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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">GKL9MMPHKvL4dNGNC7XThXK</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00024</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001600024</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700324</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001600024</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica: bases gen&#233;ticas e cl&#237;nicas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mattos</surname>
            <given-names>Beatriz Piva e</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <institution content-type="orgname">UFRGS</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>391</fpage>
      <lpage>399</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>16</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita na cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica: bases gen&#233;ticas e cl&#237;nicas</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Beatriz Piva; Mattos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Faculdade de Medicina da UFRGS - Porto Alegre, RS</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>Em seq&#252;&#234;ncia aos relatos iniciais de Teare<sup>1 </sup>e Brock<sup>2</sup>, um n&#250;mero crescente de publica&#231;&#245;es sobre a cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH) vem sendo gerado a cada ano, refletindo o exponencial avan&#231;o do conhecimento a respeito de uma entidade cl&#237;nica de car&#225;ter eminentemente complexo.</p>
    <p>A CMH manifesta-se por hipertrofia ventricular esquerda associada a desarranjo miofibrilar e fibrose intersticial, fatores que condicionam &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e arritmias. O diagn&#243;stico preliminarmente baseado na detec&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de formas com obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) evoluiu com o advento da ecocardiografia uni- e bidimensional &#224; identifica&#231;&#227;o de hipertrofia predominante do septo interventricular<sup>3</sup>, caracter&#237;stica inicialmente destacada por Teare<sup>1</sup>. Estudos subseq&#252;entes evidenciaram o car&#225;ter heterog&#234;neo da doen&#231;a, no que se refere &#224; extens&#227;o da hipertrofia<sup>4</sup>, apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, evolu&#231;&#227;o e progn&#243;stico<sup>5-7</sup>. Na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada, a introdu&#231;&#227;o da gen&#233;tica molecular passou a constituir novo paradigma para o diagn&#243;stico da CMH, propiciando n&#227;o somente o melhor entendimento dos mecanismos envolvidos em sua patog&#234;nese, como tamb&#233;m a individualiza&#231;&#227;o de distintos padr&#245;es de comprometimento anat&#244;mico e funcional.</p>
    <p>A CMH representa a forma mais comum de doen&#231;a cardiovascular de origem gen&#233;tica, sendo respons&#225;vel por um caso para cada 500 indiv&#237;duos<sup>8</sup>. Caracteriza-se pela grande varia&#231;&#227;o do fen&#243;tipo. O ecocardiograma evidencia hipertrofia ventricular esquerda de gravidade vari&#225;vel<sup>8</sup>. Sua aus&#234;ncia em 20% dos adultos portadores de heran&#231;a gen&#233;tica demonstra que a doen&#231;a pode se manifestar com express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica incompleta<sup>9</sup>. Esses indiv&#237;duos s&#227;o tamb&#233;m suscet&#237;veis a desenvolver complica&#231;&#245;es, como arritmias e morte s&#250;bita, o que confere fundamental relev&#226;ncia ao diagn&#243;stico em fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica.</p>
    <p>A CMH constitui a principal causa de morte s&#250;bita entre jovens e atletas. Complica&#231;&#227;o, a mais dram&#225;tica e imprevis&#237;vel, atinge indiv&#237;duos em qualquer faixa et&#225;ria, mas &#233; mais freq&#252;ente entre adolescentes e adultos jovens, muitas vezes assintom&#225;ticos e sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio<sup>5,10</sup>. A incid&#234;ncia anual de morte s&#250;bita &#233; vari&#225;vel de acordo com o grau de sele&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes inclu&#237;dos nas diversas s&#233;ries e o seu respectivo manejo cl&#237;nico. Dados coletados em fase pr&#233;via &#224; introdu&#231;&#227;o dos cardioversores-desfibriladores autom&#225;ticos implant&#225;veis revelam cifras entre 3% e 6% em crian&#231;as e adolescentes<sup>5</sup>, e entre 2% e 4% em adultos<sup>5,6</sup>. A maior parte das informa&#231;&#245;es epidemiol&#243;gicas emana de poucos centros de refer&#234;ncia, cujos pacientes evidenciam maior incid&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita em rela&#231;&#227;o a popula&#231;&#245;es menos selecionadas, nas quais a mol&#233;stia pode ter evolu&#231;&#227;o benigna com mortalidade anual reduzida, em torno de 1%<sup>7,11,12</sup>.</p>
    <p>A morte s&#250;bita atinge aqueles que exteriorizam hipertrofia ventricular esquerda ou exibem apenas desarranjo miofibrilar com espessuras parietais normais<sup>8,13</sup>. Ocorre habitualmente sem pr&#243;dromos, durante ou imediatamente ap&#243;s a pr&#225;tica de exerc&#237;cios f&#237;sicos, nem sempre de car&#225;ter extenuante. Estima-se que, aproximadamente, 50% dos &#243;bitos incidam nessas condi&#231;&#245;es<sup>8</sup>. Pode transcorrer em repouso, pela manh&#227;, ao despertar ou relacionar-se a esfor&#231;os menores. Como o risco &#233; mais elevado durante a pr&#225;tica de esportes competitivos, h&#225; indiscut&#237;vel benef&#237;cio em estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico precoce, por possibilitar o afastamento desse tipo de atividade, antes mesmo da adolesc&#234;ncia<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>A morte s&#250;bita na CMH tem base arritmog&#234;nica. Registros obtidos em pacientes com cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico implant&#225;vel revelam que descargas apropriadas est&#227;o relacionadas &#224; fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular precedida ou n&#227;o, por taquicardia ventricular monom&#243;rfica<sup>15,16</sup>. Outros dist&#250;rbios do ritmo podem intermediar o desenvolvimento de arritmias ventriculares fatais, como fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial com alta resposta, taquicardia supraventricular com condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular r&#225;pida por via acess&#243;ria, taquicardia sinusal e bloqueio atrioventricular<sup>17</sup>. Arritmia ventricular sustentada representaria nessas condi&#231;&#245;es, evento terminal. </p>
    <p>As arritmias expressam a instabilidade el&#233;trica do mioc&#225;rdio e a presen&#231;a de transmiss&#227;o eletrofisiol&#243;gica distorcida pelo desarranjo miofibrilar associado &#224; fibrose intersticial<sup>18</sup>. O substrato histopatol&#243;gico caracter&#237;stico torna o mioc&#225;rdio suscet&#237;vel a fatores que predisp&#245;em a arritmog&#234;nese, de car&#225;ter intr&#237;nseco, como a hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica e a obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE, ou extr&#237;nseco, como o exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico. A hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, ao interferir com o enchimento diast&#243;lico e exercer efeito compressivo sobre a circula&#231;&#227;o coronariana atrav&#233;s da eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento, favoreceria o surgimento de isquemia. A obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da, a resposta vascular perif&#233;rica anormal ao exerc&#237;cio e o comprometimento da microcircula&#231;&#227;o teriam efeito an&#225;logo, ao afetarem a perfus&#227;o coronariana<sup>18,19</sup>. Ainda que arritmias ventriculares possam ter car&#225;ter prim&#225;rio, a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica constituiria um dos principais mecanismos respons&#225;veis pelo seu desencadeamento<sup>14,18</sup>. A conseq&#252;ente instala&#231;&#227;o de necrose mioc&#225;rdica ou fibrose reparativa pode igualmente originar arritmias por reentrada<sup>18,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>A estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita na CMH constitui tema de fundamental import&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica, considerando que 50% a 70% dos &#243;bitos transcorrem desse modo<sup>10,21</sup>. O reconhecimento de que o cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico implant&#225;vel &#233; efetivo na preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria de morte s&#250;bita tem motivado a busca por crit&#233;rios que possibilitem a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes mais suscet&#237;veis. As reduzidas taxas de mortalidade mesmo em centros de refer&#234;ncia e a avalia&#231;&#227;o de casu&#237;sticas limitadas t&#234;m prejudicado a individualiza&#231;&#227;o de fatores predisponentes e de sua respectiva intera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>BASES GEN&#201;TICAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Crit&#233;rios para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco na CMH s&#227;o dif&#237;ceis de ser definidos, em raz&#227;o da heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica e gen&#233;tica. A constata&#231;&#227;o de que a morte s&#250;bita atinge n&#227;o raro indiv&#237;duos sem nenhum fator predisponente conhecido denota que a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica pode ser insuficiente para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de situa&#231;&#245;es de alto risco. Pacientes com um mesmo perfil cl&#237;nico podem se constituir do ponto de vista gen&#233;tico em popula&#231;&#227;o pouco homog&#234;nea. A an&#225;lise das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo tem possibilitado evidenciar que fatores gen&#233;ticos s&#227;o determinantes do desenvolvimento de morte s&#250;bita e t&#234;m papel decisivo na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco.</p>
    <p>A CMH constitui-se em processo de base eminentemente gen&#233;tica. Mais de 250 muta&#231;&#245;es, envolvendo onze genes distintos j&#225; foram individualizadas<sup>22-24</sup>. A identifica&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es em prote&#237;nas do sarc&#244;mero possibilitou caracteriz&#225;-la como mol&#233;stia decorrente de dist&#250;rbios que afetam diretamente a gera&#231;&#227;o de energia contr&#225;til ou a sua regula&#231;&#227;o. Recentemente, outras prote&#237;nas n&#227;o relacionadas ao sarc&#244;mero, como a proteinoquinase AMP-ativada, foram implicadas no desenvolvimento de fen&#243;tipos semelhantes<sup>25</sup>. A an&#225;lise histopatol&#243;gica de formas n&#227;o-sarcom&#233;tricas com pseudo-hipertrofia revela invariavelmente aus&#234;ncia de desarranjo miofibrilar e presen&#231;a de vac&#250;olos contendo glicog&#234;nio<sup>26</sup>. Essas situa&#231;&#245;es precisam ser diferenciadas da verdadeira CMH, na qual n&#227;o h&#225; nenhum ind&#237;cio de processo infiltrativo ou de armazenamento. O manejo cl&#237;nico e a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco aqui analisados referem-se &#224; CMH causada por doen&#231;a do sarc&#244;mero, n&#227;o se estendendo a processos gen&#233;ticos de outra origem. </p>
    <p>O fen&#243;tipo &#233; determinado pelo gene mutante, mas h&#225; grande varia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica inter- e intra-familiar<sup>22</sup>. A express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica &#233; influenciada por elementos de natureza ambiental, pela a&#231;&#227;o de genes modificantes e pelo fato de incidir um n&#250;mero surpreendente de indiv&#237;duos heterozigotos compostos com m&#250;ltiplas muta&#231;&#245;es no mesmo gene ou em genes distintos<sup>24,27-29</sup>. Os genes modificantes, embora, n&#227;o causadores da doen&#231;a, modulam o grau de hipertrofia e a propens&#227;o &#224; morte s&#250;bita<sup>30</sup>. O de maior import&#226;ncia &#233; o polimorfismo de inser&#231;&#227;o/dele&#231;&#227;o da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina, o qual se relaciona &#224; hipertrofia acentuada e tend&#234;ncia &#224; morte s&#250;bita. O gen&#243;tipo DD &#233; mais comumente encontrado em fam&#237;lias de alto risco<sup>30</sup>. </p>
    <p>A heterogeneidade al&#233;lica acrescida do pequeno n&#250;mero de fam&#237;lias avaliadas, n&#227;o raro com muta&#231;&#245;es pr&#243;prias, tem dificultado a an&#225;lise das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo<sup>29,31</sup>. Estudos de correla&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica evidenciam diferen&#231;as entre os genes causadores da doen&#231;a, quanto a penetr&#226;ncia, idade de express&#227;o, morfologia e progn&#243;stico. Em decorr&#234;ncia, a CMH pode ser interpretada como constitu&#237;da por onze subformas, com patogenia e quadro cl&#237;nico distintos. A identifica&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es malignas e de outras com evolu&#231;&#227;o favor&#225;vel constitui a base para a aplica&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico molecular gen&#233;tico na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita. N&#227;o obstante, o perfil cl&#237;nico das diversas muta&#231;&#245;es tem sido determinado em an&#225;lises realizadas em centros de refer&#234;ncia, nos quais se concentram os pacientes de maior risco. Ainda que a individualiza&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es benignas e malignas possa conferir certa homogeneidade a seus portadores, &#233; preciso considerar que a express&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; vari&#225;vel de indiv&#237;duo a indiv&#237;duo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>OS GENESES E AS MUTA&#199;&#213;ES</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Entre os diversos genes implicados, aqueles que codificam a cadeia pesada da b miosina card&#237;aca, a prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina e a troponina T s&#227;o predominantes, sendo respons&#225;veis conjuntamente por 60% a 70% dos casos<sup>28</sup>. A incid&#234;ncia real de cada gene necessitaria confirma&#231;&#227;o em determina&#231;&#245;es epidemiol&#243;gicas em maior escala. Os demais est&#227;o implicados numa minoria de pacientes, correspondentes, respectivamente, a 5% ou menos dos casos<sup>28,29</sup>. Acredita-se que ainda restam poucos genes a ser identificados.</p>
    <p>As muta&#231;&#245;es do gene da cadeia pesada da b miosina card&#237;aca afetam 15% a 35% dos portadores da doen&#231;a<sup>29,32-34</sup>. S&#227;o, em sua maioria, de car&#225;ter pontual, do tipo designado de "sentido trocado", em que a substitui&#231;&#227;o de uma &#250;nica base do DNA resulta em troca do amino&#225;cido codificado<sup>32</sup>. Entre as mais de cem muta&#231;&#245;es identificadas, a incid&#234;ncia individual &#233; reduzida<sup>32,35</sup>. A maioria caracteriza-se por alta penetr&#226;ncia, hipertrofia acentuada e in&#237;cio em faixa et&#225;ria precoce<sup>32,33,35</sup>. A suscetibilidade &#224; morte s&#250;bita &#233; vari&#225;vel conforme a muta&#231;&#227;o, sendo geralmente proporcional ao grau de hipertrofia<sup>27</sup>. As de car&#225;ter maligno, correspondentes a aproximadamente um ter&#231;o dos casos, exteriorizam-se por hipertrofia acentuada, obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE e morte s&#250;bita prematura, antes dos 35-40 anos<sup>29,32</sup>. H&#225; grande varia&#231;&#227;o fenot&#237;pica interindividual, inclusive entre fam&#237;lias portadoras de uma mesma muta&#231;&#227;o. A forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica pode ser insuficiente para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, pois in&#237;cio precoce e hist&#243;ria familiar de morte s&#250;bita s&#227;o observados tanto em pacientes com muta&#231;&#245;es malignas como benignas<sup>33</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entre as mais de quarenta muta&#231;&#245;es mapeadas no gene da prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina, a maioria &#233; "de novo" e exibe baixa preval&#234;ncia individual<sup>28</sup>. Caracterizam-se pela baixa penetr&#226;ncia e express&#227;o cl&#237;nica tardia, geralmente ap&#243;s a quinta d&#233;cada<sup>36,37</sup>. Costumam evidenciar evolu&#231;&#227;o benigna, mas h&#225; relato de morte s&#250;bita em algumas fam&#237;lias<sup>38</sup>. O aumento da mortalidade est&#225; condicionado &#224; idade e ao desenvolvimento de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda<sup>36,37</sup>. Muitos dos indiv&#237;duos afetados demonstram espessuras parietais normais ao ecocardiograma e aus&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas. A evolu&#231;&#227;o em regra mais favor&#225;vel pode ser justificada pelo fato de essa prote&#237;na n&#227;o participar diretamente do processo contr&#225;til<sup>28</sup>. Suas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas contrariam o princ&#237;pio de que portadores de heran&#231;a gen&#233;tica invariavelmente exteriorizam o fen&#243;tipo durante a adolesc&#234;ncia. Em decorr&#234;ncia, a avalia&#231;&#227;o de fam&#237;lias afetadas deve incluir indiv&#237;duos de qualquer faixa et&#225;ria. N&#227;o &#233; conhecido o motivo pelo qual muta&#231;&#245;es presentes no nascimento se expressam tardiamente.</p>
    <p>O gene da troponina T est&#225; implicado no desenvolvimento da doen&#231;a em 20% dos casos<sup>39</sup>. A hipertrofia do VE, geralmente de grau leve, pode estar ausente em 25% dos pacientes avaliados atrav&#233;s do ecocardiograma<sup>39</sup>. As muta&#231;&#245;es desse gene s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por 15% a 30% dos casos de morte s&#250;bita, a qual, com relativa freq&#252;&#234;ncia, associa-se &#224; hipertrofia ventricular esquerda discreta ou espessuras parietais normais<sup>13,39</sup>. Embora muitos sejam assintom&#225;ticos, o progn&#243;stico &#233; compar&#225;vel ao das muta&#231;&#245;es malignas da cadeia pesada da b miosina card&#237;aca. H&#225; rela&#231;&#227;o entre morte s&#250;bita e presen&#231;a de desarranjo miofibrilar extenso, sem aumento da massa mioc&#225;rdica e com menor percentual de fibrose<sup>20</sup>. Essa constata&#231;&#227;o suscita a hip&#243;tese de que o desarranjo miofibrilar se constitua em importante substrato arritmog&#234;nico. Uma possibilidade considerada &#233; de que esse processo implique em maior gasto energ&#233;tico para o entrecruzamento entre filamentos finos e grossos, o que predisporia &#224; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica<sup>20</sup>. Portadores de muta&#231;&#245;es em outros genes, acometidos por morte s&#250;bita, costumam paradoxalmente, exteriorizar maior grau de fibrose, a qual favoreceria a instala&#231;&#227;o de focos ect&#243;picos e o conseq&#252;ente registro de taquicardia ventricular<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>As muta&#231;&#245;es da a-tropomiosina t&#234;m baixa preval&#234;ncia. Predominam formas benignas, mas h&#225; relato de muta&#231;&#245;es malignas afetando jovens com hipertrofia ventricular esquerda de grau vari&#225;vel<sup>39,40</sup>. O acometimento dos genes das cadeias leves da miosina essencial e reguladora relaciona-se &#224; obstru&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dio-ventricular, associada ou n&#227;o &#224; miopatia esquel&#233;tica<sup>22</sup>. As muta&#231;&#245;es da troponina I n&#227;o determinam padr&#227;o espec&#237;fico, produzindo fen&#243;tipos extremamente heterog&#234;neos mesmo entre membros de uma mesma fam&#237;lia. Morte s&#250;bita &#233; observada entre descendentes de indiv&#237;duos portadores de muta&#231;&#245;es sem doen&#231;a clinicamente aparente<sup>41</sup>. As muta&#231;&#245;es da a-actina, troponina C e titanina foram descritas em n&#250;mero limitado de casos, com express&#227;o fenot&#237;pica vari&#225;vel.</p>
    <p>A CMH resulta de dist&#250;rbios gen&#233;ticos de natureza distinta que direta ou indiretamente afetam a estrutura e a fun&#231;&#227;o do sarc&#244;mero. Os mecanismos pelos quais as muta&#231;&#245;es geram as manifesta&#231;&#245;es fenot&#237;picas necessitam ainda ser investigados, de modo a permitir a introdu&#231;&#227;o precoce de medidas terap&#234;uticas efetivas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>O DIAGN&#211;STICO GEN&#201;TICO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise laboratorial do DNA constitui o m&#233;todo mais definitivo para estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico de CMH. Tem por m&#233;rito possibilitar a identifica&#231;&#227;o de seus portadores em fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica. Embora a distin&#231;&#227;o entre muta&#231;&#245;es de bom e mau progn&#243;stico nem sempre seja sustent&#225;vel, a genotipagem constituiria a base para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e o respectivo manejo cl&#237;nico, possibilitando a preven&#231;&#227;o de morte s&#250;bita inclusive entre pacientes sem cardiopatia aparente. &#201; decisiva na avalia&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos oriundos de fam&#237;lias afetadas, especialmente naquelas em que morte s&#250;bita se associa a espessuras parietais do VE lim&#237;trofes.</p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico laboratorial gen&#233;tico, para ser aplicado em larga escala, necessita t&#233;cnicas eficientes com expressiva rela&#231;&#227;o custo/efetividade numa mol&#233;stia caracterizada pela ampla diversidade molecular. Entretanto, em raz&#227;o de grande complexidade, demora e elevado custo, est&#225; restrito a poucos centros, compreendendo a avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes altamente selecionados. O fato de nenhuma muta&#231;&#227;o ser predominante, aliado &#224; baixa freq&#252;&#234;ncia individual, sobretudo das formas malignas, imp&#245;e dificuldades de ordem pr&#225;tica<sup>28</sup>. Em casu&#237;sticas recentemente avaliadas, 60% das muta&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o haviam ainda sido descritas<sup>29</sup>. Nessas condi&#231;&#245;es, o diagn&#243;stico molecular gen&#233;tico tem sua aplica&#231;&#227;o dificultada por impor o rastreamento de toda a seq&#252;&#234;ncia do gene e n&#227;o apenas das muta&#231;&#245;es conhecidas. Como a possibilidade de incidir duas muta&#231;&#245;es no mesmo gene ou em genes distintos n&#227;o pode ser afastada, a an&#225;lise n&#227;o deve ser interrompida assim que for mapeado o primeiro defeito gen&#233;tico, principalmente na vig&#234;ncia de fen&#243;tipos graves<sup>28,29</sup>. Somente o rastreamento dos quatro genes mais prevalentes implica na an&#225;lise de 15kb de seq&#252;&#234;ncias de DNA, o que dificulta a avalia&#231;&#227;o para fins de rotina<sup>31</sup>. Muta&#231;&#245;es envolvendo os genes conhecidos s&#227;o detectados em 50% a 80% dos casos<sup>31</sup>. A n&#227;o-individualiza&#231;&#227;o do gene mutante deve-se &#224; limita&#231;&#227;o dos m&#233;todos empregados para o diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico indireto, &#224; presen&#231;a de muta&#231;&#245;es em seq&#252;&#234;ncias n&#227;o analisadas ou ao envolvimento de genes ainda n&#227;o conhecidos<sup>29</sup>.</p>
    <p>O custo da genotipagem costuma ultrapassar aquele proporcionado pela libera&#231;&#227;o precoce dos membros n&#227;o afetados em fam&#237;lias com a doen&#231;a. O desenvolvimento de testes automatizados com seq&#252;enciamento direto do DNA, al&#233;m de facilitar o rastreamento de muta&#231;&#245;es e a sua aplica&#231;&#227;o em maior escala, possibilitaria que a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco passasse tamb&#233;m a ser baseada no perfil molecular de cada paciente<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Para que a an&#225;lise laboratorial gen&#233;tica possa definir o seu papel na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita, faz-se necess&#225;rio ampliar a avalia&#231;&#227;o das rela&#231;&#245;es gen&#243;tipo/fen&#243;tipo, sobretudo em indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o relacionados, portadores de um mesmo defeito gen&#233;tico<sup>31,42</sup>. &#201; considerado tamb&#233;m essencial melhor definir a hist&#243;ria natural das muta&#231;&#245;es conhecidas, diante da grande varia&#231;&#227;o inter- e intrafamiliar. Do mesmo modo, novos fen&#243;tipos precisam ser identificados. Na fase pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica, o diagn&#243;stico molecular tornar-se-&#225; relevante, se forem evidenciados meios que intervenham na exterioriza&#231;&#227;o da hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica e na evolu&#231;&#227;o &#224; morte s&#250;bita. A pluralidade dos dist&#250;rbios estruturais e funcionais que afetam as prote&#237;nas contr&#225;teis dificulta a introdu&#231;&#227;o de medidas terap&#234;uticas efetivas. Ainda que a implementa&#231;&#227;o da genotipagem com esse objetivo represente um desafio, &#233; indiscut&#237;vel a sua contribui&#231;&#227;o para a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes de alto risco.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>BASES CL&#205;NICAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco baseada em vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas n&#227;o se encontra ainda perfeitamente sistematizada na CMH. Permanecem d&#250;vidas sobre o valor preditivo individual dos marcadores de risco e equ&#237;vocos sobre a hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a, condicionados em parte a verifica&#231;&#245;es realizadas em amostras muito selecionadas. O seguimento de pacientes com essa mol&#233;stia revela que apenas um contingente menor representa alto risco. Aproximadamente 55% dos pacientes n&#227;o evidenciam preditores de morte s&#250;bita, embora 5% desses possam desenvolver essa complica&#231;&#227;o<sup>10,43</sup>. A presen&#231;a de um s&#243; fator condicionante &#233; observada em 20% dos casos<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <p>A tarefa de identificar situa&#231;&#245;es predisponentes &#233; &#225;rdua e complexa, considerando a heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica. A morte s&#250;bita pode atingir qualquer portador da doen&#231;a, embora apresente correla&#231;&#227;o com faixa et&#225;ria precoce. Cerca de 70% das v&#237;timas costumam ter menos de 35 anos, e 40% s&#227;o assintom&#225;ticos<sup>14</sup>. Como h&#225; formas com exterioriza&#231;&#227;o tardia, atingir a fase adulta n&#227;o confere imunidade. Fen&#243;tipos atenuados, igualmente, n&#227;o excluem suscetibilidade, visto a associa&#231;&#227;o de determinados defeitos gen&#233;ticos com morte s&#250;bita, mesmo na vig&#234;ncia de hipertrofia leve ou ausente. A estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco deve estender-se a todos os portadores da doen&#231;a e seus familiares em primeiro grau, pois a transmiss&#227;o atrav&#233;s de heran&#231;a autoss&#244;mica dominante torna suscet&#237;vel 50% dos membros. Seria de valor discut&#237;vel ap&#243;s os sessenta anos de idade<sup>8,14</sup>.</p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica por meio dos indicadores cl&#237;nicos conhecidos tem car&#225;ter limitado, pois nenhuma vari&#225;vel ou teste diagn&#243;stico demonstra suficiente acur&#225;cia para identificar todo o universo de pacientes suscet&#237;veis<sup>44</sup>. Os fatores predisponentes caracterizam-se pelo reduzido valor preditivo positivo, entre 10% e 28%<sup>17</sup><sub>, </sub>resultado do fato de que mesmo em centros de refer&#234;ncia, as taxas anuais de morte s&#250;bita n&#227;o ultrapassam a 3%<sup>29</sup>. Essas cifras constatadas em popula&#231;&#245;es selecionadas poderiam expressar a j&#225; assinalada baixa preval&#234;ncia de muta&#231;&#245;es malignas<sup>35</sup>. Embora restrita, a interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica sobre os preditores de morte s&#250;bita tem mostrado efeito favor&#225;vel sobre a evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e o progn&#243;stico<sup>21</sup>.</p>
    <p>A estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco sustenta-se no reconhecimento de elementos cl&#237;nicos capazes de expressar a morfologia do VE e o grau de instabilidade el&#233;trica e hemodin&#226;mica. Pode ser implementada em n&#237;vel ambulatorial e inclui, al&#233;m de anamnese, exame f&#237;sico e eletrocardiograma em repouso, a realiza&#231;&#227;o anual de teste ergom&#233;trico, Holter de 24 ou 48 horas e ecocardiograma Doppler<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>OS FATORES DE RISCO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco tem car&#225;ter multifatorial. Os seguintes indicadores cl&#237;nicos associam-se a taxas mais elevadas de morte s&#250;bita (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr01">quadro 1</xref>):</p>
    <fig id="qdr01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0391-00024-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria pr&#233;via ou taquicardia ventricular sustentada espont&#226;nea </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Fora de centros de refer&#234;ncia, &#233; rara a incid&#234;ncia de pacientes que sofreram parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria e foram reanimados. Hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou taquicardia ventricular sustentada identifica o grupo cl&#237;nico com maior risco para morte s&#250;bita, pois a possibilidade de desenvolver novo epis&#243;dio atinge cifras anuais de aproximadamente 10%, caso n&#227;o sejam tomadas medidas preventivas adequadas<sup>15,16</sup>. &#201; incomum a detec&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de taquicardia ventricular sustentada. Quando registrada, pode revelar associa&#231;&#227;o com cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica ou aneurismas apicais, os quais podem desenvolver-se tardiamente em formas com obstru&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dio-ventricular<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hist&#243;ria familiar de morte s&#250;bita </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Apenas 10% a 25% dos portadores de CMH t&#234;m hist&#243;ria de morte s&#250;bita em outros membros da fam&#237;lia, e somente 5% referem dois ou mais casos com essa manifesta&#231;&#227;o<sup>17</sup>. Embora o valor preditivo positivo seja reduzido, jovens com hist&#243;ria compat&#237;vel devem ser considerados de alto risco<sup>5</sup>. A identifica&#231;&#227;o de dois ou mais casos de morte s&#250;bita na fam&#237;lia enseja a possibilidade de tratar-se de muta&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas malignas e requerer genotipagem. Em qualquer faixa et&#225;ria, &#233; considerado fator de risco a presen&#231;a de morte s&#250;bita entre familiares em primeiro grau com idade inferior a 40-45 anos<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>S&#237;ncope </bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#201; fator predisponente principalmente em crian&#231;as e jovens, sobretudo se associada a outros preditores, desencadeada aos esfor&#231;os ou de car&#225;ter recorrente com m&#250;ltiplos epis&#243;dios no &#250;ltimo ano<sup>15</sup>. H&#225; forte intera&#231;&#227;o entre s&#237;ncope e hist&#243;ria familiar de morte s&#250;bita<sup>10</sup>. Em verifica&#231;&#227;o abrangendo pacientes ambulatoriais, foi identificada como &#250;nico fator de risco independente<sup>11</sup>. Apresenta origem complexa. Pode ser conseq&#252;ente a taquiarritmias ventriculares e supraventriculares ou bradiarritmias de car&#225;ter prim&#225;rio ou secund&#225;rio &#224; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE, dist&#250;rbio auton&#244;mico ou obstru&#231;&#227;o de via de sa&#237;da<sup>44</sup>. A contribui&#231;&#227;o de cada um desses fatores &#233; vari&#225;vel caso a caso. A presen&#231;a do sintoma &#233; crit&#233;rio para realiza&#231;&#227;o de Holter e teste ergom&#233;trico, com o objetivo de avaliar a presen&#231;a de resposta anormal da press&#227;o arterial ao exerc&#237;cio ou arritmias predisponentes<sup>44</sup>. S&#237;ncope associada &#224; hipertrofia ventricular esquerda maci&#231;a requer profilaxia, principalmente no jovem<sup>43,44</sup>. Em adultos, n&#227;o seria necessariamente indicada<sup>43</sup>. Nas s&#237;ncopes de repeti&#231;&#227;o, a conduta deve ser individualizada de acordo com o mecanismo desencadeante.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora tenha sido destacada a rela&#231;&#227;o entre taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada e morte s&#250;bita, a sua valoriza&#231;&#227;o como preditor de risco &#233; considerada discut&#237;vel. A associa&#231;&#227;o entre ambas foi estabelecida preliminarmente em estudos contempor&#226;neos gerados em centros de refer&#234;ncia<sup>45,46</sup>. A an&#225;lise conjunta dos respectivos dados demonstrou reduzido valor preditivo positivo e elevado valor preditivo negativo. Investiga&#231;&#227;o subseq&#252;ente de car&#225;ter retrospectivo identificou que assintom&#225;ticos ou oligossintom&#225;ticos com epis&#243;dios breves e infreq&#252;entes de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada no Holter apresentam evolu&#231;&#227;o favor&#225;vel, com mortalidade anual inferior a 1,5%<sup>47</sup>. Esse estudo, como outro<sup>10</sup>, n&#227;o permitiu comprovar a associa&#231;&#227;o com morte s&#250;bita. Avalia&#231;&#227;o posterior, tamb&#233;m abrangendo popula&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial, revelou taxas de morte s&#250;bita semelhantes entre indiv&#237;duos com e sem registro de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada<sup>11</sup>. A discord&#226;ncia entre os estudos &#233; atribu&#237;da a fatores como o grau de sele&#231;&#227;o e a idade m&#233;dia dos casos avaliados. Os pacientes que apresentam essa arritmia formam grupo com caracter&#237;sticas eletrofisiol&#243;gicas heterog&#234;neas que, em alguns casos, se aproximam do normal e, em outros, se assemelham &#224;queles com hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria<sup>48</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em estudo recente, foi demonstrado que a associa&#231;&#227;o de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada e morte s&#250;bita &#233; particularmente marcante antes dos trinta anos, independente da respectiva freq&#252;&#234;ncia ou dura&#231;&#227;o<sup>49</sup>. Nesse grupo et&#225;rio denota alto potencial pr&#243;-arr&#237;tmico, relacionado a fatores como desarranjo miofibrilar ou isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Arritmias ventriculares s&#227;o raras na inf&#226;ncia, adolesc&#234;ncia e em adultos jovens, mas quando presentes, revelam valor preditivo positivo mais elevado<sup>17</sup>. Ou seja, caso evidenciadas, podem ter car&#225;ter maligno e requerer medidas preventivas efetivas. Na maior parte dos casos de morte s&#250;bita entre jovens n&#227;o h&#225; registro pr&#233;vio de arritmias ventriculares<sup>43</sup>. Nesse grupo et&#225;rio, o Holter &#233; insuficiente para avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica, a qual deve incluir a aferi&#231;&#227;o de outros preditores. J&#225; entre adultos, o registro de taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada &#233; mais freq&#252;ente, mas tem reduzido valor preditivo positivo<sup>17</sup>. Nesses casos, quando fator de risco isolado, acarretaria discreto incremento na incid&#234;ncia de morte s&#250;bita<sup>43</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estima-se que 20% a 30% dos adultos portadores de CMH apresentam taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada e que esta seria registrada em 30% daqueles considerados de alto risco<sup>50</sup>. Quando espor&#225;dica e fugaz, tem natureza benigna e n&#227;o costuma produzir sintomas. O risco eleva-se nos casos com epis&#243;dios freq&#252;entes, repetitivos e mais prolongados, embora dados objetivos a respeito sejam limitados. A presen&#231;a de cinco ou mais per&#237;odos de no m&#237;nimo dez batimentos no Holter de 24 ou 48 horas foi aleatoriamente sugerida como compat&#237;vel com maior propens&#227;o &#224; morte s&#250;bita<sup>44</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resposta anormal da press&#227;o arterial ao exerc&#237;cio em ortostatismo </bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#201; traduzida pela incapacidade em elevar a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica em 20-25 mmHg ou mais, ou, ainda, por hipotens&#227;o com decr&#233;scimo <underline>&gt;</underline> 15 mmHg &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de teste ergom&#233;trico, durante o esfor&#231;o ou na fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o<sup>51,52</sup>. Associa-se &#224; morte s&#250;bita especialmente em indiv&#237;duos com menos de cinq&#252;enta anos<sup>52</sup>. Cerca de 30% dos pacientes evidenciam essa anormalidade<sup>43</sup>. Entre jovens, apresenta reduzido valor preditivo positivo e elevado valor preditivo negativo<sup>51,52</sup>. Desenvolve-se por vasodilata&#231;&#227;o inapropriada dos vasos da musculatura esquel&#233;tica n&#227;o-exercitada, associada &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o de barorreceptores por estresse parietal ou isquemia<sup>51,52</sup>. A falta de vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o ou a dilata&#231;&#227;o patol&#243;gica dos vasos de capacit&#226;ncia contribui para gerar anormalidades da press&#227;o arterial durante ou imediatamente ap&#243;s exerc&#237;cio f&#237;sico em ortostatismo. O mecanismo seria semelhante ao da s&#237;ncope neurocardiog&#234;nica, a qual, em normais, n&#227;o contribui para o desenvolvimento de morte s&#250;bita pela aus&#234;ncia de substrato eletrofisiol&#243;gico an&#244;malo. Esse dist&#250;rbio produz na CMH colapso hemodin&#226;mico seguido por isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, a qual intermediaria o desenvolvimento de arritmias ventriculares fatais. &#201; mais freq&#252;ente entre pacientes com hist&#243;ria familiar de morte s&#250;bita e em portadores de ventr&#237;culos de pequena dimens&#227;o<sup>53</sup>. Quando anormalidade isolada, n&#227;o acompanhada de outros marcadores de risco, n&#227;o requer profilaxia<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Hipertrofia ventricular esquerda maci&#231;a </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas do VE <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm s&#227;o caracter&#237;sticas do jovem, n&#227;o sendo em regra identific&#225;veis ap&#243;s cinq&#252;enta anos<sup>8</sup>. O remodelamento progressivo da c&#226;mara relacionado &#224; idade ou a morte s&#250;bita precoce de seus portadores poderia justificar esses achados. A associa&#231;&#227;o entre a magnitude da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda determinada pelo ecocardiograma e mortalidade foi identificada preliminarmente em estudo conduzido em popula&#231;&#227;o selecionada, ainda que com reduzido valor preditivo positivo<sup>53</sup>. Os resultados foram confirmados em investiga&#231;&#227;o subseq&#252;ente, na qual o grau de hipertrofia demonstrou ser forte e independente marcador de progn&#243;stico<sup>54</sup>. Nessa an&#225;lise, o risco anual de morte s&#250;bita oscilou de 0/1.000 em pacientes com espessuras parietais do VE entre 10 e 15 mm a 18,2/1.000 naqueles com medidas <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm. Resultados concordantes foram evidenciados em estudos contempor&#226;neos originados em institui&#231;&#227;o distinta<sup>10,55</sup>. Todavia, em investiga&#231;&#227;o posterior, em que pacientes agrupados de acordo com o grau de hipertrofia foram seguidos por um per&#237;odo m&#233;dio de doze anos, n&#227;o foi constatada rela&#231;&#227;o entre espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas do VE e mortalidade cardiovascular<sup>56</sup>.</p>
    <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre morte s&#250;bita e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda maci&#231;a tem embasamento gen&#233;tico, visto ser caracter&#237;stica predominante das muta&#231;&#245;es da cadeia pesada da b-miosina card&#237;aca. Os casos, em que h&#225; rela&#231;&#227;o com o gene da troponina T, representam contraponto a essa concep&#231;&#227;o. O risco de morte s&#250;bita ou de ativa&#231;&#227;o do cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico implant&#225;vel mostra-se muito mais influenciado pelo n&#250;mero de fatores predisponentes associados do que pela magnitude da hipertrofia isoladamente. Entre os portadores de espessuras m&#225;ximas do VE <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm, morte s&#250;bita atingiria em cinco anos apenas 5% daqueles sem outros predisponentes, contra 34% dos indiv&#237;duos com tr&#234;s ou mais preditores de risco adicionais<sup>55</sup>.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o est&#225; ainda plenamente esclarecido se a presen&#231;a de hipertrofia maci&#231;a do VE implica em profilaxia de morte s&#250;bita. Entre os muitos jovens, o risco seria mais elevado, de modo a justificar o implante de cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico<sup>54,56</sup>. Nos demais, teria menor acur&#225;cia preditiva, j&#225; que a maioria dos que morrem subitamente tem medidas inferiores a 30 mm<sup>54,55</sup>.</p>
    <p>Considerando o elevado valor preditivo negativo dos fatores de risco, o subgrupo considerado menos suscet&#237;vel &#224; morte s&#250;bita &#233; formado pelos indiv&#237;duos adultos, assintom&#225;ticos ou com sintomas de grau leve, em classe funcional NYHA I/II, que apresentam aus&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria familiar compat&#237;vel, s&#237;ncope, taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada no Holter e resposta anormal da press&#227;o arterial ao exerc&#237;cio e exibem gradiente press&#243;rico <underline>&lt;</underline> 30 mmHg, espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas do VE <underline>&lt;</underline> 20 mm e di&#226;metro atrial esquerdo <underline>&lt;</underline> 45 mm<sup>14</sup>. Esses representam a maioria dos pacientes atendidos fora dos centros de refer&#234;ncia e evidenciam risco de morte s&#250;bita inferior a 1% ao ano<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>O risco eleva-se quanto maior o n&#250;mero de fatores associados. Considerando apenas hist&#243;ria familiar de morte s&#250;bita, resposta anormal da press&#227;o arterial ao exerc&#237;cio, taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda maci&#231;a, a presen&#231;a de dois ou mais indicadores condiciona maior risco anual, com taxas de mortalidade superiores a 3%<sup>10</sup>. Em indiv&#237;duos com um s&#243; marcador, o valor preditivo positivo &#233; de apenas 20% e a incid&#234;ncia anual de morte s&#250;bita &#233; de 1% a 1,5%<sup>10</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outros elementos podem contribuir para o desenvolvimento de morte s&#250;bita na CMH. N&#227;o representam isoladamente marcadores independentes de progn&#243;stico. Atuam como fatores coadjuvantes. Isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial parox&#237;stica, doen&#231;a oculta do sistema de condu&#231;&#227;o, via acess&#243;ria e estimula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica agem desse modo<sup>17</sup>. Em pacientes com perfil de alto risco &#233; fundamental &#224; sua identifica&#231;&#227;o, embora na maioria desses estejam ausentes<sup>48</sup>. O grau de toler&#226;ncia individual &#233; tamb&#233;m vari&#225;vel. A avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica desses fatores &#233; complexa e somente em 30% dos pacientes esses seriam abord&#225;veis com a terap&#234;utica dispon&#237;vel (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr02">quadro 2</xref>)<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="qdr02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0391-00024-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>A isquemia mioc&#225;rdica &#233; dif&#237;cil de ser demonstrada, pois as respectivas altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas e cintilogr&#225;ficas podem expressar apenas a presen&#231;a de hipertrofia. Em estudo baseado em tomografia com emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons, a avalia&#231;&#227;o do fluxo coronariano em repouso e ap&#243;s dipiridamol demonstrou valores mais reduzidos com estresse farmacol&#243;gico em portadores de CMH em rela&#231;&#227;o a controles<sup>19</sup>. A resposta ao dipiridamol poderia ser &#250;til para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita, embora o valor preditivo positivo seja tamb&#233;m reduzido.</p>
    <p>Arritmias supraventriculares podem, ao induzirem o aumento do consumo de oxig&#234;nio pelo mioc&#225;rdio, predispor &#224; fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>14,17</sup>. Guardam rela&#231;&#227;o com a presen&#231;a de fibrose e dilata&#231;&#227;o atrial esquerda, ambas conseq&#252;entes &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica do VE. </p>
    <p>A obstru&#231;&#227;o da via de sa&#237;da do VE &#233; o &#250;nico fator cl&#237;nico remov&#237;vel. Pode contribuir para o desenvolvimento de isquemia e a g&#234;nese de arritmias fatais. Pelo seu car&#225;ter din&#226;mico, apresenta tend&#234;ncia a regredir com o avan&#231;ar da idade. Pode representar fator de risco em potencial, pois haveria maior mortalidade na vig&#234;ncia de gradientes press&#243;ricos <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mmHg<sup>57</sup>. Entre indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos ou com sintomas leves, constituiria importante preditor de mortalidade, fato n&#227;o observado entre pacientes com grave limita&#231;&#227;o funcional<sup>58</sup>. Procedimentos como miectomia, implante de marcapasso de dupla-c&#226;mara e abla&#231;&#227;o septal n&#227;o modificariam as taxas de mortalidade.</p>
    <p>O estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico com estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular programada tem se mostrado de pouca valia na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita na CMH. Embora tenha sido observada alguma rela&#231;&#227;o entre indutibilidade e progn&#243;stico, a acur&#225;cia preditiva &#233; discut&#237;vel<sup>8,14</sup>. Regimes que utilizam tr&#234;s extra-est&#237;mulos prematuros excepcionalmente induzem taquicardia ventricular monom&#243;rfica, mas desencadeiam taquicardia ventricular polim&#243;rfica em cerca de 40% dos casos e degeneram em fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular em 50% desses<sup>44</sup>. A necessidade de pronta revers&#227;o dificulta a avalia&#231;&#227;o do car&#225;ter sustentado ou n&#227;o da arritmia. Ainda que esse tipo de resposta seja julgada pouco espec&#237;fica em outras formas de cardiopatia, torna-se complexo discernir se decorre na CMH de instabilidade el&#233;trica e hemodin&#226;mica ou &#233; apenas resultante de eletroestimula&#231;&#227;o excessiva em ventr&#237;culos hipertr&#243;ficos que n&#227;o toleram freq&#252;&#234;ncias elevadas. O valor preditivo positivo &#233; reduzido, ocorrendo indu&#231;&#227;o de arritmias mesmo em pacientes de baixo risco. O eletrocardiograma de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o, assim como a an&#225;lise da dispers&#227;o do intervalo QT e da variabilidade da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, identificam anomalias, as quais tem baixa acur&#225;cia preditiva<sup>17</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>PREVEN&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A administra&#231;&#227;o de agentes betabloqueadores e verapamil com o objetivo de propiciar o controle de sintomas n&#227;o evidencia nenhum efeito preventivo em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; morte s&#250;bita. A amiodarona em doses reduzidas, iguais ou inferiores a 300 mg/dia, associa-se &#224; melhora da sobrevida<sup>14</sup>. Exige cuidadosa monitoriza&#231;&#227;o, particularmente em jovens, os quais necessitam prolongado per&#237;odo de administra&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Para aqueles em que o risco &#233; considerado elevado, o implante de cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico mostra-se efetivo, proporcionando absoluta prote&#231;&#227;o e capacidade de alterar favoravelmente a hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a. A sua efic&#225;cia foi testada em estudo multic&#234;ntrico, retrospectivo, n&#227;o-randomizado, em que foram avaliados pacientes com perfil de alto risco<sup>16</sup>. Num per&#237;odo m&#233;dio de seguimento de tr&#234;s anos, 23% dos desfibriladores foram ativados apropriadamente, com freq&#252;&#234;ncia de 7% ao ano. As taxas de interven&#231;&#227;o atingiram 5% e 11% de descargas anuais, respectivamente, nas modalidades de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria. O intervalo de tempo entre o implante e a primeira interven&#231;&#227;o foi vari&#225;vel e, em 21%, oscilou de quatro a nove anos. Os resultados demonstram que o custo e o risco s&#227;o superados pelo n&#250;mero de vidas salvas. Individualmente, &#233; imprevis&#237;vel o intervalo de tempo at&#233; a primeira ativa&#231;&#227;o, pois o cardioversor-desfibrilador pode permanecer inativo por muitos anos.</p>
    <p>O estudo d&#225; sustenta&#231;&#227;o para que o implante de cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico seja recomendado pela sua efic&#225;cia, tanto para fins de preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, como prim&#225;ria, essa &#250;ltima apenas em casos selecionados. Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, as informa&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis podem n&#227;o ser ainda definitivas.</p>
    <p>Os crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos utilizados para indica&#231;&#227;o de cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico na CMH t&#234;m ainda base emp&#237;rica e minimizam a heterogeneidade gen&#233;tica. Estudos observacionais atestam a efic&#225;cia tanto do cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico como da amiodarona, mas o &#237;ndice de falha parece ser menor com o primeiro<sup>15,16</sup>. H&#225; dificuldade em planejar estudo que avalie comparativamente as duas condutas, em raz&#227;o da baixa taxa de eventos a longo prazo e do prolongado per&#237;odo sem interven&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>O implante de cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico na CMH &#233; indica&#231;&#227;o classe I para preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria e classe IIB para preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, de acordo com as diretrizes da AHA/ACC/NASPE<sup>59</sup>. A despeito de sua efetividade, apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es pelo seu alto custo e descargas indevidas. Constitui indica&#231;&#227;o indiscut&#237;vel em pacientes com parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria pr&#233;via ou taquicardia ventricular sustentada espont&#226;nea<sup>8,14</sup>. Para fins de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria, a presen&#231;a de dois ou mais fatores de risco implica em igual conduta em jovens e adultos, visto que a mortalidade nas situa&#231;&#245;es descritas oscila entre 3% e 6% ao ano<sup>14,17,21</sup>. N&#227;o h&#225; ainda verdadeiro consenso quanto aos portadores de um s&#243; fator de risco. A recomenda&#231;&#227;o &#233; de que as decis&#245;es sejam pautadas pela avalia&#231;&#227;o individual de cada paciente, considerando idade e natureza do fator predisponente<sup>14</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr03">quadro 3</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="qdr03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0391-00024-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>A preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de morte s&#250;bita por meio de cardioversor-desfibrilador autom&#225;tico implant&#225;vel &#233; menos aceita em faixa et&#225;ria precoce. Em crian&#231;as, h&#225; relut&#226;ncia em preconiz&#225;-lo, pelo n&#250;mero de complica&#231;&#245;es impostas pelo crescimento e, na adolesc&#234;ncia, pelas implica&#231;&#245;es de ordem psicol&#243;gica. Nessas condi&#231;&#245;es, tem sido sugerido o uso de amiodarona como ponte para o cardioversor-desfibrilador<sup>14, 43</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes sem fatores de risco, importante segmento da popula&#231;&#227;o portadora de CMH, costumam apresentar evolu&#231;&#227;o favor&#225;vel e melhor progn&#243;stico e n&#227;o necessitam habitualmente medidas terap&#234;uticas mais agressivas. Nesses casos, as atividades recreacionais e laborais exigem m&#237;nima restri&#231;&#227;o, embora seja indicado o afastamento da pr&#225;tica de modalidades desportivas de car&#225;ter intensivo ou competitivo<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Conclui-se que a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco para morte s&#250;bita apresenta vital import&#226;ncia na CMH, por constituir esta a principal forma de &#243;bito numa doen&#231;a, que acomete, entre outros, jovens e atletas e v&#237;tima n&#227;o raro indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio. O substrato molecular heterog&#234;neo associado &#224; grande diversidade fenot&#237;pica limita a aplica&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica do diagn&#243;stico laboratorial gen&#233;tico, com vistas &#224; identifica&#231;&#227;o de muta&#231;&#245;es malignas. A marcada varia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e a complexidade dos mecanismos determinantes de morte s&#250;bita dificultam a individualiza&#231;&#227;o de preditores de risco. Embora, o conhecimento a respeito tenha evolu&#237;do substancialmente desde a descri&#231;&#227;o inicial da doen&#231;a, considera-se ainda n&#227;o ser poss&#237;vel a identifica&#231;&#227;o de todos os pacientes suscet&#237;veis. Os preditores mostram-se &#250;teis, pois a institui&#231;&#227;o de medidas terap&#234;uticas efetivas favorece a evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e o progn&#243;stico.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>REFER&#202;NCIAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Teare D. Assymmetrical hypertrophy of the heart. Br Heart J. 1958; 20:1-8.</p>
    <p>2. Brock R. Functional obstruction of left ventricle (acquired subvalvular aortic stenosis). Guy&#146;s Hosp Rep. 1957; 106: 221-38.</p>
    <p>3. Maron BJ, Gottdiener JS, Epstein SE, et al. Patterns and significance of left ventricular hypertrophy in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a wide range two-dimentional echocardiographic study of 125 patients. Am J Cardiol. 1981; 48: 418-28.</p>
    <p>4. Wigle D, Sasson Z, Handerson MA, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: the importance of the site and the extent of hypertrophy. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1985; 28: 1-83.</p>
    <p>5. McKenna WJ, Deanfield J, Faruqui A, England D, Oakley C, Goodwin JF. Prognosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: role of age, clinical, eletrocardiographic and hemodynamic features. Am J Cardiol. 1981; 47: 532-8.</p>
    <p>6. Maron BJ, Bonow RO, Cannon RO, Leon MB, Epstein SE. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: interrelation of clinical manifestations, pathophysiology and therapy. N Engl J M&#233;d. 1987; 316: 780-9, 844-52.</p>
    <p>7. Spirito P, Chiarella F, Carratino L, Zoni-Berisso M, Belloti P, Vecchio C. Clinical course and prognosis of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in outpatient population. N Engl J Med. 1989; 320: 749-55.</p>
    <p>8. Maron BJ. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. A sistematic review. JAMA. 2002; 287: 1308-20.</p>
    <p>9. McKenna WJ, Spirito P. Desnos M, Dubourg O, Komadja M. Experience from clinical genetics in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: proposal for new diagnostic criteria in adults members of affected families. Heart. 1997; 77: 130-2.</p>
    <p>10. Elliott PM, Poloniecki J, Dickie S, et al. Sudden death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: identification of high-risk patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2000; 36: 2212-8.</p>
    <p>11. Kofflard MJM, Folkert JTC, Lee C, Dombourg RT. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in a large community based population: clinical outcome and identification of risk factors for sudden cardiac death and clinical deterioration. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 987-93.</p>
    <p>12. Arteaga E, Ianni BM, Fernandes F, Mady C. Benign outcome in a longterm follow-up of patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy in Brazil. Am Heart J. 2005; 149: 1099-105. </p>
    <p>13. Moolman J, Corfield VA, Posen B, et al. Sudden death due to troponin T mutations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1997; 23: 549-55.</p>
    <p>14. Maron BJ, McKenna WJ, Danielson G, et al. ACC/ESC clinical expert consensus document on hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Eur Heart J. 2003; 21: 1965-90.</p>
    <p>15. Elliott PM, Sharma S, Varnava A, Poloniecki J, Rowland E, McKenna WJ. Survival after cardiac arrest or sustained ventricular tachycardia in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999; 33: 1596-601.</p>
    <p>16. Maron BJ, Shen WK, Link MS, et al. Efficacy of implantable cardioverter-defibrillators for the prevention of sudden death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 365-73.</p>
    <p>17. McKenna WJ, Behr ER. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: management, risk stratification and prevention of sudden death. Heart. 2002; 87: 169-76.</p>
    <p>18. Janse MJ, De Bakker JMT. Arrhythmia substrate and management in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: from molecules to implantable cardioverter-defibrillator. Eur Heart J. 2001; 3 (Suppl L): L15-L20.</p>
    <p>19. Cecchi F, Olivotto I, Gistri R, Lorenzoni R, Chiriatti G, Camici PG. Coronary microvascular dysfunction and prognosis in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2003; 349: 1027-35.</p>
    <p>20. Varnava AM, Elliott PM, Baboonian C, Davison F, Davies MJ, McKenna WJ. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Histopathological features of sudden death in cardiac troponin T disease. Circulation. 2001; 104: 1380-4. </p>
    <p>21. Marian AJ. On predictors of sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 994-5.</p>
    <p>22. Seidman JG, Seidman C. The genetic basis for cardiomyopathy: from mutation identification to mechanistic paradigms. Cell. 2001; 104: 557-67.</p>
    <p>23. Mattos BP. Bases gen&#233;ticas da cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2002; 78: 323-31.</p>
    <p>24. Maron BJ, Seidman JG, Seidman CE. Proposal for contemporary screening strategies in families with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 44: 2125-32.</p>
    <p>25. Murphy RT, Mogensen J, McGarry K et al. Adenosine-monophosphate-activated protein kinase disease mimicks hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005; 45: 922-30. </p>
    <p>26. Watkins H. Genetic clues to disease pathways in hypertrophic and dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 2003; 107: 1344-6.</p>
    <p>27. Arad M, Seidman JG, Seidman CE. Phenotypic diversity in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Hum Mol Gen. 2002; 11: 2499-506.</p>
    <p>28. Marian AJ. On genetic and phenotypic variability of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: nature versus nurture. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 331-4.</p>
    <p>29. Richard P, Charron P, Carrier L, et al. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Distribution of diseases genes, spectrum of mutations, and implications for a molecular diagnosis strategy. Circulation. 2003; 107: 2227-32.</p>
    <p>30. Marian AJ. Modifier genes in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Curr Op Cardiol. 2002; 17: 242-52.</p>
    <p>31. Marian AJ, Roberts R. To screen or not is not the question - it is when and how to screen. Circulation. 2003; 107: 2171-4.</p>
    <p>32. Watkins H, Rosenzweig A, Hwang DS, et al. Characteristics and prognostics of myosin missense mutations in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 1992; 326: 1108-14.</p>
    <p>33. Van Driest SL, Jeager MA, Ommen SR, et al. Compreheensive analysis of the beta myosin heavy chain gene in 389 unrelated patients with hypertrophy cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 44: 602-10.</p>
    <p>34. Tirone AP, Arteaga E, Pereira AC, et al. Pesquisa de marcadores para os genes da cadeia pesada da b miosina card&#237;aca e da prote&#237;na C de liga&#231;&#227;o &#224; miosina em familiares de pacientes com cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2005; 84: 467-72.</p>
    <p>35. Ackerman MJ, Van Driest SL, Ommen SR, et al. Prevalence and age-dependence of the beta-myosin heavy chain and troponin T genes in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2002; 39: 2042-8.</p>
    <p>36. Niimura H, Bachinski L, Sangwatanaroj S, et al. Mutations in the gene for cardiac myosin-binding protein C and late onset familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 1998; 338: 1248-57.</p>
    <p>37. Maron BJ, Niimura H, Casey SA, et al. Development of left ventricular hypertrophy in adults with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy caused by cardiac myosin &#150; binding protein C gene mutations. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 315-21.</p>
    <p>38. Erdmann J, Raible J, Abadi JM, et al. Spectrum of clinical phenotypes and gene variants in cardiac myosin-binding protein C mutation carriers with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 322-30.</p>
    <p>39. Watkins H, McKenna WJ, Thierfelder L, et al. Mutations in the genes for cardiac troponin T and alpha-tropomyosin in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 1995; 332: 1058-64.</p>
    <p>40. Jongbloed RJ, Marcelis CL, Doevendans PA, et al. Variable clinical manifestation of a novel missense mutation in the alpha-tropomyosin gene in familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 981-6.</p>
    <p>41. Mogensen J, Murphy RT, Kubo T, et al. Frequency and clinical expression of cardiac troponin I mutations in 748 consecutives families with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 44: 2315-25.</p>
    <p>42. MacRea CA, Ellinor PT. Genetic screening and risk assessment in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004; 44: 2326-8.</p>
    <p>43. McKenna WJ, Sharma S, Elliott PM. Management strategies in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: influence of age and morphology. Eur Heart J. 2001; 3(Supl L): L10-L14.</p>
    <p>44. Spirito P, Seidman CE, McKenna WJ, Maron BJ. The management of hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 1997; 336: 775-85.</p>
    <p>45. Maron BJ, Savage DD, Wolfson J, Epstein SE. Prognostic significance of 24 hour ambulatory electrocardiography monitoring in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol. 1981; 48: 252-7.</p>
    <p>46. McKenna WJ, England D, Doi YL, Deanfield JE, Oackley C, Goodwin JF. Arrhythmia in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Influence on prognosis. Br Heart J. 1981; 46: 168-72.</p>
    <p>47. Spirito P, Rapezzi C, Autore C, et al. Prognosis of asymptomatic patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy and nonsustained ventricular tachycardia. Circulation. 1994; 90: 2743-7.</p>
    <p>48. McKenna WJ, Sadoul N, Slade AKB, Saumarez RC. The prognostic significance of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 1994; 90: 3115-7.</p>
    <p>49. Montserrat L, Elliott PM, Gimeno JR, Sharma S, Penas-Lado M, McKenna WJ. Non-sustained ventricular tachycardia in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: an independent marker of sudden death risk in young patients. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 42: 873-9.</p>
    <p>50. Adabag AS, Casey SA, Kuskowski MA, Zenovich AG, Maron BJ. Spectrum and prognostic significance of arrhythmias on ambulatory Holter electrocardiogram in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Am Coll Cardiol. 2005; 5: 697-704.</p>
    <p>51. Sadoul N, Prasad J, Elliott PM, Bannerjee S, Frenneaux MP, McKenna WJ. Prospective prognostic assessment of blood pressure response during exercise in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Circulation. 1997; 96: 2987-91.</p>
    <p>52. Olivotto I, Maron BJ, Montereggi A, et al. Prospective diagnostic value of systemic blood pressure response during exercise in a community-based patient population with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999; 33: 2044-51.</p>
    <p>53. Spirito P, Maron BJ. Relation between extent of left ventricular hypertrophy and accurrence of sudden cardiac death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J. Am Coll Cardiol. 1990; 15: 1521-6.</p>
    <p>54. Spirito P, Bellone P, Harris KM, Bernabo P. Bruzzi P, Maron BJ. Magnitude of left ventricular hypertrophy and risk of sudden death in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2000; 342: 1778-85.</p>
    <p>55. Elliott PM, Blanes JRG, Mahon NG, Poloniecki JD. McKenna WJ. Relation between severity of left ventricular hypertrophy and prognosis in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Lancet. 2001; 357: 420-4.</p>
    <p>56. Olivotto I, Gistri R, Petrone P, Pedemonte E, Vargiu D, Cecchi F. Maximum left ventricular thickness and risk of sudden death in patients with hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2003; 41: 315-21.</p>
    <p>57. Maron MS, Olivotto I, Betocchi S, et al. Effect of left ventricular outflow tract obstruction on clinical outcome in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med. 2003; 348: 295-303. </p>
    <p>58. Autore C, Bernabo P, Barilla CS, Bruzzi P, Spirito P. The prognostic importance of left ventricular outflow obstruction in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy varies in relation to the severity of symptoms. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2005; 45: 1076-80.</p>
    <p>59. Gregoratos G, Abrams J, Epstein AE, et al. ACC/AHA/NASPE 2002 guideline update for implantation of cardiac pacemakers and anti-arrhythmia devices. Summary article: a report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines. Circulation. 2002; 106: 2145-61.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Beatriz Piva e Mattos </p>
        <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350 &#150; S/2060 </p>
        <p> 90035-903 &#150; Porto Alegre, RS </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="bpmattos@cardiol.br">bpmattos@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 09/6/05 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 30/9/05</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Sudden death risk stratification in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: genetic and clinical bases</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Sudden death risk stratification in hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: genetic and clinical bases</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Beatriz Piva e Mattos</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre, Faculdade de Medicina da UFRGS - Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>Following the initial reports of Teare<sup>1 </sup>and Brock<sup>2</sup>, a growing number of publications on hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM) have been generated each year reflecting the exponential progress in the understanding of this extremely complex clinical entity.</p>
      <p>HCM presents as left ventricular hypertrophy associated with myofibril disarray and interstitial fibrosis, factors that cause diastolic dysfunction, myocardial ischemia and arrhythmias. The preliminary diagnosis, based on the clinical detection of forms with left ventricular outflow tract obstruction, evolved, with the advent of M-mode and two-dimensional echocardiography, to the identification of marked hypertrophy in the interventricular septum<sup>3</sup>, a trait that was initially highlighted by Teare<sup>1</sup>. Subsequent studies have demonstrated the heterogeneity of the disease for both the extent of hypertrophy<sup>4</sup> and the clinical presentation, evolution and prognosis<sup>5-7</sup>. The introduction of molecular genetics during the past decade provided a new paradigm for the diagnosis of HCM, offering a better understanding of the pathogenetic mechanisms involved as well as the individualization of distinct anatomic and functional risk patterns.</p>
      <p>HCM is the most common form of genetic cardiovascular disease and is responsible for one case in every 500 individuals<sup>8</sup>. It is characterized by the great variation of phenotypes. The echocardiogram demonstrates various degrees of the severity of left ventricle hypertrophy<sup>8</sup>. The absence of hypertrophy in 20% of the adults who have inherited the disease demonstrates that it can manifest with an incomplete phenotypic expression<sup>9</sup>. These individuals are also susceptible to develop complications such as arrhythmias and sudden death that confirms the importance of a diagnosis in the pre-clinical stage.</p>
      <p>HCM is the main cause of sudden death in young people and athletes. This dramatic and unpredictable complication, affects individuals in any age group but is more prevalent in adolescents and young adults who often were never diagnosed with the disease and are asymptomatic<sup>5,10</sup>. The annual incidence of sudden death varies according to the selection criteria for the patients used in the studies and the clinical management methods. Data collected during the phase before the introduction of automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillators reveal numbers between 3% and 6% for children and adolescents<sup>5</sup>, and between 2% and 4% for adults<sup>5,6</sup>. The majority of the epidemiological information available was collected at the few referral centers whose patients had a higher incidence of sudden death in relation to populations with a lower degree of selection criteria in whom the disease could have a benign evolution and lower annual mortality rates of approximately 1%<sup>7,11,12</sup>.</p>
      <p>Sudden death affects those that present left ventricle hypertrophy or myofibril disarray with normal wall thicknesses<sup>8,13</sup>. It usually occurs without prodromes either during or immediately after physical exercise that is not necessarily strenuous. It is estimated that these conditions account for approximately 50% of the deaths<sup>8</sup>. Sudden death can occur at rest, in the morning when awakening or with minimal exertion. Since the risk is higher while practicing competitive sports, the benefit of an early diagnosis is of utmost importance so that this type of activity, even during adolescence, can be avoided<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Sudden death in HCM has an arrhythmogenic basis. Records obtained in patients with automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillators reveal that appropriate discharges are related to ventricular fibrillation that may or may not be associated with previous monomorphic ventricular tachycardia<sup>15,16</sup>. Other rhythm disorders can intervene in the development of fatal ventricular arrhythmias such as atrial fibrillation with rapid ventricular rates, supraventricular tachycardia with rapid atrioventricular conduction over an accessory pathway, sinus tachycardia and atrioventricular blocks<sup>17</sup>. In the presence of these conditions, sustained ventricular arrhythmia is a fatal event.</p>
      <p>Arrhythmias express the electrical instability of the myocardium and the presence of distorted electrophysiological transmission which is caused by myofibril disarray associated with interstitial fibrosis<sup>18</sup>. The characteristic histopathological substrate leaves the myocardium susceptible to factors that induce arrhythmogenesis. These factors may be intrinsic such as myocardial hypertrophy and outflow tract obstructions or extrinsic such as physical exercise. Left ventricular hypertrophy, in interfering with diastolic filling and constricting coronary circulation by increasing filling pressures, would facilitate the onset of ischemia. Outflow tract obstructions, abnormal peripheral vascular response to exercise and compromised microcirculation have a similar effect, since they alter coronary perfusion<sup>18,19</sup>. Although primary ventricular arrhythmias may exist, one of the main causal mechanisms is myocardial ischemia<sup>14,18</sup>. The consequent development of myocardial necrosis or reparative fibrosis can also cause reentrant arrhythmias<sup>18,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Risk stratification for sudden death in HCM is a fundamental issue of clinical importance considering that it accounts for 50% to 70% of the deaths associated with this disease<sup>10,21</sup>. The acknowledgment that automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillators are effective in primary and secondary sudden death prevention has motivated the investigation for criteria to identify high risk patients. The low mortality rates, even in referral centers, and the evaluation of a limited number of case studies has jeopardized the individualization of risk factors and their respective interaction.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>GENETIC BASES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Risk stratification criteria in HCM are difficult to define due to the clinical and genetic heterogeneity. The confirmation that sudden death often affects individuals without any known risk factors indicates that clinical evaluation may be insufficient to identify high risk situations. Patients with the same clinical profile from a genetic perspective could comprise a heterogenous population. The analysis of phenotype/genotype relations have enabled the discovery that genetic factors directly influence the development of sudden death and have a decisive role in risk stratification.</p>
      <p>HCM is essentially a genetic process. More than 250 mutations involving eleven distinct genes have been identified so far<sup>22-24</sup>. Through the detection of mutations in sarcomere proteins it was possible to determine that the disease is caused by disorders that directly affect the generation or regulation of contractile energy. Recently, other proteins not related to sarcomeres such as the AMP-activated protein kinase, have been reported in the development of similar phenotypes<sup>25</sup>. Histopathological analysis of forms not related to sarcomeres with pseudohypertrophy invariably reveal the absence of myofibril disarray and the presence of vacuoles containing glycogen<sup>26</sup>. These situations must be differentiated from true HCM in which there is no indication of infiltration or storage processes. The clinical management and risk stratification analyzed in this paper relates to HCM caused by sarcomere disease and does not include genetic processes from other origins.</p>
      <p>The phenotype is determined by the mutant gene, but there is great clinical variation between and within families<sup>22</sup>. Phenotypic expression is influenced by environmental factors, the action of modifier genes and by the fact that it incides on a surprising number of heterozygote individuals composed of multiple mutations within the same gene or in distinct genes<sup>24,27-29</sup>. Even though the modifier genes are not the cause of the disease, they determine the degree of hypertrophy and the propensity for sudden death<sup>30</sup>. The most important one is the insertion/deletion polymorphism of the angiotensin converting enzyme, which is related to severe hypertrophy and the tendency for sudden death. The DD genotype is more often found in high risk families<sup>30</sup>.</p>
      <p>The allelic heterogeneity in addition to the small number of families evaluated, that often have distinct mutations, complicate the analysis of phenotype/genotype relationships.<sup>29,31</sup> Clinical correlation studies have revealed differences between the genes that cause the disease in regard to penetration, age of onset, morphology and prognosis. As a result, it can be stated that HCM has eleven subforms, each with a distinct pathogenic and clinical picture. The identification of malignant mutations and others with favorable evolution is the basis of genetic molecular diagnosis in sudden death risk stratification. Nevertheless, the clinical profile of the various mutations has been determined in analyses conducted in referral centers with large concentrations of high risk patients. Even though the individualization of benign and malignant mutations offers a certain amount of homogeneity among the patients, consideration must be given to the fact that the clinical symptoms vary from individual to individual.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>GENES AND MUTATIONS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Among the various genes involved, those that codify the cardiac beta-myosin heavy chain, myosinbinding protein-C and troponin T are predominant and account for 60% to 70% of the cases<sup>28</sup>. The actual incidence of each gene needs to be verified in large scale epidemiological analyses. The others account for a minority of patients, corresponding to no more than 5% of the cases<sup>28,29</sup>. It is believed that most of the genes have been identified.</p>
      <p>Mutations of the cardiac beta-myosin heavy chain affect 15% to 35% of the people with HCM<sup>29,32-34</sup>. Most are distinct and designated as missense in which the substitution of a single DNA basis results in the replacement of the coded aminoacid<sup>32</sup>. Among the more than 100 mutations identified the individual incidence is reduced<sup>32,35</sup>. The majority are characterized by a high penetrance rate, severe hypertrophy and onset at a young age<sup>32,33,35</sup>. The susceptibility to sudden death is variable according to the mutation and is generally proportional to the degree of hypertrophy<sup>27</sup>. Those that are malignant correspond to roughly one third of the cases, present with accentuated hypertrophy, left ventricle outflow tract obstructions and premature sudden death before 35-40 years<sup>29,32</sup>. There is a great phenotypic variation between individuals and even among family members with the same mutation. Theclinical presentation form can be insufficient for risk stratification since early onset and a family history of sudden death have been observed in patients with either benign or malignant mutations<sup>33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Among the more than forty myosinbinding protein C mutations that have been mapped, the majority are "de novo" and exhibit low individual prevalence.<sup>28</sup> They are characterized by a low penetrance rate and late onset, usually after fifty years of age<sup>36,37</sup>. They usually present a benign evolution but sudden death has been reported in some families<sup>38</sup>. The increased mortality rate is related to age and the development of the left ventricular hypertrophy<sup>36,37</sup>. Many of the affected individuals demonstrate normal wall thicknesses on the echocardiogram and no electrocardiograph alterations. The usually favorable evolution can be justified by the fact that this protein does not participate directly in the contractile process<sup>28</sup>. Its clinical characteristics are incompatible with the principle that patients who genetically inherit the disease will invariably present the phenotype during adolescence. As a result, evaluations of affected families should include all individuals regardless of age. It is not known why the mutations present at birth manifest later.</p>
      <p>The troponin-T gene is involved in the development of the disease in 20% of the cases<sup>39</sup>. Left ventricle hypertrophy, which is usually minimal, could be absent in 25% of the patients evaluated with an echocardiogram<sup>39</sup>. The mutations of this gene are responsible for 15% to 30% of the cases of sudden death which is often associated with minimal left ventricular hypertrophy or normal wall thicknesses<sup>13,39</sup>. Although many patients may be asymptomatic the prognosis is similar to that of malignant cardiac beta-myosin heavy chain mutations. There is a relationship between sudden death and the presence of extensive myofibril disarray, with no myocardial thickening and a lower percentage of fibrosis<sup>20</sup>. This confirmation raises the hypothesis that myofibril disarray is an important arrhythmogenic substrate. One possibility that has been considered is that this process requires a greater energy requirement for the interaction between thick and thin filaments that induces myocardial ischemia<sup>20</sup>. Patients with mutations in other genes, victims of sudden death, usually paradoxically present a greater degree of fibrosis which favors the development of ectopic foci and consequently ventricular tachycardia<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Alpha-tropomyosin mutations have a low prevalence. These mutations are usually benign forms but there are reports of malignant mutations affecting young people with various degrees of left ventricular hypertrophy<sup>39,40</sup>. Gene impairments in the essential and regulatory myosin light chains are related to midventricular obstructions that may or may not be associated with skeletal myopathy<sup>22</sup>. Cardiac troponin-I mutations have no specific pattern and produce extremely heterogeneous phenotypes even among members of the same family. Sudden death is observed in the descendents of asymptomatic individuals with mutations<sup>41</sup>. The mutations of alpha-actin, troponin C and titanin have been described in a limited number of cases with variable phenotypic expressions.</p>
      <p>HCM results from distinct genetic disorders that directly or indirectly affect the sarcomeric structure and function. The mechanisms used by the mutations to generate the phenotypic expressions requires further investigation in order to introduce effective therapeutic measures during the early stages of the disease.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>GENETIC DIAGNOSIS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Laboratory DNA analysis is the most definite method for establishing the diagnosis of HCM. The major benefit of this analysis is the possible identification of patients before the pre-clinical stage of the disease. Even though the distinction between mutations with a favorable and unfavorable prognosis is not always sustainable, genotyping is the basis for risk stratification and the respective clinical management enabling the prevention of sudden death even among patients without heart disease symptoms. It is decisive in the evaluation of individuals from affected families, especially those in which sudden death was associated with borderline left ventricle wall thickness.</p>
      <p>Large scale laboratory genetic diagnosis application requires efficient techniques with an expressive cost/effectiveness ratio for a disease with great molecular diversity. However, due to the great complexity, time required and high cost it is restricted to a few centers and the assessment of a highly selected group of patients. The fact that there is no predominant mutation as well as the low individual frequency, especially for malignant forms, creates practical difficulties<sup>28</sup>. In the recent evaluations of case studies, 60% of the mutations had not yet been described<sup>29</sup>. This complicates genetic molecular diagnosis application as mapping of the entire gene sequence is required as opposed to that of only the known mutations. The possibility that two mutations could affect the same gene or distinct genes cannot be ignored and therefore the analysis should not be interrupted when the first genetic defect is mapped particularly in the case of severe phenotypes<sup>28,29</sup>. The mapping of just the four most prevalent genes involves the analysis of 15kb of DNA sequences, making routine evaluations difficult<sup>31</sup>. Mutations involving the known genes are detected in 50% to 80% of the cases<sup>31</sup>. The reason that mutant genes have not been individualized is due to the limitations of the methods used for indirect genetic diagnosis, the presence of mutations in sequences that have not been evaluated or the involvement of unknown genes<sup>29</sup>.</p>
      <p>The cost of genotyping is usually higher than the proportionate savings of liberating family members who are not affected by the disease. The development of automated tests with direct DNA sequencing would facilitate large scale mutation mapping and enable risk stratification strategies to be based on the molecular profile of each patient<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>In order for laboratory genetic analysis to define its role in sudden death risk stratification, detailed evaluations of the phenotype/genotype relationships must be conducted, particularly for individuals with the same genetic defect who are not related<sup>31,42</sup>. Another essential consideration is a better definition of the natural history of the known mutations based on the great variations between and within families. Likewise new phenotypes need to be identified. Molecular diagnosis is relevant in the pre-clinical stage of the disease, particularly if it discloses means to intervene in the presence of myocardial hypertrophy and the evolution to sudden death. The plurality of structural and functional disorders that affect the contractile proteins makes it difficult to introduce effective therapeutic measures. This is the objective of genotyping and even though the implementation is a challenging task, its contribution is unquestionable in the identification of high risk patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>CLINICAL BASES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Risk stratification based on clinical variables has not yet been completely systemized in HCM. Doubts remain regarding the individual predictive value of the risk markers and the natural history of the disease which are partially based on verifications from highly selected samples. Follow-up of patients with this disease revealed that only a small subset represent high risk. Approximately 55% of the patients do not present sudden death predictors even though 5% of them could develop this complication<sup>10,43</sup>. The presence of a single risk factor is observed in 20% of the cases<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>The task of identifying susceptible situations is difficult and complex due to the clinical heterogeneity. Sudden death can affect anyone with the disease although there is a higher correlation with younger age groups. Roughly 70% of the victims are younger than 35 and 40% are asymptomatic<sup>14</sup>. Since there are late onset forms, reaching adulthood does not guarantee immunity. The susceptibility with controlled phenotypes is also not eliminated since there is an association of certain genetic defects with sudden death even when the presence of hypertrophy is minimal or absent. Risk stratification should include all people with the disease and their first degree family members since the transmission by autosomal dominant inheritance makes 50% of the family members susceptible. The value of this for persons over sixty is questionable<sup>8,14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Prognostic evaluation using recognized clinical indicators is limited since no variables or diagnostic tests have demonstrated a sufficient level of accuracy to identify all susceptible patients<sup>44</sup>. The risk factors have low positive predictive values that range from 10% to 28%<sup>17</sup> based on the fact that even in referral centers, annual death rates do not exceed 3%<sup>29</sup>. These figures, obtained from select populations, could be a confirmation of the low prevalence of malignant mutations that was noted earlier<sup>35</sup>. Although restricted, therapeutic interventions in relation to sudden death predictors have demonstrated a favorable effect on clinical evolution and on the prognosis<sup>21</sup>.</p>
      <p>Risk stratification is sustained in the recognition of clinical elements that are able to express left ventricle morphology and the degree of electrical and hemodynamic instability. It can be implemented at the outpatient level and include a medical history, physical examination, electrocardiogram at rest, annual exercise stress test, 24 or 48-hour Holter monitoring and a Doppler echocardiogram<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>RISK FACTORS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Risk stratification is multifactorial. The following clinical indicators are associated with higher rates of sudden death (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr01-body2">chart 1</xref>):</p>
      <fig id="qdr01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0391-00024-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Prior cardiopulmonary arrest or spontaneous sustained ventricular tachycardia </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Resuscitation rates for patients who suffer a cardiopulmonary arrest are extremely low out of reference centers. A previous history of ventricular fibrillation or sustained ventricular tachycardia defines the clinical group with the highest risk for sudden death since the possibility to develop a new episode if adequate preventive measures are not taken are as high as 10% per year<sup>15,16</sup>. Clinical detection of sustained ventricular tachycardia is rare. When recorded, it can reveal an association with ischemic heart diseases or apical aneurisms, which could later develop into forms with of midventricular obstructions<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Family history of sudden death </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Only 10% to 25% of HCM patients have a family history of sudden death and only 5% have a family history of two or more cases.<sup>17</sup> Although the positive predictive value is low, young people with a compatible history should be considered as high risk individuals<sup>5</sup>. The identification of two or more cases of sudden death in the family indicates the possible presence of malignant genetic mutations which requires genotyping. A history of sudden death in first degree family members under the ages of 40 to 45 years is considered a risk factor for any age group<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Syncope </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Syncope is a risk factor mainly for children and young people especially if it is associated with other predictors; it is a result of exertion or has been recurrent with multiple episodes during the past year<sup>15</sup>. There is a strong interaction between syncope and a family history of sudden death<sup>10</sup>. Analysis based on an outpatient population identified syncope as the only independent risk factor<sup>11</sup>. The origin of syncope is complex. It can be a consequence of ventricular and supraventricular tachyarrhythmias or brady arrhythmias that are primary or secondary to myocardial ischemia, left ventricle diastolic dysfunction, autonomic disorders or outflow tract obstructions<sup>44</sup>. The contribution of each one of these factors varies from case to case. The presence of symptoms is the criterium used to perform Holter monitoring and an exercise stress test in order to evaluate the presence of abnormal blood pressure response to exercise or any incidental arrthymias<sup>44</sup>. Syncope associated with massive left ventricular hypertrophy requires prophylactic treatment, especially in young people<sup>43,44</sup>. In adults, it would not necessarily be indicated<sup>43</sup>. In repetitive syncope the therapy should be individual in accordance with the triggering mechanism.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nonsustained ventricular tachycardia </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although the relationship between nonsustained ventricular tachycardia and sudden death has been noted, its value as a risk predictor is considered questionable. The association between the two was established on a preliminary basis in contemporary studies conducted in referral centers<sup>45,46</sup>. The combined analysis of the respective data revealed a reduced positive predictive value and elevated negative predictive value. A subsequent retrospective investigation identified that patients with few or no symptoms who presented brief and infrequent episodes of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia during Holter monitoring presented a favorable evolution and mortality rates lower than 1.5% per year<sup>47</sup>. Neither of these studies<sup>10</sup> were able to prove the association with sudden death. A subsequent evaluation that was also comprised of outpatients revealed similar sudden death rates between individuals with and without records of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia<sup>11</sup>. The disagreement between the studies is attributed to factors such as the patient selection criteria and average age of the patients evaluated. The patients that presented this arrhythmia form a group with heterogeneous electrophysiological characteristics that in some cases are close to normal and in others are similar to those with a previous history of cardiopulmonary arrest<sup>48</sup>. </p>
      <p>In a recent study it was demonstrated that the association of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia and sudden death is particularly prominent before age thirty regardless of the respective duration or frequency<sup>49</sup>. In this age group, a high propensity for arrhythmias was noted in relation to factors such as myofibril disarray or myocardial ischemia. Children, adolescents and young adults rarely have ventricular arrhythmias but when they are present they reveal an elevated positive predictive value<sup>17</sup>. Or in other words, if they are detected they could be malignant and require effective preventative measures. In the majority of sudden death cases among young people there is no previous record of ventricular arrhythmias<sup>43</sup>. In this age group, Holter monitoring is insufficient for prognostic evaluation which should include comparisons with other predictors. Among adults, the record of nonsustained ventricular tachycardia is more frequent but has a lower positive predictive value<sup>17</sup>. In these cases, when it is an isolated risk factor it slightly increases the incidence of sudden death<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>It is estimated that 20% to 30% of the adults with HCM present nonsustained ventricular tachycardia and that it would be recorded in 30% of those considered high risk<sup>50</sup>. When sporadic and transient, it is benign and does not usually produce symptoms. The risk is higher in cases with frequent, repetitive and prolonged episodes although objective data on the subject are limited. The presence of five or more intervals of at least 10 beats during the 24 or 48-hour Holter monitoring was randomly suggested as an indication of a higher propensity for sudden death<sup>44</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Abnormal blood pressure response to exercise while standing upright </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Abnormal blood pressure in response to exercise while standing upright is defined as the inability to elevate systolic blood pressure by 20-25 mmHg or more, or by hypotension with a reduction <underline>&gt;</underline> 15 mmHg during the exertion or recuperation phases of the exercise stress test.<sup>51,52</sup> It is associated with sudden death especially in individuals under fifty years of age.<sup>52</sup> Evidence of this abnormality is present in roughly 30% of the patients.<sup>43</sup> Among young people it presents a reduced positive predictive value and an elevated negative predictive value.<sup>51,52</sup> It develops by inappropriate vasodilation of the unexercised skeletal muscle vessels and is associated with the stimulation of baroreceptors due to wall stress or ischemia.<sup>51,52</sup> The lack of pathological vasoconstriction or dilation of the capacitance vessels contributes to the generation of blood pressure abnormalities during or immediately following upright physical exercise. The mechanism would be similar to that of vasovagal syncope, which in healthy people does not contribute to the development of sudden death as there is no anomalous electrophysiological substrate. This disorder produces hemodynamic collapse in HCM followed by myocardial ischemia which leads to the development of fatal ventricular arrhythmias. This occurs more frequently in patients with a family history of sudden death and in patients with small ventricles<sup>53</sup>. When it is an isolated abnormality and not associated with other risk markers it does not require prophylactic treatment<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Massive left ventricular hypertrophy </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Maximum LV wall thickness <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm is characteristic of young people and is not usually applicable after age fifty<sup>8</sup>. The progressive remodeling of the heart chamber related to age or early sudden death could justify these findings. The association between the extent of left ventricular hypertrophy determined by the echocardiogram and mortality was identified on a preliminary basis in a study conducted on a select population but with a low positive predictive value<sup>53</sup>. The results were confirmed in a subsequent investigation in which the degree of hypertrophy was demonstrated as a reliable and independent prognosis marker<sup>54</sup>. In this analysis, the annual risk of sudden death varied from 0/1,000 in patients with left ventricle wall thicknesses between 10 and 15 mm to 18.2/1,000 in those with measurements <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm. Concurrent results were seen in contemporary studies conducted in a distinct institution<sup>10,55</sup>. However, a later study that grouped the patients according to degree of hypertrophy did not find any relation between maximum LV wall thickness and cardiovascular mortality during an average follow-up timeframe of twelve years<sup>56</sup>.</p>
      <p>The association between sudden death and massive left ventricular hypertrophy is based on genetics, since it is a predominant characteristic of the cardiac beta-myosin heavy chain mutations. The cases that are related to the troponin-T gene contradict this concept. The risk of sudden death or activation of the automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillator proved that the number of risk factors was much more influential than the extent of hypertrophy on its own. Among patients with maximum LV wall thickness <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mm, sudden death affects only 5% of those without other risk factors in comparison to 34% of the individuals with three or more additional risk predictors during a five year timeframe<sup>55</sup>.</p>
      <p>It has not been confirmed whether or not the presence of massive LV hypertrophy is indicative of prophylactic treatment for sudden death. In very young patients, the risk would be higher and justify the implantation of an automatic cardioverter defibrillator<sup>54,56</sup>. In the others, the predictive accuracy would be lower, since most of the patients who die suddenly have measurements less than 30 mm<sup>54,55</sup>.</p>
      <p>Considering the elevated negative predictive value of the risk factors, the subset of patients regarded as less susceptible to sudden death is made up of adults who are asymptomatic or have minor symptoms in the NYHA functional classes I/II, do not have a compatible family history, syncope, nonsustained ventricular tachycardia during Holter monitoring or abnormal blood pressure response during exercise and exhibit a pressure gradient <underline>&lt;</underline> 30 mmHg, maximum LV wall thicknesses <underline>&lt;</underline> 20 mm and left atrium diameters <underline>&lt;</underline> 45 mm<sup>14</sup>. This subset represents the majority of patients attended to out of reference centers ,who have sudden death risk of less than 1% per year<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>The higher the number of factors, the higher the risk. Considering only family history of sudden death, abnormal blood pressure response during exercise, nonsustained ventricular tachycardia and massive left ventricle hypertrophy, the presence of two or more indicators relates to a higher annual risk with mortality rates in excess of 3%<sup>10</sup>. In individuals with just one marker, the positive predictive value is only 20% and the annual incidence of sudden death ranges from 1% to 1.5%<sup>10</sup>.</p>
      <p>Other elements can contribute to the development of sudden death in HCM. They do not individually represent independent prognosis markers. They act as contributing factors. Some examples are myocardial ischemia, obstruction of the LV outflow tract, paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, nonvisible conduction system disease, accessory pathway and sympathetic stimulation<sup>17</sup>. It is of utmost importance to identify these conditions in patients with a high risk profile even though they will be absent in most patients<sup>48</sup>. The degree of individual tolerance also varies. The clinical evaluation of these factors is complex and current therapeutic methods can only be applied in 30% of the patients (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr02-body2">chart 2</xref>)<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="qdr02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0391-00024-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Detection of myocardial ischemia is difficult as the electrocardiograph and scintigraphy alterations only show the presence of hypertrophy. In a study using a positron emission tomography, the evaluation of the coronary flow at rest and after the administration of dipyridamole lower values with pharmacological stress in HCM patients when compared to the control individuals<sup>19</sup>. The response to dipyridamole could be useful for sudden death risk stratification although the positive predictive value would also be low.</p>
      <p>Supraventricular arrhythmias induce an increased oxygen intake by the myocardium which can cause ventricular fibrillation<sup>14,17</sup> . They are associated with the presence of fibrosis and left atrial dilation, both consequences of LV diastolic dysfunction. </p>
      <p>An obstruction of the LV outflow tract is the only clinical factor that can be eliminated. It may contribute to the development of ischemia and the genesis of fatal arrhythmias. Because of its dynamic traits, this condition tends to decrease as the patient ages. It could be a potential risk factor, since mortality rates are higher when combined with pressure gradients <underline>&gt;</underline> 30 mmHg<sup>57</sup>. Among individuals who are asymptomatic or have minor symptoms it would be a significant mortality predictor, a fact that would not be true for patients with severe functional limitations<sup>58</sup>. Procedures such as a myectomy, implantation of a dual-chamber pacemaker and septal ablation would not alter the mortality rates.</p>
      <p>Electrophysiological studies with programmed ventricular stimulation have proved to be of little use in sudden death risk stratification in HCM. Although a relationship between cause and prognosis has been seen, the predictive accuracy is questionable<sup>8,14</sup> . Processes that use three extra premature stimuli, induce monomorphic ventricular tachycardia in isolated cases, but cause polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in roughly 40% of the cases and 50% of these degenerate to ventricular fibrillation<sup>44</sup> . The necessity to revert this quickly makes it difficult to evaluate whether or not the arrhythmia is sustained. Even though the specificity of this type of response in other forms of heart disease would be classified as low, in the case of HCM it is difficult to determine whether it is a result of hemodynamic and electrical instability or is merely due to excessive electrostimulation in hypertrophic ventricles that do not tolerate elevated frequencies. The positive predictive value is reduced, since arrhythmias can be induced even in low risk patients. The high resolution electrocardiogram including the analysis of the QT interval dispersion and heart rate variations identify abnormalities which have a low predictive accuracy<sup>17 </sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>PREVENTION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The administration of beta-blockers and verapamil to control symptoms has not proven to have any preventive effect in relation to sudden death. Amiodarone in low dosages, less than or equal to 300 mg/day, is associated with improved life expectancy <sup>14</sup>. Careful monitoring is required, particularly in young people who require a prolonged administration period.</p>
      <p>For those considered high risk, the implantation of an automatic cardioverter defibrillator has proven to be effective, providing complete protection and the ability to favorably alter the natural history of the disease. Its efficacy was tested in a nonrandomized retrospective multicenter study that evaluated patients with a high risk profile <sup>16</sup>. In an average follow-up interval of three years, 23% of the defibrillators were activated appropriately with a frequency of 7% per year. The annual discharge intervention rates were as high as 5% for primary prevention models and 11% for secondary prevention. The timeframe between the implant and the first intervention was variable and ranged from four to nine years for 21% of the patients. The results demonstrate that the number of lives saved is well worth the cost and risk involved. On an individual basis the interval between the implant and the first activation is unpredictable since the cardioverter defibrillator can remain inactive for many years.</p>
      <p>The study support the recommendation of an implantatable automatic cardioverter defibrillator as an efficient treatment method for secondary prevention and in select cases for primary prevention. In this situation, the available information may not be conclusive.</p>
      <p>The clinical criteria used for automatic cardioverter defibrillator indications in HCM are still based on empirical experience and minimize the genetic heterogeneity. Observational studies attest to the efficacy of both the automatic cardioverter defibrillator and amiodarone, but the failure rate appears to be lower with the defibrillator<sup>15,16</sup> . The low rate of long term events and the prolonged periods without intervention make it difficult to plan a study to compare the two methods.</p>
      <p>The implantation of an automatic cardioverter defibrillator in HCM is a class I indication for secondary prevention and class IIB for primary prevention in accordance with the guidelines of AHA/ACC/NASPE<sup>59</sup>. Despite its effectiveness it is limited by its high cost and inappropriate discharges. It is the treatment of choice for patients with a history of previous cardiopulmonary arrest or spontaneous sustained ventricular tachycardia<sup>8,14</sup>. For primary prevention, treatment for adults and younger individuals is the same when two or more risk factors exist since mortality in these situations vary from 3% to 6% per year<sup>14,17,21</sup>. There is no real consensus regarding patients with just one risk factor. It is recommended that treatment decisions be individualized according to the patient evaluation taking into consideration the person&#146;s age and the risk factor involved<sup>14</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="qdr03-body2">chart 3</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="qdr03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0391-00024-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Primary prevention of sudden death using an automatic implantable cardioverter defibrillator is not readily accepted for young age groups. In children there is reluctance to recommend it due to the number of growth related complications and in adolescents due to the the psychological implications. In these conditions, amiodarone is recommended as a bridge for the cardioverter defibrillator<sup>14, 43</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients with no risk factors, who represent a significant segment of the population with HCM, usually present a favorable evolution and better prognosis and do not usually require more aggressive therapeutic measures. In these cases, minimal restrictions are required for recreational and work related activities however participation in intense or competitive sports is not advised<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>In conclusion, sudden death risk stratification is of utmost importance in HCM as it is the main cause of death related to this disease that attacks young people and athletes, among others, and whose victims may be asymptomatic without previous diagnosis. The heterogeneous molecular substrate associated with the great phenotype diversity limits the systematic application of genetic laboratory diagnosis to identify malignant mutations. The marked clinical variation and the complexity of determining sudden death mechanisms make it difficult to individualize risk predictors. Even though, there has been a substantial evolution in the understanding of this disease since its initial description, it is still considered not possible task to identify all susceptible patients. The predictors have proven to be useful since the implementation of effective therapeutic measures result in a favorable clinical evolution and prognosis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potencial Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing Address:</p>
          <p> Beatriz Piva e Mattos</p>
          <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350 - S/2060</p>
          <p> 90035-903 &#150; Porto Alegre, RS</p>
          <p> Brazil E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="bpmattos@cardiol.br">bpmattos@cardiol.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received on 06/09/05</p>
      <p> Accepted on 09/30/05</p>
      <p>Considerando o elevado valor preditivo negativo dos fatores de risco, o subgrupo considerado menos suscet&#237;vel &#224; morte s&#250;bita &#233; formado pelos indiv&#237;duos adultos, assintom&#225;ticos ou com sintomas de grau leve, em classe funcional NYHA I/II, que apresentam aus&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria familiar compat&#237;vel, s&#237;ncope, taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o-sustentada no Holter e resposta anormal da press&#227;o arterial ao exerc&#237;cio e exibem gradiente press&#243;rico <underline>&lt;</underline> 30 mmHg, espessuras parietais m&#225;ximas do VE <underline>&lt;</underline> 20 mm e di&#226;metro atrial esquerdo <underline>&lt;</underline> 45 mm<sup>14</sup>. Esses representam a maioria dos pacientes atendidos fora dos centros de refer&#234;ncia e evidenciam risco de morte s&#250;bita inferior a 1% ao ano<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p> Mailing Address:</p>
      <p> Beatriz Piva e Mattos</p>
      <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350 - S/2060</p>
      <p> 90035-903 &#150; Porto Alegre, RS</p>
      <p> Brazil E-mail: <email xlink:href="bpmattos@cardiol.br">bpmattos@cardiol.br</email></p>
      <p>Received on 06/09/05</p>
      <p> Accepted on 09/30/05</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
