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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">z43NHvRdgrPdDkzjQqD53xy</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001600012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700312</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001600012</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Lupus eritematoso sist&#234;mico: novo fator de risco para aterosclerose?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Freire</surname>
            <given-names>Beatriz Funayama Alvarenga</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Rog&#233;rio Cardoso da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fabro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Todorovic</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Daniela Cristina dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>300</fpage>
      <lpage>306</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>14</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2005</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>30</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2005</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Avaliar a preval&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares (ECV) secund&#225;rios &#224; aterosclerose em pacientes com lupus eritematoso sist&#234;mico (LES) e correlacion&#225;-los aos tradicionais fatores de risco, tempo de doen&#231;a e drogas utilizadas na terapia. M&#201;TODOS: Estudo retrospectivo atrav&#233;s da coleta e an&#225;lise dos dados contidos nos prontu&#225;rios de pacientes com diagn&#243;stico confirmado h&#225; no m&#237;nimo dois anos e seguidos desde 1992. Foram considerados ECV: angina do peito (AP), IAM e acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) de causa n&#227;o relacionada &#224; atividade do LES. Foram computados os fatores de risco para aterosclerose e dados sobre tratamento. RESULTADOS: Foram analisados 71 prontu&#225;rios. A m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes foi de 34,2&#177;12,7 anos; 68 mulheres e tr&#234;s homens; 58 caucas&#243;ides (81,6%). Dez (14,08%) apresentaram ECV. Os pacientes nos quais os eventos cardiovasculares foram observados apresentavam idade mais elevada (42,7 vs 32,8 anos p=0,0021) e maior tempo de doen&#231;a (10,8 vs 7,2 anos p=0,011). Os tradicionais fatores de risco, as doses di&#225;rias e cumulativas de ester&#243;ides, imunossupressores e antimal&#225;ricos n&#227;o apresentaram diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica significante entre pacientes que apresentaram ou n&#227;o ECV. CONCLUS&#195;O: A preval&#234;ncia de secund&#225;rios &#224; aterosclerose no LES foi semelhante ao da literatura, 14,08%. Os tradicionais fatores de risco n&#227;o mostraram associa&#231;&#227;o com a ocorr&#234;ncia ou n&#227;o de ECV no LES. Os pacientes nos quais os eventos cardiovasculares foram observados apresentavam idade mais elevada e maior tempo de doen&#231;a. &#201; precoce estabelecer-se que o LES possa ser um fator independente no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Lupus eritematoso sist&#234;mico</kwd>
        <kwd>aterosclerose</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;a cardiovascular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>16</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGOS ORIGINAIS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Lupus eritematoso sist&#234;mico: novo fator de risco para aterosclerose?</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Beatriz Funayama Alvarenga Freire; Rog&#233;rio Cardoso da Silva; Alexandre Todorovic Fabro; Daniela Cristina dos Santos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#150; UNESP - Botucatu, SP</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold>Avaliar a preval&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares (ECV) secund&#225;rios &#224; aterosclerose em pacientes com lupus eritematoso sist&#234;mico (LES) e correlacion&#225;-los aos tradicionais fatores de risco, tempo de doen&#231;a e drogas utilizadas na terapia. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS: </bold>Estudo retrospectivo atrav&#233;s da coleta e an&#225;lise dos dados contidos nos prontu&#225;rios de pacientes com diagn&#243;stico confirmado h&#225; no m&#237;nimo dois anos e seguidos desde 1992. Foram considerados ECV: angina do peito (AP), IAM e acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) de causa n&#227;o relacionada &#224; atividade do LES. Foram computados os fatores de risco para aterosclerose e dados sobre tratamento. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold>Foram analisados 71 prontu&#225;rios. A m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes foi de 34,2&#177;12,7 anos; 68 mulheres e tr&#234;s homens; 58 caucas&#243;ides (81,6%). Dez (14,08%) apresentaram ECV. Os pacientes nos quais os eventos cardiovasculares foram observados apresentavam idade mais elevada (42,7 vs 32,8 anos p=0,0021) e maior tempo de doen&#231;a (10,8 vs 7,2 anos p=0,011). Os tradicionais fatores de risco, as doses di&#225;rias e cumulativas de ester&#243;ides, imunossupressores e antimal&#225;ricos n&#227;o apresentaram diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica significante entre pacientes que apresentaram ou n&#227;o ECV. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O: </bold>A preval&#234;ncia de secund&#225;rios &#224; aterosclerose no LES foi semelhante ao da literatura, 14,08%. Os tradicionais fatores de risco n&#227;o mostraram associa&#231;&#227;o com a ocorr&#234;ncia ou n&#227;o de ECV no LES. Os pacientes nos quais os eventos cardiovasculares foram observados apresentavam idade mais elevada e maior tempo de doen&#231;a. &#201; precoce estabelecer-se que o LES possa ser um fator independente no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold>Lupus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, aterosclerose, doen&#231;a cardiovascular.</p>
    <p>Lupus eritematoso sist&#234;mico (LES) &#233; uma doen&#231;a sist&#234;mica, inflamat&#243;ria e auto-imune que acomete difusamente o tecido conjuntivo de maneira cr&#244;nica. Apresenta distribui&#231;&#227;o universal com preval&#234;ncia de 14,8 a 50,8 casos por 100.000 habitantes e incid&#234;ncia de 1,8 a 7,6 por 100.000 habitantes em estudos americanos<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es iniciais da doen&#231;a podem ser agudas ou insidiosas. Os sintomas geralmente s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos e incluem artralgia, mialgia, n&#225;useas, v&#244;mitos, cefal&#233;ia, depress&#227;o, adinamia, emagrecimento e febre, variavelmente combinados. Podem apresentar-se de forma leve ou grave, intermitente ou persistente. Todos os &#243;rg&#227;os podem ser acometidos, com envolvimento preferencial de articula&#231;&#245;es, pele, rins, serosas e vasos<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>O grau de morbidade da doen&#231;a &#233; alto e pode ser representado, sobretudo, pelo comprometimento renal que ocorre em quase todos os pacientes em algum momento durante o curso da doen&#231;a. As causas mais comuns de morte s&#227;o o acometimento renal e as complica&#231;&#245;es infecciosas<sup>3</sup>.</p>
    <p>Nos anos 70, trabalhos realizados em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, nos quais as mortes por infec&#231;&#245;es eram pouco comuns, come&#231;aram a mostrar que o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio era uma importante causa de morte entre os pacientes l&#250;picos. O primeiro desses trabalhos foi publicado por Urowitz e cols. em 1976, cujo estudo mostrou que 45% das mortes ocorridas entre os portadores de LES haviam sido por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares secund&#225;rias a processo ateromatoso<sup>4</sup>. O padr&#227;o da curva de mortalidade era bimodal. O primeiro pico, considerado precoce (menos de 2 anos de doen&#231;a), ocorria devido &#224; atividade aguda da doen&#231;a e/ou infec&#231;&#227;o. O segundo pico, considerado tardio (mais de 2 anos de doen&#231;a), tamb&#233;m inclu&#237;a as mortes ocorridas por doen&#231;a aguda e/ou infec&#231;&#227;o, por&#233;m, 30% delas foram relacionadas ao envolvimento card&#237;aco e c&#233;rebro-vascular secund&#225;rio &#224; aterosclerose, de intensidades moderada a severa, presente em v&#225;rios casos. Outro estudo revelou que a incid&#234;ncia de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio no LES &#233; 50 vezes maior quando comparada a mulheres sem LES, pertencentes &#224; mesma faixa et&#225;ria<sup>5</sup>. A maioria das mortes acontece em mulheres antes dos 55 anos de idade e, freq&#252;entemente, n&#227;o menopausadas. Angina pectoris pode ocorrer em 6,5% a 15,8% dos casos<sup>6</sup>. Somam-se a esses, outros trabalhos que mostram dados semelhantes, fundamentando a hip&#243;tese de que mulheres com LES t&#234;m maior probabilidade de desenvolver processo ateroscler&#243;tico<sup>7,8</sup>. </p>
    <p>A introdu&#231;&#227;o dos ester&#243;ides no tratamento do LES &#233; apontada por alguns como fundamental no surgimento da aterosclerose precoce nesses pacientes, j&#225; que na era pr&#233;-ester&#243;ides os eventos vasculares representavam menos de 10% de todas as mortes<sup>9</sup>. O estudo de aut&#243;psias de pacientes com LES mostrou que 42% dos que receberam terapia com ester&#243;ides por mais de um ano tinham significante forma&#231;&#227;o de placas em pelo menos um vaso coron&#225;rio e metade deles com hist&#243;ria de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio<sup>6</sup>. No entanto, outros autores falharam em mostrar associa&#231;&#227;o de doses cumulativas ou m&#225;ximas de ester&#243;ides ou dura&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana<sup>10</sup>. A extens&#227;o e a intensidade do envolvimento dos ester&#243;ides nesses achados ainda &#233; discut&#237;vel<sup>11,12</sup>. </p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a ativa com vasculites, que s&#227;o freq&#252;entes nesses pacientes, pode levar a maior comprometimento vascular e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, ent&#227;o, &#233; poss&#237;vel que pacientes que tenham maior n&#250;mero de recidivas tenham maior chance de les&#227;o endotelial e, em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia, mais aterosclerose<sup>13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Eventos cl&#237;nicos, como angina pectoris e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, s&#227;o usados como base para as an&#225;lises da maioria dos trabalhos nessa &#225;rea. Entretanto, a freq&#252;&#234;ncia de aterosclerose subcl&#237;nica varia de 4% a 23% nos diferentes estudos, de acordo com as t&#233;cnicas empregadas na sua detec&#231;&#227;o<sup>14</sup>. Assim, a real incid&#234;ncia de aterosclerose pode estar sendo subdiagnosticada.</p>
    <p>Estudos ultra-sonogr&#225;ficos das art&#233;rias car&#243;tidas de pacientes com LES constataram que 40% delas possuem pelo menos uma placa ateromatosa nestes vasos. A preval&#234;ncia de placas aumenta com o aumento da idade. Apesar disso, 22% das mulheres em pr&#233;-menopausa apresentavam placa antes dos 45 anos<sup>15</sup>.</p>
    <p>Como se observa, o aceleramento do processo ateroscler&#243;tico em pacientes com LES &#233; um problema real e indiscut&#237;vel na atualidade, principalmente pelos &#237;ndices de morbidade e mortalidade do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, sua principal forma de apresenta&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar a preval&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares secund&#225;rios a processo ateroscler&#243;tico na popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com LES que s&#227;o atendidos em hospital universit&#225;rio e correlacion&#225;-los aos conhecidos fatores de risco para desenvolvimento de aterosclerose.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#201;TODOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O estudo foi retrospectivo, atrav&#233;s da coleta e an&#225;lise dos dados obtidos dos prontu&#225;rios hospitalares de pacientes com LES que preencheram os crit&#233;rios do Col&#233;gio Americano de Reumatologia (ACR) para classifica&#231;&#227;o de LES<sup>16</sup>, cujos diagn&#243;sticos foram confirmados h&#225; no m&#237;nimo dois anos, seguidos durante o per&#237;odo de janeiro de 1992 a dezembro de 2003 e iniciado ap&#243;s aprova&#231;&#227;o pelo comit&#234; de &#233;tica em pesquisa da institui&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Foram considerados eventos cardiovasculares secund&#225;rios &#224; aterosclerose: angina pectoris, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio e acidente vascular cerebral. O diagn&#243;stico do evento foi feito cl&#237;nico-laboratorialmente e foram afastadas as causas diretas de les&#227;o por atividade da doen&#231;a de base. Assim, n&#227;o foram considerados os eventos quando comprovada a presen&#231;a de vasculite e suas complica&#231;&#245;es secund&#225;rias ao LES em atividade. </p>
    <p>Os tradicionais fatores de risco para desenvolvimento de aterosclerose foram assim computados e definidos: tabagismo; &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea calculado em kg/m&#178;; presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a renal foi considerada se a filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular era menor que 50 ml/min; drogas em uso: dosagem e dura&#231;&#227;o do uso de ester&#243;ides, antimal&#225;ricos, imunossupressores e terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal (TRH). Diabetes foi definido quando presentes sintomas cl&#225;ssicos (polidipsia, poli&#250;ria e perda de peso inexplic&#225;vel) associados &#224; concentra&#231;&#227;o plasm&#225;tica de glicose superior ou igual a 200 mg/dl em dosagem casual; ou glicemia plasm&#225;tica ap&#243;s jejum de pelo menos 8 horas superior ou igual a 126mg/dl; ou glicemia plasm&#225;tica ap&#243;s duas horas superior ou igual a 200mg/dl durante o teste oral de toler&#226;ncia a glicose<sup>17</sup>. A presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o foi definida quando presentes press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica superior a 140 mmHg ou press&#227;o arterial dist&#243;lica superior a 90 mmHg em pelo menos dois ou mais registros ou em tratamento anti-hipertensivo<sup>18</sup>. A hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a coronariana prematura foi considerada positiva, se ocorrida em familiar de primeiro grau do sexo masculino, com idade inferior a 55 anos ou do sexo feminino, inferior a 65 anos<sup>19</sup>. A an&#225;lise do perfil lip&#237;dico em jejum foi considerada fator de risco, se lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-colesterol) superior ou igual a 160mg/dl, lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-colesterol) inferior a 40 mg/dl e colesterol total superior ou igual a 240 mg/dl<sup>19</sup>.</p>
    <p>Ao final do estudo, foram analisados o n&#250;mero de pacientes com LES que apresentaram eventos cardiovasculares ap&#243;s dois anos de doen&#231;a e a correla&#231;&#227;o entre os tradicionais fatores de risco e a presen&#231;a de eventos cardiovasculares.</p>
    <p><italic>Metodologia estat&#237;stica</italic> - Foram apresentados os percentuais de indiv&#237;duos com LES segundo sexo, faixa et&#225;ria, cor, proced&#234;ncia, presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de aterosclerose, presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de diabetes, presen&#231;a ou n&#227;o de doen&#231;as renais, hist&#243;rico familiar de aterosclerose e uso de drogas. </p>
    <p>Calcularam-se os valores m&#233;dios e desvios-padr&#227;o das vari&#225;veis relativas ao perfil lip&#237;dico, bem como as associa&#231;&#245;es entre os fatores de risco e a presen&#231;a de aterosclerose por meio do qui-quadrado e da regress&#227;o log&#237;stica<sup>20</sup>.</p>
    <p>O n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia utilizado foi de 5%.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESULTADOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram analisados 71 prontu&#225;rios de pacientes com LES, 68 do sexo feminino e tr&#234;s do masculino, com m&#233;dia de 34,2 &#177; 12,7 anos de idade. A ra&#231;a preponderante foi a caucasiana, com 58 indiv&#237;duos (81,6%), seguida da mesti&#231;a, com oito (11,2%), negra, com quatro (5,63%) e asi&#225;tica, com um (1,4%), (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tab. 1</xref>). Dez (14,08%) pacientes apresentaram algum evento secund&#225;rio &#224; aterosclerose: angina do peito em cinco (7,04%), infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio em tr&#234;s (4,22%) e acidente vascular cerebral em dois (2,81%).</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0300-00012-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A freq&#252;&#234;ncia dos fatores de risco para desenvolvimento de aterosclerose pode ser vista na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tabela 2</xref> e estes foram assim distribu&#237;dos: 26 (36,6%) eram tabagistas, 16 (22,53%) possu&#237;am hist&#243;ria familiar de evento secund&#225;rio &#224; aterosclerose, dois apresentavam diabete melito (2,81%), 17 (23,94%) eram hipertensos, seis (8,45%) apresentavam nefropatia, 67 (94,36%) faziam uso cr&#244;nico de corticoester&#243;ides, 27 (38,02%) usavam antimal&#225;ricos na terapia, doze (16,9%) foram tratados com ciclofosfamida e o &#237;ndice m&#233;dio de massa corp&#243;rea (IMC) foi de 24,0 &#177; 1,3 kg/m<sup>2</sup>. A an&#225;lise do perfil lip&#237;dico contou com 51 pacientes dos quais 22 (43,13%) apresentaram hipercolesterolemia e 20 (39,21%) hipertrigliceridemia. A dosagem do LDL-colesterol foi documentada em 39 pacientes e 16 (41,02%) apresentavam n&#237;veis elevados. Nenhum destes par&#226;metros apresentou diferen&#231;a estat&#237;stica significante quando comparados com os pacientes que n&#227;o apresentaram qualquer evento vascular secund&#225;rio &#224; aterosclerose. Salienta-se que o perfil lip&#237;dico n&#227;o foi encontrado em 28,1% dos prontu&#225;rios analisados.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0300-00012-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os pacientes com eventos cardiovasculares apresentavam idade mais elevada (42,7 &#177; 10,9 anos p=0,021) e maior tempo de doen&#231;a (10,8 &#177; 3,6 anos p=0,011) como mostra a <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tabela 3</xref>. As doses di&#225;rias m&#233;dias e cumulativas anuais de corticoester&#243;ides foram de 23,1 &#177; 7,4 mg (p&gt;0,05) e 8.414,3 &#177; 2.702,9 mg (p&gt;0,05), respectivamente. A dose m&#233;dia di&#225;ria de antimal&#225;ricos foi de 250,5 &#177; 176,2 mg (p&gt;0,05) e a anual 91.080,0 &#177; 64.040,5 mg (p&gt;0,05). Os imunossupressores foram usados na dose di&#225;ria m&#233;dia de 23,6 &#177; 12,5 mg (p&gt;0,05) e anual de 8.678,5 &#177; 4.640,3 mg (p&gt;0,05). Nenhuma paciente fazia uso de terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0300-00012-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>O perfil do grupo de pacientes que apresentaram eventos vasculares mostrou ser composto por dez mulheres: seis caucasianas (60%), duas mesti&#231;as (20%) e duas negras (20%). A idade m&#237;nima foi de 33 e a m&#225;xima de 66 anos. Tr&#234;s eram tabagistas (30%), duas apresentavam hist&#243;ria familiar de evento cardiovascular secund&#225;rio &#224; aterosclerose (20%), duas eram hipertensas (20%), uma apresentava nefropatia (10%), nove (90%) faziam uso de corticoester&#243;ides, cinco (50 %) de antimal&#225;ricos e quatro (40 %) de imunossupressores. As dosagens lip&#237;dicas foram realizadas em oito pacientes, a hipercolesterolemia estava presente em cinco (62,5%) e hipertrigliceridemia em tr&#234;s (37,5%). LDL-colesterol foi dosado em quatro pacientes e duas apresentaram eleva&#231;&#227;o de seus n&#237;veis. Nenhuma era diab&#233;tica. O IMC deste grupo foi de 23,97 &#177; 1,35 kg/m<sup>2</sup> (26 &#150; 22,36), portanto, nenhuma era obesa.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>DISCUSS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O LES &#233; um prot&#243;tipo de doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria que afeta secundariamente o sistema vascular. As manifesta&#231;&#245;es vasculares tipicamente associadas ao LES s&#227;o vari&#225;veis e incluem vasculites, vasoespasmos e tromboembolismo. A sobrevida da doen&#231;a aumentou com as novas e melhores formas terap&#234;uticas, o que possibilitou o surgimento de novas complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares como a doen&#231;a vascular ateroscler&#243;tica prematura<sup>21</sup>. Neste estudo, a preval&#234;ncia desse tipo de evento vascular foi de 14,08% numa popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com LES seguida num hospital universit&#225;rio. Angina do peito ocorreu em cinco (7,04%) dos pacientes, infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio em tr&#234;s (4,22%) e acidente vascular cerebral em dois (2,81%). Na literatura, este n&#250;mero &#233; vari&#225;vel de acordo com o m&#233;todo utilizado. Nos estudos retrospectivos em que foram consideradas somente as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas coronarianas, ou seja, angina pectoris e IAM, a preval&#234;ncia foi de 6%, por&#233;m, em estudos prospectivos e de aut&#243;psia este n&#250;mero cresce para 2 a 19,8% e 10 a 54% respectivamente, para angina pectoris e IAM<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar de n&#227;o totalmente conhecida, a aterog&#234;nese no LES pode estar relacionada a caracter&#237;sticas pr&#243;prias da doen&#231;a e sua terap&#234;utica.</p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise dos tradicionais fatores de risco e evento cardiovascular n&#227;o mostrou correla&#231;&#227;o positiva. Assim, neste grupo de pacientes, a presen&#231;a de fatores como tabagismo, hipertens&#227;o, diabetes ou dislipidemia contribuem, mas possivelmente n&#227;o s&#227;o os fatores de maior import&#226;ncia nesta doen&#231;a<sup>22</sup>. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo, o acometimento renal n&#227;o mostrou associa&#231;&#227;o com a presen&#231;a de eventos cardiovasculares. No entanto, a s&#237;ndrome nefr&#243;tica, comum na nefrite l&#250;pica, tamb&#233;m pode causar dist&#250;rbios lip&#237;dicos e aumento dos n&#237;veis de homociste&#237;na, al&#233;m de outras complica&#231;&#245;es<sup>23</sup>. A homociste&#237;na &#233; considerada um "novo" fator de risco independente no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose em pacientes com LES, possui efeito t&#243;xico direto sobre o endot&#233;lio, &#233; pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tica, aumenta produ&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno e diminui a disponibilidade de &#243;xido n&#237;trico<sup>24</sup>. N&#237;veis plasm&#225;ticos elevados de homociste&#237;na podem ser encontrados em 15% de pacientes com LES associados ao sexo masculino, presen&#231;a de insufici&#234;ncia renal, uso de prednisona, n&#237;veis baixos de vitamina B, &#225;cido f&#243;lico e piridoxina<sup>25</sup>. Infelizmente, a dosagem de homociste&#237;na n&#227;o &#233; realizada como parte da rotina laboratorial no nosso meio.</p>
    <p>A an&#225;lise dos n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos dos pacientes deste estudo n&#227;o foi realizada em 20 (28,16%) dos 71 indiv&#237;duos e a dosagem de LDL-colesterol, em 32 (45%) deles. Somente em quatro pacientes do grupo com ECV foi dosado o n&#237;vel de LDL-colesterol, o que sugere a pouca preocupa&#231;&#227;o dos cl&#237;nicos neste particular, provavelmente por estarem envolvidos no pronto tratamento da doen&#231;a de base. Assim, devido ao grande n&#250;mero de pacientes sem a dosagem dos l&#237;pides, este par&#226;metro deve ser considerado com reservas. A hipercolesterolemia foi encontrada em 22 (43,13%), hipertrigliceridemia em 20 (39,21%) e LDL-colesterol elevado em 16 (41,02%). Este perfil lip&#237;dico n&#227;o mostrou signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica quando associado &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia dos eventos cardiovasculares. No entanto, dentro do grupo que apresentou algum evento cardiovascular, dos dez pacientes, cinco (50%) apresentavam hipercolesterolemia, tr&#234;s hipertrigliceridemia e dois aumento do LDL-colesterol. </p>
    <p>O tratamento do LES, especialmente o uso de ester&#243;ides, pode tamb&#233;m influenciar o processo ateroscler&#243;tico. Acredita-se que este tratamento seja aterog&#234;nico, parcialmente devido aos efeitos sobre as lipoprote&#237;nas plasm&#225;ticas. A eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis lip&#237;dicos circulantes no LES pode ser explicada por v&#225;rios mecanismos. O uso por tempo prolongado de corticoester&#243;ides &#233; sabidamente respons&#225;vel pela eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de colesterol total, triglic&#233;rides, apolipoprote&#237;na B e por promover distribui&#231;&#227;o anormal de subclasses de lipoprote&#237;nas de alta densidade<sup>26</sup>. Por outro lado, a inflama&#231;&#227;o est&#225; implicada na aterosclerose e, ent&#227;o, o tratamento com ester&#243;ides poderia ter efeito protetivo. Os estudos j&#225; publicados a este respeito s&#227;o conflitantes. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo, por&#233;m, n&#227;o houve correla&#231;&#227;o entre o uso de ester&#243;ides e evento cardiovascular. Tanto o tempo de uso como a dose cumulativa destas drogas n&#227;o se mostraram significantes. Acredita-se que o uso de prednisona n&#227;o possa ser considerado fator de risco isolado no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose. O tempo de uso pode tamb&#233;m representar dura&#231;&#227;o mais longa da doen&#231;a e um sub-grupo de pacientes com doen&#231;a mais severa. Todavia, a prednisona pode indiretamente acelerar o processo por aumentar outros tradicionais fatores de risco: hipercolesterolemia, hipertens&#227;o e obesidade<sup>14</sup>. Fala a favor desta considera&#231;&#227;o o fato de que, neste estudo, os pacientes nos quais os eventos cardiovasculares foram observados apresentavam idade mais elevada (42,7 vs 32,8 anos p=0,0021) e maior tempo de doen&#231;a (10,8 vs 7,2 anos p=0,011). </p>
    <p>Jimenez e cols.<sup>27</sup> e Roman e cols.<sup>28</sup> encontraram correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre presen&#231;a de placa em car&#243;tida e altas doses m&#233;dias di&#225;rias de prednisolona. No entanto, outros estudos encontraram correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre uso de ester&#243;ides, ECV e aumento da espessura do espa&#231;o intima-m&#233;dia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum medida por ultra-sonografia<sup>15,29</sup>. Claramente, o papel do tratamento com ester&#243;ides na evolu&#231;&#227;o de ECV no LES necessita de maiores investiga&#231;&#245;es.</p>
    <p>A ciclofosfamida foi o outro agente imunossupressor utilizado pelos pacientes deste estudo. Esta droga foi administrada em forma de pulsoterapia na qual s&#227;o administradas doses de 1g via endovenosa a cada seis semanas. N&#227;o foi encontrada associa&#231;&#227;o significante entre o uso da ciclofosfamida e pacientes com ou sem ECV. Outros estudos mostraram que o tratamento com imunossupressores pode estar relacionado ao restabelecimento da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial de pacientes com vasculites prim&#225;rias<sup>30</sup>. Em pacientes com LES, a terapia mais agressiva apresentou correla&#231;&#227;o negativa com aterosclerose, o que sugere que uma terapia mais vigorosa possa diminuir a probabilidade de ocorrer aterosclerose<sup>28</sup>. Assim, &#233; razo&#225;vel que em pacientes que apresentam vasculites cut&#226;neas e/ou sist&#234;micas, cujo controle do processo inflamat&#243;rio tenha sido precoce e agressivamente realizado, tenham melhor fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial e, em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia, menor chance de aterosclerose. </p>
    <p>Este estudo mostrou que, dos 71 pacientes analisados, somente 27 deles faziam uso de antimal&#225;ricos (38,02%). Estes f&#225;rmacos, como a hidroxicloroquina e a quinacrina, s&#227;o indicados no tratamento do LES por serem agentes poupadores de corticoester&#243;ides, fotoprotetores e por mostrarem-se efetivos na melhora do quadro articular. Notadamente, podem reduzir de 10 a 12% o n&#237;vel de colesterol total e 12% o n&#237;vel de LDL em pacientes l&#250;picos em uso de ester&#243;ides<sup>31</sup>. Al&#233;m deste papel antiaterog&#234;nico, os antimal&#225;ricos mostraram ser ben&#233;ficos na hiperglicemia e exercer papel anti-tromb&#243;tico auxiliando, portanto, tamb&#233;m no controle de outros fatores de risco<sup>14</sup>. Assim, sendo drogas de relativa seguran&#231;a, deveriam ser usadas com maior freq&#252;&#234;ncia nesse tipo de paciente. </p>
    <p>Outros mecanismos podem estar envolvidos na aterog&#234;nese precoce no LES, os quais n&#227;o foram objetos deste estudo, por&#233;m s&#227;o de relev&#226;ncia.</p>
    <p>A produ&#231;&#227;o patol&#243;gica de auto-anticorpos no LES &#233; caracter&#237;stica. V&#225;rios desses anticorpos est&#227;o envolvidos ora diretamente na les&#227;o endotelial ora na produ&#231;&#227;o e/ou indu&#231;&#227;o da express&#227;o de fatores inflamat&#243;rios que acabam por lesar o endot&#233;lio. Vale a pena citar os anticorpos antifosfol&#237;pides<sup>32</sup> e os anticorpos antiLDL oxidada, estes &#250;ltimos tamb&#233;m considerados membros da fam&#237;lia dos antifosfol&#237;pides, e os anticorpos antiprotrombina<sup>33,34</sup>. Estes anticorpos predisp&#245;em pacientes com LES &#224; trombose venosa e doen&#231;a arterial e foram associados a aterog&#234;nese em estudos in vitro<sup>35-40</sup>. Seu papel patog&#234;nico na aterosclerose ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claro. Outros anticorpos, como o antilipase, foram detectados em 47% dos soros de pacientes com LES e podem levar &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de triglic&#233;rides devido ao n&#227;o catabolismo dos quilomicrons, atividade da l&#237;pase que &#233; bloqueada<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>A produ&#231;&#227;o patol&#243;gica de auto-anticorpos no LES envolve interliga&#231;&#245;es de CD40 ligante (CD40L) presente nos linf&#243;citos T e CD40 na c&#233;lula B<sup>42</sup>. Nesses pacientes, h&#225; express&#227;o aumentada de CD40L e aumento do n&#250;mero de c&#233;lulas positivas para CD40L que incluem as c&#233;lulas endoteliais. A liga&#231;&#227;o pode induzir produ&#231;&#227;o e express&#227;o das mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o que facilitar&#227;o a inflama&#231;&#227;o e les&#227;o vascular tanto no LES como na aterosclerose<sup>43</sup>. </p>
    <p>O acometimento vascular &#233; outra caracter&#237;stica do LES em atividade e pode ocorrer em diferentes s&#237;tios cut&#226;neos e/ou sist&#234;micos na forma de vasculites. A les&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria &#224; parede vascular pode levar &#224; inj&#250;ria endotelial e conseq&#252;entemente &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, considerada o primeiro passo para a aterosclerose. A disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial foi demonstrada em estudo na doen&#231;a em atividade<sup>44</sup>, mas n&#227;o foi encontrada em pacientes quiescentes (dados n&#227;o publicados). Possivelmente, &#224; semelhan&#231;a dos achados em pacientes com vasculites prim&#225;rias, a fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial possa ser restabelecida ap&#243;s tratamento da atividade do LES.</p>
    <p>Deve-se tamb&#233;m considerar que a maior incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares secund&#225;rios &#224; aterosclerose no LES possa estar associada ao aumento nos n&#237;veis de prote&#237;na C reativa, imunocomplexos circulantes, prote&#237;nas do complemento e homociste&#237;na encontrados nesta doen&#231;a<sup>45-48</sup>, mas que n&#227;o foram objeto deste estudo. </p>
    <p> Finalmente, ressaltam-se as limita&#231;&#245;es do presente estudo, por se tratar de an&#225;lise retrospectiva e dados importantes como o perfil lip&#237;dico completo de todos os pacientes n&#227;o terem sido obtidos. Ent&#227;o, torna-se de fundamental import&#226;ncia que o cl&#237;nico fique atento n&#227;o s&#243; ao tratamento da doen&#231;a ativa, mas tamb&#233;m deve atuar na preven&#231;&#227;o e/ou diagn&#243;stico e tratamento dos fatores associados &#224; aterosclerose precocemente.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>CONCLUS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A preval&#234;ncia de ECV secund&#225;rios &#224; aterosclerose no LES foi semelhante ao da literatura, 14,08%. </p>
    <p>Os tradicionais fatores de risco, exceto perfil lip&#237;dico que n&#227;o p&#244;de ser inclu&#237;do, n&#227;o mostraram associa&#231;&#227;o com a ocorr&#234;ncia ou n&#227;o de ECV no LES.</p>
    <p>Os pacientes nos quais os eventos cardiovasculares foram observados apresentavam idade mais elevada e maior tempo de doen&#231;a.</p>
    <p>&#201; precoce estabelecer-se que o LES possa ser um fator independente no desenvolvimento da aterosclerose.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Agradecemos &#224; Prof&#170;. Dra. L&#237;dia Raquel de Carvalho, do Departamento de Bioestat&#237;stica, Instituto de Bioci&#234;ncias de Botucatu &#150; UNESP, pela an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Beatriz Funayama Alvarenga Freire </p>
        <p> Caixa Postal 571 </p>
        <p> 18618-000 &#150; Botucatu, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="bfreire@fmb.unesp.br">bfreire@fmb.unesp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 14/02/05 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 30/09/05</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Is systemic lupus erithematosus a new risk factor for atherosclerosis?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the prevalence of cardiovascular events (CVE) secondary to atherosclerosis in lupus patients and correlate them to the traditional risk factors, disease duration and drug therapy used. METHODS: A retrospective study was carried out based on data obtained from patients&#8217; charts. Patients included were those who had a lupus diagnosis confirmed at least two years before inclusion in the study and had been followed since 1992. CVE were characterized as MI, angina pectoris and stroke non-related to lupus activity. Risk factors and drugs used for treatment were recorded. RESULTS: Seventy-one charts were analyzed. Patients&#8217; mean age was 34.2&#177;12.7 years; 68 were women and three were men; 58 were Caucasian (81.6%). Ten (14.08%) presented CVE. Patients in whom CVE were observed were older (42.7 vs. 32.8 years p=0.0021) and presented longer disease duration (10.8 vs. 7.2 years p=0.011). The traditional risk factors, daily and cumulative doses of steroids, immunosuppressive drugs and antimalarial drugs were not significant when patients with and without CVE were compared. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of CVE secondary to atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) was 14.08%. The traditional risk factors were not associated with the development of CVE in lupus patients. Patients that presented cardiovascular events were older and presented longer disease duration. It is a premature conclusion to establish SLE as an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis development.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Systemic lupus erythematosus</kwd>
        <kwd>atherosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>cardiovascular disease</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Is systemic lupus erythematosus a new risk factor for atherosclerosis? </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Beatriz Funayama Alvarenga Freire; Rog&#233;rio Cardoso da Silva; Alexandre Todorovic Fabro; Daniela Cristina dos Santos</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#150; UNESP - Botucatu, SP - </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To evaluate the prevalence of cardiovascular events (CVE) secondary to atherosclerosis in lupus patients and correlate them to the traditional risk factors, disease duration and drug therapy used.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS: </bold>A retrospective study was carried out based on data obtained from patients&#146; charts. Patients included were those who had a lupus diagnosis confirmed at least two years before inclusion in the study and had been followed since 1992. CVE were characterized as MI, angina pectoris and stroke non-related to lupus activity. Risk factors and drugs used for treatment were recorded.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold>Seventy-one charts were analyzed. Patients&#146; mean age was 34.2&#177;12.7 years; 68 were women and three were men; 58 were Caucasian (81.6%). Ten (14.08%) presented CVE. Patients in whom CVE were observed were older (42.7 vs. 32.8 years p=0.0021) and presented longer disease duration (10.8 vs. 7.2 years p=0.011). The traditional risk factors, daily and cumulative doses of steroids, immunosuppressive drugs and antimalarial drugs were not significant when patients with and without CVE were compared.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold>The prevalence of CVE secondary to atherosclerosis in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) was 14.08%. The traditional risk factors were not associated with the development of CVE in lupus patients. Patients that presented cardiovascular events were older and presented longer disease duration. It is a premature conclusion to establish SLE as an independent risk factor for atherosclerosis development.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words: </bold>Systemic lupus erythematosus, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disease.</p>
      <p>Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE) is a systemic, inflammatory and autoimmune disease that diffusely affects conjunctive tissue in a chronic way. It presents a worldwide distribution with a prevalence of 14.8 to 50.8 cases per 100,000 inhabitants and an incidence of 1.8 to 7.6 per 100,000 inhabitants in American studies<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>The initial manifestations of the disease can be acute or insidious. Symptoms are usually non-specific and include myalgia, nausea, vomiting, headaches, depression, adinamy, weight loss and fever, in several combinations. They can present as mild or severe, intermittent or persistent symptoms. All organs can be affected, with the preferential involvement of the joints, skin, serous membranes, and vessels<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>The degree of morbidity is high and can be mainly represented by the renal involvement that occurs in almost all patients at some time during the course of the disease. The most common causes of death are renal involvement and infectious complications<sup>3</sup>.</p>
      <p>Studies carried out in the 70&#146;s in developed countries, where death due to infection was uncommon, started to show that myocardial infarction was an important cause of death among lupus patients. The first of such studies was published by Urowitz et al in 1976, which showed that 45% of the deaths that occurred among SLE patients were due to cardiovascular diseases secondary to an atheromatous process<sup>4</sup>. The pattern of the mortality curve was bimodal. The first peak, considered an early one (less than 2 years of disease duration) occurred due to the acute activity of the disease and/or infection. The second peak, considered a late one (more than two years of disease duration) also included the deaths due to acute disease and/or infections, however, 30% of them were related to cardiac and cerebrovascular involvement, secondary to atherosclerosis, of moderate to severe intensity, present in several cases. Another study showed that the incidence of myocardial infarction in SLE has a 50-fold increase when compared to patients without lupus, within the same age range<sup>5</sup>. Most of the deaths occur in women younger than 55 years, who have often not entered menopause. Angina pectoris can occur in 6.5% to 15.8% of the cases<sup>6</sup>. Additionally, other studies have shown similar results, supporting the hypothesis that women with SLE have a higher probability to develop an atherosclerotic process<sup>7,8</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>METHODS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The introduction of steroids in the treatment of SLE is considered by some as being fundamental in the development of early atherosclerosis in such patients, as vascular events represented less than 10% of all deaths in the pre-steroid age<sup>9</sup>. The study of autopsies of SLE patients showed that 42% of those who underwent steroid therapy for more than a year presented significant plaque formation in at least one coronary vessel and half of them had a history of myocardial infarction<sup>6</sup>. Nevertheless, other authors failed to show an association between cumulative or maximum steroid doses or therapy duration with coronary artery disease<sup>10</sup>. The extension and intensity of steroid use involvement in these findings is still debatable<sup>11,12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The presence of active disease with vasculitis, which are frequently observed in these patients, can lead to a more severe vascular involvement and endothelial dysfunction; thus, it is possible that patients who present a high relapses rate also have a higher chance of developing endothelial lesions, and, consequently, further atherosclerosis<sup>13</sup>.</p>
      <p>Clinical events, such as angina pectoris and myocardial infarction, are the basis for most studies in this area. However, the frequency of subclinical atherosclerosis varies from 4% to 23% in different studies, according to the different techniques employed in its detection<sup>14</sup>. Therefore, it is possible that the real incidence of atherosclerosis is being underdiagnosed. </p>
      <p>Ultrasonography studies of the carotid arteries in SLE patients showed that 40% of them present at least one atheromatous plaque in these vessels. Plaque prevalence increases with age. In spite of that, 22% of the pre-menopausal women presented plaque before 45 years of age<sup>15</sup>.</p>
      <p>As it has been observed, the increased development of the atherosclerotic process in SLE patients is a real and unquestionable current problem, especially due to the morbidity and mortality rates of myocardial infarction, its main form of presentation. </p>
      <p>Hence, the objective of this study was to assess the prevalence of cardiovascular events secondary to an atherosclerotic process in a population of SLE patients who are treated at a university hospital and correlate such events to the known risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>The study was carried out retrospectively through the collection and analysis of data obtained from SLE patients&#146; hospital charts, who fulfilled the criteria established by the American College of Rheumatology (ACR) for SLE classification<sup>16</sup>, whose diagnoses had been confirmed for at least two years and followed from January 1992 to December 2003. The study was approved by the Research Review Board of our Institution. The following were considered cardiovascular events (CVE) secondary to atherosclerosis: angina pectoris, acute myocardial infarction, and stroke. The diagnosis of the event was performed by clinical and laboratory assessment, and the direct causes of lesion due to the activity of the underlying disease were ruled out. Thus, the events were not taken into account when the presence of vasculitis and its complications secondary to active SLE were confirmed. </p>
      <p>The traditional risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis were thus recorded and defined: smoking; BMI calculated in kg/m<sup>2</sup>; presence of renal disease was considered if the glomerular filtration was &lt; 50 mL/min; current drug therapy: dose and duration of steroid, antimalarial, and immunosuppressive drug therapy and hormonal replacement therapy (HRT). Diabetes was defined in the presence of classic symptoms (polyuria, polydipsia and unexplained weight loss) associated to plasma glucose levels <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mg/dL at a casual measurement; or eight-hour fast glucose levels <underline>&gt;</underline> 126 mg/dL; or two-hour plasma glucose levels <underline>&gt;</underline> 200 mg/dL during the oral-glucose tolerance test<sup>17</sup>. The presence of hypertension was defined when systolic arterial pressure was &gt; 140 mmHg or diastolic arterial pressure was &gt; 90 mmHg in at least two or more blood pressure measurements or when the patients were undergoing antihypertensive treatment<sup>18</sup>. Family history of premature coronary artery disease was considered positive when it had occurred in a first-degree male relative younger than 55 years or female relative younger than 65 years<sup>19</sup>. The analysis of the fasting lipid profile was considered a risk factor if the low-density lipoprotein (LDL-cholesterol) was <underline>&gt;</underline> 160 mg/dL, the high-density lipoprotein (HDL-cholesterol) was &lt; 40 mg/dL and total cholesterol was <underline>&gt;</underline> 240 mg/dL<sup>19</sup>.</p>
      <p>At the end of the study, the number of SLE patients that presented CVE after two years of disease duration was analyzed and the traditional risk factors were correlated with the presence of CVE.</p>
      <p><italic>Statistical analysis</italic> - The percentages of individuals with SLE according to sex, age range, race, origin, presence or not of atherosclerosis, presence or not of diabetes, family history of atherosclerosis and drug use were determined. </p>
      <p>The mean values and standard deviations of the variables concerning the lipid profile, as well as the associations between the risk factors and the presence of atherosclerosis were calculated using Chi-square test and logistic regression<sup>20</sup>.</p>
      <p>Significance level was set at 5%.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>RESULTS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Charts of seventy-one patients with SLE were analyzed, being 68 female and 3 male patients, with mean age = 34.2 &#177; 12.7 years. Most patients (81.6%) were Caucasian (n=58), followed by 8 patients of mixed ethnicity (11.2%), 4 Black patients (5.63%) and 1 Asian patient (1.4%), as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>. Ten patients (14.08%) presented some cardiovascular event secondary to atherosclerosis: 5 presented angina pectoris (7.04%), three, myocardial infarction (4.22%) and two, stroke (2.81%).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0300-00012-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The frequency of risk factors for the development of atherosclerosis is shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref> and are as follows: 26 patients were smokers (36.6%), 16 (22.53%) had a family history of CVE secondary to atherosclerosis, 2 (2.81%) had diabetes mellitus, 17 (23.94%) had hypertension, 6 (8.45%) presented nephropathy, 67 (94.36%) were chronic corticosteroid users, 27 (38.02%) used antimalarial drug therapy, 12 (16.9%) were treated with cyclophosphamide and BMI was 24.0 &#177; 1.3 kg/m<sup>2</sup>. The lipid profile analysis of 51 patients showed that 22 (43.13%) had hypercholesterolemia and 20 (39.21%) presented hypertriglyceridemia. LDL-cholesterol measurement was registered in 39 patients and 16 of them (41.02%) presented elevated levels. None of these parameters showed a significant statistical difference when compared to patients that did not present vascular events secondary to atherosclerosis. It is noteworthy that the lipid profile was not documented in 28.1% of the charts analyzed.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0300-00012-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Patients with cardiovascular events were older (42.7&#177; 10.9 yrs, p=0.021) and had longer disease duration (10.8 &#177; 3.6 yrs. p=0.011) as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">Table 3</xref>. Mean daily doses and annual cumulative doses of corticosteroids were 23.1 &#177; 7.4 mg (p&gt;0.05) and 8,414.3 &#177; 2,702.9 mg (p&gt;0.05), respectively. The mean daily dose of antimalarial drugs was 250.5 &#177; 176.2 mg (p&gt;0.05) and the annual dose was 91,080.0 &#177; 64,040.5 mg (p&gt;0.05). Immunosuppressive drugs were used at a mean daily dose of 23.6 &#177; 12.5 mg (p&gt;0.05) and the annual dose was 8,678.5 &#177; 4,640.3 mg (p&gt;0.05). None of the female patients were receiving hormonal replacement therapy.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0300-00012-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The profile of the group of patients who presented CVE consisted of 10 females: six Caucasians (60%), 2 of mixed ethnicity (20%) and 2 Blacks (20%). Minimum and maximum ages were 33 and 66 yrs, respectively. Three were smokers (30%), 2 had a family history of CVE secondary to atherosclerosis (20%), 2 had hypertension (20%), one presented nephropathy (10%), nine utilized corticosteroids (90%), 5 utilized anti-malarial drugs (50%) and 4 utilized immunosuppressive drugs (40%). Lipid measurements were carried out in 8 patients and 5 (62.5%) had hypercholesterolemia and 3 (37.5%) had hypertriglyceridemia. LDL-cholesterol was measured in 4 patients and 2 (50%) presented elevated levels. None of the patients were diabetic. BMI in this group was 23.97 &#177; 1.35 kg/m<sup>2</sup> (26 &#150; 22.36), so none of them were obese.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>DISCUSSION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>SLE is an inflammatory disease prototype that secondarily affects the vascular system. The vascular manifestations typically associated to SLE are varied and include vasculitis, vasospasm and thromboembolism. Disease survival has increased with the new and improved therapeutics, which allowed the appearance of new vascular complications such as the premature atherosclerotic vascular disease<sup>21</sup>. In this study, the prevalence of this type of vascular event was 14.08% in a population of SLE patients followed at a university hospital. Five patients (7.04%) had angina pectoris, 3 had acute myocardial infarction (4.22%) and 2 (2.81%) had a stroke. In literature, this number is variable according to the method utilized. In the retrospective studies in which only the coronary clinical manifestations were considered, i.e., angina pectoris and MI, the prevalence was 6%, however, in prospective and autopsy studies this number increases to 2-19.8% and 10-54%, respectively, for angina pectoris and MI<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>Although not completely understood, the atherogenesis in SLE might be related to inherent characteristics of the disease and its therapeutics.</p>
      <p>The analysis of the traditional risk factors and cardiovascular events did not show a positive correlation. Thus, in this group of patients, the presence of factors such as smoking, hypertension, diabetes or dyslipidemia contribute to, but are not likely to be the major factors in this disease<sup>22</sup>.</p>
      <p>In this study, renal involvement did not show an association with the presence of cardiovascular events. However, the nephritic syndrome, common in lupus nephritis, can also cause lipid disturbances and increased homocysteine levels, as well as other complications<sup>23</sup>. Homocysteine is considered a "new" independent risk factor in the development of atherosclerosis in SLE patients, it has a toxic effect that acts directly on the endothelium, it is pre-thrombotic, increases the production of collagen and decreases the availability of nitric oxide<sup>24</sup>. Increased plasma homocysteine levels can be found in 15% of patients with SLE associated to the male gender, presence of renal failure, prednisone use, and low levels of vitamin B, folic acid and pyridoxine<sup>25</sup>. Unfortunately, homocysteine measurement is not performed as part of the routine laboratory assessment in our country.</p>
      <p>The measurement of the lipid levels of patients enrolled in this study was not performed in 20 (28.16%) of the 71 individuals and LDL-cholesterol measurement was not performed in 32 (45%) of them. Only 4 patients from the CVE group had LDL-cholesterol levels measured, which suggests the low level of concern by the clinicians in this regard, probably due to the fact that they are deeply involved in the underlying disease treatment. Thus, due to the large number of patients with no measurement of lipid levels, this parameter must be considered with reservations. Hypercholesterolemia was found in 22 patients (43.13%), hypertriglyceridemia in 20 (39.21%) and elevated LDL-cholesterol levels in 16 (41.02%). This lipid profile did not show statistical significance when associated to the occurrence of CVE. Nevertheless, considering the group that presented some CVE, 5 of the 10 patients (50%) presented hypercholesterolemia, 3 presented hypertriglyceridemia and 2 had increased LDL-cholesterol levels. </p>
      <p>The treatment of SLE, especially steroid therapy, can also influence the atherosclerotic process. It is believed that this treatment is atherogenic, partially due to the effects on plasma lipoproteins. The elevation of circulating lipid levels in SLE can be explained by several mechanisms. The long-term use of corticosteroids is known to be responsible for the elevation of total cholesterol, triglycerides and apolipoprotein B levels and for promoting an abnormal distribution of high-density lipoprotein subclasses<sup>26</sup>. On the other hand, inflammation is associated with the atherosclerosis, and therefore, steroid therapy could have a protective effect. Studies published in literature about this matter are contradictory.</p>
      <p>In this study, however, there was no correlation between steroid use and cardiovascular events. Time of use as well as the cumulative dose of these drugs were not significant. It is believed that prednisone use cannot be considered an isolated risk factor in the development of atherosclerosis. Time of use can also represent longer disease duration and a subgroup of patients with a more severe disease. However, prednisone can indirectly accelerate the process by augmenting other traditional risk factors: hypercholesterolemia, hypertension and obesity<sup>14</sup>. This hypothesis is supported by the fact that, in this study, patients who presented cardiovascular events were older (42.7 vs. 32.8 yrs p=0.0021) and longer disease duration (10.8 vs. 7.2 yrs p=0.011). </p>
      <p>Jimenez et al<sup>27</sup> and Roman et al<sup>28</sup> found a negative correlation between the presence of carotid plaque and high mean daily doses of prednisone. Nevertheless, other studies found a positive correlation between steroid use, CVE and increased thickness of the intima-media space of the common carotid artery by ultrasonography<sup>15,29</sup>. Clearly, the role of treatment with steroids in the evolution of CVE in SLE needs to be further investigated.</p>
      <p>Cyclophosphamide was the other immunosuppressive agent utilized by patients in this study. The drug was administrated as pulse therapy, in which 1 g doses of the drug are administered endovenously each six weeks. No significant association between the use of cyclophosphamide and patients with or without CVE was observed. Other studies showed that treatment with immunosuppressive drugs could be related to the restoration of the endothelial function in patients with primary vasculitis<sup>30</sup>. In patients with SLE, the more aggressive therapy presented a negative correlation with atherosclerosis, which suggests that a more vigorous therapy can decrease the likelihood of atherosclerosis<sup>28</sup>. Thus, it is logical to conclude that patients who present cutaneous and/or systemic vasculitis, whose inflammatory process control was established early and aggressively performed, present better endothelial function and, in consequence, a lower chance of atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>This study showed that of the 71 patients studied, only 27 utilized antimalarial drugs (38.02%). These drugs, such as hydroxychloroquine and quinacrine, are used in the treatment of SLE for being corticosteroid sparing and photoprotective agents, and for being effective in improving the articular picture. Notably, they can reduce from 10 to 12% of total cholesterol levels and 12% of LDL cholesterol levels in SLE patients using steroids<sup>31</sup>. In addition to the antiatherogenic role, antimalarial drugs showed to be beneficial in hyperglycemia and have an anti-thrombotic role, thus helping in the control of other risk factors<sup>14</sup>. Therefore, being relatively safe drugs, they should be utilized more frequently in this kind of patient.</p>
      <p>Other mechanisms might be involved in the development of early atherogenesis in SLE, which have not been evaluated in this study but are relevant.</p>
      <p>The pathological production of auto-antibodies in SLE is characteristic. Several of these antibodies are directly involved either in the endothelial lesion or in the production and/or induction of the expression of inflammatory factors that result in endothelial lesion. It is noteworthy to mention the anti-phospholipid antibodies<sup>32</sup> and the oxidated anti-LDL antibodies, the latter also considered members of the anti-phospholipid family, and the anti-prothrombin antibodies<sup>33,34</sup>. These antibodies predispose patients with SLE to venous thrombosis and arterial disease and have been associated to atherogenesis in in vitro studies<sup>35-40</sup>. Its pathogenic role in atherosclerosis is yet to be clarified. Other antibodies, such as the antilipase antibody, have been detected in 47% of the sera of patients with SLE and can lead to the elevation of triglycerides due to the non-catabolism of kilomicrons, a lipase activity, which is blocked<sup>41</sup>. </p>
      <p>The pathological production of auto-antibodies in SLE involves binding of CD40 ligand (CD40L) present in T lymphocytes and CD40 in B cells<sup>42</sup>. These patients present an increased expression of CD40L and augmented number of cells that are positive for CD40L, which include endothelial cells. The binding can induce production and expression of the binding molecules, which will aid inflammation and vascular lesion in SLE as well as in atherosclerosis<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>Vascular involvement is another characteristic of active SLE and can occur in different skin and/or systemic sites as vasculitis. The inflammatory lesion to the vascular wall can lead to endothelial injury and consequently to endothelial dysfunction, considered the first step for atherosclerosis. Endothelial dysfunction was demonstrated in an active disease study<sup>44</sup>, but it was not found in quiescent patients (data not published). Possibly, similarly to the findings in patients with primary vasculitis, the endothelial function may be restored after SLE activity treatment.</p>
      <p>It must also be considered that the highest incidence of cardiovascular events secondary to atherosclerosis in SLE may be associated to an increase in the levels of reactive C-protein, circulating immunocomplexes, complement proteins and homocysteine observed in this disease<sup>45-48</sup>, but which were not the aim of this study.</p>
      <p>Finally, the limitations of this study must be taken into account, as it is a retrospective analysis, and the fact that important data, such as the complete lipid profile of all patients, were not obtained. It is therefore of utmost importance that clinicians are careful not only of the treatment of the active disease but also of the early prevention and/or diagnosis and treatment of factors associated to early atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>CONCLUSIONS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The prevalence of CVE (cardiovascular events) secondary to atherosclerosis in SLE was similar to that found in literature, 14.08%. </p>
      <p>The traditional risk factors except for the lipid profile, which could not be included in the study, did not shown an association with the occurrence or not of CVE in SLE.</p>
      <p>The patients in whom the cardiovascular events were observed were of older age and presented longer disease duration.</p>
      <p>It is a premature conclusion to state that SLE can be an independent risk factor in the development of atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements </bold>
      </p>
      <p>We thank Prof. Dr. L&#237;dia Raquel de Carvalho, from the Department of Biostatistics, Instituto de Bioci&#234;ncias de Botucatu &#150; UNESP, for performing the statistical analysis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>REFER&#202;NCIAS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing Address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Beatriz Funayama Alvarenga Freire</p>
          <p> Caixa Postal 571</p>
          <p> 18618-000 &#150; Botucatu, SP</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="bfreire@fmb.unesp.br">bfreire@fmb.unesp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p> Received on 02/14/05</p>
      <p> Accepted on 09/30/05</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
