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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">fFCbR3gPkKGcXmhM8dhjjNq</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00036</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001700036</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700436</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001700036</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o Cl&#237;nica</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Enteropatia perdedora de prote&#237;nas ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Amaral</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando Tadeu Vasconcelos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Atik</surname>
            <given-names>Edmar</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <institution content-type="orgname">USP</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">FM </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">USP</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>e156</fpage>
      <lpage>e161</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>21</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Enteropatia perdedora de prote&#237;nas ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fernando Tadeu Vasconcelos Amaral; Edmar Atik</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - USP e Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas - FMUSP Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Cirurgia, Fontan, perda prot&#233;ica.</p>
    <p>Em 1971, Fontan e Baudet descreveram pela primeira vez uma t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica por meio da qual as circula&#231;&#245;es pulmonar e sist&#234;mica foram separadas com sucesso em um paciente portador de atresia tric&#250;spide<sup>1</sup>. Pouco tempo depois, Kreutzer apresentou proposta semelhante, tamb&#233;m em paciente com atresia tric&#250;spide<sup>2</sup>. Ao longo dos anos, essa t&#233;cnica inovadora ficou conhecida como "cirurgia de Fontan", tendo proporcionado, particularmente nas d&#233;cadas de 1970 e 1980, um progn&#243;stico mais otimista &#224;queles pacientes com cora&#231;&#227;o funcionalmente univentricular. Desde esses marcantes relatos iniciais, v&#225;rias modifica&#231;&#245;es foram introduzidas &#224;s t&#233;cnicas descritas, procurando aprimorar o grau de funcionalidade das duas circula&#231;&#245;es<sup>3-5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos &#250;ltimos 20 anos, os resultados em curto prazo desse procedimento melhoraram de modo significativo<sup>6,7</sup>, fundamentalmente em raz&#227;o de melhor sele&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes, evolu&#231;&#227;o das t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas e cuidado intensivo imediato ap&#243;s a cirurgia, mais apropriado. Entretanto, &#224; medida que o tempo foi passando e uma nova popula&#231;&#227;o de sobreviventes foi sendo formada, as seq&#252;elas da circula&#231;&#227;o do tipo Fontan foram aparecendo, obscurecendo os resultados iniciais. Assim, complica&#231;&#245;es como arritmias<sup>8,9</sup>, redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade f&#237;sica<sup>10</sup>, fal&#234;ncia circulat&#243;ria<sup>11,12</sup>, trombose atrial<sup>l3,14</sup> e disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica<sup>15</sup> costumam ser freq&#252;entes no seguimento ambulatorial desses pacientes, exigindo aten&#231;&#227;o e cuidados especiais para uma conduta adequada.</p>
    <p>Outra complica&#231;&#227;o, rara, por&#233;m potencialmente mais letal, &#233; a enteropatia perdedora de prote&#237;nas (EPP), com patogenia e op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas ainda em franca discuss&#227;o. O objetivo deste trabalho foi rever as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes portadores de EPP, discutir os mecanismos patog&#234;nicos j&#225; divulgados e procurar sintetizar as op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas j&#225; publicadas e potencialmente aplic&#225;veis a esses pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diagn&#243;stico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Pacientes portadores de EPP habitualmente se apresentam com quadro de distens&#227;o ou dor abdominal, diarr&#233;ia, edema, derrame pleural, ascite e desconforto. Os exames laboratoriais geralmente mostram hipoproteinemia e tamb&#233;m baixos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de imunoglobulinas, linf&#243;citos e c&#225;lcio. O in&#237;cio de aparecimento do quadro pode variar de poucas semanas a v&#225;rios anos ap&#243;s a cirurgia. No estudo de Mertens e cols.<sup>16</sup>, esse dado variou de um m&#234;s a 16 anos, com m&#233;dia de 2,7 anos. O diagn&#243;stico da s&#237;ndrome &#233; confirmado ap&#243;s verifica&#231;&#227;o de n&#237;veis elevados de a-1-antitripsina nas fezes em paciente sem outras poss&#237;veis causas de hipoalbuminemia, como doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica ou defici&#234;ncia alimentar<sup>17-19</sup>. Infec&#231;&#245;es associadas podem estar presentes em virtude da disfun&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica evidenciada pela diminui&#231;&#227;o dos linf&#243;citos e imunoglobulinas<sup>20</sup>. Alguns casos podem se apresentar sem diarr&#233;ia e com hipoalbuminemia discreta, apesar da diminui&#231;&#227;o importante das imunoglobulinas e linf&#243;citos, principalmente CD4<sup>21</sup>. Segundo alguns autores, as transaminases podem estar aumentadas em raz&#227;o da congest&#227;o hep&#225;tica secund&#225;ria<sup>22</sup>. Outro aspecto importante em rela&#231;&#227;o ao diagn&#243;stico &#233; a possibilidade da ocorr&#234;ncia de perda prot&#233;ica gastrointestinal subcl&#237;nica, sem as caracter&#237;sticas sindr&#244;micas cl&#225;ssicas e com prote&#237;nas s&#233;ricas normais<sup>23</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Incid&#234;ncia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A EPP, ao que sabemos, foi descrita pela primeira vez em 1960 em paciente de 17 anos com pericardite constritiva<sup>24</sup>. A hipoabuminemia, a hipocalcemia e a esteatorr&#233;ia melhoraram consideravelmente ap&#243;s o tratamento cir&#250;rgico. A partir dessa comunica&#231;&#227;o, foram aparecendo relatos de pacientes com quadro cl&#237;nico semelhante secund&#225;rio a entidades como pericardite constritiva cr&#244;nica<sup>25</sup>, insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide<sup>26</sup>, cirurgia de Mustard<sup>27</sup> e cirurgia de Glenn<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>A ocorr&#234;ncia de EPP ap&#243;s a cirurgia de Fontan tem incid&#234;ncia vari&#225;vel e foi descrita inicialmente por Crupi e cols. em 1980<sup>29</sup>. Logo ap&#243;s o relato de tr&#234;s casos entre 21 pacientes operados por Hess e cols.<sup>30</sup>, Driscol e cols. apresentaram uma casu&#237;stica de 10% de pacientes portadores de EPP entre 352 casos operados antes de 1985. Esse trabalho, procurando salientar a relev&#226;ncia de algumas vari&#225;veis relacionadas ao aparecimento da EPP, tornou-se uma refer&#234;ncia bibliogr&#225;fica importante na cirurgia de Fontan<sup>12</sup>. Outras experi&#234;ncias, sempre com casu&#237;stica reduzida, t&#234;m revelado uma incid&#234;ncia de EPP ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan variando de 2,5% a 10%<sup>23,31-34</sup>. Em 1998, foi publicado marcante estudo multic&#234;ntrico<sup>16</sup> envolvendo 3.029 pacientes operados, e a EPP foi diagnosticada em 114 casos (3,7%). Essa investiga&#231;&#227;o, marco importante no conhecimento da EPP, demonstra, entre outros aspectos relevantes, a baixa incid&#234;ncia dessa s&#237;ndrome em pacientes submetidos a cirurgia de Fontan.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Patogenia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os mecanismos envolvidos no desencadeamento do quadro cl&#237;nico da EPP t&#234;m sido discutidos h&#225; quase meio s&#233;culo. J&#225; em 1961, Davidson e cols.<sup>25</sup> relacionaram o aparecimento da s&#237;ndrome a uma press&#227;o venosa elevada, com conseq&#252;entes altera&#231;&#245;es no sistema linf&#225;tico intestinal. A dilata&#231;&#227;o leitosa das vilosidades no intestino delgado<sup>35</sup> levaria a um edema local com perda prot&#233;ica secund&#225;ria. Curiosamente, Blalock e cols., em 1936<sup>36</sup>, j&#225; tinham provocado essa altera&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica ap&#243;s oclu&#237;rem a veia cava superior em cachorros, causando obstru&#231;&#227;o do fluxo nos ductos tor&#225;cicos com dilata&#231;&#227;o e congest&#227;o dos linf&#225;ticos intestinais. Esses estudos iniciais mostravam claramente a participa&#231;&#227;o do intestino delgado como local da perda prot&#233;ica, aparentemente relacionada ao aumento da press&#227;o venosa central. Esse conceito aparentemente &#243;bvio foi, entretanto, questionado por Wilkinson e cols. em 1965<sup>37</sup>. Esse autor realizou pela primeira vez uma bi&#243;psia jejunal em paciente com EPP e press&#227;o venosa normal, demonstrando a linfangiectasia caracter&#237;stica. Outro aspecto importante, documentado por Strober e cols. em 1968<sup>26</sup>, foi a ocorr&#234;ncia de perda linfocit&#225;ria fecal, al&#233;m da perda prot&#233;ica, potencialmente revers&#237;vel pelo tratamento da cardiopatia<sup>38</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em 1984, Hess e cols.<sup>30</sup> relataram tr&#234;s casos de EPP ap&#243;s conex&#227;o cir&#250;rgica atriopulmonar. Esses pacientes tinham press&#227;o diast&#243;lica atrial direita elevada e, como o fluxo anter&#243;grado na veia cava superior ap&#243;s a cirurgia de Fontan ocorre na di&#225;stole atrial, acreditava-se que a EPP poderia estar relacionada a essa vari&#225;vel fisiol&#243;gica.</p>
    <p>Estudos mais recentes t&#234;m documentado casos com perda prot&#233;ica circunscrita a uma determinada regi&#227;o intestinal. Usando albumina marcada com Tc 99, Koch e cols., em 1999<sup>21</sup>, demonstraram uma diminui&#231;&#227;o importante de linf&#243;citos CD4+ de origem desconhecida em paciente com perda prot&#233;ica intestinal circunscrita. Segundo esse autor, a perda passiva de linfa secund&#225;ria &#224; press&#227;o venosa central elevada n&#227;o explicaria a perda seletiva de linf&#243;citos CD4+, sugerindo que a altera&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria ou secund&#225;ria do sistema imunol&#243;gico poderia influenciar a integridade estrutural e a permeabilidade da parede intestinal, desencadeando assim o aparecimento da EPP. Essa perda circunscrita, se confirmada, poderia, teoricamente, ter implica&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas &#243;bvias nesses pacientes. Um aspecto interessante, recentemente relatado, &#233; a poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular mesent&#233;rica com a EPP<sup>39</sup>. Segundo esses autores, valores elevados dessa resist&#234;ncia levariam a uma hipoperfus&#227;o mesent&#233;rica, possivelmente constituindo-se em substrato para o aparecimento da s&#237;ndrome.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#201; conhecido que a sobrevida em cinco anos de pacientes com EPP ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan varia de 46% a 59%<sup>16,31</sup>. Essa constata&#231;&#227;o reflete a extrema gravidade dessa complica&#231;&#227;o, justificando que esfor&#231;os sejam direcionados para otimizar a terap&#234;utica dispon&#237;vel.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento cl&#237;nico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Al&#233;m do uso de medica&#231;&#227;o anticongestiva como diur&#233;ticos e inibidores da ECA, a reposi&#231;&#227;o com infus&#227;o peri&#243;dica de albumina, imunoglobulinas e linf&#243;citos deve ser realizada. Al&#233;m disso, esses pacientes precisam ser orientados para adotarem uma dieta hiperprot&#233;ica e rica em triglic&#233;rides de cadeia m&#233;dia. Recentemente, Chakrabarti e cols., em 2003<sup>20</sup>, considerando que esses pacientes podem ser portadores de imunodefici&#234;ncia adquirida em raz&#227;o da perda linfocit&#225;ria fecal, recomendaram que antibi&#243;ticos sejam usados profilaticamente e que qualquer infec&#231;&#227;o seja prontamente tratada. A vacina&#231;&#227;o antiviral e a reposi&#231;&#227;o de imunoglobulinas s&#227;o tamb&#233;m recomendadas com o objetivo de aumentar a prote&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica desses pacientes<sup>40</sup>. Algumas medidas mais espec&#237;ficas t&#234;m sido utilizadas, com graus vari&#225;veis de sucesso:</p>
    <p>a) Cortic&#243;ide: baseado na experi&#234;ncia relatada por Silverman &amp; Roy<sup>41</sup> no tratamento da linfangiectasia intestinal, Rothman &amp; Snyder, em 1991<sup>42</sup>, usaram prednisona no tratamento de um paciente com EPP diagnosticada dois anos ap&#243;s a cirurgia de Fontan, sem sinais de obstru&#231;&#227;o no circuito e com press&#227;o m&#233;dia de 10 mmHg no &#225;trio direito. Essa experi&#234;ncia inovadora foi logo reproduzida com resultados satisfat&#243;rios<sup>43,44</sup>, apesar do pequeno n&#250;mero de pacientes. A experi&#234;ncia de Zellers<sup>44</sup> foi particularmente interessante por ter mostrado claramente, apesar de num &#250;nico paciente, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de cortic&#243;ide e a altera&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica na bi&#243;psia duodenal. Usando 2 mg/kg/dia na primeira interven&#231;&#227;o, foi notada n&#237;tida melhora do quadro. No entanto, houve recidiva ap&#243;s a suspens&#227;o do cortic&#243;ide, sendo notada nova melhora com a reintrodu&#231;&#227;o do mesmo na dose de 0,5 mg/kg/dia. Ficou assim evidente, nesse caso, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre n&#237;veis altos de a-1-antitripsina fecal e hipoalbuminemia com vilosidades intestinais dilatadas na bi&#243;psia. Acredita-se que o cortic&#243;ide, al&#233;m de seu conhecido efeito antiinflamat&#243;rio, possa atuar como fator estabilizador nas membranas capilares e linf&#225;ticas ou que possa reduzir o volume de tecido linf&#225;tico<sup>45</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar de ser uma op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica interessante, o uso de cortic&#243;ide n&#227;o tem sido uniformemente adotado. Na not&#225;vel experi&#234;ncia multic&#234;ntrica de Mertens e cols.<sup>16</sup>, foi institu&#237;do tratamento cl&#237;nico isolado em 52 pacientes, com mortalidade de 46%. Em 16 casos foi usada prednisona, havendo resolu&#231;&#227;o da s&#237;ndrome em cinco casos, melhora em sete e inefetividade em quatro deles, mostrando que o agente pode ser eficaz, por&#233;m nem sempre. Apesar de resultados desfavor&#225;veis relatados por outros autores com essa op&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica, h&#225; sinais indicativos de boa resposta terap&#234;utica em pacientes sem obstru&#231;&#227;o na circula&#231;&#227;o tipo Fontan. Sendo assim, at&#233; que estudos prospectivos possam ser realizados, acredita-se ser razo&#225;vel o emprego dessa alternativa. Deve ser lembrada, entretanto, a possibilidade de o paciente com EPP j&#225; estar imunodeprimido pela perda linfocit&#225;ria fecal, podendo ocorrer piora do quadro se o cortic&#243;ide for empregado.</p>
    <p>b) Heparina: curiosamente, a m&#227;e de um paciente portador de cardiopatia cong&#234;nita e EPP notou que a diarr&#233;ia da crian&#231;a melhorava quando a varfarina era substitu&#237;da por heparina, em virtude da necessidade eventual de procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos diversos. Nessa interessante experi&#234;ncia em 1997, Donnelly e cols.<sup>46</sup> relataram o uso bem-sucedido de heparina em dose menor do que a habitualmente usada na anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em tr&#234;s pacientes com EPP. O sulfato de heparina &#233; conhecido como um dos componentes da membrana basal de muitos &#243;rg&#227;os. Sua remo&#231;&#227;o de outras membranas, preservando outros protoglicanos, leva a um aumento consider&#225;vel da permeabilidade da membrana &#224; prote&#237;na<sup>47</sup>. O uso de heparina ex&#243;gena, principalmente de alto teor molecular, pode estabilizar as intera&#231;&#245;es no endot&#233;lio capilar e na mucosa intestinal, reduzindo assim a perda prot&#233;ica. Al&#233;m disso, a heparina pode promover aumento da reabsor&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;na perivascular para o linf&#225;tico.</p>
    <p>c) C&#225;lcio: em 2004, Kim e cols.<sup>48</sup> , em experi&#234;ncia isolada, usaram c&#225;lcio em crian&#231;as com EPP sem usar heparina ou cortic&#243;ide, por op&#231;&#227;o da fam&#237;lia do paciente. A crian&#231;a melhorou dentro de quatro semanas, piorando logo ap&#243;s a retirada da medica&#231;&#227;o, e novamente melhorando ap&#243;s sua reintrodu&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>d) Espironolactona: numa experi&#234;ncia &#250;nica, tr&#234;s pacientes com EPP foram tratados com essa medica&#231;&#227;o por Ringel &amp; Peddy<sup>49</sup>, havendo melhora consider&#225;vel do quadro.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em 1994, Mertens e cols.<sup>50</sup> relataram o caso de um paciente de 29 anos com EPP refrat&#225;ria ap&#243;s anastomose atriopulmonar, que respondeu favoravelmente a uma fenestra&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea na regi&#227;o do septo interatrial. Apesar do procedimento bem-sucedido, foi chamada a aten&#231;&#227;o para a dificuldade potencial desse em presen&#231;a de conduto intra-atrial com Goretex ou do tipo "complex baffle". A pequena experi&#234;ncia publicada faz com que a interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea, apesar de atrativa, n&#227;o deva ser empregada de rotina, embora t&#233;cnicas inovadoras estejam sendo testadas em alguns centros e possam se tornar parte do arsenal terap&#234;utico em curto prazo<sup>51</sup>. &#201; importante registrar que no estudo multic&#234;ntrico de Mertens e cols., em 1998<sup>16</sup>, 13 pacientes foram submetidos a um cateterismo intervencionista, tr&#234;s deles com tratamento cir&#250;rgico associado. Nove casos foram submetidos a uma dilata&#231;&#227;o com cateter-bal&#227;o com ou sem coloca&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stent</italic> para al&#237;vio de obstru&#231;&#245;es ao longo do circuito (n = 3) ou para dilata&#231;&#227;o de obstru&#231;&#227;o arterial pulmonar (n = 6). Entre esses nove casos, oito foram tecnicamente bem-sucedidos, resultando em melhora da obstru&#231;&#227;o pulmonar em cinco deles, e em tr&#234;s deles n&#227;o houve efetividade terap&#234;utica. Cinco pacientes foram submetidos a fenestra&#231;&#227;o atrial por meio de uma septectomia com l&#226;mina e dilata&#231;&#227;o com cateter-bal&#227;o em tr&#234;s, pun&#231;&#227;o do septo interatrial com dilata&#231;&#227;o em um caso, e coloca&#231;&#227;o de <italic>stent</italic> em outro. Melhora importante foi verificada em tr&#234;s casos, enquanto outros dois melhoraram pouco. Em dois pacientes houve ocorr&#234;ncia de acidente vascular cerebral, e um deles n&#227;o estava em uso de anticoagulantes. Outras tentativas isoladas t&#234;m sido relatadas, como a emboliza&#231;&#227;o da veia &#225;zigos com mola de Gianturco em paciente com EPP ap&#243;s cirurgia de Glenn, recentemente publicada<sup>52</sup>. Nesse caso, acredita-se que a interrup&#231;&#227;o do <italic>shunt</italic> veia-veia foi respons&#225;vel pela melhora da EPP. Gostar&#237;amos de salientar que essas op&#231;&#245;es intervencionistas, aqui resumidamente apresentadas, mostram o poss&#237;vel benef&#237;cio do m&#233;todo nos casos de EPP com obstru&#231;&#227;o da circula&#231;&#227;o de Fontan e, ao mesmo tempo, demonstram a limitada efic&#225;cia da fenestra&#231;&#227;o interatrial.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Implante de marcapasso</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o a esse procedimento, experi&#234;ncia interessante foi descrita por Cohen e cols. em 2001<sup>53</sup>. Em dois pacientes com EPP ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan e disfun&#231;&#227;o do n&#243; sinusal associada, o implante de marcapasso aumentou o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, levando ao desaparecimento dos sinais cl&#237;nicos. A partir dessa experi&#234;ncia, passou-se a especular a possibilidade de melhora da EPP com implante de marcapasso mesmo em pacientes sem arritmia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Tratamento cir&#250;rgico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Desde a experi&#234;ncia inicial com casos de pericardite constritiva<sup>24,25</sup>, insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide<sup>26</sup> e cirurgia de Mustard com obstru&#231;&#227;o da veia cava inferior<sup>27</sup>, a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica cardiovascular tem sido considerada em pacientes portadores de EPP. Crupi e cols., em 1980<sup>29</sup>, descreveram o que parece ter sido o primeiro caso tratado cirurgicamente com revers&#227;o da EPP ap&#243;s a cirurgia de Fontan. Nesse caso, ap&#243;s inser&#231;&#227;o de valva biol&#243;gica na anastomose proximal de um paciente com conex&#227;o atriopulmonar previamente feita atrav&#233;s de conduto sem valva e com acentuada regurgita&#231;&#227;o, houve n&#237;tida melhora cl&#237;nica com normaliza&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de prote&#237;na. No estudo multic&#234;ntrico de Mertens e cols., em 1998<sup>16</sup>, 52 pacientes com EPP foram operados com alta mortalidade (61%), e, entre os sobreviventes, 19% ainda apresentavam sinais de EPP. Os procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos empregados nesse estudo, com o objetivo de se otimizar a circula&#231;&#227;o do tipo Fontan, foram variados, como desobstru&#231;&#227;o do conduto, plastia valvar e oclus&#227;o de defeitos septais. A convers&#227;o para um outro tipo de anastomose foi empregada em menor n&#250;mero de pacientes, e a mais comumente utilizada foi a transforma&#231;&#227;o da anastomose atriopulmonar em uma conex&#227;o cavopulmonar total. Outras interven&#231;&#245;es, incluindo a "desconfec&#231;&#227;o" da cirurgia de Fontan e o transplante card&#237;aco, foram realizadas em n&#250;mero menor de pacientes.</p>
    <p>Especula-se que a demora na indica&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, assim como a irreversibilidade da les&#227;o ent&#233;rica, mesmo ap&#243;s melhora hemodin&#226;mica com a cirurgia, possam ser relacionadas como fatores de insucesso cir&#250;rgico nessa entidade. Al&#233;m disso, deve ser considerado que a convers&#227;o para outro tipo de circula&#231;&#227;o do tipo Fontan pode n&#227;o ser suficiente para prevenir a EPP. A fenestra&#231;&#227;o atrial cir&#250;rgica, descrita inicialmente em 1996<sup>54</sup> &#233; tamb&#233;m uma op&#231;&#227;o a ser considerada. Nesse interessante estudo, dois casos de EPP refrat&#225;rios ao tratamento cl&#237;nico, um deles com press&#227;o venosa central normal, tiveram excelente evolu&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s fenestra&#231;&#227;o atrial cir&#250;rgica de 4,8 mm. Deve, entretanto, ser lembrado que esses pacientes se tornam cian&#243;ticos ap&#243;s esse tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o, com risco de embolia, como bem salientado pelos autores. Experi&#234;ncia interessante foi relatada por Rychik e cols., em 1997<sup>55</sup>, descrevendo cinco casos de pacientes submetidos &#224; cirurgia de Fontan por t&#250;nel lateral e que apresentaram EPP no seguimento. Tratados com fenestra&#231;&#227;o atrial cir&#250;rgica, tr&#234;s deles tiveram normaliza&#231;&#227;o das prote&#237;nas e desaparecimento dos sintomas de EPP duas a seis semanas ap&#243;s a cirurgia. Os dois pacientes que n&#227;o melhoraram tinham satura&#231;&#227;o de O<sub>2</sub> &gt; 89%, e os autores sugerem que a melhora cl&#237;nica parece depender do grau do <italic>shunt</italic> direita-esquerda criado com a fenestra&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o devendo a satura&#231;&#227;o resultante ser maior que 85%.</p>
    <p>Em 1998, Barbero-Marcial e cols.<sup>56</sup> descreveram t&#233;cnica cir&#250;rgica interessante em tr&#234;s pacientes com EPP ap&#243;s anastomose atriopulmonar. Nos tr&#234;s casos, foi feita convers&#227;o para anastomose cavopulmonar acrescida do desvio do fluxo das veias hep&#225;ticas para o &#225;trio esquerdo. Apesar de tecnicamente trabalhosa, essa op&#231;&#227;o parece ser &#250;til, sendo importante, como enfatizado pelos autores, que todas as veias hep&#225;ticas sejam exclu&#237;das do sistema venoso, evitando, dessa forma, que a presen&#231;a de qualquer veia residual permita comunica&#231;&#227;o entre a veia cava e o sistema porta, aumentando assim a cianose.</p>
    <p>Recentemente, Marcelletti e cols.<sup>34</sup> relataram 31 casos reoperados ap&#243;s a cirurgia de Fontan, a maioria deles por complica&#231;&#245;es como arritmia e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Nessa experi&#234;ncia, tr&#234;s casos tinham EPP, e dois deles melhoraram ap&#243;s inser&#231;&#227;o extracard&#237;aca de tubo n&#227;o-valvado de politetrafluoroetileno (PTFE) conectando a veia cava inferior &#224; art&#233;ria pulmonar direita, associado a atrioplastia direita redutora. &#201; interessante notar que, entre os 31 pacientes operados, 27 est&#227;o em classe funcional I ou II, acreditando-se que esse tipo de anastomose tenha efici&#234;ncia hemodin&#226;mica superior &#224;s outras t&#233;cnicas j&#225; relatadas<sup>57</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar da pequena experi&#234;ncia acumulada, o transplante card&#237;aco pode ser uma alternativa, &#224;s vezes &#250;nica, para tratamento da EPP<sup>58,59</sup>. Brancaccio e cols.<sup>60</sup> relataram caso interessante de EPP submetido a transplante card&#237;aco. Nesse paciente, como houve persist&#234;ncia da EPP ap&#243;s a cirurgia radical, foi institu&#237;da nutri&#231;&#227;o parenteral total, havendo melhora do quadro ap&#243;s 16 semanas.</p>
    <p>Uma experi&#234;ncia inovadora foi recentemente relatada por Connor e cols.<sup>61</sup>, descrevendo o caso de uma paciente de 14 anos portadora de EPP refrat&#225;ria a qualquer medica&#231;&#227;o e tamb&#233;m &#224; revis&#227;o da cirurgia de Fontan. Por meio de cintilografia com TC99-destran foi localizada a &#225;rea afetada no intestino delgado. Realizada ressec&#231;&#227;o de 135 cm de jejuno, houve melhora progressiva do quadro de EPP, apesar de nova cintilografia ainda demonstrar alguma perda prot&#233;ica. Apesar de a possibilidade desse procedimento ser bem-sucedido em pacientes com EPP e linfangiectasia intestinal<sup>62</sup>, seu benef&#237;cio em pacientes ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan precisa ser determinado, assim como a incid&#234;ncia da les&#227;o circunscrita. Qual seria o fator determinante do aparecimento da les&#227;o ent&#233;rica em um determinado local? Qual seria o resultado em longo prazo dos casos operados por meio dessa t&#233;cnica? Les&#245;es em outros locais no intestino delgado podem aparecer ap&#243;s uma ressec&#231;&#227;o bem-sucedida? Essas s&#227;o quest&#245;es pr&#225;ticas que ficam sem resposta enquanto estudos com casu&#237;stica importante n&#227;o forem realizados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Preven&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise cumulativa de pacientes submetidos a cirurgia de Fontan tem permitido a observa&#231;&#227;o de algumas vari&#225;veis possivelmente relacionadas ao agravamento do quadro de EPP, permitindo identificar precocemente o caso potencialmente sob risco. Nesse contexto, deve ser citada a cl&#225;ssica contribui&#231;&#227;o de Driscol e cols. em 1992<sup>12</sup>. Esse autor verificou que pacientes com heterotaxia, poliesplenia, anomalias de drenagem venosa sist&#234;mica, resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar e press&#227;o diast&#243;lica ventricular esquerda elevadas tinham chance significativamente maior de desenvolverem EPP ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan. Esses dados foram posteriormente confirmados por Feldt e cols. em 1996<sup>31</sup>, tendo ele acrescentado que a anatomia ventricular tipo direita, assim como os tempos de circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea e de interna&#231;&#227;o tinham tamb&#233;m rela&#231;&#227;o significante com o desencadeamento da s&#237;ndrome. Uma informa&#231;&#227;o importante foi fornecida por Powell e cols. em 2001<sup>63</sup>. Esses autores, estudando 416 casos de pacientes submetidos a cirurgia de Fontan, notaram que naqueles pacientes com tempo de circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea &gt; 140 minutos (n = 103) a incid&#234;ncia de EPP era de 12,6%, enquanto naqueles com tempo &lt; 140 minutos (n = 313) a incid&#234;ncia era de 0,6% (p &lt; 0,001).</p>
    <p>Acreditamos que essas informa&#231;&#245;es tenham import&#226;ncia na tentativa de selecionar melhor o candidato cir&#250;rgico, assim como decidir sobre a t&#233;cnica a ser empregada no procedimento. Por exemplo, pacientes com fatores de risco para EPP podem ser mais beneficiados com fenestra&#231;&#227;o atrial durante a cirurgia de Fontan? Outro aspecto a ser considerado &#233; a possibilidade da ocorr&#234;ncia de pacientes portadores de EPP subcl&#237;nica<sup>23</sup>. Esses casos, com perda prot&#233;ica evidente, por&#233;m sem apresentarem o quadro sindr&#244;mico t&#237;pico, provavelmente necessitam uma maior vigil&#226;ncia. Como sugerido por Fuji e cols. em 2003<sup>64</sup>, a perda prot&#233;ica fecal come&#231;a antes do aparecimento da hipoproteinemia. Pergunta-se, assim: esses pacientes poderiam ter melhor evolu&#231;&#227;o com a terap&#234;utica iniciada antes da manifesta&#231;&#227;o do quadro sindr&#244;mico?</p>
    <p>Informa&#231;&#245;es mais recentes apontam para o sistema imunol&#243;gico no desempenho de papel importante na g&#234;nese da EPP. Pacientes com contagem linfocit&#225;ria baixa, particularmente CD4+ e CD5, parecem ser mais propensos ao aparecimento da EPP<sup>65</sup>. Shimizu e cols.<sup>66</sup> mostraram, h&#225; pouco tempo, que o aumento de interferon gama na mucosa intestinal causa perda prot&#233;ica sem a ocorr&#234;ncia de anormalidades epiteliais &#224; microscopia eletr&#244;nica. Essas informa&#231;&#245;es indicam que, como sugerido por Chakrabarti e cols. em 2003<sup>20</sup>, parece ser importante determinar o perfil imunol&#243;gico do paciente operado. Aqueles casos com disfun&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica devem ser tratados profilaticamente, podendo essa medida ter influ&#234;ncia no aparecimento da EPP. Outro aspecto que deve ser considerado &#233; o tamanho do &#225;trio direito no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio, havendo evid&#234;ncias relacionando seu aumento com a EPP<sup>35</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Baseado na revis&#227;o apresentada, fica claro, inicialmente, que a EPP ap&#243;s cirurgia de Fontan &#233; entidade bem conhecida, de baixa incid&#234;ncia, por&#233;m de progn&#243;stico reservado. O diagn&#243;stico deve ser suspeitado em qualquer paciente submetido a essa opera&#231;&#227;o que apresente quadro de diarr&#233;ia com hipoproteinemia, com ou sem edemas. A EPP subcl&#237;nica parece estar bem documentada, por&#233;m a import&#226;ncia desse diagn&#243;stico na evolu&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes precisa ser determinada. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; patogenia da doen&#231;a, obstru&#231;&#245;es localizadas devem ser procuradas e podem ser a causa da s&#237;ndrome. Entretanto, formas sem obstru&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o freq&#252;entes, estando possivelmente relacionadas a complexos mecanismos imunol&#243;gicos. A imunodefici&#234;ncia adquirida por esses pacientes &#233; um aspecto crucial dentro do processo diagn&#243;stico desses casos. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; terap&#234;utica, os casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o ao longo da circula&#231;&#227;o devem ser adequadamente tratados com o objetivo de reduzir a hipertens&#227;o venosa. O tratamento das causas n&#227;o-obstrutivas ainda permanece em discuss&#227;o aberta. Apesar de n&#227;o adotado uniformemente, o cortic&#243;ide pode ser empregado, devendo ser lembrada a possibilidade de agravamento de poss&#237;vel imunodefici&#234;ncia j&#225; presente. O uso de heparina e espironolactona pode ser &#250;til, por&#233;m h&#225; necessidade de melhor comprova&#231;&#227;o do seu benef&#237;cio. A interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea tem indica&#231;&#245;es precisas, mas nem sempre &#233; eficaz. A otimiza&#231;&#227;o da circula&#231;&#227;o do tipo Fontan mediante cirurgia deve ser considerada, quando poss&#237;vel. A fenestra&#231;&#227;o atrial cir&#250;rgica, assim como a convers&#227;o para anastomose cavopulmonar ou mesmo o transplante card&#237;aco podem ser procedimentos indicados na an&#225;lise individual de cada caso. Um aspecto interessante e que parece ser importante &#233; a escolha do candidato ideal &#224; cirurgia de Fontan, havendo dados que indicam menor incid&#234;ncia de EPP em determinadas circunst&#226;ncias anat&#244;micas e funcionais.</p>
    <p>Apesar do progn&#243;stico ainda sombrio para esses pacientes, acreditamos que o interesse pelo problema, demonstrado pelas recentes publica&#231;&#245;es, seja fundamental para elucidar os mecanismos envolvidos no aparecimento da s&#237;ndrome e, conseq&#252;entemente, determinar a terap&#234;utica ideal. Apesar da conhecida experi&#234;ncia com a cirurgia de Fontan, a inexist&#234;ncia no nosso meio de publica&#231;&#245;es relacionadas a EPP indica ser importante a confec&#231;&#227;o de estudo multic&#234;ntrico nacional. A import&#226;ncia desse projeto, al&#233;m de dimensionar o problema no pa&#237;s, seria conhecer as caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes aqui observados e determinar as op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas dispon&#237;veis.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
    </p>
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    <p>58. Holmgren D, Berggren H, Wahlander H, Hallberg M, Myrdal U. Reversal of protein-losing enteropathy in a child with Fontan circulation is correlated with central venous pressure after heart transplantation. Pediatr Transplant 2001; 5: 135-7.</p>
    <p>59. Sierra C, Calleja F, Picazo B, Martinez-Valverde A. Protein-losing enteropathy secondary to Fontan procedure resolved after cardiac transplantation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 1997; 24: 229-30.</p>
    <p>60. Brancaccio G, Carotti A, D'argenio P, Michielon G, Parisi F. Protein-losing enteropathy after Fontan surgery: resolution after cardiac transplantation. J Heart Lung Transplant 2003; 22: 484-6.</p>
    <p>61. Connor FL, Angelides S, Gibson M, et al. Successful resection of localized intestinal lymphangiectasia post-Fontan: role of 99mtechnetium-dextran scintigraphy. Pediatrics 2003; 112; 242-7.</p>
    <p>62. Persic M, Browse NL, Prpic I. Intestinal lymphangiectasia and protein losing enteropathy responding to small bowel resection. Arch Dis Child 1998; 78: 194.</p>
    <p>63. Powell AJ, Gauvreau K, Jenkins KJ, Blume ED, Mayer JE, Lock JE. Perioperative risk factors for development of protein-losing enteropathy following a Fontan procedure. Am J Cardiol 2001; 88: 1206-9.</p>
    <p>64. Fujii T, Shimizu T, Takahashi K, et al. Fecal a-1-antitrypsin concentrations as a measure of enteric protein loss after modified Fontan operations. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2003; 37: 577-80.</p>
    <p>65. Lenz D, Hambsch J, Schneider P, et al. Protein-losing enteropathy in patients with Fontan circulation: is it triggered by infection? Critical Care 2003; 7: 185-90.</p>
    <p>66. Shimizu T, Nagata S, Fujii T, et al. Enhanced production of interferon-gamma as a possible cause of protein-losing enteropathy after modified Fontan operation. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 2003; 37: 504-7.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Fernando Tadeu Vasconcelos Amaral </p>
        <p> Rua Jo&#227;o Padovan, 195 </p>
        <p> 14024-030 &#150; Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="ftamaral@cardiol.br">ftamaral@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 08/03/06 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 11/04/06</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Clinical Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Protein-losing enteropathy after the Fontan operation</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>CLINICAL UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Protein-losing enteropathy after the Fontan operation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Fernando Tadeu Vasconcelos Amaral; Edmar Atik</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto - USP and Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas - FMUSP Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Operation, Fontan, protein loss.</p>
      <p>In 1971, Fontan and Baudet were the first to describe a surgical technique for the successful separation of the systemic and pulmonary circulations in a patient with tricuspid atresia<sup>1</sup>. Soon after, Kreutzer suggested a similar procedure for a patient with the same condition<sup>2</sup>. This innovative procedure became known as "the Fontan operation", which, especially in the 1970's and 1980's, provided a better prognosis for patients with functionally univentricular hearts. Since these early impressive reports, several modifications of the techniques have been described as an attempt to further improve the function of both circulations<sup>3-5</sup>.</p>
      <p>In the past twenty years, the short-term outcome of this procedure has improved significantly<sup>6,7</sup>, basically due to better patient selection, progress in surgical techniques and to more adequate immediate postoperative intensive care. However, as time went by and a new group of patients survived, sequelae of Fontan-like operation became apparent, making it less attractive. Hence, complications such as arrhythmias<sup>8,9</sup>, poorer physical fitness<sup>10</sup>, circulatory failure<sup>11,12</sup>, atrial thrombosis<sup>13,14</sup> and liver dysfunction<sup>15</sup> are frequent in the follow-up of these patients at outpatients&#180; clinics and require special care and appropriate management.</p>
      <p>A rare complication, although potentially lethal, is the protein-losing enteropathy (PLE) with pathogenesis and treatment still under discussion. The aim of this study is to review the clinical features of patients with PLE, to discuss the reported pathogenic mechanisms and to summarize the published therapeutic options that are potentially applicable to these patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Diagnosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Patients with PLE present with bloating or abdominal pain, diarrhea, edema, pleural effusion, ascites and distress. Laboratory findings usually include hypoproteinemia, low serum immunoglobulins and calcium levels and low lymphocyte count. The onset of EPP may occur from weeks to years after the surgical procedure. In a study by Mertens<sup>16</sup>, this interval ranged from one month to 16 years (mean: 2.7 years). The diagnosis of PLE is confirmed by finding high fecal 1-antitrypsin levels in patients with no other causes of hypoalbuminemia, such as liver disease or malnutrition<sup>17-19</sup>. Associated infections may occur due to immune dysfunction confirmed by the low lymphocyte count and immunoglobulin levels<sup>20</sup>. Some cases may present with no diarrhea and with slight hypoalbuminemia, despite the marked reduction in serum immunoglobulin levels and lymphocyte counts, especially of CD4<sup>21</sup>. According to some authors, transaminases may be increased due to secondary liver congestion<sup>22</sup>. Subclinical gastrintestinal protein loss may occur with no evidence of the classical clinical findings and with normal serum protein levels<sup>23</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Incidence</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As far as is known, PLE was first described in 1960 in a 17-year old patient with constrictive pericarditis<sup>24</sup>. Hypoalbuminemia, hypocalcemia and steatorrhea markedly improved after surgery. After this report, others were published describing patients with similar findings secondary to chronic constrictive pericarditis<sup>25</sup>, tricuspid insufficiency<sup>26</sup>, Mustard operation<sup>27</sup> and Glenn operation<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>The incidence of PLE after Fontan operation is variable and was first described by Crupi, in 1980<sup>29</sup>. Shortly after the report of three patients operated by Hess<sup>30</sup>, Driscol demonstrated that 10% of 352 cases operated on before 1985 had PLE. This study highlighted the importance of some variables associated with PLE and became an important reference for the Fontan operation<sup>12</sup>. The incidence of PLE following the Fontan operation has been reported as 2.5 to 10%<sup>23,31-34</sup>, but always in studies involving a small number of patients. In a large multicenter study published in 1998 and involving 3,029 patients, PLE was diagnosed in 114 cases (3.7%). This study is a landmark in PLE characterization and demonstrated, among other relevant aspects, the low incidence of this syndrome in patients who underwent the Fontan operation.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pathogenesis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The mechanisms involved in triggering PLE have been under debate for almost 50 years. As early as 1961, Davidson<sup>25</sup> associated the occurrence of the syndrome with high venous pressure and consequent changes in the intestinal lymphatics. Chylous dilatation of small bowel villi<sup>35</sup> could cause local edema with secondary protein loss. Curiously, Blalock, in 1936<sup>36</sup>, induced this physiological change by occluding the superior vena cava of dogs, and caused obstruction of flow in the thoracic ducts and congestion of the intestinal lymphatics. These early studies clearly depicted the role of the small bowel in protein loss, supposedly related to increased central venous pressure. This seemingly obvious concept was challenged by Wilkinson in 1965<sup>37</sup>, who was the first researcher to perform jejunal biopsy in a patient with PLE and normal venous pressure, demonstrating the characteristic lymphangiectasis. Another important feature described by Strober, in 1968<sup>26</sup>, was fecal lymphocyte and protein loss, potentially reversible by treating the heart disease<sup>38</sup>.</p>
      <p>In 1984, Hess<sup>30</sup> reported three cases of PLE after surgical atriopulmonary connection. These patients had high right atrial diastolic pressure; since anterograde flow in the superior vena cava after the Fontan operation takes place during atrial diastole, PLE was allegedly associated to this physiologic variable.</p>
      <p>Recent studies have reported cases of protein loss in a circumscribed intestinal region. In 1999, Koch<sup>21</sup> employed Tc99-labeled albumin and demonstrated a marked reduction in CD4+ lymphocytes of unknown origin in patients with circumscribed intestinal protein loss. According to this author, passive lymph loss secondary to high central venous pressure could not explain the selective loss of CD4+ lymphocytes, suggesting that the primary or secondary disturbance of the immune system could affect the structural integrity and patency of the intestinal wall, thus triggering PLE. In theory, if proven, the circumscribed loss would have definite surgical consequences in these patients. An interesting aspect, recently reported is the possible association of increased mesenteric vascular resistance with PLE<sup>39</sup>. These authors suggested that the increased resistance would cause mesenteric hypoperfusion, which would be a possible substrate for the development of the syndrome.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The five-year survival rate of patients with PLE after the Fontan operation ranges between 46% and 59%<sup>16,31</sup>. Such figures point out to the extreme severity of this complication, and support the efforts made to optimize the treatments available.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Medical Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>in addition to the use of anti-congestive medications, such as diuretics and ACE inhibitors, the replacement by periodic infusion of albumin, immunoglobulins and lymphocytes should be done. Also, patients must be advised to ingest hyperproteic and medium-chain-triglyceride rich diets. In 2003, Chakrabarti<sup>20</sup> considered that perhaps these patients had acquired immunodeficiency due to fecal lymphocyte loss and recommended the prophylactic use of antibiotics and the prompt treatment of any infection. Antiviral vaccines and immunoglobulin replacement are also recommended and aim to improve the immunological protection of these patients<sup>40</sup>. Some specific measures have been used with different success rates:</p>
      <p>a) Steroids: following Silverman's<sup>41</sup> report on the treatment of intestinal lymphangiectasis, Rothman<sup>42</sup>, in 1991, used prednisone to treat a patient with PLE diagnosed two years after the Fontan operation, with no signs of circuit obstruction and with a mean pressure of 10 mmHg in the right atrium. This innovative experience was soon reproduced with satisfactory result<sup>43,44</sup> despite the small number of patients. Zellers&#180; experiment was rather interesting, for it clearly demonstrated, though in a single patient, the association between use of steroids and anatomical changes in the duodenal biopsy. With the use of 2mg/kg/day in the first intervention, an improved clinical picture was evident. However, relapse occurred when the drug was discontinued and novel improvement occurred by reintroducing it at 0.5 mg/kg/day. In this case, it was then demonstrated the association of high fecal 1-antitrypsin and hypoalbuminemia with dilated intestinal villi in the biopsy. It is believed that in addition to its anti-inflammatory effect, steroids may be stabilizing factors of lymphatic and capillary membranes and may reduce the bulk of lymphatic tissue<sup>45</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although representing an interesting therapeutic option, the use of steroids is not widely accepted. In the impressive multicenter trial reported by Mertens<sup>16</sup>, 52 patients received single medical treatment with a death rate of 46%. In 16 patients who used prednisone the syndrome resolved in 5, improved in 7 and did not change in 4, thus demonstrating that the drug may be effective. Despite some unfavorable outcomes with this drug reported by other authors, there is evidence of good response in patients with no obstruction in the Fontan circulation. Therefore, this therapeutic option will seem reasonable until prospective studies are carried out. It is worth mentioning that the patient with PLE may be immunesuppressed due to fecal lymphocyte loss; worsening may occur if steroids are used.</p>
      <p>b) Heparin: curiously, the mother of a patient with congenital heart disease and PLE observed that the child's diarrhea improved when warfarin was replaced by heparin whenever the child needed surgery. In 1997, Donelly<sup>46</sup> reported the successful use of heparin in lower doses than those usually employed in anticoagulation in three patients with PLE. Heparin sulfate is a component of the basal membrane of several organs. When removed from other membranes but preserving proteoglycans, there is a considerable increase in membrane permeability to proteins<sup>47</sup>. The use of exogenous heparin, particularly high molecular weight heparin, may stabilize interactions in the capillary endothelium and the intestinal mucosa, with a consequent decrease in protein loss. In addition, heparin may enhance perivascular protein reabsorption into the lymphatic system.</p>
      <p>c) Calcium: in 2004, Kim<sup>48</sup> prescribed calcium alone, with no steroids or heparin, to a child with PLE, abiding to the patient family's desire. The child improved within four weeks, taking a turn for the worse soon after the drug was discontinued and again improving when reinitiated.</p>
      <p>d) Spironolactone: Ringel<sup>49</sup>, in one sole experience, reported the use of spironolactone in three patients with PLE, with considerable improvement.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Percutaneous intervention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In 1994, Mertens<sup>50</sup> reported the case of a 29-year old patient with refractory PLE after atriopulmonary anastomosis, who responded to percutaneous fenestration in the interatrial septum region. This procedure, even though successful, may be difficult to carry out due to the presence of Goretex or complex baffle in the intra-atrial conduit. Despite its attractiveness, this procedure should not be routinely used, since it was tested in only a few cases. Novel techniques are being tested in some centers and may shortly be included in the therapeutic armamentarium<sup>51</sup>. It is noteworthy mentioning that in Mertens' trial<sup>16</sup>, carried out in 1998, 13 patients underwent heart catheterization, three of them with associated surgical treatment. Nine patients underwent dilation with balloon catheter with or without stent placement; in that, three to relieve circuit obstruction and six to dilate pulmonary artery obstruction. Eight out of these nine cases had technically successful outcomes, five of whom with improvement of pulmonary obstruction and three with no clinical improvement. Five patients underwent atrial fenestration by means of blade septostomy, three with dilation by balloon catheter, one with interatrial septum puncture and dilation and one with stent placement. Three patients improved significantly while two, only partially. Two patients had stroke and one of them was not on anticoagulants. Other single case studies have been recently reported, such as the azygos vein embolization with Gianturco coil in PLE patients after the Glenn operation<sup>52</sup>. It is believed that the vein-vein shunt interruption was accountable for the PLE improvement in this case. It is important to highlight at this point that these summarized interventionist options may be of help in treating PLE due to the obstruction of Fontan circulation while, at the same time, they demonstrate the limited efficacy of the interatrial fenestration.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pacemaker Implantation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>An interesting report by Cohen<sup>53</sup> was published in 2001 regarding this procedure. In two patients with PLE after the Fontan operation and associated sinus node dysfunction, the implantation of a pacemaker increased cardiac output and resolved the syndrome. After this, pacemaker implantation was considered a possible intervention to treat PLE, even in patients with no arrhythmias.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Surgical Treatment</bold>
      </p>
      <p>From the early trials in cases of constrictive pericarditis<sup>24,25</sup>, tricuspid insufficiency<sup>26</sup> and the Mustard operation with vena cava obstruction<sup>27</sup>, cardiovascular surgery has been an option for treating PLE. In 1980, Crupi<sup>29</sup> described the supposedly first case successfully treated by surgery for PLE after the Fontan operation. The insertion of a biological valve in the proximal anastomosis in a patient with previously performed atriopulmonary connection with a valveless conduit and marked regurgitation resulted in great improvement, normalizing the serum protein levels. Fifty-two patients with PLE of the multicenter Mertens trial<sup>16</sup>, in 1998, underwent surgery with high mortality rate (61%); among the survivors, 19% still had signs of PLE. Different surgical procedures aiming to optimize the Fontan-like circulation were employed, such as conduit disobstruction, valvuloplasty and septal defects occlusion. Conversion to other types of anastomosis was performed in a small number of patients and the most common was the conversion of atriopulmonary anastomosis into total cavopulmonary connection. Other interventions, including the undoing of the Fontan operation and heart transplantation were carried out in a small number of patients.</p>
      <p>It is speculated that delay in surgery and irreversibility of enteric damage, even after postoperative hemodynamic improvement, may be factors of surgical failure. One must also consider that conversion into another Fontan-like circulation may not prevent PLE. Another option is the surgical atrial fenestration, described in 1996<sup>54</sup>. In this interesting study, two cases of PLE refractory to medical treatment had an excellent outcome after a 4.8 mm surgical atrial fenestration. It is noteworthy, as mentioned by other authors, that patients become cyanotic after this intervention, with risk of embolism. In 1997, Rychik<sup>55</sup> described five patients who underwent lateral tunnel Fontan operation, and had PLE in the follow-up. When treated with surgical atrial fenestration, in three of them protein levels normalized and PLE symptoms subsided two to six weeks after the procedure. In the two patients who did not improve, blood O<sub>2</sub> saturation was grater than 89% and the authors suggested that the clinical improvement seems to be related to the degree of right&#150;left shunt created by the fenestration, and blood O<sub>2</sub> saturation should not be grater than 85%.</p>
      <p>In 1998, Barbero-Marcial et al<sup>56</sup> described an interesting surgical technique in patients with PLE after atriopulmonary anastomosis. In all three cases, conversion into cavopulmonary anastomosis and diversion of the hepatic veins to the left atrium were performed. Despite technically cumbersome, it seems to be a useful choice, as long as all hepatic veins are excluded from the venous system avoiding that any remaining vein facilitate the communication between the vena cava and the portal system, thus increasing the risk of cyanosis.</p>
      <p>Thirty-one patients reoperated after the Fontan procedure were recently reported by Marceletti et al<sup>34</sup>, most of them due to arrhythmia and heart failure. Three of these patients had PLE, two of whom improved after extracardiac insertion of a polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) valveless tube connecting the inferior vena cava to the right pulmonary artery, associated to the reduction of the right atrium. Twenty-seven of the 31 patients are classified as functional class I or II, which confers to this type of anastomosis a hemodynamic efficiency superior to other techniques<sup>57</sup>.</p>
      <p>Despite the small cumulative experience, heart transplantation may be an alternative, sometimes the only one, for treating PLE<sup>58,59</sup>. Brancaccio et al<sup>60</sup> reported one interesting case of heart transplantation in a patient with PLE. As PLE persisted after such radical surgery, total parenteral nutrition was initiated with improvement after 16 weeks.</p>
      <p>Connor<sup>61</sup> has recently described the innovative experience of a 14-year old female patient with PLE refractory toboth medication of any type and the Fontan operation revision. The affected small bowel area was localized by means of TC99-dextran scintigraphy. After resection of 135 cm of the jejunum, the PLE gradually improved, despite the demonstration of persisting protein loss on a new scintigraphy. In spite of the successful results of this procedure in patients with PLE and intestinal lymphangiectasis<sup>62</sup>, its benefits to patients after the Fontan operation, as well as the incidence of circumscribed lesions have still to be determined. What would be the determining factor of the enteric lesion in a specific site? What would be the long-term results of cases operated with this technique? Could other lesions appear in different areas of the small bowel after successful resection? These practical questions will remain unanswered until larger studies are performed.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Prevention</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The cumulative analysis of patients undergoing the Fontan operation enabled the recognition of some variables possibly related to the worsening of PLE and, thus, the early identification of possible patients at risk. At this point, the classical work by Driscol<sup>12</sup>, in 1992, should be mentioned. This author verified that patients with heterotaxia, polysplenia, systemic venous drainage anomalies, high pulmonary vascular resistance and high left ventricular diastolic pressure had a significantly greater chance of developing PLE after the Fontan operation. These findings were later confirmed, in 1996, by Feldt<sup>31</sup>, who added that right ventricular anatomy, as well as the duration of extracorporeal circulation and of hospitalization were also significantly associated with the appearance of the syndrome. In 2001, Powell<sup>63</sup> reported 416 patients who underwent the Fontan operation: 103 (12.6%) cases submitted to extracorporeal circulation for over 140 minutes had PLE, whereas only 313 (0.6%) with extracorporeal circulation lasting less than 140 minutes presented PLE (p&lt;0.001).</p>
      <p>This information is relevant for the selection of surgical candidates, as well as for choosing the operative technique to be used. For instance, could patients at risk of developing PLE benefit from atrial fenestration during the Fontan operation? One should also consider the possibility of patients with subclinical PLE<sup>23</sup>, who have definite protein loss but not the typical findings of the syndrome, and who deserve closer attention. As suggested by Fuji<sup>64</sup>, in 2003, the fecal protein loss precedes hypoproteinemia. One wonders whether these patients would have a better outcome if treated before the appearance of the full-blown syndrome.</p>
      <p>Recent data indicate that the immune system has an important role in the genesis of PLE. Patients with low lymphocyte count, especially CD4+ and CD5, seem prone to PLE<sup>65</sup>. Shimilu et al<sup>66</sup> have recently shown that increased interferon gamma in the intestinal mucosa leads to protein loss not accompanied by epithelial changes under electronic microscopy. Agreeing with Chakrabarti, in 2003<sup>20</sup>, the information above indicates that determining the immunological profile of the operated patient seems to be important. Prophylactic treatments in patients with immune dysfunction may influence the onset of PLE. The postoperative size of the right atrium may be related to the appearance of PLE<sup>35</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Based on the review above, PLE after Fontan operation is a well-known disorder of low incidence but of poor prognosis. Its diagnosis should be suspected in any patient undergoing the Fontan operation and presenting diarrhea and hypoproteinemia with or without edema. Subclinical PLE is well recognized, but its role in the outcome of these patients is still unknown. Localized obstructions should be sought, as they may cause the syndrome. However, PLE with no obstructions is quite frequent and its pathogenesis is possibly related to complex immune mechanisms. It is mandatory to diagnose acquired immunodeficiency in these patients. Regarding treatment, the patients with circulatory obstruction should be appropriately managed to avoid venous hypertension. The treatment of causes not related to obstruction is still open to debate. Steroids, although not universally accepted, may be used with attention given to possible worsening of an already existing immunodeficiency. Heparin and spironolactone may be useful, although their benefits are yet to be proven. Percutaneous intervention has specific indications, but is not always effective. Surgical optimization of the Fontan-like circulation must be considered whenever possible. Surgical atrial fenestration, conversion into cavopulmonary anastomosis and heart transplantation may be indicated in specific cases. It is important to choose the ideal candidate for the Fontan operation, as PLE seems to be less frequent in certain functional and anatomical circumstances.</p>
      <p>Despite its grim prognosis, the recent interest in the elucidation of the mechanisms involved in the syndrome is fundamental to find the ideal treatment. Even though the Fontan operation is a widely practiced procedure in Brazil, few papers were written on PLE pointing to the need of a multicenter Brazilian trial. Such a trial is important to assess the magnitude of the problem, the characteristics of Brazilian patients and the therapeutic options available.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Fontan F, Baudet E. Surgical repair of tricuspid atresia. Thorax 1971; 6: 240-8.</p>
      <p>2. Kreutzer G, Galindez E, Bono H, de Palma C, Laura JP. An operation for correction of tricuspid atresia. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1973; 66: 613-21.</p>
      <p>3. Yacoub MH, Radley-Smith R. Use of a valved conduit from right atrium to pulmonary artery for "correction" of single ventricle. Circulation 1976; 54 (suppl 3): 63-70.</p>
      <p>4. Gale AW, Danielson GK, McGoon DC, Mair DD. Modified Fontan operation for univentricular heart and complicated congenital lesions. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1979; 78: 831-8.</p>
      <p>5. Marceletti C, Mazzera E, Olthof H,et al. Fontan's operation. An expanded horizon. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1980; 80: 764-9.</p>
      <p>6. Mair DD, Hagler DJ, Julsrud PR, Puga FJ, Schaff HV, Danielson GK. Early and late results of the modified Fontan procedure for double-inlet left ventricle: the Mayo Clinic experience. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991; 18: 1727-32.</p>
      <p>7. Mayer Jr JE, Bridges ND, Lock JE, Hanley FL, Jonas RA, Castaneda AR. Factors associated with marked reduction in mortality for Fontan operations in patients with single ventricle. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1992; 103: 444-51.</p>
      <p>8. Weber HS, Hellenbrand WE, Kleinman CS, Perlmutter RA, Rosenfeld LE. Predictors of rhythm disturbances and subsequent mortality after the Fontan operation. Am J Cardiol 1989; 64: 762-7.</p>
      <p>9. Fishberger SB, Wernowsky G, Gentles TL, et al. Factors influencing the development of atrial flutter after the Fontan operation. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 113: 80-6.</p>
      <p>10. Driscoll DJ, Danielson GK, Puga FJ, Schaff HV, Heise CT, Staats BA. Exercise tolerance and cardiorespiratory response to exercise after the Fontan operation for tricuspid atresia or functional single ventricle. J Am Coll Cardiol 1986; 7: 1087-94.</p>
      <p>11. Fontan F, Kirklin JW, Fernandez G, et al. Outcome after a "perfect" Fontan operation. Circulation 1990; 81: 1520-36.</p>
      <p>12. Driscoll DJ, Offord KP, Feldt RH, Schaff HV, Puga FJ, Danielson GK. Five to fifteen-year follow-up after the Fontan operation. Circulation 1992; 85: 469-96.</p>
      <p>13. Dobell ARC, Trusler GA, Smallhorn JF, Williams WG. Atrial thrombi after the Fontan operation. Ann Thorac Surg 1986; 42: 664-7.</p>
      <p>14. Mahony L, Nikaidoh H, Fixler DE. Thrombolytic treatment with streptokinase for late intraatrial thrombosis after modified Fontan procedure. Am J Cardiol 1988; 62: 343-4.</p>
      <p>15. Cromme-Dijkhuis AH, Hess J, Hahlen K, et al. Specific sequelae after Fontan operation at mid-and long-term follow-up. Arrhythmia, liver dysfunction and coagulation disorders. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1993; 106: 1126-32.</p>
      <p>16. Mertens L, Hagler DJ, Sauer U, Somerville J, Gewillig M (On behalf of the PLE study group). Protein-losing enteropathy after the Fontan operation: an international multicenter study. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1998; 115: 1063-73.</p>
      <p>17. Mulberg AE, Piccoli DA, Murphy J, Norwood WI. Severe enteric protein loss causes hypoproteinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia following the modified Fontan procedure (Abstract). Circulation 1989; 80 (suppl II): II-489.</p>
      <p>18. Hill DJ, Feldt RH, Porter CJ, Puga FJ, Danielson GK, Perrault J. Protein-losing enteropathy after Fontan operation: a preliminary report (Abstract). Circulation 1989; 80 (suppl II): II-490.</p>
      <p>19. Florent C, L'Hirondel C, Desmazures C, Aymes C, Bernier JJ. Intestinal clearance of alpha-1-antitrypsin: a sensitive method for the detection of protein-losing enteropathy. Gastroenterology 1981; 81: 777-80.</p>
      <p>20. Chakrabarti S, Keeton BR, Salmon AP, Vettukattil JJ. Acquired combined immunodeficiency associated with protein losing enteropathy complicating Fontan operation. Heart 2003; 89: 1130-1.</p>
      <p>21. Koch A, Hofbeck M, Feistel H, Buheitel G, Singer H. Circumscribed intestinal protein loss with deficiency in CD4+ lymphocytes after the Fontan procedure. Eur J Pediatr 1999; 158: 847-50.</p>
      <p>22. Gentles TL, Gauvreau K, Mayer Jr JE, et al. Functional outcome after the Fontan operation: factors influencing late morbidity. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997; 114: 392-403.</p>
      <p>23. Thorne SA, Hooper J, Somerville J. Gastrointestinal protein loss in long term survivors of the Fontan operation. B Heart J 1995; 73 (suppl 3) (Abstract).</p>
      <p>24. Jim&#233;nez-Diaz G, Linazosoro JM, L&#243;pez-Garcia E, Ramirez-Guedes J. Sobre la hipoalbuminemia en la pericarditis: mecanismo y repercusiones: est&#250;dios com prote&#237;nas marcadas de la rapidez de perdida y renovaci&#243;n de la albumina del plasma. Rev Clin Espan 1960; 77: 252-6.</p>
      <p>25. Davidson JD, Waldman TA, Goodman DS, Gordon RS. Protein-losing gastroenteropathy in congestive heart failure. The Lancet 1961; 1: 899-9-2.</p>
      <p>26. Strober W, Cohen LS, Waldmann TA, Braunwald E. Tricuspid regurgitation. A newly recognized cause of protein-losing enteropathy, lymphocytopenia and immunologic deficiency. Am J Med 1968; 44: 842-50.</p>
      <p>27. Moodie DS, Feldt RH, Wallace RB. Transient protein-losing enteropathy secondary to elevated caval pressures and caval obstruction after the Mustard procedure. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1976; 72: 379-82.</p>
      <p>28. Gleason WA, Roodman ST, Laks H. Protein-losing enteropathy and intestinal lymphangiectasia after superior vena cava-right pulmonary artery (Glenn) shunt. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1979; 77: 843-6.</p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="back-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing Address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Fernando Tadeu Vasconcelos Amaral</p>
          <p> Rua Jo&#227;o Padovan, 195</p>
          <p> 14024-030 &#150; Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="ftamaral@cardiol.br">ftamaral@cardiol.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received on 03/08/06</p>
      <p> Accepted on 04/11/06</p>
      <p>8. Weber HS, Hellenbrand WE, Kleinman CS, Perlmutter RA, Rosenfeld LE. Predictors of rhythm disturbances and subsequent mortality after the Fontan operation. Am J Cardiol 1989; 64: 762-7.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
