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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">QYSKGwQQMHCbgpRwp9gyFXz</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00022</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001600022</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700322</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001600022</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Tratamento atual da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vilas-Boas</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Follath</surname>
            <given-names>Ferenc</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Espanhol</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Z&#252;rich</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universit&#228;tsSpital Z&#252;rich</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Grupo Diretivo de Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico </institution>
        <country country="CH">Switzerland</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>369</fpage>
      <lpage>377</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2006</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>O tratamento de ICD representa um desafio at&#233; mesmo para o m&#233;dico experiente. Os avan&#231;os alcan&#231;ados nas pesquisas propiciaram novas op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento que est&#227;o ajudando a mudar paradigmas. As evid&#234;ncias indicam que novos f&#225;rmacos como a levosimendana e nesiritida representar&#227;o importantes alternativas ou complementos ao tratamento com medicamentos inotr&#243;picos tradicionais, como a dobutamina. O m&#233;dico respons&#225;vel pelo tratamento desses pacientes deve aprender a usar as melhores evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis para individualizar o tratamento com seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>aguda</kwd>
        <kwd>descompensada</kwd>
        <kwd>tratamento</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>16</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Tratamento atual da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada</p>
    <p>
      <bold>F&#225;bio Vilas-Boas, MD, PhD<sup>I</sup>; Ferenc Follath, MD, FESC<sup>II</sup></bold>
    </p>
    <p><sup>I</sup>Hospital Espanhol &#150; Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia </p>
    <p><sup>II</sup>Hospital Universit&#225;rio de Z&#252;rich &#150; Grupo Diretivo de Tratamento Farmacol&#243;gico Salvador, BA, Brasil - Z&#252;rich, Su&#237;&#231;a</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento de ICD representa um desafio at&#233; mesmo para o m&#233;dico experiente. Os avan&#231;os alcan&#231;ados nas pesquisas propiciaram novas op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento que est&#227;o ajudando a mudar paradigmas. As evid&#234;ncias indicam que novos f&#225;rmacos como a levosimendana e nesiritida representar&#227;o importantes alternativas ou complementos ao tratamento com medicamentos inotr&#243;picos tradicionais, como a dobutamina. O m&#233;dico respons&#225;vel pelo tratamento desses pacientes deve aprender a usar as melhores evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis para individualizar o tratamento com seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, aguda, descompensada, tratamento.</p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada (ICD) &#233; uma das principais causas de interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares em todo o mundo, sendo respons&#225;vel por grande parte dos gastos com sa&#250;de p&#250;blica<sup>1</sup>. Dados epidemiol&#243;gicos indicam que a incid&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) est&#225; aumentando progressivamente, sobretudo em idosos. </p>
    <p>ICD &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica que requer mais investimentos em recursos f&#237;sicos e humanos. Al&#233;m disso, as novas op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento devem ter como objetivo melhorar a qualidade de vida, reduzir o tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o e aumentar a sobrevida dos pacientes.</p>
    <p>At&#233; recentemente, havia poucos estudos sobre ICD, e essa s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica n&#227;o estava claramente caracterizada. Um dos primeiros documentos a enfocar essa entidade foi a I Diretriz Latino-Americana para Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Descompensada<sup>3</sup>. Neste documento, ICD &#233; definida como uma s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica na qual anomalias card&#237;acas estruturais ou funcionais fazem com que o cora&#231;&#227;o seja incapaz de ejetar e/ou acomodar o sangue dentro de valores press&#243;ricos fisiol&#243;gicos, causando, assim, limita&#231;&#227;o funcional e exigindo interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica imediata. Essa defini&#231;&#227;o ampla abrange tr&#234;s pontos principais: uma explica&#231;&#227;o fisiopatol&#243;gica, um quadro cl&#237;nico de apresenta&#231;&#227;o e a necessidade de interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica em car&#225;ter de urg&#234;ncia. </p>
    <p>A ICD pode ser dividida em tr&#234;s categorias: 1) insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda (sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio): corresponde ao quadro em que a s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ocorre em portadores de IC sem sinais e sintomas pr&#233;vios de IC. 2) Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica agudizada (exacerba&#231;&#227;o aguda de um quadro cr&#244;nico): corresponde ao quadro cl&#237;nico em que ocorre exacerba&#231;&#227;o aguda ou gradual dos sinais e sintomas de IC, em repouso, em pacientes com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de IC, exigindo terapia adicional imediata. 3) Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica refrat&#225;ria (baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco cr&#244;nico e/ou v&#225;rios graus de congest&#227;o): corresponde ao quadro cl&#237;nico em que pacientes com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de IC apresentam baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e/ou congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica e/ou limita&#231;&#227;o funcional persistente refrat&#225;ria ao melhor tratamento medicamentoso poss&#237;vel.</p>
    <p>Duas importantes apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas tamb&#233;m precisam ser definidas, uma vez que merecem aten&#231;&#227;o especial: 1) edema agudo de pulm&#227;o: caracterizado por r&#225;pido aumento da press&#227;o capilar pulmonar, levando a um aumento de l&#237;quido nos espa&#231;os intersticiais e alveolares dos pulm&#245;es, causando dispn&#233;ia intensa e repentina em repouso. 2) Choque cardiog&#234;nico: caracterizado por grave hipotens&#227;o arterial (press&#227;o sist&#243;lica &lt; 90 mmHg ou 30% abaixo dos n&#237;veis basais) durante pelo menos 30 minutos, com sinais de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual e disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica (taquicardia, palidez, extremidades frias, confus&#227;o mental, olig&#250;ria e acidose metab&#243;lica) de fundo card&#237;aco.</p>
    <p>Muitos estudos internacionais tentaram identificar os fatores associados a interna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares por ICD. Em aproximadamente 30% dos casos, entretanto, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel identificar as raz&#245;es das descompensa&#231;&#245;es<sup>4</sup>. As causas mais comuns de descompensa&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o relacionadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela 1</xref>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>O primeiro passo na abordagem de um epis&#243;dio de descompensa&#231;&#227;o consiste em decidir se o paciente precisa ser internado ou se pode ser tratado no pronto-socorro. Os principais motivos para interna&#231;&#227;o de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda descompensada (ICAD) se enquadram em tr&#234;s categorias: 1) hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o imediata, quando h&#225; risco de vida iminente; 2) hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o em car&#225;ter de urg&#234;ncia: quando n&#227;o h&#225; risco de vida iminente, mas esse risco pode surgir se n&#227;o forem realizadas interven&#231;&#245;es urgentes; 3) opcional: a necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o depende da intera&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais, bem como do progn&#243;stico do paciente: </p>
    <p>Os crit&#233;rios para interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar est&#227;o relacionados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>TRATAMENTO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento de IC cr&#244;nica est&#225; bem estabelecido em diretrizes nacionais e internacionais, com base em evid&#234;ncias provenientes de diversos estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados<sup>5-7</sup>. No caso de ICD, existem pouqu&#237;ssimos dados de ensaios cl&#237;nicos. Recentemente, diretrizes internacionais foram publicadas, esclarecendo alguns pontos nessa &#225;rea<sup>3,8</sup>.</p>
    <p>O principal objetivo do tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada deve ser promover uma r&#225;pida melhora dos sintomas, sem agravar a fun&#231;&#227;o renal. No paciente com descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda, n&#227;o h&#225; raz&#227;o para limitar as interven&#231;&#245;es &#224;quelas que possam ter um efeito positivo sobre a mortalidade no m&#233;dio ou longo prazo. Em contrapartida, mortalidade e seguran&#231;a a curto prazo constituem quest&#245;es importantes na ICD. Portanto, qualquer interven&#231;&#227;o nova deve melhorar os sintomas e ser no m&#237;nimo neutra com rela&#231;&#227;o ao progn&#243;stico, comparada com as op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento existentes atualmente<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>OBJETIVOS DO TRATAMENTO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento da ICD deve ser voltado para tr&#234;s importantes objetivos:</p>
    <p>
      <bold>1) Oxigena&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O primeiro objetivo &#233; melhorar a oxigena&#231;&#227;o tecidual. Todos os pacientes devem receber oxig&#234;nio, para atingir satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio superior a 95%. O papel da press&#227;o positiva cont&#237;nua das vias a&#233;reas (CPAP) e de outras formas de ventila&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-invasiva est&#225; consagrado no tratamento de edema pulmonar<sup>10</sup>, e devem ser institu&#237;das em todos os pacientes que n&#227;o respondem &#224; oxigena&#231;&#227;o com m&#225;scara. Entuba&#231;&#227;o endotraqueal e ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica n&#227;o devem ser postergadas at&#233; que o paciente se torne resistente ao tratamento, pois algumas vezes pode ser tarde demais.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2) Estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O segundo objetivo consiste em melhorar a hemodin&#226;mica e a perfus&#227;o tecidual. Em muitos pacientes com epis&#243;dios graves de ICD, &#233; dif&#237;cil identificar clinicamente a presen&#231;a de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual. Baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco n&#227;o-identificadado pode causar les&#227;o de &#243;rg&#227;o-alvo e agravar o quadro de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, piorando o progn&#243;stico. Em particular, a administra&#231;&#227;o concomitante de diur&#233;ticos em um paciente com baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco pode diminuir ainda mais o d&#233;bito efetivo, levando a uma espiral de deteriora&#231;&#227;o progressiva. A estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica pode ser obtida por meio da administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de vasodilatadores, agentes inotr&#243;picos ou ambos. Alguns pacientes precisar&#227;o de assist&#234;ncia hemodin&#226;mica com dispositivos de suporte circulat&#243;rio<sup>11</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3) Al&#237;vio da congest&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O terceiro objetivo &#233; reduzir a sobrecarga h&#237;drica por meio de diur&#233;ticos e agentes inotr&#243;picos intravenosos, para aumentar a perfus&#227;o renal.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>MEDIDAS TERAP&#202;UTICAS GERAIS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Existem v&#225;rios tipos de interven&#231;&#227;o que devem ser iniciadas em pacientes com ICD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="a22tab03">Tabela 3</xref>):</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a22tab03">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Dieta </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Todos os pacientes devem fazer uso de dieta hiposs&#243;dica. No caso de pacientes com resist&#234;ncia a diur&#233;ticos, a ingest&#227;o de &#225;gua deve ser restringida ao m&#237;nimo tolerado (geralmente 800 a 1.000 ml por dia).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Exerc&#237;cio </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para o paciente com descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda, o exerc&#237;cio deve ser restrito a fisioterapia. Ap&#243;s estabiliza&#231;&#227;o inicial, a atividade f&#237;sica pode ser aumentada progressivamente, permitindo-se que o paciente v&#225; ao banheiro e caminhe pelo quarto. Ap&#243;s a alta hospitalar, deve ser institu&#237;do um programa de reabilita&#231;&#227;o<sup>12</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Inibidores da ECA </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Todos os pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica devem receber inibidores da ECA, e a dose alvo deve ser a empregada nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos<sup>13,14</sup>. Durante epis&#243;dios de descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda, a administra&#231;&#227;o de inibidores da ECA n&#227;o deve ser suspensa, mas a dose inicial deve ser ajustada de acordo com a press&#227;o arterial, fun&#231;&#227;o renal e n&#237;veis de pot&#225;ssio<sup>15</sup>. Uma vez que esses par&#226;metros estejam estabilizados, a dose deve ser aumentada novamente para o m&#225;ximo tolerado<sup>16</sup>. &#201; importante salientar que alguns pacientes podem n&#227;o tolerar inibidores da ECA (hipotens&#227;o e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal) se tiverem sido submetidos a uma diurese excessiva.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina (BRA) </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os bloqueadores dos receptores da angiotensina s&#227;o reservados para pacientes intolerantes aos IECAs. Entretanto, em pacientes descompensados, refrat&#225;rios &#224; terapia convencional, mas que ainda mant&#234;m press&#227;o arterial adequada, a associa&#231;&#227;o rigorosamente monitorada de BRA e inibidor da ECA pode melhorar os sintomas e diminuir o n&#250;mero de reinterna&#231;&#245;es<sup>17,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Antagonistas da aldosterona </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Espironolactona ou eplerenona devem fazer parte do tratamento de todos os pacientes com IC avan&#231;ada, a menos que haja contra-indica&#231;&#227;o<sup>19,20</sup>. Durante epis&#243;dios de descompensa&#231;&#227;o, esses f&#225;rmacos podem ajudar a aumentar a diurese e reduzir o risco de hipocalemia induzida pela furosemida.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Betabloqueadores </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Existem fortes evid&#234;ncias favorecendo o uso de betabloqueadores (BB) em todos os est&#225;gios da IC<sup>21-23</sup>. &#201; cada vez mais comum portadores de IC grave, em tratamento com BB, serem atendidos no pronto-socorro com ICD. Os BBs aprovados para IC sist&#243;lica s&#227;o carvedilol, succinato de metoprolol e bisoprolol. N&#227;o devem ser usados outros agentes para esse quadro<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>A quest&#227;o de se a administra&#231;&#227;o de BB deve ou n&#227;o ser suspensa durante um epis&#243;dio de descompensa&#231;&#227;o &#233; objeto de intensa discuss&#227;o. An&#225;lises retrospectivas de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados indicam que a suspens&#227;o ou redu&#231;&#227;o da dose de BB enquanto o paciente est&#225; descompensado pode estar associada com maior mortalidade<sup>25</sup>. Portanto, deve-se envidar todos os esfor&#231;os no sentido de manter a dose de BB que o paciente estava recebendo ou de reduzir a dose caso seja constatada hipotens&#227;o. Em caso de choque cardiog&#234;nico ou de pacientes com grave quadro hipotensivo, a administra&#231;&#227;o de BB deve ser suspensa. &#201; preciso lembrar tamb&#233;m que muitos pacientes que precisam de medicamento inotr&#243;pico est&#227;o em tratamento cr&#244;nico com BB, e n&#227;o responder&#227;o adequadamente aos agonistas b-adren&#233;rgicos<sup>26,27</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Digoxina </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O papel da digoxina em pacientes com ICD &#233; objeto de controv&#233;rsia. &#201; prov&#225;vel que esse medicamento n&#227;o tenha vez no tratamento agudo, exceto para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial com alta resposta. Ap&#243;s a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, a digoxina pode ser reiniciada, contanto que os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos estejam normais e os pacientes continuem sintom&#225;ticos mesmo com tratamento de IECA, betabloqueadores e diur&#233;ticos<sup>28</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>TRATAMENTO INTRAVENOSO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A maior parte dos f&#225;rmacos tradicionalmentes utilizados no tratamento intravenoso de ICD foi aprovada com base em seus efeitos hemodin&#226;micos. At&#233; recentemente, n&#227;o havia estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados com desfechos s&#243;lidos (como melhora sintom&#225;tica, mortalidade, tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o e reinterna&#231;&#245;es) para guiar o tratamento de forma eficaz.</p>
    <p>As op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas s&#227;o semelhantes na maior parte do mundo, com exce&#231;&#227;o de alguns f&#225;rmacos mais novos. A levosimendana, um agente sensibilizante ao c&#225;lcio, &#233; vendida em muitos pa&#237;ses da Europa, Am&#233;rica Latina e &#193;sia. O uso de milrinona na Am&#233;rica Latina n&#227;o &#233; t&#227;o comum como nos Estados Unidos e em outras partes do mundo. O pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico sint&#233;tico nesiritida &#233; dispon&#237;vel nos Estados Unidos e alguns pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina. Al&#233;m disso, a quest&#227;o do pre&#231;o dos medicamentos mais novos pode constituir uma grande limita&#231;&#227;o ao seu uso pelo sistema de sa&#250;de de pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Diur&#233;ticos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Todos os pacientes com ind&#237;cios de sobrecarga h&#237;drica devem receber diur&#233;ticos intravenosos. &#201; preciso estabelecer a dose m&#237;nima eficaz para cada paciente. Como a maior parte dos pacientes com IC faz uso cr&#244;nico de diur&#233;ticos orais, espera-se encontrar n&#237;veis crescentes de resist&#234;ncia diur&#233;tica. Nesses casos, a dose deve ser aumentada para permitir um fluxo urin&#225;rio cont&#237;nuo e eficaz. Uma forma f&#225;cil de iniciar a administra&#231;&#227;o de diur&#233;ticos intravenosos consiste em aplicar um "bolus" de metade da dose di&#225;ria que o paciente estava recebendo nos dias anteriores &#224; interna&#231;&#227;o. A escolha entre infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua ou intermitente deve basear-se na gravidade da congest&#227;o e na disponibilidade dos recursos hospitalares<sup>29</sup>. Um paciente com congest&#227;o branda pode ser adequadamente tratado com inje&#231;&#245;es IV intermitentes, ao passo que um paciente com sobrecarga h&#237;drica significativa deve receber infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua. A combina&#231;&#227;o de diur&#233;ticos com diferentes mecanismos e locais de a&#231;&#227;o deve ser levada em considera&#231;&#227;o quando o paciente demonstra menor resposta a um &#250;nico agente diur&#233;tico (resist&#234;ncia diur&#233;tica)<sup>30</sup>. &#201; preciso reconhecer que, embora os diur&#233;ticos melhorem os sintomas e o quadro de congest&#227;o, o seu uso pode levar a agravamento da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e a dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos potencialmente fatais<sup>31,32</sup>. A dose deve ser reduzida assim que desaparecem os sinais de hipervolemia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Vasodilatadores intravenosos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Terapias com medicamentos vasodilatadores n&#227;o s&#227;o muito comuns na pr&#225;tica cotidiana, embora haja uma clara base fisiol&#243;gica para o seu uso<sup>33,34</sup>. No entanto, existem algumas limita&#231;&#245;es a esse tipo de terapia:</p>
    <p>a) geralmente o paciente precisa ser internado na UTI para monitoramento da press&#227;o arterial;</p>
    <p>b) muitas vezes &#233; necess&#225;rio usar cateter de art&#233;ria pulmonar (CAP) para ajustar a terapia aos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos de pacientes gravemente enfermos;</p>
    <p>c) a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de recursos hospitalares, inclusive custos da UTI, &#233; maior com essa abordagem.</p>
    <p>Dados retrospectivos indicam que a inser&#231;&#227;o de CAP est&#225; associada com maior taxa de mortalidade; por esse motivo, determinou-se a suspens&#227;o tempor&#225;ria desse procedimento<sup>35</sup>. O papel do CAP no tratamento de ICD foi esclarecido recentemente em um estudo cl&#237;nico randomizado. Comparado com o tratamento convencional, baseado em exame f&#237;sico e alguns crit&#233;rios n&#227;o-invasivos, o tratamento guiado por CAP n&#227;o mostrou qualquer benef&#237;cio<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Nitroglicerina </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A nitroglicerina &#233; um vasodilatador arterial e venoso que atua aumentando a concentra&#231;&#227;o de GMPc. &#201; &#250;til no tratamento de ICD de etiologia isqu&#234;mica, como pacientes p&#243;s-infartados<sup>37</sup>. A dose inicial &#233; de 0,5 &#181;g/Kg/min<sup>-1</sup> e pode ser ajustada de acordo com os sintomas e a press&#227;o arterial. A nitroglicerina n&#227;o deve ser usada em pacientes hipotensos ou com infarto do ventr&#237;culo direito<sup>38</sup>. N&#227;o h&#225; dados sobre a sua efic&#225;cia em desfechos s&#243;lidos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio &#233; um vasodilatador mais potente que a nitroglicerina. Os dados sobre a sua seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia no tratamento de ICD baseiam-se apenas em desfechos substitutos e praticamente n&#227;o existem dados sobre melhora da taxa de mortalidade e dos sintomas. &#201; &#250;til em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o sist&#234;mica ou pulmonar, insufici&#234;ncia mitral ou a&#243;rtica aguda e, naqueles com evid&#234;ncias objetivas de resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica. Deve ser usado com cautela em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal em virtude do risco de intoxica&#231;&#227;o por cianeto. A dose inicial &#233; de 0,2 &#181;g/Kg/min<sup>-1</sup> e deve ser ajustada a cada cinco minutos<sup>39</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Nesiritida </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A forma sint&#233;tica do pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico end&#243;geno tipo B tem sido usada nos Estados Unidos nos &#250;ltimos cinco anos e, recentemente, passou a ser disponibilizada em alguns pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina e Europa. Diversos estudos cl&#237;nicos de pequeno porte com desfechos substitutos indicam que a nesiritida &#233; provavelmente segura e eficaz em rela&#231;&#227;o a v&#225;rios par&#226;metros importantes do tratamento de ICD<sup>40-42</sup>. No entanto, esse f&#225;rmaco nunca foi testado em um grande estudo cl&#237;nico randomizado voltado para desfechos s&#243;lidos. Em um pequeno estudo randomizado, a nesiritida foi superior ao placebo em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; melhora sintom&#225;tica em tr&#234;s horas, por&#233;m semelhante &#224; nitroglicerina; a press&#227;o capilar pulmonar diminuiu mais significativamente com nesiritida do que com nitroglicerina, &#224; custa de hipotens&#227;o mais prolongada<sup>43</sup>. H&#225; pouco tempo surgiram d&#250;vidas quanto &#224; sua seguran&#231;a. Dados retrospectivos indicam poss&#237;veis efeitos adversos da nesiritida sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o renal e a mortalidade<sup>44,45</sup>. Anunciou-se recentemente que, em 2007, ser&#225; iniciado um estudo cl&#237;nico randomizado e controlado sobre mortalidade com esse f&#225;rmaco<sup>46</sup>. A nesiritida &#233; um agente novo promissor, mas o seu perfil de seguran&#231;a precisa ser mais bem demonstrado antes do seu emprego ser disseminado amplamente.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>VASOPRESSORES</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os f&#225;rmacos vasoativos mais encontrados na maior parte do mundo s&#227;o a dopamina e norepinefrina. S&#227;o indicados para portadores de ICD com hipotens&#227;o sintom&#225;tica com ou sem choque refrat&#225;rio &#224; corre&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica. Nesse caso, o tratamento inicial pode consistir de dopamina ou norepinefrina, dependendo da gravidade da hipotens&#227;o.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>a) Dopamina </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A dopamina pode ser empregada em doses de 2 a 20 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>, mas suas a&#231;&#245;es a-adren&#233;rgicas s&#227;o mais pronunciadas acima de &gt;10 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1 47</sup>. Ela tamb&#233;m tem efeitos b-adren&#233;rgicos, que ocorrem &#224; custa de um aumento no influxo de c&#225;lcio para o citoplasma. A dopamina est&#225; associada a aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, do consumo de oxig&#234;nio pelo mioc&#225;rdio, de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e de arritmias ventriculares<sup>48</sup>. Existem controv&#233;rsias em rela&#231;&#227;o aos seus efeitos vasodilatadores renais, que justificariam o uso de baixas doses de dopamina em portadores de ICD com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal. As evid&#234;ncias indicam que esse efeito n&#227;o existe e, conseq&#252;entemente, essa pr&#225;tica deve ser abandonada<sup>49</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>b) Norepinefrina </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A norepinefrina tem alta afinidade pelos receptores a-adren&#233;rgicos e afinidade moderada pelos receptores b7?-adren&#233;rgicos, causando maior vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o, aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, maior inotropismo e maior capta&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio mioc&#225;rdico. A vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o induzida pela norepinefrina pode acarretar redu&#231;&#227;o na perfus&#227;o tecidual perif&#233;rica ou at&#233; mesmo d&#233;ficits microcirculat&#243;rios. Existem evid&#234;ncias de que as catecolaminas podem induzir uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria sist&#234;mica. Em vista desses efeitos potencialmente negativos, a norepinefrina s&#243; deve ser usada no tratamento de choque cardiog&#234;nico refrat&#225;rio a outras medidas de suporte circulat&#243;rio, inclusive restaura&#231;&#227;o da volemia e uso de medicamentros inotr&#243;picos<sup>50</sup>. Na ICD, deve ser associada com outros agentes inotr&#243;picos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>AGENTES INOTR&#211;PICOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Para pacientes com s&#237;ndromes de baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, os agentes inotr&#243;picos s&#227;o os mais usados<sup>51</sup>. Muitos portadores de ICD podem sofrer de baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, com hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual n&#227;o-detectada<sup>52</sup>. Esse quadro &#233; mais comum em pacientes com ICD cr&#244;nica do que com ICD aguda e talvez seja resultado de uma adapta&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica ao baixo d&#233;bito com ativa&#231;&#227;o de mecanismos compensat&#243;rios que dificultam a identifica&#231;&#227;o. As conseq&#252;&#234;ncias desse estado de baixo d&#233;bito "adaptado" costumam ser devastadoras para o organismo, inclusive com piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e hep&#225;tica e aumento da ativa&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;ria devido &#224; hipoperfus&#227;o mesent&#233;rica e perif&#233;rica.</p>
    <p>A maior parte dos agentes inotr&#243;picos aumenta os n&#237;veis intracelulares de c&#225;lcio<sup>53</sup>. Por esse motivo, geralmente s&#227;o associados a efeitos colaterais significativos, como maior consumo de oxig&#234;nio mioc&#225;rdico, arritmias e maior mortalidade a longo prazo<sup>54,55</sup>. A disponibilidade de novos agentes inotr&#243;picos exige uma reconsidera&#231;&#227;o do seu papel no tratamento de ICD<sup>56</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Dobutamina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora muitos dados apontem para a exist&#234;ncia de poss&#237;veis efeitos adversos sobre a mortalidade, a dobutamina ainda &#233; o agente inotr&#243;pico mais usado. Algumas das poss&#237;veis raz&#245;es para o uso disseminado de um agente com perfil de seguran&#231;a question&#225;vel s&#227;o: 1) Efic&#225;cia hemodin&#226;mica com aumento do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco dose-dependente, embora n&#227;o existam dados que correlacionem melhora hemodin&#226;mica e desfechos s&#243;lidos (mortalidade, reinterna&#231;&#245;es hospitalares)<sup>57</sup>; 2) Os m&#233;dicos ficam tentados a adotar uma estrat&#233;gia que garante uma r&#225;pida obten&#231;&#227;o de "par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos ideais", sem levar em considera&#231;&#227;o o fato de que essa estrat&#233;gia n&#227;o est&#225; associada com melhora de nenhum tipo de desfecho s&#243;lido, clinicalmente relevante<sup>58</sup>; 3) Uma posologia c&#244;moda, com doses facilmente ajust&#225;veis que n&#227;o causam hipotens&#227;o, passa uma sensa&#231;&#227;o de seguran&#231;a ao m&#233;dico e &#224; equipe de enfermagem. Todos esses aspectos n&#227;o parecem suficientes para justificar o uso disseminado de uma estrat&#233;gia que s&#243; traz benef&#237;cios a curt&#237;ssimo prazo, mas com poss&#237;veis efeitos adversos a longo prazo<sup>59,60</sup>. Como mencionado anteriormente, a administra&#231;&#227;o de dobutamina a pacientes em tratamento com BB representa uma op&#231;&#227;o equivocada<sup>26,27</sup>. </p>
    <p>Por essa raz&#227;o, acreditamos que a dobutamina deva ser reservada ao tratamento de ICD com hipotens&#227;o ou a pacientes com choque cardiog&#234;nico. Esse f&#225;rmaco freq&#252;entemente precisa ser associado a um agente vasoativo (dopamina ou norepinefrina). Assim que o paciente estiver estabilizado, a dose de dobutamina dever&#225; ser reduzida lentamente. A dose inicial &#233; de 5 &#181;7g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>, podendo ser aumentada para 20 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>. Os principais efeitos colaterais da dobutamina s&#227;o taquicardia, arritmias ventriculares e atriais e isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Milrinona </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A milrinona &#233; um inibidor da fosfodiesterase com propriedades inotr&#243;picas e vasodilatadoras (inodilatador). Esse f&#225;rmaco nunca foi muito popular na Am&#233;rica Latina, possivelmente em raz&#227;o do pre&#231;o e de dados recentes que indicam poss&#237;veis efeitos adversos sobre a mortalidade<sup>61,62</sup>. A milrinona parece &#250;til em portadores de ICD com hipertens&#227;o pulmonar e pacientes previamente tratados com betabloqueadores<sup>63</sup>. Em virtude de seus efeitos vasodilatadores, n&#227;o deve ser usada em pacientes hipotensos. As doses usuais oscilam entre 12,5 e 25 &#181;7g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>, com ou sem doses em bolus.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Levosimendana </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A levosimendana &#233; um novo agente que exerce efeito inotr&#243;pico ao aumentar a sensibilidade da troponina C ao c&#225;lcio<sup>64</sup>. Esse f&#225;rmaco tem tamb&#233;m propriedades vasodilatadoras, devido &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o dos canais de pot&#225;ssio dependentes do ATP na parede arterial. Seus mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o podem melhorar as condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e hemodin&#226;micas a custos metab&#243;licos e celulares modestos<sup>65,66</sup>. A levosimendana aumenta a contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica a um n&#237;vel compar&#225;vel ao de outros agonistas b-adren&#233;rgicos e inibidores da fosfodiesterase, e seus efeitos duradouros podem trazer algumas vantagens no tratamento inicial ap&#243;s a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o<sup>67</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados indicaram que a levosimendana &#233; segura e eficaz em diversas etiologias de ICD, principalmente em pacientes que j&#225; tomam betabloqueadores<sup>68-70</sup>. Seus principais efeitos colaterais est&#227;o relacionados aos seus efeitos vasodilatadoes, particularmente hipotens&#227;o. &#201; interessante observar, entretanto, que em muitos estudos publicados, a incid&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o foi compar&#225;vel &#224; da dobutamina<sup>68</sup>. </p>
    <p>Dois grandes estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados realizados com a levosimendana para tratamento de ICD foram apresentados recentemente e merecem considera&#231;&#245;es especiais. O estudo REVIVE<sup>71</sup> comparou levosimendana com placebo em pacientes considerados refrat&#225;rios ao tratamento inicial com diur&#233;ticos intravenosos. A porcentagem de pacientes que atingiram o desfecho prim&#225;rio de melhora sintom&#225;tica durante a interna&#231;&#227;o foi 33% maior no grupo de levosimendana do que no grupo de placebo. De forma semelhante, uma porcentagem 29% inferior de pacientes piorou no mesmo per&#237;odo. Os n&#237;veis de pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico tipo B diminu&#237;ram significativamente mais no grupo levosimendana e o tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar desses pacientes foi quase duas vezes mais curto. Em contrapartida, epis&#243;dios de hipotens&#227;o, bem como de arritmias ventriculares e atriais foram mais freq&#252;entes no grupo levosimendana. Observou-se uma tend&#234;ncia para maior n&#250;mero de mortes, por&#233;m sem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica. Esses dados devem ser analisados levando-se em considera&#231;&#227;o o bolus inicial e as altas doses de manuten&#231;&#227;o empregadas nesse estudo, diferentemente do que ocorre na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Al&#233;m disso, a levosimendana foi usada junto com outros vasodilatadores e inibidores da fosfodiesterase ap&#243;s intensa diurese, o que pode ter feito com que a hipovolemia e vasodilata&#231;&#227;o maci&#231;a passassem despercebidas. O outro estudo, o SURVIVE<sup>72</sup>, comparou a levosimendana com dobutamina em pacientes considerados candidatos a suporte inotr&#243;pico. O desfecho prim&#225;rio de mortalidade em 180 dias n&#227;o foi alcan&#231;ado, mas houve uma tend&#234;ncia para menor taxa de mortalidade hospitalar. Reiterando, &#233; preciso levar em considera&#231;&#227;o a baixa dose de dobutamina empregada nesse estudo (6 &#181;7g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>) e a alta dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o da levosimendana (0,2 &#181;7g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>), o que contrasta com as doses de levosimendana empregadas em pa&#237;ses com experi&#234;ncia di&#225;ria com esse f&#225;rmaco. Nos dois estudos, n&#227;o foi efetuado monitoramento hemodin&#226;mico, apesar da inclus&#227;o de pacientes gravemente enfermos, o que n&#227;o reflete a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica no "mundo real", onde o composto foi aprovado e tem sido usado clinicamente. </p>
    <p>As evid&#234;ncias acumuladas sobre a levosimendana indicam que sua dose de manuten&#231;&#227;o deve ser reduzida para 0,1 &#181;7g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup> e que deve ser evitada em pacientes hipotensos. A dose de ataque tamb&#233;m deve ser reduzida para 6 a 12 &#181;7g/kg, infundida durante 10 minutos, restringida a pacientes com press&#227;o sist&#243;lica acima de 110 mmHg e que precisam apresentar uma resposta imediata. &#201; necess&#225;rio que sejam realizados outros estudos para validar essa pr&#225;tica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>COMBINA&#199;&#195;O DE AGENTES</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a de todos os agentes comercializados dependem da dose, ou seja, doses maiores produzem melhoras mais acentuadas no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, mas podem causar mais arritmias e outros efeitos colaterais. A combina&#231;&#227;o de diferentes agentes inotr&#243;picos pode potencializar os efeitos hemodin&#226;micos ben&#233;ficos, mas causa tamb&#233;m toxicidade sin&#233;rgica. Isso se aplica particularmente &#224; associa&#231;&#227;o de dobutamina e milrinona, agentes que aumentam a concentra&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio intracelular. A associa&#231;&#227;o de dobutamina e levosimendana, por&#233;m, parece mais atraente, pois permite a redu&#231;&#227;o das doses de dobutamina<sup>73</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>COMO ESCOLHER UM TRATAMENTO INTRAVENOSO COM BASE EM PAR&#194;METROS CL&#205;NICOS E HEMODIN&#194;MICOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O fluxograma apresentado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">figura 1</xref> permite uma racionaliza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento de ICD com base em par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos e hemodin&#226;micos.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Pacientes que se apresentam com extremidades quentes e congest&#227;o pulmonar ou sist&#234;mica, mas sem hipotens&#227;o, s&#227;o tratados inicialmente com diur&#233;ticos intravenosos e otimiza&#231;&#227;o da terapia oral. O uso de vasodilatadores intravenosos ou levosimendana &#233; opcional. Se a resposta ao tratamento inicial for considerada insuficiente ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de 24 a 48 horas (piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, congest&#227;o persistente e dispn&#233;ia), a levosimendana, se estiver dispon&#237;vel e ainda n&#227;o tiver sido usada, deve ser a op&#231;&#227;o seguinte. </p>
    <p>Em pacientes com extremidades frias, com ou sem hipotens&#227;o, primeiro &#233; preciso verificar a condi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica. Se a presen&#231;a de congest&#227;o n&#227;o for &#243;bvia, deve-se verificar a exist&#234;ncia de hipovolemia e a necessidade de reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica. No caso de pacientes com congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica ou pulmonar, sem hipotens&#227;o, a melhor op&#231;&#227;o parece ser a levosimendana ou um vasodilatador intravenoso. Entretanto, se houver hipotens&#227;o, a op&#231;&#227;o inicial deve recair sobre uma combina&#231;&#227;o de dobutamina com dopamina ou norepinefrina. Ap&#243;s a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o inicial, a levosimendana pode ser adicionada para retirada gradual da dobutamina. Em pacientes que j&#225; est&#227;o recebendo dobutamina, costumamos iniciar a administra&#231;&#227;o de levosimendana com uma dose de 0,05 a 0,1 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup> e, depois de 6 horas de infus&#227;o simult&#226;nea, come&#231;amos a retirada gradual da dobutamina, de modo que, depois de 24 horas, ela possa ser suspensa. Se ocorrer hipotens&#227;o, a velocidade de infus&#227;o pode ser reduzida ou ent&#227;o, como preferimos, a dose de dopamina ou norepinefrina pode ser acrescentada ou aumentada.</p>
    <p>No caso de pacientes que est&#227;o em tratamento oral cr&#244;nico com betabloqueador e precisam de terapia inotr&#243;pica, a op&#231;&#227;o deve recair sobre a levosimendana ou milrinona (porque seus mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o p&#243;s-receptores e, portanto, n&#227;o s&#227;o atenuados pelos bloqueadores). Os custos hospitalares da levosimendana s&#227;o semelhantes aos da dobutamina, apesar de ser um medicamento mais caro, o que indica que o pre&#231;o do medicamento n&#227;o deve ser o &#250;nico fator a pesar na escolha do agente utilizado<sup>74,75</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>- F. Vilas-Boas participa do Conselho Cient&#237;fico Internacional e tem recebido honor&#225;rios por palestras para a Abbott; participa tamb&#233;m de reuni&#245;es de Conselho Cient&#237;fico da Janssen-Cilag Am&#233;rica Latina; </p>
    <p>- F. Follath tem participado do Conselho Cient&#237;fico e recebido honor&#225;rio para palestras do Laborat&#243;rio Abbott.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> F&#225;bio Vilas-Boas </p>
        <p> Hospital Espanhol &#150; Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia </p>
        <p> Av. Sete de Setembro, 2152/2002 </p>
        <p> 40080-002 - Salvador &#150; BA </p>
        <p> Email: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="fabiovboas@cardiol.br">fabiovboas@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 07/08/06 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 30/08/06</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
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          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
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          <lpage>41</lpage>
          <volume>1</volume>
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              <surname>Cleland</surname>
              <given-names>JG</given-names>
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            <name>
              <surname>Gemmell</surname>
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              <given-names>A</given-names>
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          <source>Program and abstracts from the American Heart Association Scientific Sessions 2005</source>
          <date>
            <year>2005</year>
            <month>11</month>
            <day>13</day>
          </date>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Mebazaa</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B73">
        <mixed-citation>73. Nanas JN, Papazoglou PP, Terrovitis JV, et    al. Hemodynamic effects of levosimendan added to dobutamine in patients with    decompensated advanced heart failure refractory to dobutamine alone. Am J Cardiol.    2004;94(10):1329-32.</mixed-citation>
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          <article-title>Hemodynamic effects of levosimendan added to dobutamine in patients with decompensated advanced heart failure refractory to dobutamine alone</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol.</source>
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            <year>2004</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1329</fpage>
          <lpage>32</lpage>
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              <surname>Nanas</surname>
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              <surname>Papazoglou</surname>
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            </name>
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              <surname>Terrovitis</surname>
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            </name>
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        <mixed-citation>74. Cleland JGF, Takala A, Apajasalo M, Zethraeus    N, Kobelt G. Intravenous levosimendan treatment is cost-effective compared with    dobutamine in severe low-output heart failure: an analysis based on the international    LIDO trial. Eur J Heart Fail 2003;5;101-108.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Intravenous levosimendan treatment is cost-effective compared with dobutamine in severe low-output heart failure: an analysis based on the international LIDO trial</article-title>
          <source>Eur J Heart Fail</source>
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            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>101</fpage>
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              <surname>Cleland</surname>
              <given-names>JGF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Takala</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
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              <surname>Apajasalo</surname>
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              <surname>Zethraeus</surname>
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            </name>
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              <surname>Kobelt</surname>
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          <article-title>Cost analysis of the treatment of acute decompensated heart failure: Levosimendan versus Dobutamine</article-title>
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              <surname>Follador</surname>
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              <given-names>ML</given-names>
            </name>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Current insights into the modern treatment of decompensated heart failure</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>Treatment of DHF is a challenge even for the experienced physician. Advances in research have brought new treatment options that are helping change paradigms. The available evidence suggests that new drugs like levosimendan and nesiritide will assume relevant positions as alternatives or complements to treatment with traditional inotropic drugs like dobutamine. The physician responsible for treating these patients should learn how to use the best available evidence, in order to tailor treatment with safety and efficacy.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Heart failure</kwd>
        <kwd>acute</kwd>
        <kwd>decompensated</kwd>
        <kwd>treatment</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Current insights into the modern treatment of decompensated heart failure </p>
      <p>
        <bold>F&#225;bio Vilas-Boas, MD, PhD<sup>I</sup>; Ferenc Follath, MD, FESC<sup>II</sup></bold>
      </p>
      <p><sup>I</sup>Hospital Espanhol &#150; Cardiology Division</p>
      <p><sup>II</sup>University Hospital Z&#252;rich - Steering Group Drug Therapy, Salvador, BA, Brazil &#150; Z&#252;rich, Switzerland </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>SUMMARY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Treatment of DHF is a challenge even for the experienced physician. Advances in research have brought new treatment options that are helping change paradigms. The available evidence suggests that new drugs like levosimendan and nesiritide will assume relevant positions as alternatives or complements to treatment with traditional inotropic drugs like dobutamine. The physician responsible for treating these patients should learn how to use the best available evidence, in order to tailor treatment with safety and efficacy.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Heart failure, acute, decompensated, treatment.</p>
      <p>Decompensated heart failure (DHF) is one of the main causes of hospital admissions anywhere in the world and is responsible for a significant amount of public health expenditures<sup>1</sup>. Epidemiological data indicate that heart failure (HF) incidence is increasing progressively, particularly in the elderly<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>DHF is a clinical syndrome that more investments in human and physical resources must be done. Also, new treatment options should be directed to improving quality of life, decreasing the length of stay of hospitalized patients and increasing survival.</p>
      <p>The clinical syndrome of DHF, until recently, has been poorly studied and not clearly characterized. One of the very first documents to focus on this entity was the Ist Latin American Guidelines on Decompensated Heart Failure<sup>3</sup>. DHF is generally defined as a clinical syndrome in which a structural or functional heart abnormality leads to the incapacity of the heart to eject and/or accommodate blood within physiologic pressure values, thus causing functional limitation and requiring immediate therapeutic intervention. This broad definition encompasses three major points: a pathophysiological explanation, a clinical picture presentation and the need for urgent therapeutic intervention.</p>
      <p>DHF can be divided in three categories:</p>
      <p>1) Acute HF (without a previous diagnosis): Corresponds to the clinical situation in which the clinical syndrome of heart failure occurs HF in patients with no previous signs and symptoms of heart failure.</p>
      <p>2) Chronic DHF (acute exacerbation of a chronic condition): corresponds to the clinical situation in which there is acute or gradual exacerbation of signs and symptoms of HF in patients at rest with a previous diagnosis of HF that require additional and immediate therapy.</p>
      <p>3) Refractory chronic HF (chronic low output or/ and various degrees of congestion): corresponds to the clinical situation in which patients with a previously diagnosed HF present low output and/or systemic congestion and/ or persistent functional limitation refractory to the best possible drug treatment</p>
      <p>Two major clinical presentations need also be defined, since they deserve special attention: </p>
      <p>1) Pulmonary edema: corresponds to the clinical situation in which there is a rapid increase in the pulmonary capillary pressure leading to an increase of fluid in the interstitial and alveolar pulmonary spaces causing sudden and intense dyspnea at rest.</p>
      <p>2) Cardiogenic shock: characterized by severe arterial hypotension (systolic pressure &lt;90 mmHg or 30% below baseline levels) for a minimum period of 30 minutes, with signs of tissue hypoperfusion and organic dysfunction (tachycardia, paleness, cold extremities, mental confusion, oliguria and metabolic acidosis), due to a cardiac cause.</p>
      <p>Many international studies have tried to identify the factors associated with hospital admissions for DHF. In approximately 30% of the cases, however, it is not possible to identify the reasons for clinical decompensations<sup>4</sup>. The most common reasons for decompensation are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">table 1</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The first step is to decide whether the patient needs to be admitted, or if he can be managed in the emergency room. The main reasons to admit a patient with ADHF can be divided into 3 categories:</p>
      <p>1) Immediate hospitalization, representing situations in which there is immediate risk of death;</p>
      <p>2) Urgent hospitalization: when there is no immediate risk of death, but the patient can evolve into that if urgent interventions are not taken.</p>
      <p>3) Optional: the need for admission depends on the interaction of clinical and laboratorial variables, together with the patient prognosis.</p>
      <p>The criteria for hospitalization are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">table 2</xref>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>TREATMENT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Treatment of chronic HF is well established in national and international guidelines, based on evidence derived from multiple randomized clinical trials<sup>5-7</sup>. For DHF, data from clinical trials is scarce. Recently, international guidelines have been published and have brought some light in this area<sup>3,8</sup>.</p>
      <p>Treatment targets for decompensated heart failure should be mainly directed to rapid improvement of symptoms without worsening renal function. In the acutely decompensated patient, there is no reason to limit interventions to those that may have a positive effect on middle or long term mortality. In contrast, short term mortality and safety are the main issues in DHF. Thus, any intervention should improve symptoms and be at least neutral regarding prognosis compared with current treatment options<sup>9</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>GOALS OF THERAPIES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Treatment of DHF should be targeted to three major goals:</p>
      <p>
        <bold>1) Tissue oxygenation </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The first goal is to improve tissue oxygenation. Oxygen should be given to all patients in order to achieve oxygen saturation higher than 95%. The role of continuous positive airway pressure and other forms of non-invasive ventilation is well established in the management of pulmonary edema<sup>10</sup>. They should be instituted in all patients that fail to respond to oxygen by mask. Endotracheal intubation and mechanical ventilation shouldn&#146;t be delayed until the patient becomes unresponsive, since some times it may be too late.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2) Hemodynamic stabilization </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The second goal is to improve hemodynamics and tissue perfusion. In many patients with severe episodes of DHF, peripheral hypoperfusion is not easily identified clinically. Unrecognized low cardiac output states can lead to end organ damage and further worsening of heart failure and impair prognosis. In particular, concomitant diuretic administration in a low cardiac output state can further decrease the effective output, leading to a spiral of progressive deterioration. Hemodynamic stabilization can be achieved by the administration of intravenous vasodilators, inotropic agents or a combination of both. Some patients will need hemodynamic support with circulatory assist devices<sup>11</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3) Relief of congestion </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The third goal is to decrease volume overload, which can be achieved with intravenous diuretics, and inotropic agents to increase renal perfusion.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>GENERAL THERAPEUTIC MEASURES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are several interventions that should be initiated in DHF patients (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">table 3</xref>):</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>Diet </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Low-sodium diet should be instituted to all patients. For those patients with diuretic resistance, water intake should be restricted to the minimum tolerated (usually 800 - 1,000 ml per day).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Exercise </bold>
      </p>
      <p>For the acute decompensated patient, exercise should be restricted to physiotherapy. After initial stabilization, physical activity can be progressively increased to going to the bathroom and walking around the room. After hospital discharge a rehabilitation program should be instituted<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ACE inhibitors </bold>
      </p>
      <p>ACEIs should be given to all patients with systolic dysfunction and the target dose should be those of clinical trials<sup>13,14</sup>. During episodes of acute decompensation, ACEI should not be discontinued, but the doses initially adjusted according to blood pressure, renal function and potassium levels<sup>15</sup>. After stabilization of these parameters, they should be re-up-titrated to the maximum tolerated doses<sup>16</sup>. It&#146;s important to recognize that some patients may not tolerate ACEIs (hypotension and renal dysfunction) if they were over-diuresed.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) </bold>
      </p>
      <p>ARBs are often reserved for those patients with ACEIs intolerance. However, in decompensated patients that are refractory to standard therapy, and that still have an adequate blood pressure, a closely monitored association of an ARB on top of ACEIs can improve symptoms and decrease the number of re-hospitalizations<sup>17,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Aldosterone antagonists </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Spironolactone or eplerenone should be part of the treatment of all patients with advanced HF, unless contraindicated<sup>19,20</sup>. During episodes of decompensation their use can help improve diuresis and diminish the risk of furosemide induced hypokalemia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold> Betablockers </bold>
      </p>
      <p>There is solid evidence for the use of betablockers (BB) in all stages of HF<sup>21-23</sup>. It has become increasingly common to see patients with severe HF under BB present to emergency rooms with DHF. Carvedilol, metoprolol succinate or bisoprolol are the BB approved for systolic HF. Other agents should not be used for HF<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>Whether or not we should discontinue BB during an episode of decompensation is a matter of intense debate. Retrospective analyses of randomized clinical trials suggest that the discontinuation or dose reduction of BB while the patient is decompensated may be associated with increased mortality<sup>25</sup>. Therefore, every effort should be made in order to keep the patient on his previous dose of BB, or reduce the dose if hypotension is present. In cardiogenic shock or in patients with severe hypotension, BB should be interrupted. One must also remember that many patients needing an inotrope are on chronic BB treatment, and they will not adequately respond to beta -agonists<sup>26,27</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Digoxin </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The role of digoxin in the DHF patient is a matter of controversy. It probably has no place in the acute treatment, except for rapid atrial fibrillation. After clinical stabilization it can be re-started, provided that serum levels are normal and if patients remain symptomatic under ACEI, betablockers and diuretics<sup>28</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>INTRAVENOUS TREATMENT</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Most of the traditional drugs used in the intravenous treatment of DHF were approved based on hemodynamic effects. Until recently there was a lack of randomized clinical trials with hard endpoints (such as symptomatic improvement, mortality, length of hospital stay and hospital readmissions) to effectively guide therapy in this area.</p>
      <p>Therapeutic options are similar in most parts of the world, except for some newer drugs. The calcium sensitizing agent levosimendan is available in many countries in Europe, Latin America and Asia. The use of milrinone in Latin America is not as common as in USA and other parts of the world. The synthetic natriuretic peptide nesiritide is available in the USA and selected countries in Latin America. Furthermore, the issue of pricing of newer drugs may be a major limitation in their application in the health system of developing countries.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Diuretics </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Intravenous diuretics should be administered to all patients with evidence of fluid overload. The minimum effective dose should be looked for an individual patient. Since most patients with HF are on chronic oral diuretics, it&#146;s expected to find increasing levels of diuretic resistance. In such cases, the dose should be up-titrated in order to provide continuous and effective urinary output. An easy way to start IV diuretics is to give a bolus of half the daily dose that the patient was receiving in the preceding days before admission. The issue of whether to choose a continuous or intermittent infusion should be addressed in light of the severity of congestion and the availability of hospital resources<sup>29</sup>. A patient with mild congestion can be adequately managed with intermittent I.V. injections, whereas an extremely fluid overloaded patient is better managed with continuous infusion. Association of diuretics with different mechanisms and sites of action should be considered when the patient shows decreased response to a single diuretic agent (diuretic resistance)<sup>30</sup>. It must be recognized that, even though diuretics are effective in improving symptoms and treating congestion, their use can lead to worsening renal function, and life-threatening electrolyte disturbances<sup>31,32</sup>. Dose reduction is necessary as soon as the signs of hypervolemia disappear.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Intravenous vasodilators </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Vasodilator based therapies have not been very common in everyday practice despite a clear physiological rational for their use<sup>33,34</sup>. However, there are some limitations to this kind of therapy:</p>
      <disp-quote>
        <p>a) ICU admission is usually required to monitor blood pressure.</p>
        <p> b) Pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) is often needed to tailor therapy to hemodynamic parameters in severely ill patients. </p>
        <p>c) Hospital resource utilization, including ICU costs are higher with this approach.</p>
      </disp-quote>
      <p>Retrospective data suggests that PAC insertion is associated with increased mortality and a moratorium has been called for this procedure<sup>35</sup>. Recently, the role of PAC in the management of DHF was clarified in a randomized clinical trial. When compared with usual treatment, based on physical exam, and a few non-invasive criteria, PAC guided treatment failed to show any benefit<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nitroglycerine </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Nitroglycerine is an arterial and venous vasodilator that acts through increasing cGMP. It&#146;s useful in the management of DHF of ischemic etiology, such as post-MI patients<sup>37</sup>. The initial dose is 0.5 &#181;g/Kg/min<sup>-1</sup> and it can be titrated according to symptoms and blood pressure. It should not be used in hypotensive patients or in right ventricle infarction<sup>38</sup>. There are no data on its efficacy in hard endpoints.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Sodium nitroprusside </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Sodium nitroprusside is a more potent vasodilator than nitroglycerine. The data on its safety and efficacy in the management of DHF is based only on surrogate endpoints, and there are virtually no data on mortality and symptoms improvement. It&#146;s useful in patients with systemic or pulmonary hypertension, acute mitral or aortic insufficiency and in those with objective evidence of high systemic vascular resistance. It should be used with caution in patients with renal failure due to the risk of cyanide poisoning. The initial dose is 0.2&#181;g/Kg/min<sup>-1</sup> and should be titrated every five minutes<sup>39</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Nesiritide </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The synthetic form of endogenous B-type natriuretic peptide has been used in the USA in the last five years and, recently, has become available in selected countries in Latin America and Europe. Many small clinical trials with surrogate endpoints indicate that nesiritide is probably safe and effective in many important parameters of HF treatment<sup>40,41,42</sup>. However, it has never been tested in a large randomized clinical trial, targeted to hard endpoints. In a small randomized trial, nesiritide was superior to placebo for symptomatic improvement at three hours, but similar to nitroglycerine; pulmonary wedge pressure decreased more significantly with nesiritide than with nitroglycerin, at the cost of more prolonged hypotension<sup>43</sup>. Recently, questions regarding its safety have been raised. Retrospective data suggest potential adverse effects on renal function and mortality<sup>44,45</sup>. A randomized controlled mortality clinical trial was recently announced to be started in 2007<sup>46</sup>. Nesiritide remains a promising new agent, but its safety profile must be better demonstrated before widespread application.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>VASOPRESSORS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Vasoactive drugs that are available in most places of the world are dopamine and norepinephrine. They&#146;re indicated in DHF in patients with symptomatic hypotension with or without shock, refractory to volume correction. In this scenario, the initial treatment can be made with dopamine or norepinephrine, depending on the severity of hypotension.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>a) Dopamine </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Dopamine has been used in doses that vary between 2 &#150; 20 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>, but its alpha-adrenergic actions are more pronounced after &gt;10 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1 47</sup>. It also has beta-adrenergic effects that occur at the cost of an increased calcium influx to the cytoplasm. Dopamine is associated with increased heart rate, myocardial oxygen consumption, myocardial ischemia and ventricular arrhythmias<sup>48</sup>. There is a controversy regarding its renal vasodilator effects that would justify the use of low dose dopamine in DHF with renal dysfunction. The available evidence indicates that this effect doesn&#146;t exist and, consequently this practice should be abandoned<sup>49</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>b) Norepinephrine </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Norepinephrine has high affinity for the alpha-adrenergic and moderate for the beta-adrenergic receptors, resulting in increased vasoconstriction, increased heart rate, increased inotropism and increased myocardial oxygen uptake. The vasoconstriction induced by norepinephrine can lead into decrease in tissue perfusion of the periphery, or even to microcirculatory deficits. There is evidence that cathecolamines can induce systemic inflammatory response. Due to these potentially negative effects, norepinephrine should be used only in the management of cardiogenic shock, refractory to other measures of circulatory support, including restoration of volemia, and the use of inotropes<sup>50</sup>. In DHF, it should usually be associated with other inotropic agents.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>INOTROPIC AGENTS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>For those patients with low cardiac output syndromes, inotropic agents belong to the most commonly used drugs<sup>51</sup>. Many patients with DHF may suffer from low cardiac output with unrecognized tissue hypoperfusion<sup>52</sup>. This situation is more common in chronic DHF than in new acute DHF patients. This could be due to a state of chronic adaptation to low output with activation of compensatory mechanisms that make identification more difficult. The consequences of this state of "adapted" low output are often devastating to the organism, including worsening renal and liver function and more pro-inflammatory activation due to mesenteric and peripheral hypoperfusion.</p>
      <p>Most inotropic agents increase intracellular calcium levels<sup>53</sup>. For this reason, they are commonly associated with significant side effects, such as increased myocardial oxygen consumption, arrhythmias and increased long term mortality<sup>54,55</sup>. The availability of new inotropic agents demands a reconsideration of its role in the management of DHF<sup>56</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Dobutamine </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Even though many data point to potential adverse effects on mortality, dobutamine continues to be the most common inotropic agent used. Possible reasons for the widespread use of an agent with a questionable safety profile may be: 1) hemodynamic efficacy with dose dependent increases of cardiac output, even though there are no data correlating hemodynamic improvements and hard endpoints (mortality, hospital readmissions)<sup>57</sup>; 2) physicians are tempted to adopt a strategy that guaranties a rapid achievement of "optimal hemodynamic parameters", without considering the fact that this strategy is not associated with improvement in any type of solid clinical endpoints<sup>58</sup>; 3) comfortable posology with an easily adjustable dosage that doesn&#146;t cause hypotension, gives a sense of safety to the medical and nursing staff. All these aspects don&#146;t seem enough to justify the widespread use of a strategy that brings benefits only in the very short term, but with potential adverse effects in the long term<sup>59,60</sup>. As already stated, in patients on BB being admitted to emergency rooms the use of dobutamine is the wrong choice<sup>26, 27</sup>.</p>
      <p>For these reasons, we believe that dobutamine should be reserved for the treatment of DHF with hypotension, or those in cardiogenic shock. It frequently needs to be associated with a vasoactive agent (dopamine or norepinephrine). As soon as the patient is stabilized, dobutamine should be slowly down-titrated. The initial dose is 5 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup> and it can be up-titrated to 20 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>. The main side effect is tachycardia, ventricular and atrial arrhythmias and myocardial ischemia.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Milrinone </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Milrinone is a phosphodiesterase inhibitor that has both inotropic and vasodilator properties (inodilator). It has never been very popular in Latin-America. A possible reason for this is the cost and recent data indicating potential adverse effects on mortality<sup>61,62</sup>. Milrinone seems useful in DHF patients with pulmonary hypertension and in those previously treated with beta-blockers<sup>63</sup>. Due to its vasodilating effects, should not be used in hypotensive patients. The usual doses are 12.5 &#150; 25 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>, with or without bolus doses.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Levosimendan </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Levosimendan is a new agent that exerts an inotropic effect through calcium sensitization acting on troponin C<sup>64</sup>. It also has vasodilating properties due to activation of ATP dependent potassium channels in the arterial wall. Its mechanisms of action have a potential for improving clinical and hemodynamic conditions at modest metabolic and cellular costs<sup>65,66</sup>. Levosimendan improves myocardial contractility in a comparable level to other beta-agonists and phosphodiesterase inhibitors and its long lasting effects may bring some advantage in the initial management of hospitalization<sup>67</sup>.</p>
      <p>Randomized clinical trials have suggested that levosimendan is safe and effective in a variety of etiologies of DHF, particularly in patients already taking betablockers<sup>68-70</sup>. The main side effects are related to its vasodilating effects, particularly hypotension. It&#146;s interesting to note, however, that in many published studies, the incidence of hypotension was comparable to that under dobutamine<sup>68</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, two recent large randomized clinical trials of levosimendan in DHF have been recently presented and deserve special considerations. The REVIVE trial<sup>71</sup> compared levosimendan against placebo in patients considered refractory to the initial treatment with I.V. diuretics. The primary endpoint of symptomatic improvement over the course of hospitalization was achieved in 33% more levosimendan patients than with placebo. In a similar way, 29% fewer patients worsened over the same time frame. B-type natriuretic peptide levels decreased significantly more with levosimendan and the length of hospital stay was almost two days shorter. In contrast, hypotension episodes were more frequent with levosimendan, and also there was an excess of ventricular and atrial arrhythmias. A trend towards higher number of deaths was observed, which didn&#146;t reach statistical significance. These data should be considered in the light of the initial bolus and high uniform maintenance doses employed in this particular study, which doesn&#146;t resemble what is done in clinical practice. Also, levosimendan was used together with other vasodilators and phosphodiesterase inhibitors after intense diuresis, which may have led to unrecognized hypovolemia and massive vasodilatation. The other trial, SURVIVE<sup>72</sup>, compared levosimendan against dobutamine in patients considered candidates for inotropic support. The primary endpoint of 180 days mortality wasn&#146;t reached, but there was a trend to lower hospital mortality. Again, one has to consider the low dose of dobutamine employed in this trial (6 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>) and the high standardized maintenance dose of levosimendan (0.2 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup>), which is different from the use of levosimendan in countries with everyday experience with this drug. In both trials hemodynamic monitoring was not carried out despite the inclusion of severely ill patients, what doesn&#146;t reflect clinical practice in real world, where the compound is approved and has been clinically used. </p>
      <p>Taken together, the accumulated evidence on levosimendan suggests that its maintenance doses should be reduced to 0.1 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup> and that it should be avoided in hypotensive patients. The loading dose should also be reduced to 6-12 &#181;g/kg infused over 10 minutes, restricted to those patients with systolic pressure higher than 110 mmHg and in whom an immediate response is needed. Further trials should be done to validate this practice.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>COMBINATION OF AGENTS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The efficacy and safety of all available agents are dose dependent, i.e., higher doses bring more pronounced improvement in cardiac output, but potentially cause more arrhythmias and other side effects. The combination of different inotropic agents can potentiate the beneficial hemodynamic effects, but also cause synergistic toxicity. This is particularly true for the association of dobutamine-milrinone, agents that increase intracellular calcium. The association of dobutamine with levosimendan, however, seems more attractive, since it allows reducing the doses of dobutamine<sup>73</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>HOW TO SELECT AN INTRAVENOUS TREATMENT BASED ON CLINICAL AND HEMODYNAMIC PARAMETERS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The flow diagram in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">figure 1</xref> allows a rationalization of the treatment of DHF, based on clinical and hemodynamic parameters.</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0369-00022-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Those patients who present with warm extremities and pulmonary or systemic congestion, without hypotension are treated initially with intravenous diuretics and optimization of oral therapy. The use of intravenous vasodilators or levosimendan is optional. If the response to initial treatment is considered inadequate after 24-48h (worsening of renal function, persistent congestion and dyspnea), levosimendan, if available and not used yet, should be the next option.</p>
      <p>Patients with cool extremities, with or without hypotension should have their volume status checked first. If the presence of congestion is not obvious, one should check for hypovolemia and the need for volume administration. For patients with systemic or pulmonary congestion, without hypotension, levosimendan or an intravenous vasodilator seem to be the best choice. However, if hypotension is present, the initial choice should rely on dobutamine associated with dopamine or norepinephrine. After initial stabilization, levosimendan can be added to wean dobutamine. In patients already taking dobutamine, it&#146;s our practice to start levosimendan at 0.05 - 0.1 &#181;g/kg.min<sup>-1</sup> and, after 6h of simultaneous infusion, start the weaning process of dobutamine so that, after 24h, it can be discontinued. If hypotension occurs, the infusion rate can be reduced or, as we prefer, to add or increase the dose of dopamine or norepinephrine.</p>
      <p>For patients who are on chronic oral treatment with a betablocker, and there is a need for inotropic therapy, levosimendan or milrinone should be the preferred choice (since the mechanisms of action are post-receptor, and then are not attenuated by betablockers). Hospital costs of levosimendan are similar to dobutamine, despite higher costs of the medication, indicating that the acquisition costs alone should not influence which agent should be utilized<sup>74,75</sup></p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>- F. Vilas-Boas has been part of Scientific Advisory Boards and received honoraria for lectures for Abbott Laboratories; he has also been member of Scientific Advisory Boards for Janssen-Cilag Latin America.</p>
      <p>- F. Follath has been a member of Scientific Advisory Boards and received honoraria for lectures from Abbott.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>REFERENCES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing Address:</p>
          <p> F&#225;bio Vilas-Boas</p>
          <p> Hospital Espanhol &#150; Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia</p>
          <p> Av. Sete de Setembro, 2152/2002</p>
          <p> 40080-002 - Salvador &#150; BA</p>
          <p> Email: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="fabiovboas@cardiol.br">fabiovboas@cardiol.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received on 08/07/06</p>
      <p> Accepted on 08/30/06</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
