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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Bdkt5GdpjS5m8ScCfQrMYgd</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001600004</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700304</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001600004</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Preval&#234;ncia de estenose das art&#233;rias renais em 1.656 pacientes que realizaram cateterismo card&#237;aco</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tumelero</surname>
            <given-names>Rog&#233;rio Tadeu</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Duda</surname>
            <given-names>Norberto Toazza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tognon</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Thiesen</surname>
            <given-names>Melissa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Passo Fundo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state"/>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Passo Fundo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Vicente de Paulo</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>248</fpage>
      <lpage>253</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2005</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2005</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Determinar a preval&#234;ncia de estenose da art&#233;ria renal (EAR) em pacientes submetidos a cineangiocoronariografia. M&#201;TODOS: Estudo prospectivo, considerando 1.656 cinean-giocoronariografias seguidas de aortografia, entre janeiro/2002 e fevereiro/2004, de pacientes encaminhados &#224; cineangiocoronariografia diagn&#243;stica com hist&#243;ria ou n&#227;o de hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS). RESULTADOS: Dos 1.656 pacientes, a idade m&#233;dia foi de 61,6 &#177; 11,8 anos, 53,8% eram do sexo masculino, 10,2% eram diab&#233;ticos, 63,8% apresentavam coronariopatia obstrutiva. A presen&#231;a de EAR maior que 50% foi observada em 228 (13,8%) pacientes, e em 25 (1,5%) destes, ocorreu bilateralmente. A coronariopatia obstrutiva foi definida como estenose que causa redu&#231;&#227;o do l&#250;men do vaso em 50% ou mais, em um, dois ou tr&#234;s vasos principais, denominados uniarterial, biarterial ou triarterial, respectivamente.A quantifica&#231;&#227;o era realizada atrav&#233;s da an&#225;lise visual da angiografia. Comparando os grupos com e sem EAR &gt; 50%, observou-se diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa quanto a g&#234;nero, idade, ocorr&#234;ncia de diabete melito, PA e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa, no entanto, quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana &gt; 50%. Quando, por&#233;m, a EAR considerada &#233; &gt; 70%, observa-se diferen&#231;a significativa quanto a PA, associa&#231;&#227;o &#224; obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana &gt; 50% e &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, maiores no grupo com EAR. CONCLUS&#195;O: A preval&#234;ncia de EAR neste estudo foi compar&#225;vel &#224;quela das grandes casu&#237;sticas da literatura e, em raz&#227;o de sua import&#226;ncia pela associa&#231;&#227;o com HAS e doen&#231;a renal terminal (DRT) e suas seq&#252;elas, devemos estar atentos para seu diagn&#243;stico angiogr&#225;fico.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>Estenose de art&#233;ria renal</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica</kwd>
        <kwd>doen&#231;a renal terminal</kwd>
        <kwd>hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica</kwd>
        <kwd>angiografia com contraste</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>16</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGOS ORIGINAIS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Preval&#234;ncia de estenose das art&#233;rias renais em 1.656 pacientes que realizaram cateterismo card&#237;aco</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Rog&#233;rio Tadeu Tumelero; Norberto Toazza Duda; Alexandre Pereira Tognon; Melissa Thiesen</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hospital S&#227;o Vicente de Paulo e Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Passo Fundo, RS - Passo Fundo, RS</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold>Determinar a preval&#234;ncia de estenose da art&#233;ria renal (EAR) em pacientes submetidos a cineangiocoronariografia. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS: </bold>Estudo prospectivo, considerando 1.656 cinean-giocoronariografias seguidas de aortografia, entre janeiro/2002 e fevereiro/2004, de pacientes encaminhados &#224; cineangiocoronariografia diagn&#243;stica com hist&#243;ria ou n&#227;o de hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS). </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold>Dos 1.656 pacientes, a idade m&#233;dia foi de 61,6 &#177; 11,8 anos, 53,8% eram do sexo masculino, 10,2% eram diab&#233;ticos, 63,8% apresentavam coronariopatia obstrutiva. A presen&#231;a de EAR maior que 50% foi observada em 228 (13,8%) pacientes, e em 25 (1,5%) destes, ocorreu bilateralmente. A coronariopatia obstrutiva foi definida como estenose que causa redu&#231;&#227;o do l&#250;men do vaso em 50% ou mais, em um, dois ou tr&#234;s vasos principais, denominados uniarterial, biarterial ou triarterial, respectivamente.A quantifica&#231;&#227;o era realizada atrav&#233;s da an&#225;lise visual da angiografia. Comparando os grupos com e sem EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 50%, observou-se diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa quanto a g&#234;nero, idade, ocorr&#234;ncia de diabete melito, PA e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa, no entanto, quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana <underline>&gt;</underline> 50%. Quando, por&#233;m, a EAR considerada &#233; <underline>&gt;</underline> 70%, observa-se diferen&#231;a significativa quanto a PA, associa&#231;&#227;o &#224; obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% e &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, maiores no grupo com EAR. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> A preval&#234;ncia de EAR neste estudo foi compar&#225;vel &#224;quela das grandes casu&#237;sticas da literatura e, em raz&#227;o de sua import&#226;ncia pela associa&#231;&#227;o com HAS e doen&#231;a renal terminal (DRT) e suas seq&#252;elas, devemos estar atentos para seu diagn&#243;stico angiogr&#225;fico.</p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave:</bold> Estenose de art&#233;ria renal, doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, doen&#231;a renal terminal, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, angiografia com contraste.</p>
    <p>Doen&#231;as prim&#225;rias das art&#233;rias renais geralmente envolvem os troncos principais, enquanto doen&#231;as secund&#225;rias s&#227;o caracterizadas por doen&#231;a vascular intra-renal e de pequenos vasos. As etiologias mais freq&#252;entes da obstru&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria das art&#233;rias renais s&#227;o a ateroscler&#243;tica e a displasia fibromuscular.</p>
    <p>Estima-se que, em 1999, nos Estados Unidos, 344 mil pacientes tenham sido tratados por doen&#231;a renal terminal (DRT), e que cerca de 67 mil outros tenham morrido por essa doen&#231;a, &#224; qual se associa uma taxa de mortalidade em tr&#234;s anos de quase 50%, um progn&#243;stico compar&#225;vel ao do c&#226;ncer de pulm&#227;o ou da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva (ICC) classe III ou IV<sup>1,2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dos pacientes com DRT que entram no programa de di&#225;lise, cerca de 6% t&#234;m doen&#231;a renovascular ateroscler&#243;tica como doen&#231;a de base<sup>3</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, a estenose de art&#233;ria renal (EAR) &#233; a etiologia presumida em 14%-20% dos pacientes em di&#225;lise com mais de cinq&#252;enta anos de idade<sup>4,5</sup>.</p>
    <p>Mais de um ter&#231;o dos pacientes com EAR acima de 60% tem concomitante diminui&#231;&#227;o do tamanho renal de 1 cm ou mais<sup>6</sup>, entidade essa conhecida como nefropatia isqu&#234;mica, determinada pela obstru&#231;&#227;o ao fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo renal, levando a isquemia e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
    <p>A EAR tamb&#233;m &#233; a causa mais comum de hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS) secund&#225;ria, correspondendo a 5% de todos os casos de HAS, dado relevante, uma vez que a HAS permanece como um grande problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, com seq&#252;elas em v&#225;rios &#243;rg&#227;os e sistemas, al&#233;m de contribuir como causa de morte.</p>
    <p>A taxa de sobrevida cumulativa em dois anos para pacientes ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de EAR &#233; de 96%, para aqueles com estenose unilateral, 74% para os com estenose bilateral, e 47%, naqueles com doen&#231;a bilateral com uma ou ambas art&#233;rias renais oclu&#237;das<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dessa forma, tem havido um crescente interesse em identificar causas pass&#237;veis de preven&#231;&#227;o ou mesmo revers&#237;veis de HAS e disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, e a revers&#227;o da obstru&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica das art&#233;rias renais &#233; uma promissora estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica.</p>
    <p>Diante do exposto, objetivou-se determinar a preval&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica renal atrav&#233;s da angiografia na popula&#231;&#227;o submetida &#224; cineangiocoronariografia por indica&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica em um hospital de refer&#234;ncia regional.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#201;TODOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estudo transversal prospectivo, realizado entre janeiro de 2002 e fevereiro de 2004, em um hospital de refer&#234;ncia n&#237;vel II. Os pacientes foram encaminhados para avalia&#231;&#227;o de coronariopatia obstrutiva definida como les&#227;o obstrutiva maior que 50% do l&#250;men do vaso &#224; angiografia. Quando a estenose ocorria em um vaso coronariano principal era definida como uniarterial; dois vasos, biarterial; e tr&#234;s vasos, triarterial. A an&#225;lise da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular foi feita por meio da ventriculografia esquerda, realizada em proje&#231;&#227;o obl&#237;qua anterior direita (OAD) 30&#176;. A fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o foi calculada, em todos os pacientes, utilizando-se o m&#233;todo angiogr&#225;fico de Simpson, atrav&#233;s do <italic>software</italic> do aparelho Philips Integris 3000 (Philips, Netherlands). Ap&#243;s o c&#225;lculo da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, utilizando-se o m&#233;todo angiogr&#225;fico de Herman e Gorlin<sup>8,9</sup>, a contratilidade do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo foi classificada em normal, acinesia, hipocinesia (d&#233;ficit discreto, moderado ou grave) e discinesia. Tamb&#233;m foram inclu&#237;dos os pacientes que realizaram cineangiocoronariografia para avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de cirurgia card&#237;aca em raz&#227;o e valvopatia ou doen&#231;as da aorta. </p>
    <p>Foram considerados 1.656 pacientes, que realizaram cineangiocoronariografias seguidas de aortografia retr&#243;grada, via pun&#231;&#227;o de art&#233;ria femoral direita ou esquerda, em proje&#231;&#227;o obl&#237;qua anterior esquerda (OAE)10&#186; com subtra&#231;&#227;o digital, posicionando o cateter pigtail 3 cm acima da origem das art&#233;rias renais, seguindo-se inje&#231;&#227;o de 20 ml de contraste por bomba injetora (Angiomat 600, Cincinnat, EUA), com press&#227;o de 600 PSI com 15 ml/s. Na presen&#231;a de les&#227;o a art&#233;ria renal acometida era cateterizada seletivamente, utilizando-se cateter judkins de coron&#225;ria direita e subtra&#231;&#227;o digital, com inje&#231;&#227;o manual de contraste. </p>
    <p>Os meios de contrastes utilizados foram Ioexol 300 mgI/ml (<italic>Amersham Health Limited</italic>, China), Ioversol 320 mgI/ml (<italic>Mallinckrodt Inc.</italic>, USA) e Diatroziato 370 mgI/ml (<italic>Berlimed</italic>, Espanha). A escolha do meio contraste foi realizada pelo operador, considerando hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de disfun&#231;&#227;o renal, diabete, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva CF III/IV e volume de contraste utilizado. Assim, os tr&#234;s meios de contrastes foram utilizados, n&#227;o sendo documentadas diferen&#231;as entre eles. </p>
    <p>A estenose foi considerada significativa quando a obstru&#231;&#227;o era maior que 50% do l&#250;men do vaso, segundo an&#225;lise visual do mesmo operador durante o exame diagn&#243;stico, e ap&#243;s, por an&#225;lise dos dados angiogr&#225;ficos objetivos.</p>
    <p>N&#227;o foram consideradas aortografias n&#227;o-diagn&#243;sticas, pois, quando algum grau de les&#227;o era visibilizado durante a aortografia, a art&#233;ria renal era cateterizada seletivamente. Obteve-se consentimento verbal do paciente ap&#243;s explana&#231;&#227;o de que seu procedimento seria acrescido de uso de pequena dose extra de contraste radiol&#243;gico, com pequeno risco adicional.</p>
    <p>Os dados foram armazenados no EpiInfo (CDC/WHO, 2001), vers&#227;o 6.04d, atrav&#233;s do programa ENTER, e, posteriormente, analisados no SPSS (SPSS Inc., 2002) vers&#227;o 11.5. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram apresentadas como m&#233;dia&#177;desvio padr&#227;o e as categ&#243;ricas em n&#250;mero absoluto (porcentual).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESULTADOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dos 1.656 pacientes, a idade m&#233;dia foi de 61,6 &#177;11,8 anos, 891 (53,8%) eram do sexo masculino, 169 (10,2%) eram diab&#233;ticos, 1.199 (72,4%) apresentavam press&#227;o arterial (PA) sist&#243;lica m&#233;dia maior que 140 mmHg durante o exame, 1.054 (63,8%) apresentavam coronariopatia obstrutiva. Apresentavam altera&#231;&#245;es da contratilidade ventricular esquerda 1.230 (74,3%) dos pacientes. A presen&#231;a de estenose renal maior ou igual a 50% foi observada em 228 (13,8%) pacientes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">figs. 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">2</xref>), tendo ocorrido bilateralmente em 25 (1,5%). Observou-se estenose renal <underline>&gt;</underline>70% em 58 (3,5%) pacientes, e dez (0,6%) deles possu&#237;am oclus&#245;es arteriais totais. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela 1</xref> demonstra as diferen&#231;as entre os grupos com e sem EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 50%, observando-se diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa quanto a g&#234;nero, idade, ocorr&#234;ncia de diabete melito, press&#227;o arterial e fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda entre os grupos. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a significativa, no entanto, quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana <underline>&gt;</underline> 50%. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tabela 2</xref> demonstra as diferen&#231;as entre os grupos com e sem EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 70%, observando-se diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa quanto a press&#227;o arterial, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e ocorr&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% entre os grupos. Como os pacientes arrolados no estudo haviam sido encaminhados originalmente para cineangiocoronariografia, n&#227;o h&#225; determina&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da creatinina s&#233;rica pr&#233; ou p&#243;s-procedimento.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>N&#227;o ocorreram complica&#231;&#245;es como tromboses, dissec&#231;&#245;es ou macroemboliza&#231;&#245;es das art&#233;rias renais ou aorta e seus ramos durante a aortografia ou angiografia seletiva. Poss&#237;veis altera&#231;&#245;es da fun&#231;&#227;o renal ou complica&#231;&#245;es tardias ao procedimento n&#227;o foram relatadas pelos pacientes ou m&#233;dicos assistentes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>DISCUSS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O risco de eventos cardiovasculares em adultos depende mais do grau da hipertens&#227;o do que da sua causa. A diminui&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o renal ativa o sistema renina-angiotensina, levando &#224; libera&#231;&#227;o de renina e produ&#231;&#227;o da angiotensina II, que, por sua vez, tem efeito direto na redu&#231;&#227;o excre&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio, aumento da atividade nervosa simp&#225;tica, redu&#231;&#227;o da concentra&#231;&#227;o de prostaglandina intra-renal e da produ&#231;&#227;o do &#243;xido n&#237;trico, causando hipertens&#227;o renovascular<sup>10,11</sup>. Quando a hipertens&#227;o &#233; sustentada, a atividade da renina plasm&#225;tica diminui (referida como uma taquifilaxia reversa), explicando parcialmente as limita&#231;&#245;es nas medidas da renina para identificar pacientes com HAS renovascular.</p>
    <p>O fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo &#233; de tr&#234;s a cinco vezes maior nos rins do que no cora&#231;&#227;o ou f&#237;gado, pela necessidade de grande filtra&#231;&#227;o capilar glomerular. Na presen&#231;a de les&#245;es fluxolimitantes, a auto-regula&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o renal &#233; acompanhada de ajustes adaptativos na resist&#234;ncia vascular glomerular nas arter&#237;olas aferentes e eferentes. Esse mecanismo compensat&#243;rio come&#231;a a falhar quando a press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o renal se encontra abaixo de 70-85 mmHg, que tipicamente corresponde &#224; estenose de art&#233;ria renal maior que 70%<sup>12,13</sup>. Ainda, fatores como uma redu&#231;&#227;o na for&#231;a de cisalhamento e diminui&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico, aumento na produ&#231;&#227;o de endotelinas e ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina podem levar a &#225;reas de isquemia localizadas, inj&#250;ria tubular, ruptura c&#233;lula-epit&#233;lio e fibrose intersticial, resultando na chamada nefropatia isqu&#234;mica. A disfun&#231;&#227;o renal &#233; menos comum na displasia fibromuscular do que na EAR ateroscler&#243;tica, sugerindo que fatores aterog&#234;nicos contribuem para aumentar a inj&#250;ria renal.</p>
    <p>Embora a hipertens&#227;o renovascular contribua para hipertens&#227;o maligna ou acelerada, ela n&#227;o &#233; prontamente distingu&#237;vel da HAS essencial. Certos achados cl&#225;ssicos, como hipocalemia, sopro abdominal, aus&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria familiar de HAS essencial, HAS de dura&#231;&#227;o inferior a um ano, in&#237;cio da HAS ap&#243;s os cinq&#252;enta anos e HAS refrat&#225;ria a tratamento cl&#237;nico, s&#227;o mais sugestivos de hipertens&#227;o renovascular do que outros tipos de HAS, mas nenhum tem forte valor preditivo. De fato, a maioria dos pacientes hipertensos com EAR tem hipertens&#227;o essencial, como sugerido pelo fato de que a HAS geralmente persiste apesar de uma revasculariza&#231;&#227;o com sucesso. A EAR pode ocorrer isolada ou em associa&#231;&#227;o com hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS), insufici&#234;ncia renal (nefropatia isqu&#234;mica) ou ambos. </p>
    <p>A aterosclerose &#233; respons&#225;vel por 90% dos casos de estenose de art&#233;ria renal e geralmente envolve o &#243;stio e o ter&#231;o proximal da art&#233;ria renal principal e a aorta peri-renal. Em casos avan&#231;ados, aterosclerose intra-renal difusa e segmentar tamb&#233;m pode ser observada, particularmente em pacientes com nefropatia isqu&#234;mica. A preval&#234;ncia de EAR ateroscler&#243;tica aumenta com a idade, principalmente em pacientes com diabete melito, doen&#231;a aortoil&#237;aca oclusiva, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e HAS<sup>14-17</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entre os pacientes com EAR ateroscler&#243;tica, estenose progressiva foi relatada em 51% das art&#233;rias renais cinco anos ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico (incluindo 18% dos vasos inicialmente normais)<sup>18,19</sup>, 3-16% das art&#233;rias tornaram-se totalmente oclu&#237;das<sup>15,16,18,19</sup>, e atrofia renal desenvolveu-se em 21% dos pacientes com EAR maior que 60%.</p>
    <p>A displasia fibromuscular &#233; a etiologia de menos de 10% dos casos de estenose de art&#233;ria renal, acometendo mais freq&#252;entemente mulheres entre quinze e cinq&#252;enta anos de idade, e, ao contr&#225;rio da EAR ateroscler&#243;tica, raramente leva &#224; oclus&#227;o da art&#233;ria renal.</p>
    <p>S&#233;ries de necropsias consecutivas demonstraram preval&#234;ncia de EAR &gt; 50% de 5% nos pacientes com menos de 74 anos de idade, 18% dos 65 aos 75 anos, e 42% naqueles com idade acima de 82 anos<sup>20</sup>. A descoberta incidental de EAR &#233; relativamente comum<sup>21,22</sup>, embora a hipertens&#227;o renovascular ocorra apenas em 1% a 5% dos pacientes com HAS. Dustan e cols.<sup>23</sup> revisaram 149 aortogramas e observaram que aproximadamente metade dos pacientes com EAR &gt; 50% n&#227;o tinha HAS. A presen&#231;a de EAR anat&#244;mica, entretanto, n&#227;o estabelece necessariamente que a HAS ou a insufici&#234;ncia renal seja por ela causada. Hansen e cols.<sup>24</sup> relataram preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a renovascular de 6,8% em uma coorte de 834 pacientes jovens, participantes do Cardiovascular Health Study, que realizaram ultra-sonografia das art&#233;rias renais. Em 3.987 pacientes submetidos a aortografia no momento do cateterismo card&#237;aco para rastreio de EAR num per&#237;odo de 78 meses, 4,8% tinham EAR &gt; 75% e 0,8%, doen&#231;a grave bilateral<sup>25</sup>. Em uma coorte avaliada na <italic>Mayo Clinic</italic>, as art&#233;rias renais de pacientes com HAS foram estudadas no momento do cateterismo card&#237;aco, observando-se preval&#234;ncia de EAR &gt; 50% de 19,2%, de EAR &gt; 70% de 7% e de EAR bilateral de 3,7%<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes com inexplicada perda de fun&#231;&#227;o renal progressiva ou cr&#244;nica representam um grupo diverso, e nefropatia isqu&#234;mica oculta pode estar presente em cerca de 24% desses pacientes com mais de cinq&#252;enta anos de idade, principalmente entre aqueles com aterosclerose generalizada, edema pulmonar recorrente ou HAS n&#227;o-controlada. Nefropatia isqu&#234;mica &#233; uma importante causa de DRT<sup>27-30</sup>, e, entre os pacientes que est&#227;o em programa de di&#225;lise, aqueles com doen&#231;a renovascular t&#234;m a menor taxa de sobrevida (sobrevida m&#233;dia de 25 a 34 meses) e uma taxa de mortalidade em cinco anos maior que 80%<sup>27,31-33</sup>.</p>
    <p>Pacientes com achados cl&#237;nicos associados a EAR s&#227;o considerados para uma posterior avalia&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tab. 1</xref>). Essa avalia&#231;&#227;o pode incluir estudos n&#227;o-invasivos para verificar a fun&#231;&#227;o renal como um todo, tais como estudos fisiol&#243;gicos para acessar o sistema renina-angiotensina, estudos de perfus&#227;o para acessar o fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo renal diferencial e estudos de imagem para identificar EAR. Em virtude das limita&#231;&#245;es dos estudos fisiol&#243;gicos em pacientes idosos com EAR, t&#233;cnicas de imagem s&#227;o prefer&#237;veis para identificar estenoses nesses pacientes. Ultra-sonografia d&#250;plex scan pode obter imagens das art&#233;rias renais e medir a velocidade de fluxo e press&#227;o de ondas, mas h&#225; 10%-20% de falha por inexperi&#234;ncia do operador ou pela presen&#231;a de obesidade ou g&#225;s intestinal<sup>34</sup>. Angiorresson&#226;ncia e angiotomografia s&#227;o &#250;teis para avaliar a circula&#231;&#227;o renal e a&#243;rtica, mas s&#227;o menos &#250;teis para visibilizar segmentos distais e pequenas art&#233;rias acess&#243;rias<sup>35,36 </sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">fig. 2</xref>).</p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-e01.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o invasiva, indicada para defini&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e planejamento terap&#234;utico, &#233; discut&#237;vel a sua n&#227;o-realiza&#231;&#227;o no momento do exame, quando j&#225; indicado estudo cineangiocoronariogr&#225;fico, em pacientes com suspeita de hipertens&#227;o renovascular, disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e acometimento difuso da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica associado a planejamento terap&#234;utico cir&#250;rgico ou percut&#226;neo. Assim, os objetivos da angiografia com contraste s&#227;o confirmar o diagn&#243;stico, a etiologia da estenose da art&#233;ria renal, avaliar a extens&#227;o da doen&#231;a vascular intra-renal, informa&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas adicionais como a presen&#231;a de art&#233;ria renal acess&#243;ria e aneurismas associados ou doen&#231;as oclusivas da aorta.</p>
    <p>Contraste de baixa osmolaridade &#233; recomendado para minimizar o desconforto das inje&#231;&#245;es, mas deve ser usado cautelosamente em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal por causa da nefrotoxicidade. Em pacientes com avan&#231;ada insufici&#234;ncia renal, o uso de contrastes n&#227;o-i&#244;nicos podem diminuir o risco de nefropatia induzida pelo contraste<sup>38</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em nosso estudo, observamos uma preval&#234;ncia de EAR compat&#237;vel com as grandes casu&#237;sticas da literatura. Quando o grupo com EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% &#233; analisado, observa-se signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica em rela&#231;&#227;o a idade maior, sexo feminino e diabete. Os n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos tamb&#233;m s&#227;o elevados em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo que n&#227;o apresenta les&#227;o. No entanto, nesse grupo, a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda n&#227;o apresenta rela&#231;&#227;o com a EAR, podendo ser atribu&#237;da ao envolvimento de coronariopatia, j&#225; que o objetivo do exame era avaliar presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica coronariana.</p>
    <p>Quando se estratifica o grupo com EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 70%, apesar de n&#227;o ser significativo do ponto de vista estat&#237;stico, enquanto os pacientes com EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% s&#227;o predominantemente mulheres, os com EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 70% s&#227;o predominantemente homens. A press&#227;o arterial tamb&#233;m &#233; maior para os pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o renal <underline>&gt;</underline> 70%. Nesse grupo, a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda tem signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica quando se correlaciona com obstru&#231;&#227;o renal <underline>&gt;</underline> 70%, assim como a coronariopatia obstrutiva. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; idade, tanto os pacientes com ou sem EAR <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% encontram-se na s&#233;tima d&#233;cada de vida, e aqueles com EAR possuem, em m&#233;dia, 4,8 anos a mais (0,9-8,7, IC95%, p = 0,01).</p>
    <p>Estima-se que, apesar de n&#227;o haver relatos, o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es maiores (morte, acidente vascular cerebral ou infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio) durante a angiografia n&#227;o difere do estudo cineangiocoronariogr&#225;fico, que &#233; inferior a 1%.</p>
    <p>Assim, a associa&#231;&#227;o da EAR com coronariopatia e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda ressalta a necessidade de uma abordagem mais ampla da doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica, com investiga&#231;&#227;o detalhada principalmente na s&#233;tima d&#233;cada de vida, em raz&#227;o de sua manifesta&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e sua grande relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica pelas seq&#252;elas a longo prazo, e pelos conhecidos benef&#237;cios do seu tratamento principalmente em rela&#231;&#227;o a HAS e a perda da fun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Potencial Conflito de Interesses</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesses pertinentes.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Rog&#233;rio Tadeu Tumelero </p>
        <p> Rua Jose Bonif&#225;cio, 230/302 </p>
        <p> 99070-070 &#150; Passo Fundo, RS </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="rttumelero@cardiol.br">rttumelero@cardiol.br </email>ou </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="rttumelero@terra.com.br">rttumelero@terra.com.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Recebido em 7/02/05 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 28/10/05</p>
  </body>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Prevalence of renal artery stenosis in 1,656 patients who have undergone cardiac catheterization</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of renal artery stenosis (RAS) in patients who have undergone cineangiocoronariography. METHODS: Prospective study of cineangiocoronariography and aortography examinations conducted between January 2002 and February 2004 on 1,656 hypertensive and normotensive patients who underwent the examinations to confirm the diagnosis of obstructive coronary artery disease or valve disease. RESULTS: The average age of the 1,656 patients was 61.6 &#177; 11.8 years. Eight hundred and ninety-one (53.8%) were male, 169 (10.2%) were diabetic and 1,054 (63.8%) presented obstructive coronary artery disease. Renal stenosis greater than 50% was observed in 228 (13.8%) patients, and 25 (1.5%) had bilateral stenosis. Obstructive coronary artery disease was defined as stenosis greater than or equal to 50% of the vessel lumen, in one, two or three main arteries, classified as single, double or triple vessels, respectively. Quantification was conducted using visual analysis of the angiography. Comparison of the groups with and without renal artery obstruction &gt; 50%, revealed significant statistical differences in relation to gender, age, diabetes mellitus, blood pressure and left ventricular function. However, no statistical difference was noted in relation to the occurrence of coronary artery obstructions &gt; 50%. Nevertheless, renal artery obstructions &gt; 70%, revealed significant differences in relation to blood pressure, coronary artery obstructions &gt; 50% and left ventricular function, which were all higher in the renal artery obstruction group. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of RAS found in our study was comparable to that reported by major medical literature case studies. RAS is associated with systemic hypertension (SH), end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and its sequelae, emphasizing how important it is that we are aware of possible candidates for angiographic diagnosis of this disease.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Renal artery stenosis</kwd>
        <kwd>atherosclerosis</kwd>
        <kwd>end-stage kidney disease</kwd>
        <kwd>systemic hypertension</kwd>
        <kwd>angiography with contrast medium</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Prevalence of renal artery stenosis in 1,656 patients who have undergone cardiac catheterization </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Rog&#233;rio Tadeu Tumelero; Norberto Toazza Duda; Alexandre Pereira Tognon; Melissa Thiesen</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital S&#227;o Vicente de Paulo and Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de Passo Fundo, RS - Passo Fundo, RS - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To determine the prevalence of renal artery stenosis (RAS) in patients who have undergone cineangiocoronariography.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> Prospective study of cineangiocoronariography and aortography examinations conducted between January 2002 and February 2004 on 1,656 hypertensive and normotensive patients who underwent the examinations to confirm the diagnosis of obstructive coronary artery disease or valve disease.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> The average age of the 1,656 patients was 61.6 &#177; 11.8 years. Eight hundred and ninety-one (53.8%) were male, 169 (10.2%) were diabetic and 1,054 (63.8%) presented obstructive coronary artery disease. Renal stenosis greater than 50% was observed in 228 (13.8%) patients, and 25 (1.5%) had bilateral stenosis. Obstructive coronary artery disease was defined as stenosis greater than or equal to 50% of the vessel lumen, in one, two or three main arteries, classified as single, double or triple vessels, respectively. Quantification was conducted using visual analysis of the angiography. Comparison of the groups with and without renal artery obstruction <underline>&gt;</underline>50%, revealed significant statistical differences in relation to gender, age, diabetes mellitus, blood pressure and left ventricular function. However, no statistical difference was noted in relation to the occurrence of coronary artery obstructions <underline>&gt;</underline>50%. Nevertheless, renal artery obstructions <underline>&gt;</underline>70%, revealed significant differences in relation to blood pressure, coronary artery obstructions <underline>&gt;</underline>50% and left ventricular function, which were all higher in the renal artery obstruction group.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> The prevalence of RAS found in our study was comparable to that reported by major medical literature case studies. RAS is associated with systemic hypertension (SH), end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and its sequelae, emphasizing how important it is that we are aware of possible candidates for angiographic diagnosis of this disease.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words:</bold> Renal artery stenosis, atherosclerosis, end-stage kidney disease, systemic hypertension, angiography with contrast medium.</p>
      <p>Primary renal artery diseases generally involve the main artery trunks while secondary diseases are characterized by intrarenal vascular disease and small vessel diseases. The most common etiologies of primary renal artery obstructions are atherosclerosis and fibromuscular dysplasia.</p>
      <p>It is estimated that in 1999, in the United States, 344 thousand patients were treated for end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and that roughly 67 thousand others died from this disease. This corresponds to a three year mortality rate close to 50%, which is comparable to the prognosis for lung cancer and class III or IV congestive heart failure (CHF).<sup>1,2</sup></p>
      <p>Renovascular atherosclerosis is the primary disease for approximately 6% of the ESRD patients that begin dialysis programs<sup>3</sup>. Additionally, renal artery stenosis (RAS) is presumed to be the etiology for 14%-20% of dialysis patients over age fifty<sup>4,5</sup>.</p>
      <p>More than one third of the patients with RAS greater than 60% have concomitant kidney size reduction of 1 cm or more<sup>6</sup>, a condition known as ischemic nephropathy which obstructs renal blood flow causing ischemia and renal dysfunction.</p>
      <p>RAS is also the most common cause of secondary systemic hypertension (SH) corresponding to 5% of all SH cases. This is relevant since SH is a major public health problem with sequelae in various organs and systems as well as a contributing cause of death.</p>
      <p>The cumulative two year survival rate for patients diagnosed with unilateral renal artery stenosis is 96%, for bilateral stenosis it is 74%, and for bilateral stenosis with one or both renal arteries occluded it is 47%<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>Consequently, there has been a growing interest to identify causes passible of prevention or reversal of SH and renal failure. The reversal of anatomic obstructions in the renal arteries is a promising therapeutic strategy.</p>
      <p>Based on this, the objective of this study is to determine the prevalence of atherosclerotic renal disease by means of an angiography study in a population referred by their doctors to have a cineangiocoronariography at a specialized regional hospital.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>METHODS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Prospective cross-sectional study, conducted between January 2002 and February 2004 at a class II specialty hospital. The patients were indicated for obstructive coronary artery disease assessments which is defined as an obstructive lesion greater than 50% of the vessel lumen on the angiography. Stenosis in main coronary arteries was classified as single vessel for one artery, double vessel for two arteries and triple vessel for three arteries. Ventricular function was analyzed with a left ventriculography using a 30&#176; right anterior oblique projection. The ejection fraction was calculated for all patients based on the Simpson angiography method, using Philips Integris 3000 (Philips, Netherlands) equipment and software. After calculating the ejection fraction, the left ventricle contractibility was calculated according to the Herman and Gorlin<sup>8,9</sup> method and classified as normal, akinesia, hypokinesia (minimal, moderate or serious deficit) and dyskinesia. Patients who underwent a cineangiocoronariography for preoperative cardiac surgery evaluation for valve or aortic diseases were also included in the study. </p>
      <p>The study population included 1,656 patients who had undergone cineangiocoronariography and retrograde aortography studies using the right or left femoral artery puncture approach and a 10&#176; left anterior oblique projection with digital subtraction. The catheter pigtail was placed 3 cm above the origin of the renal arteries and 20ml of contrast medium was subsequently administered at an infusion rate of 15 ml/s and a pressure of 600 PSI using an infusion pump (Angiomat 600, Cincinnat, USA). When a lesion was detected, selective catheterization of the affected renal artery was performed using a Judkins right coronary catheter, digital subtraction and manual injection of the contrast medium. </p>
      <p>The contrast mediums used were Iohexol 300 mgI/ml (Amersham Health Limited, China), Ioversol 320 mgI/ml (Mallinckrodt Inc, USA) and Diatrizoate 370 mgI/ml (Berlimed, Spain). The contrast medium was chosen by the operator according to previous history of renal dysfunction, diabetes, congestive heart failure functional class III/IV and volume of contrast used. No differences were reported in relation to the three contrast media used. </p>
      <p>Significant stenosis was classified as an obstruction greater than 50% of the vessel lumen which was assessed by the visual analysis of the same operator during the diagnostic examination and the later analysis of the relevant angiographic data.</p>
      <p>Nondiagnostic aortographies were not considered since whenever some degree of lesion was observed during the aortography, selective catheterization of the renal artery was performed. The patients gave their verbal consent after being informed that an additional small dosage of radiological contrast medium would be used during their procedure which would minimally increase the risk involved.</p>
      <p>The data were stored in EpiInfo (CDC/WHO, 2001), version 6.04d, using the program ENTER, and analyzed later with SPSS (SPSS Inc., 2002) version 11.5. Continuous variables were presented as mean &#177; standard deviation and categorical variables as absolute numbers (percentages).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>RESULTS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The average age of the 1,656 patients was 61.6 &#177;11.8 years. Eight hundred and ninety-one (53.8%) were male, 169 (10.2%) were diabetic, 1,199 (72.4%) had an average systolic blood pressure higher than 140 mmHg during the examination, 1,054 (63.8%) presented obstructive coronary artery disease. One thousand two hundred and thirty patients (74.3%) presented left ventricle contractile alterations. Renal stenosis greater than or equal to 50% was observed in 228 patients (13.8%) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig. 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">2</xref>), and 25 patients (1.5%) had bilateral stenosis. Renal stenosis <underline>&gt;</underline>70% was observed in 58 patients (3.5%) of which ten (0.6%) had total artery occlusions. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref> shows the differences between the groups with and without RAS <underline>&gt;</underline>50% demonstrating the significant statistical differences in regard to gender, age, diabetes mellitus, blood pressure and left ventricular function. Nevertheless, no significant difference was found in regard to the occurrence of coronary artery obstructions <underline>&gt;</underline>50%. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref> shows the differences between the groups with and without RAS <underline>&gt;</underline>70%, demonstrating the significant statistical differences in regard to blood pressure, left ventricular function and the occurrence of coronary artery obstructions <underline>&gt;</underline>50%. Since the patients included in the study had originally been referred for a cineangiocoronariography, creatine serum levels were not determined before or after the procedure.</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>No complications such as thrombosis, dissections or macroembolizations of the renal arteries, aorta or aorta branches occurred during the aortography or selective angiography. Possible renal function alterations or late complications as a result of the procedure were not reported by the patients or attending doctors. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>DISCUSSION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The risk of cardiovascular events in adults is more dependent on the degree of hypertension than the cause. The reduction in renal perfusion pressure activates the renin-angiotensin system leading to the release of renin and the production of angiotensin II which is directly related to reduced sodium excretion, increased sympathetic nerve activity, reduced concentrations of intra-renal prostaglandins and the production of nitric oxide causing renovascular hypertension<sup>10,11</sup>. When hypertension is sustained, plasma renin activity is decreased (referred to as reverse tachyphylaxis), partially explaining the limitations of renin measurements to identify patients with renovascular hypertension.</p>
      <p>Blood flow in the kidneys is three to five times higher than in the heart or liver due to the high glomerular capillary filtration requirement. In the presence of lesions that obstruct blood flow, the renal perfusion autoregulatory mechanism produces adaptations in the glomerular vascular resistance of the afferent and efferent arterioles. This compensatory mechanism begins to fail when renal perfusion pressure drops below 70-85 mmHg and usually corresponds to renal artery stenosis greater than 70%<sup>12,13</sup>. In addition, factors such as low shear stress levels and reduced nitric oxide production, increased endothelin production and activation of the renin-angiotensin system can cause localized ischemia, tubular injury, epithelial cell rupture and interstitial fibrosis, resulting in ischemic nephropathy. Renal dysfunction is less common in fibromuscular dysplasia than in atherosclerotic RAS, suggesting that atherogenic factors contribute to more severe renal damage.</p>
      <p>Even though renovascular hypertension contributes to malignant or accelerated hypertension it is not immediately distinguished from essential SH. Certain standard findings such as hypokalemia, abdominal bruits, no family history of essential SH, SH with a duration of less than one year, onset of SH after age fifty and SH refractory to clinical treatment are more indicative of renovascular hypertension than other types of SH; however, the predictive values of these conditions are low. In fact, most hypertensive patients with RAS have essential hypertension as indicated by the fact that even after a successful revascularization procedure, SH generally persists. RAS can be isolated or can be associated with systemic hypertension (SH), renal failure (ischemic nephropathy) or both. </p>
      <p>Atherosclerosis is responsible for 90% of the cases of renal artery stenosis and generally involves the ostium and proximal third of the main renal artery and perirenal aorta. In advanced cases, diffuse or segmental intra-renal atherosclerosis may also be seen, particularly in patients with ischemic nephropathy. The prevalence of atherosclerotic RAS increases with age, mainly in patients with diabetes mellitus, aortoiliac occlusive disease, coronary artery disease and SH.<sup>14-17</sup></p>
      <p>In patients with atherosclerotic RAS, progressive stenosis was reported in 51% of the renal arteries five years after the diagnosis (including 18% of the vessels that were initially normal),<sup>18,19</sup> 3-16% of the arteries were totally blocked<sup>15,16,18,19</sup>, and renal atrophy developed in 21% of the patients with RAS greater than 60%.</p>
      <p>The etiology of fibromuscular dysplasia accounts for less than 10% of renal artery stenosis cases and is most common among women between the ages of fifteen and fifty. Contrary to atherosclerotic RAS it rarely causes renal artery occlusions.</p>
      <p>Series of consecutive necropsies demonstrated a prevalence of 5% for RAS&gt;50% in patients under 74 years of age, 18% for those between 65 and 75 years, and 42% in those over 82 years<sup>20</sup>. The incidental discovery of RAS is relatively common<sup>21,22</sup>, even though renovascular hypertension only affects 1% to 5% of SH patients. A review of 149 aortograms by Dustan and associates<sup>23</sup> revealed that roughly 50% of the patients with RAS &gt;50% did not have SH. Nevertheless, the presence of anatomic RAS does not necessarily establish that the SH or renal insufficiency was caused by it. Hansen and associates<sup>24</sup> reported a prevalence of 6.8% for renovascular disease in a cohort of 834 young patients, participants in the Cardiovascular Health Study, who underwent renal artery ultrasonography examinations. Aortography examinations, conducted during cardiac catheterization to detect RAS, for 3,987 patients in a 78 month timeframe revealed that 4.8% had RAS &gt;75% and 0.8% had severe bilateral disease<sup>25</sup>. In a cohort evaluated at Mayo Clinic, the renal arteries of SH patients were studied during cardiac catheterization and revealed a prevalence of 19.2% for RAS &gt;50%, 7% for RAS &gt;70%, and 3.7% for bilateral RAS<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients with an unexplainable progressive or chronic loss of renal function, represent a distinct group and roughly 24% of these patients over age fifty, particularly those with generalized atherosclerosis, recurrent pulmonary edema or uncontrolled SH, could have silent ischemic nephropathy. Ischemic nephropathy is a major cause of ESRD<sup>27-30</sup>. Dialysis patients with renovascular disease have the lowest survival rate (average survival rate of 25 to 34 months) and a five year mortality rate greater than 80%<sup>27,31-33</sup>.</p>
      <p>Patients with clinical findings associated with RAS are indicated for further evaluation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">tab. 3</xref>). This evaluation can include non-invasive studies to verify overall renal function such as physiological studies to assess the renin-angiotensin system, perfusion studies to assess the differential renal blood flow and image studies to identify RAS. Owing to the limitations of physiological studies for elderly patients with RAS, image techniques are preferred to identify stenosis in these patients. Duplex ultrasound scans can obtain images of the renal arteries and measure the velocity of flow and wave pressure, but there is a 10%-20% failure rate due to operator inexperience, patient obesity and/or the presence of intestinal gas<sup>34</sup>. Angio-MRIs and angio-CTs are effective to evaluate renal and aortic circulation but do not enable adequate visualization of distal segments and small accessory arteries<sup>35,36</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">fig. 2</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-03-0248-00004-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Invasive evaluation is indicated to confirm the diagnosis and determine the therapeutic plan. It is debatable whether or not it should be conducted in conjunction with the cineangiocoronariography to determine surgical or percutaneous therapeutic planning for patients suspected of having renovascular hypertension, renal dysfunction and diffuse atherosclerosis. Thus the objectives of the angiography with contrast medium are to confirm the diagnosis, determine the renal artery stenosis etiology, evaluate the extent of the intra-renal vascular disease and verify additional anatomic information such as the presence of accessory renal arteries and associated aneurisms or aorta occlusive diseases.</p>
      <p>Low osmolar contrast medium is recommended to minimize injection discomfort but caution should be taken with renal insufficiency patients due to nephrotoxicity. In patients with advanced renal insufficiency the use of nonionic contrast media can diminish the risk of contrast medium-induced nephropathy<sup>38</sup>. </p>
      <p>The prevalence of RAS found in our study was comparable to that reported by major medical literature case studies. Analysis of the group with RAS <underline>&gt;</underline>50% revealed a statistical significance in relation to an older age, female gender and diabetes. The RAS group also presented elevated blood pressure levels in relation to the group without lesions. However, this study group did not present a relationship between left ventricular dysfunction and RAS, which can be attributed to coronary artery disease involvement since the objective of the examination was to evaluate the presence of coronary atherosclerosis.</p>
      <p>Stratification of the RAS <underline>&gt;</underline>70% group revealed a predominance of males while the RAS <underline>&gt;</underline>50% group was predominately female, however with no statistical significance. Blood pressure readings were also higher for the patients with renal obstruction <underline>&gt;</underline>70%. For this group the correlation between left ventricle dysfunction and renal obstructions <underline>&gt;</underline>70% or obstructive coronary disease was statistically significant. In relation to age, patients with or without RAS <underline>&gt;</underline>50% were in their seventies and those with RAS were on average 4.8 years older (0.9-8.7, CI95%, p = 0.01).</p>
      <p>Even though there is no documented data, it is estimated that the risk of developing major complications (death, stroke or acute myocardial infarction) during an angiography are similar to a cineangiocoronariography, which is less than 1%.</p>
      <p>In conclusion, the association of RAS with coronary artery disease and left ventricle dysfunction emphasizes the necessity of a more extensive approach for atherosclerosis with a detailed investigation, especially for patients in their seventies, due to its systemic manifestation, important clinical relevance due to long term sequelae as well as the known benefits of treatment regarding high systemic blood pressure and renal failure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Potential Conflict of Interest</bold>
      </p>
      <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>REFERENCES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing Address:</p>
          <p> Rog&#233;rio Tadeu Tumelero</p>
          <p> Rua Jos&#233; Bonif&#225;cio, 230/302</p>
          <p> 99070-070 &#150; Passo Fundo, RS - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p><email xlink:href="rttumelero@cardiol.br">rttumelero@cardiol.br</email> or </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="rttumelero@terra.com.br">rttumelero@terra.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p> Received on 2/07/05</p>
      <p> Accepted on 10/28/05</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
