually result in the decrease of its production as in the development of type 2 diabetes.</p>
      <p>Additionally, chronic postprandial hyperglycemia can lead to a state of glucotoxicity, characterized by the progressive reduction of beta cell secretion or the progressive loss of the glycostatic function of the pancreas, i.e., a vicious cycle with a progressive worsening of the hyperglycemic state. The toxic mechanisms of hyperglycemia on the beta cell occur by the reduction of the insulin gene expression, decrease of proinsulin processing and deposition amyloid material with an increase of the apoptosis process (cell death). These mechanisms are exacerbated in the concomitance of an increase in postprandial lipemia (triglycerides and free fat acids) through a mechanism known as lipotoxicity<sup>13</sup>. The known process of increased glycation in diabetes, in which the glucose reacts in a nonenzymatic way with several proteins forming initial glycation products, called Amadori products, commonly assessed by the presence of increased levels of glycated hemoglobin (A1C), also occurs inside the beta cell in the insulin granules, leading to the secretion of glycated insulin, which presents a reduced biological activity.</p>
      <p>Thus, the glucotoxicity in the beta cell must also contribute to insulin action resistance<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>After a meal, some hormones are produced in the gastrointestinal tract and stimulate insulin secretion, being known as incretins. There are several postprandial hormones; the most important ones are the glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptides, i.e., the inhibitory gastric peptide (GIP) and the glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1). In fact, there is an increased insulinic response to oral glucose when compared to the intravenous glucose infusion and this phenomenon is known as the incretin effect, which contributes with 30 to 60% of the postprandial insulin secretion. In type 2 diabetic patients, there is a slight reduction of the postprandial levels of GIP and an increased reduction of GLP-1 levels, contributing for the insulin secretion deficiency in these individuals<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>The synchronization between food intake and insulin secretion is a precise and intriguing mechanism. This synchronism depends on a cephalic phase of insulin secretion that precedes the food intake, being small in absolute terms, but directly related to the total amount of insulin secreted right after the beginning of food intake<sup>16</sup>. In response to an intravenous or oral glucose overload, there is, therefore, a biphasic insulin secretion, characterized by an initial peak between 5 and 7 minutes. This first secretion phase lasts up to 10 or 15 minutes and is followed by a prolonged secretion at lower levels, usually for up to 4 hours, until the glucose levels return to normal basal levels. In absolute terms, approximately 1% of the beta cell content is secreted in the first phase and 10% more are secreted in the second phase.</p>
      <p>After the oral glucose overload, there is an inverse relation between the 30-min insulin concentration (a marker of the first phase of the secretion) and the 2-hour glycemia<sup>17</sup>. On the other hand, there is a direct relation between the insulinemia level and the 2-hour glycemia, and the loss of the first phase of insulin secretion can lead to hyperglycemia and late hyperinsulinemia. Without the initial insulin peak, there is no suppression of glucagon production and, consequently, a blockage of the hepatic glucose production<sup>18</sup>. The suppression of the hepatic production in diabetic individuals is 50% lower when compared to normal individuals. The effects of the loss of the first phase are summarized in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="e17f1-body2">Figure 1</xref><sup>19,20</sup>.</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="e17f1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-05-0660-00018-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Patients with type 2 diabetes, at the time of the diagnosis, demonstrate a virtually lost first phase of secretion, despite presenting an increase in the second phase and fasting hyperinsulinemia. A prospective study with the Pima Indians of Arizona, who evolved from normality to diabetes in a period of 5 years of follow-up, showed that the progression from normal to glucose intolerance, and subsequently, to diabetes, was associated to weight gain, to the worsening of insulin sensitivity and the deterioration of the first phase of insulin secretion<sup>21</sup>. In summary, the loss of the first phase is a crucial event in the secretory defect related to the genesis of type 2 diabetes, being associated with glucose intolerance and postprandial hyperglycemia<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Postprandial hyperglycemia and cardiovascular morbi-mortality</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The large-scale occurrence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in patients with type 2 diabetes has been recognized for some time<sup>22,23</sup>. Diabetic patients present a 2 to 4-fold increased risk of CVD, when compared to non-diabetic individuals. The mortality risk due to CVD is 2 to 10-fold increased in diabetic patients. A case-control study, which assessed risk factors for acute myocardial infarction (AMI) in the metropolitan region of the city of S&#227;o Paulo, Brazil, showed that the presence of diabetes antecedents had an independent association, which was not observed in relation to the glycemic measurement alone, evaluated in the study. It is noteworthy that, although the study was not explicit about it, one can assume that the measurement was carried out in the fasting state, as the same blood sample was used for the measurement of lipid parameters<sup>24</sup>. Other studies carried out with the Brazilian population showed conflicting results<sup>25,26</sup>. CVD is the main cause of mortality among diabetic patients, being responsible for up to 50% of the deaths<sup>27-29</sup>. Despite the fact that hyperglycemia was related to a higher risk of cardiovascular events in the United Kingdom Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS), the treatment of hyperglycemia was not able to significantly reduce the risk of cardiovascular events in this important study<sup>30</sup>.</p>
      <p>Observational epidemiological studies, however, have shown that postprandial hyperglycemia is an independent risk factor for CVD<sup>31</sup>. The majority of these studies were carried out through the measurement of glycemia after an oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT). Although the OGTT does not represent a stimulus identical to a complex meal, with fibers and lipids, studies have shown a good correlation between the glycemic peaks observed after the test and after a complex meal, being the OGTT then considered a surrogate marker for postprandial glycemia.</p>
      <p>Studies such as the Hoorn study<sup>32</sup>, the Honolulu Heart Study<sup>33</sup> and the DECODE (Diabetes Epidemiology: Collaborative Analysis of Diagnostic Criteria in Europe) study<sup>34</sup> showed that the hyperglycemia 2 hrs after the glucose overload was an important predictor of cardiovascular risk, which has also been confirmed by Coutinho and cols. in a meta-analysis involving more than 90,000 individuals<sup>35</sup>. Similarly, prospective cohort studies such as the Whitehall Study, the Paris Prospective Study and the Helsinki policemen study showed that the risk of CV mortality had a 2-fold increase in those with a hyperglycemic response to the stimulation test when compared to those with normal response to the glucose overload<sup>36-38</sup>. Thus, prospective clinical assays with correction of postprandial hyperglycemia will be able to characterize the actual role of this control in the prevention of cardiovascular events. Notably, the presence of multiple associated risk factors in diabetic patients presupposes an intensive therapeutic intervention in these patients<sup>39</sup>.</p>
      <p>The hypothesis of atherogenesis as a postprandial phenomenon was raised as early as the 70's<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Effect of the postprandial state on lipids (Postprandial lipemia)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The proposal of the characterization of atherogenesis as a postprandial phenomenon more than 20 years ago led to an increasing interest in the postprandial lipid metabolism. The progression of atherosclerosis is associated to postprandial hyperlipidemia in epidemiological and case-control studies<sup>41,42</sup>. This process depends on the direct deposition of lipoprotein residues on the arterial wall<sup>43</sup>, or, indirectly, due to its contribution in the generation of small and dense LDL particles and HDL<sub>3</sub> cholesterol<sup>44</sup>. Thus, the interventions in postprandial dyslipidemia can be beneficial.</p>
      <p>Postprandial hyperlipemia is a common atherogenic situation in patients with type 2 diabetes<sup>45,46</sup>. In normal conditions, the postprandial levels of triglycerides and the conversion of VLDL particles into LDL are controlled by a dynamic metabolic process that involves the lipoprotein lipase (LPL) and hepatic lipase (HPL) enzymes<sup>47(</sup>. LPL is responsible for the conversion of lipoproteins rich in triglycerides into free fatty acids, allowing the uptake of the latter by the peripheral tissues. The HPL removes the triglycerides and phospholipids from the chylomicron residues and VLDL, increasing the uptake of chylomicrons by the liver<sup>46</sup>. In the normal lipoprotein transportation, there is the maintenance of low triglyceride and VLDL cholesterol levels, with predominance of LDL and HDL lipoproteins. After food intake, there is an expected increase in the levels of lipoproteins and increased lipase action, resulting in a return to basal lipid levels 4 to 6 hours later. In patients with type 2 diabetes, the presence of insulin resistance is associated to LPL reduction with an increased production of VLDL. Elevated levels of VLDL compete with the chylomicrons for LPL action, resulting in marked postprandial hyperlipidemia in these patients. The basal levels of triglycerides can be predictive of the intensity of the postprandial lipid excursion<sup>48</sup>. The association of atherogenicity with the elevated levels of lipoproteins rich in triglycerides in the postprandial state has been demonstrated in several studies<sup>49,50</sup>. The main lipoprotein abnormalities observed in the postprandial state in diabetes<sup>51</sup> are shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2-body2">Figure 2</xref>.</p>
      <fig id="fig2-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-05-0660-00018-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Some authors mention the presence of insulin resistance, abdominal obesity and postprandial dyslipidemia as interrelated factors for the risk of coronary disease, calling this condition "the deadly triad"<sup>52</sup>.</p>
      <p>The postprandial state and the non-traditional cardiovascular risks</p>
      <p>The mechanisms by which the postprandial increases of glucose and lipids are related to the increase of macrovascular disease will discussed in this session.</p>
      <p>The extracellular concentrations of a nutrient can alter the functions of a cell, modifying the cell membrane structure and function from the increase of the concentration of this nutrient in the intracellular environment. The hyperglycemia exemplifies this process. When the plasma concentrations of glucose are high, there is an increase of nonenzymatic glycosilation of the cell membrane and the circulating proteins. The glucose-permeable cells (nerve, retina, and glomerular cells) activate protein kinase C (PKC) through the hyperglycemia effect, causing cellular stress. The mechanisms proposed for tissue injury caused by hyperglycemia include: PKC activation, activation of the polyol pathway that correspond to the intracellular effects, in addition to the increase of the formation of advanced glycosilated end-products (AGEs), which correspond to the extracellular effects of hyperglycemia. The increased oxidative stress in the postprandial state is represented by the increase of glucose-oxidation and lipid-oxidation products in plasma, the AGEs, which are highly reactive. The intracellular oxidative stress leads to an activation of redox-sensitive transcription, nuclear factor kB (NFkB) and expression of the tissue growth factors<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Oxidative stress of the arterial wall and postprandial endothelial dysfunction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Several phenomena that contribute to arterial wall stress occur by influence of postprandial hyperglycemia, culminating in an increase of endothelial dysfunction. The oxidative stress assessed by the serum increase of nitrotyrosine, in association to the presence of AGEs, activation of polyol pathway and PKC increase, leads to arterial wall injury<sup>53,54</sup>.</p>
      <p>The endothelial function is essential for the elasticity of the vessel wall and its dysfunction contributes to the process of atherosclerosis. The preserved endothelium is responsible for the regulation of muscle tonus through the production of nitric oxide (NO), which promotes vasodilation, and of endothelin, which is vasoconstrictor. Other functions refer to the control of the protein matrix synthesis, cell migration and growth stimulation, regulation of thrombogenesis (modulation of PAI-1 and platelet aggregation) and the inflammatory response through the production of cytokines and adhesion molecules. The endothelium-dependent NO is synthesized from the amino acid L-arginine through the NOS (nitric oxide synthase) enzyme, and the availability of this amino acid can be a limiting factor for the availability of endothelial NO.</p>
      <p>The endothelial function is altered in patients with type 2 diabetes and is manifested by the PKC activation, increased presence of adhesion molecules, increase of endothelin and type IV collagen levels, in addition to the characteristic reduction of endothelial NO production. In diabetic individuals, the vasodilating response to the stimulation is altered and this alteration is related to the glycemic control. The hyperglycemia induces endothelial dysfunction in diabetic as well as non-diabetic individuals, and increase of systolic as well as diastolic arterial pressure, increase of cardiac frequency and decreased blood flow to the limbs have been demonstrated, suggesting vasoconstriction. These alterations might be related to the lower availability of NO, as they are reverted after L-arginine infusion<sup>55</sup>. These processes are altered mainly during the postprandial state, being equally influenced by the presence of postprandial hyperglycemia and hyperlipidemia<sup>56,57</sup>. Studies have shown that some of the effects induced by hyperglycemia were also reverted with the administration of antioxidants such as glutathione<sup>58</sup>, ascorbic acid<sup>59</sup> and sinvastatin<sup>60</sup>, supporting the probable etiological role of oxidative stress in the physiopathology of these alterations, such as the endothelial dysfunction.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Postprandial hypercoagulability</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the postprandial state, diabetic patients exhibit a series of alterations that culminate with the characterization of a pro-coagulant state. There is an increase of coagulation factors and serum markers of hypercoagulation and hypofibrinolysis such as factor VII<sup>61</sup>, prothrombin<sup>62</sup>, PAI-1, D-dimer and increase in platelet aggregation<sup>63</sup>. The alteration is also characterized by fibrinogen half-life decreas<sup>64</sup>. The result of these events is a prothrombotic condition in these patients, which manifests at a special degree in the postprandial state.</p>
      <p>Postprandial hyperlipemia and hyperglycemia are also related to the increase in the levels of cell adhesion molecules, which regulate the adhesion of leucocytes to the endothelium<sup>65,66</sup>, as well as nitrotyrosine increase, a marker of oxidative stress.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Intravascular inflammation in the postprandial state</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The recognition of the presence of a subclinical, chronic inflammatory state in obesity and type 2 diabetes has been increasingly accepted in the scientific community, being held responsible for part of the progression of the atherosclerotic disease in diabetes. Recent studies have shown that, during the postprandial period, there is an increased recruiting of neutrophils due to the independent influence of hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia. Additionally, other inflammation markers such as the increased presence of hydroperoxides and elevated levels of interleukins (IL<sub>6</sub> and IL<sub>8</sub>) are characteristic of the postprandial state<sup>67</sup>.</p>
      <p>All these phenomena, acting dynamically and jointly in diabetic patients in the postprandial state probably correspond to the physiopathology of atherogenesis, attributed to postprandial hyperglycemia.</p>
      <p>The abnormal glycemic excursions can contribute to oxidative stress, endothelial dysfunction, prolonged QT interval at the electrocardiogram<sup>56</sup> (marker for sudden death), atherosclerotic plaque formation and instability, culminating with the process of accelerated atherogenesis associated to coronary artery disease responsible for the premature death of type 2 diabetes patients.</p>
      <p>Thus, in addition to being a therapeutic objective of the glycemic control itself, the postprandial hyperglycemia can be considered a marker of underlying atherosclerotic processes. Long-term studies on the treatment of the postprandial state, with special focus on postprandial hyperglycemia, will better characterize the effect of the reduction of the cardiovascular risk and associated mortality.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Control of postprandial hyperglycemia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The increase in postprandial glycemia can be present even under conditions of normal fasting glycemia, constituting one of the initial stages of type 2 diabetes. This stage is known to contribute for the development of early micro and macrovascular complications, in addition to accelerating the process of progression to symptomatic diabetes through peripheral glucotoxicity and that inside the beta cell<sup>68</sup>. The early identification of postprandial hyperglycemia and its effective control constitute a potential therapeutic objective for the prevention of chronic diabetes complications. According to the most recent consensus, the postprandial glycemia must be kept below 140 mg/dL for the prevention of macrovascular complications of diabetes such as the coronary artery disease<sup>69,70</sup>.</p>
      <p>A randomized prospective clinical intervention study was carried out aiming at comparing the treatment of diabetes based on the preprandial glycemic control with the postprandial state in women with gestational diabetes. De Venciana and cols. showed a reduction in the overall glycemic control, evaluated by the glycated hemoglobin (A1C), which was more intense in the postprandial control group when compared to the preprandial one (reduction of 3.2 &#177; 2.2 % <italic>vs</italic>. 0.6 &#177; 1.6 %). The children born to women with control of the postprandial period had lower indices of neonatal hypoglycemia and macrosomia, as well as lower indices of Caesarean section indication due to cephalopelvic disproportion<sup>71</sup>.</p>
      <p>The treatment focused on the reduction of postprandial glycemia and not on the fasting glycemia seems more effective in promoting a more intense reduction of the glycated hemoglobin levels, supporting the hypothesis of postprandial hyperglycemia reduction as the main objective to improve the overall control and possible reduction of macrovascular complications<sup>72</sup>. The relative contribution of the postprandial or fasting glycemia for the overall glycemic control seems to vary according to the stage of the disease, or with the degree of control. In patients with HbA1c levels that are close to the desirable ones, for instance, those in earlier stages, the postprandial glycemia can respond for up to 70% of the overall glycemic control<sup>73</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Physical exercises</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The physical activity is considered one of the mainstays of type 2 diabetes mellitus treatment. The effect of physical exercise on the glycemic control is attained mainly through the sensitization effect of the exercises to insulin, as well as the glucose uptake stimulation regardless of the insulin action.</p>
      <p>In the post-absorptive period, the moderate physical activity decreases glycemia and increases insulin sensitivity<sup>74</sup>. On the other hand, there is evidence that exercising in the postprandial period is more potent in reducing glycemia after a meal than the effect of exercise performed in the fasting state on fasting glycemia<sup>75</sup>. The effect of exercising on postprandial glycemia is present at the moment it is being performed, but it does not extend until the next meal.</p>
      <p>The beneficial effects of exercise on postprandial glucose homeostasis are more related to the total energy consumed than with the peak of exercise intensity<sup>74</sup>. The effects of postprandial exercises however, do not seem so relevant in preventing postprandial lipid excursion. The comparison between the effect of exercises and dietary restrictions on the postprandial lipemia shows the remarkable advantage of exercises performed after meals. In a comparative study, the exercises were numerically three-fold more potent in reducing the postprandial lipid excursion when compared to calorie intake reduction<sup>76</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Diet</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Carbohydrates are the most determinant dietary component in postprandial glycemic excursion. Other macronutrients can also influence the glycemic excursion, such as dietary fiber content and fats, which decrease glucose absorption. The postprandial glycemia depends on the amount of carbohydrates ingested in grams as well as on the type of the carbohydrates in the diet (glycemic index)<sup>77</sup>. Although carbohydrates are the mostly responsible for the glycemic elevation after meals, carbohydrate-poor diets are not recommended for diabetic patients, who must ingest 45-65% of their total caloric intake in the form of carbohydrates, with a minimum of 130 g/day for adults. However, the monitoring of the amount of carbohydrates ingested - carbohydrate counting - can be a useful tool to help diabetes treatment. Soluble fibers, such as guar gum and pectin, improve the postprandial glycemia, due to their viscosity and capacity to delay carbohydrate absorption<sup>78</sup>.</p>
      <p>For the diet planning, one must take into account the carbohydrate counting, the lifestyle (physical activity) and the pharmacological treatment<sup>79</sup>. Additionally, the substitution of saturated fat for unsaturated fat (for instance, cold water fish, olive oil, etc), increase of soluble and insoluble fiber consumption, and consumption of fruit and vegetables instead of refined carbohydrates, all improve the profile of postprandial glycemic absorption and are beneficial from the cardiovascular point of view<sup>80</sup>. The consumption of small and moderate amounts of alcohol is also related to a lower prevalence of metabolic syndrome and insulin sensitivity improvement<sup>81</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Antidiabetic agents and their effect on postprandial hyperglycemia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The behavior therapy through diet and exercises can prevent the progression of carbohydrate intolerance to diabetes<sup>82</sup>. However, in established diabetes, the evolution of the pathology requires the use of pharmacological agents to maintain the postprandial state within the normal range.</p>
      <p>Many times a combination of antidiabetic agents is necessary, as there can be several physiopathological mechanisms acting in a same patient, resulting in metabolic disorder (<xref ref-type="table" rid="e17t1-body2">Table 1</xref>).</p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="e17t1-body2">
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      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Insulin secretagogues <italic>Sulphonylureas</italic></bold>
      </p>
      <p>These substances have been broadly used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Its action mechanism depends on the binding and activation of a receptor in the pancreatic beta cell membrane, in the K<sub>ATP</sub>-dependent calcium channel. They act by promoting the depolarization of the membrane with calcium inflow and subsequent insulin release. Thus, the sulphonylureas such as glibenclamide, glimepiride and glicazide, among others, act by increasing the circulating insulin levels, but do not correct the eventual deficiency of the first phase of the secretion, as its binding to the receptor is slow and prolonged. The sulfas correct the late postprandial hyperglycemia, but not the early one<sup>83-85</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>
          <italic>Meglitinides</italic>
        </bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Repaglinide</italic> &#150; It was the first class agent to be launched in the market. Although it has a mechanism of action similar to that of sulphonylureas, repaglinide binds to a different binding site at the potassium channel of the beta cell and interacts, little or not at all, with the potassium-channel of the cardiovascular tissue (in opposition to what is demonstrated by some sulphonylureas)<sup>86</sup>. Repaglinide allows the mimicking of the physiology of insulin secretion by stimulating a fast and short-duration insulin secretion trying to reproduce the first phase of secretion, usually abolished in established diabetes. This intense and short-duration action allows a therapy that encompasses postprandial hyperglycemia, minimizing the risk of hypoglycemia between meals. Regarding the reduction of HbA1C, repaglinide presents an efficacy that is similar to that of sulphonylureas. The primary site of Repaglinide metabolism is the liver and, therefore, it can be used in patients with renal insufficiency<sup>87,88</sup>. The treatment with repaglinide showed to improve the oxidative stress parameters in an open study<sup>89</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Nateglinide</italic> &#150; It is a derivate from D-phenylalanine (DPA) that stimulates fast insulin secretion, allowing the reduction of postprandial hyperglycemia when taken before meals. Similarly to repaglinide, it is rapidly absorbed and eliminated, supplying an insulin secretion that is close to the physiological one; however, it seems to have a lesser power of reduction over HbA1C and fasting glycemia, when compared to other secretagogues<sup>90,91</sup>.</p>
      <p>In clinical practice, the glinides are usually more often used in association to a sensitization agent, such as metformin or thiazolidinediones.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Insulin action sensitization agents</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Biguanides</italic> &#150; The most frequently used drug in this therapeutic class is metformin, which is the number one oral anti-diabetic agent prescribed in the world. This substance acts mainly by reducing the glucose production by the liver and also by slightly improving the peripheral sensitivity to insulin<sup>92</sup>. Its action on the liver indirectly contributes to the improvement of postprandial hyperglycemia, although classically its action is described mainly on fasting glycemia and overall glycemic control<sup>93</sup>. There is evidence, however, that metformin also acts on the postprandial glycemic excursion, especially by increasing glucose availability for the tissues<sup>94</sup>. In addition, metformin also acts on non-classical cardiovascular markers, such as PAI-I reduction and fibrinolysis increase<sup>89</sup>. At the UKPDS, the treatment with metformin provided a reduction in the myocardial infarction risk of 39% in overweight patients. Additionally, there was a reduction of the risk of death related to diabetes of 42%<sup>95</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Thiazolidinediones (TZD)</italic> &#150; TZDs act by reducing insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, liver and fat tissue. When they interact with the activated peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARg), these agents modulate the transcription of some genes, related to insulin sensitivity<sup>96,97</sup>. Several studies have shown the efficacy of TZDs in promoting a good glycemic control in type 2 diabetes as monotherapy or in combination with other agents, with significant reduction in postprandial and fasting glycemia<sup>98</sup>. The association with glinides can potentialize this benefit regarding postprandial glycemia<sup>99</sup>. TZDs also have an important effect on the metabolic syndrome markers, such as increase of fibrinolysis and improvement in endothelial function<sup>91</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Alpha-glucosidase inhibitors (AGIs)</italic> &#150; The AGI available in Brazil is acarbose, the first agent directed specifically to postprandial hyperglycemia. This drug inhibits the action of intestinal glucosidases, limiting the breakdown of oligosaccharides into monosaccharides, delaying the absorption of glucose and promoting a lower postprandial glycemic excursion<sup>100</sup>. It is effective in combination with other agents, improving glycemic control, although patients' compliance might be low due to the gastrointestinal side effects<sup>101</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Insulin</italic> &#150; From the clinical point of view, insulin replacement consists in prandial (bolus) and basal insulin. Prandial insulin is administered to restore the rapid physiological insulin response to feeding. The availability of new insulin analogs such as insulin-aspart and insulin Lispro allowed a better reproduction of rapid insulin secretion &#150; first phase &#150; in patients with insulin deficiency. These agents present an earlier and short-lasting peak of action, when compared to regular human insulin, which has a later and longer-lasting action. Thus, they are closer to the normal physiology, allowing a more adequate suppression of the hepatic glucose production and better glucose uptake by the peripheral tissues. The fast-acting insulin analogs provide a better control of postprandial glycemia and a lower risk of hypoglycemia between meals<sup>102</sup>. Additionally, an improvement in the oxidative stress and endothelial function parameters has also been described with the administration of these fast-acting analogs<sup>103,104</sup>. One option in the face of low compliance to the multiple-dose regimen of prandial and basal insulin doses is the use of premixed insulin analogs such as AspartMix 30, in which 30% of the dose consists of ultra fast acting insulin analog Aspart, and the remainder of N-protaminated insulin, or LisproMix25, with insulin Lispro. The use of this insulin schedule, despite being predetermined, can be useful in the postprandial glycemic control and also as the start of insulin therapy in patients with oral drug failure, but with a minimum insulin reservoir<sup>105,106</sup>. In January 2006, the first inhaled insulin was approved for clinical use in the USA by the FDA (Food and Drug Administration), which, due to its fast action, is indicated for the correction of the prandial peak<sup>107</sup>.</p>
      <p><italic>Combined therapy</italic> &#150; considering the physiopathology of postprandial hyperglycemia, there is a rationale in the use of insulin action sensitization agents together with insulin secretagogues, or even insulin itself. This is consistent with the progressive character of diabetes mellitus, which usually implicates in a time-phased treatment of different associated agents<sup>108</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Other treatments &#150; perspectives</bold>
      </p>
      <p><italic>Ginseng</italic> &#150; The use of herbal agents for the treatment of diabetes is broadly used by patients worldwide, although there is no medical evidence of their therapeutic efficacy. The American Ginseng (<italic>Panax quinquefolius</italic>) showed to be effective in reducing the glycemic excursion after glucose overload in patients with and without type 2 diabetes<sup>109</sup>. The results are preliminary ones and do not allow recommendations regarding its clinical use.</p>
      <p><italic>Pramlintide</italic> &#150; This agent is an of amylin analog, a second glucoregulatory hormone co-secreted with insulin by the beta cell. The addition of this agent to clinical assays has shown efficacy in promoting better glycemic control when in association with insulin, with no higher risk of hypoglycemia. Pramlintide was recently approved for clinical use in the USA by the FDA<sup>a10,111</sup> .</p>
      <p>GLP-1 - Exenatide, or Exendin-4, a GLP-1 receptor agonist isolated from the Gila monster saliva, showed to have an effect on reducing both fasting and postprandial glycemia, in addition to delaying gastric emptying and promoting lower calorie intake in healthy individuals<sup>112</sup>. Similarly, the administration of the long-term analog of GLP-1 analog, liraglutide, in clinical assays has shown to be efficient in improving glycemic control in type 2 diabetes patients, being effective in reducing fasting hyperglycemia as well as the postprandial one<sup>113</sup>. In individuals with type 2 diabetes, exenatide has shown to be also effective in improving both glycemic measurements<sup>114</sup>. Physiologically, GLP-1 is rapidly metabolized by an enzyme called Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (DPP-IV) and an inhibitor of this enzyme is a perspective agent for the postprandial control of patients with type 2 diabetes, which has been demonstrated in the first studies carried out with it<sup>115</sup>. Exenatide was approved by the FDA for launching in the USA market in May 2005 as an adjunct therapy in the treatment of patients with type 2 diabetes using metformin, sulphonylurea or both.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Final considerations on available treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Physicians who treat patients with type 2 diabetes agree that one of the treatment aims is to maintain glycemic control close to the normal range, in fasting as well as in the postprandial period. Postprandial hyperglycemia has a central role in the development of micro and macrovascular complications in type 2 diabetes. The success in maintaining the glycemic and perhaps, the lipid excursion must be acknowledged as the therapy target.</p>
      <p>Most available treatments reduce fasting glycemia, but have a lesser effect on the postprandial glucose excursions. The availability of new agents directed at the postprandial state as the aforementioned ones, leads to the possibility of better long-term management of patients with type 2 diabetes, aiding in the prevention of the high morbi-mortality associated to diabetes, especially cardiovascular disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="back10-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing Address:</p>
          <p> Rodrigo Nunes Lamounier</p>
          <p> Rua Castor da Silva, 39 </p>
          <p> 05586-020 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="rnlamounier@uol.com.br">rnlamounier@uol.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Manuscript received June 14, 2005; revised manuscript received February 6, 2006; accepted March 17, 2006</p>
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