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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">7BjyFySbSwCdCKnD9DVFmQJ</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00023</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006001500023</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08700223</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006001500023</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos grandes vasos arteriais na adapta&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular a ortostase</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Elias Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Vit&#243;ria</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">ES</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Ci&#234;ncias Fisiol&#243;gicas </institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>87</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>209</fpage>
      <lpage>222</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>28</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Contribui&#231;&#227;o dos grandes vasos arteriais na adapta&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular a ortostase</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Jorge Elias Neto</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Departamento de Ci&#234;ncias Fisiol&#243;gicas - Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo &#150; UFES - Vit&#243;ria, ES</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>A possibilidade de se adotar a postura ortost&#225;tica &#233;, sem d&#250;vida, um marco na evolu&#231;&#227;o da esp&#233;cie humana, e tem motivado extensa pesquisa nas &#225;reas fisiol&#243;gica e antropol&#243;gica. Os mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos envolvidos na ado&#231;&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o da postura ortost&#225;tica e suas complica&#231;&#245;es t&#234;m sido investigados atrav&#233;s dos s&#233;culos. Os anatomistas n&#227;o consideram que a adapta&#231;&#227;o postural do corpo humano seja uma transforma&#231;&#227;o peculiar que tenha acontecido com o homem, mas sim que seja a culmina&#231;&#227;o de uma s&#233;rie de fases evolucion&#225;rias que podem ter se iniciado no corpo dos predecessores primatas<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>Acredita-se que o sistema cardiovascular humano se encontre adaptado para manuten&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o cerebral durante a postura ortost&#225;tica. Embora a for&#231;a gravitacional crie um gradiente de press&#227;o em n&#237;vel do sistema circulat&#243;rio, o homem &#233; capaz de permanecer na postura ereta porque a press&#227;o gravitacional &#233; parcialmente neutralizada por mecanismos que previnem o ac&#250;mulo de fluidos nos membros inferiores<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Apesar disso, a s&#237;ncope, definida como a perda transit&#243;ria da consci&#234;ncia e do t&#244;nus postural, em raz&#227;o da hipoperfus&#227;o cerebral, tem um consider&#225;vel impacto m&#233;dico, social e econ&#244;mico. Essa s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica n&#227;o s&#243; pode ser a conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de mecanismos reflexos<sup>3</sup>, mas tamb&#233;m uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica de ampla variedade de condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas distintas<sup>4</sup>.</p>
    <p>Uma perspectiva da adapta&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular ao ortostatismo &#233; apresentada, buscando-se avaliar quest&#245;es evolutivas e fisiol&#243;gicas relacionadas &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase circulat&#243;ria durante a ortostase, colocando-se em evid&#234;ncia o papel dos grandes vasos arteriais.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>POSTURA ORTOST&#193;TICA E O ESTRESSE GRAVITACIONAL </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Anos de experimentos realizados em quadr&#250;pedes ou modelos constru&#237;dos no plano horizontal t&#234;m ajudado os pesquisadores do sistema cardiovascular a desenvolver um tipo de pensamento "horizontal" sobre o sistema cardiovascular, negligenciando completamente os efeitos da gravidade porque a for&#231;a da gravidade "vertical" exerce um m&#237;nimo efeito na circula&#231;&#227;o em plano horizontal. Entretanto, dois ter&#231;os do tempo o sistema cardiovascular humano funcionam na postura ortost&#225;tica, na qual os experimentos cl&#225;ssicos conduzidos pelo grupo de Guyton, para o estudo da hemodin&#226;mica cardiovascular, apresentam grandes limita&#231;&#245;es<sup>5</sup>.</p>
    <p>A mudan&#231;a da postura quadr&#250;pede para a b&#237;pede imp&#244;s dificuldades que podem ser interpretadas por meio de v&#225;rios sinais representativos de uma adapta&#231;&#227;o inadequada ao estresse ortost&#225;tico<sup>6</sup>. O bipedismo pressup&#245;e uma completa reorganiza&#231;&#227;o da ortodin&#226;mica do corpo humano quando comparado ao de outros mam&#237;feros. Isso implica uma reordena&#231;&#227;o diferente do suprimento energ&#233;tico para o corpo (oxig&#234;nio e nutrientes). Como o oxig&#234;nio e os nutrientes s&#227;o conduzidos atrav&#233;s do sangue, espera-se uma completa reorganiza&#231;&#227;o e rearranjo do suprimento sang&#252;&#237;neo entre as diferentes regi&#245;es do corpo, quando se muda da postura quadr&#250;pede para a b&#237;pede<sup>7</sup>. Sendo assim, a hemodin&#226;mica tamb&#233;m deve ser diferente.</p>
    <p>O controle da distribui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo no ser humano se mostra mais complexo pelo fato de o c&#233;rebro apresentar maiores propor&#231;&#245;es que o das demais esp&#233;cies. O c&#233;rebro representa 2% do peso corporal total no homem, demanda 15% do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco em repouso e necessita da manuten&#231;&#227;o de um d&#233;bito est&#225;vel independente de postura ou locomo&#231;&#227;o<sup>8</sup>. A mudan&#231;a da postura supina para a ortost&#225;tica resulta em um deslocamento do sangue do n&#237;vel do t&#243;rax para o sistema venoso subdiafragm&#225;tico, fen&#244;meno usualmente denominado <italic>venous pooling</italic><sup>9</sup>. Se ajustes compensat&#243;rios n&#227;o ocorrem prontamente ap&#243;s a mudan&#231;a de postura, a press&#227;o arterial cai, e o indiv&#237;duo pode apresentar desde sintomas mais brandos relacionados &#224; intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica at&#233; a perda s&#250;bita da consci&#234;ncia<sup>10</sup>. </p>
    <p>Embora a gravidade seja, de longa data<sup>11</sup>, reconhecida como a principal for&#231;a deformadora que atua contra o corpo humano por meio da mudan&#231;a de postura, suas implica&#231;&#245;es no sistema cardiovascular, com poss&#237;veis influ&#234;ncias no desenvolvimento e morbidade e mortalidade por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, n&#227;o se encontram bem definidas<sup>12-15</sup>. De qualquer forma, fica claro nesse ponto que, a despeito de todos os benef&#237;cios inerentes &#224; postura ortost&#225;tica, o estresse gravitacional veio a ser aceito como uma vari&#225;vel fundamental capaz de afetar a homeostase circulat&#243;ria. &#201; a gravidade (+Gz) atuando com uma velocidade m&#233;dia de 9,8m/s<sup>2</sup> a vari&#225;vel respons&#225;vel pela redistribui&#231;&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea presente por meio da ado&#231;&#227;o da ortostase.</p>
    <p>A oposi&#231;&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica ao retorno venoso, a perda de fluido para o terceiro espa&#231;o, a redu&#231;&#227;o do retorno venoso e a diminui&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, todas altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas secund&#225;rias ao efeito gravitacional, atuam como est&#237;mulos m&#250;ltiplos, gerando uma variedade de mecanismos compensat&#243;rios<sup>16,17</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, o estresse gravitacional pode ser agravado pelo n&#237;vel de atividade f&#237;sica, pela temperatura ambiente, pelo uso de f&#225;rmacos e por processos fisiopatol&#243;gicos dos mais variados, todos capazes de aumentar a disparidade entre a capacidade volum&#233;trica vascular e o volume de fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo<sup>18-20</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>O HOMEM E A MICROGRAVIDADE</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Se a gravidade n&#227;o existisse, o ser humano n&#227;o necessitaria de um sistema cardiovascular t&#227;o complexo, em particular da presen&#231;a de mecanismos de prote&#231;&#227;o para manter uma homeostase circulat&#243;ria durante o ortostatismo. De uma maneira geral, a adapta&#231;&#227;o &#224; gravidade &#233;, em parte, adquirida e necessita ser treinada continuamente.</p>
    <p>Nos astronautas, a possibilidade de aus&#234;ncia de peso em decorr&#234;ncia da microgravidade gera profundas altera&#231;&#245;es no sistema cardiovascular. O novo padr&#227;o de distribui&#231;&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea &#233; interpretado como aumento da volemia, e mecanismos compensat&#243;rios s&#227;o prontamente acionados (aumento da secre&#231;&#227;o de horm&#244;nio natriur&#233;tico, inibi&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona), conduzindo a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do volume plasm&#225;tico. Observa-se tamb&#233;m uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade do barorreflexo e do reflexo vestibulossimp&#225;tico, altera&#231;&#245;es do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico, aumento da complac&#234;ncia das veias dos membros inferiores e dist&#250;rbios da vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o arteriolar<sup>21-23</sup>. Todas essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem ser consideradas como "descondicionamento" cardiovascular capaz de gerar uma intoler&#226;ncia ao ortostatismo quando do retorno ao ambiente terrestre. Altera&#231;&#245;es similares no sistema cardiovascular t&#234;m sido observadas ap&#243;s longos per&#237;odos de restri&#231;&#227;o ao leito (situa&#231;&#227;o que simula a microgravidade), indicando que a postura ortost&#225;tica tem um papel fundamental no estresse gravitacional . As pesquisas que buscam o "compreendimento" funcional do organismo no espa&#231;o se estendem a situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas de alta preval&#234;ncia no ambiente terrestre, como a hipertens&#227;o arterial, a hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, a desautonomia e, finalmente, a s&#237;ncope. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>A FOR&#199;A DA GRAVIDADE E O ESTRESSE GRAVITACIONAL &#150; ASPECTOS GERAIS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O efeito do campo gravitacional terrestre no sistema cardiovascular humano &#233; similar ao efeito de um campo el&#233;trico em um condutor. Da mesma forma que um campo el&#233;trico move el&#233;trons livres ao longo de um condutor, o campo gravitacional move o sangue (part&#237;culas livres) ao longo do sistema cardiovascular. O efeito do campo gravitacional &#233; medido pelo gradiente de potencial gravitacional (U<sub>gr</sub>), o qual &#233; igual ao trabalho realizado pelo campo para mover a unidade de massa do sangue atrav&#233;s do sistema em dire&#231;&#227;o &#224; Terra (U<sub>gr</sub>=gz x r). A dire&#231;&#227;o do campo gravitacional terrestre pr&#243;xima &#224; superf&#237;cie &#233; vertical, e a dist&#226;ncia r &#233; igual &#224; altura do sistema: U<sub>gr</sub>=gz x h. Isso explica por que o efeito da gravidade &#233; significante apenas na postura ortost&#225;tica. Na postura horizontal, a altura do corpo humano, h, &#233; muito pequena, tornando a U<sub>gr</sub> negligenci&#225;vel, mas ela aumenta v&#225;rias vezes durante a ortostase<sup>24</sup>.</p>
    <p>J&#225; o estresse gravitacional pode ser definido da seguinte forma: a gravidade causa um desvio significativo de sangue para o territ&#243;rio infradiafragm&#225;tico quando o sistema cardiovascular se encontra na postura ortost&#225;tica. Para a manuten&#231;&#227;o adequada da circula&#231;&#227;o para o territ&#243;rio supradiafragm&#225;tico, durante a ortostase, o sistema cardiovascular deve realizar um trabalho adicional para retornar o sangue ao cora&#231;&#227;o e neutralizar o efeito da gravidade. A soma desse trabalho (T), igual ao produto do gradiente do potencial gravitacional e da massa de sangue deslocada (M), representa o estresse gravitacional no sistema cardiovascular: EG = T = U<sub>gr</sub> x M. Desnecess&#225;rio dizer, essa sobrecarga adicional no sistema cardiovascular, durante a ortostase, permanece desconhecida nos estudos tradicionais sobre a hemodin&#226;mica circulat&#243;ria humana. De qualquer forma, o estresse gravitacional pode aumentar sem que ocorra um aumento na for&#231;a de gravidade. A a&#231;&#227;o natural do estresse gravitacional &#233; de gerar uma redistribui&#231;&#227;o do sangue para os membros inferiores no sistema cardiovascular. </p>
    <p>Ao contr&#225;rio da &#225;gua em um copo, o sangue contido em um sistema vascular el&#225;stico e complexo se redistribui lentamente, e a mudan&#231;a do sangue n&#227;o se faz de forma instant&#226;nea mas aumenta proporcionalmente ao tempo do indiv&#237;duo em ortostase. Ent&#227;o, tomando-se como base a equa&#231;&#227;o estabelecida para o estresse gravitacional, a massa de sangue desviada por influ&#234;ncia da gravidade, M, &#233; uma fun&#231;&#227;o do tempo, EG=U<sub>gr</sub> x M (t) = g x h x M (t). Isso significa dizer que o estresse gravitacional pode aumentar n&#227;o apenas atrav&#233;s do aumento da for&#231;a de gravidade, mas tamb&#233;m na depend&#234;ncia da dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo em postura ortost&#225;tica<sup>24</sup>. Dessa forma, uma manuten&#231;&#227;o excessiva em ortostase, requer um est&#225;gio mais avan&#231;ado de resposta antigravitacional com maior hiperatividade simp&#225;tica, hipervolemia e incremento na press&#227;o arterial, de igual forma ao que ocorreria com um incremento na for&#231;a de gravidade.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESPOSTA DIN&#194;MICA CARDIOVASCULAR &#192; POSTURA ORTOST&#193;TICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Durante a postura de p&#233;, a gravidade causa gradientes de press&#227;o em todos os compartimentos fluidos do corpo, incluindo as veias e as art&#233;rias. No sistema arterial, ocorre uma mudan&#231;a do ponto indiferente hidrost&#225;tico, definido como a refer&#234;ncia axial na qual a press&#227;o da coluna de sangue venoso n&#227;o &#233; alterada pela reorienta&#231;&#227;o postural, localizado no n&#237;vel do &#225;trio direito no dec&#250;bito supino, passando para o territ&#243;rio a&#243;rtico infradiafragm&#225;tico na ortostase<sup>25</sup>. Entretanto, por causa da maior complac&#234;ncia das veias, o efeito principal &#233; a redistribui&#231;&#227;o do volume venoso, que interfere, dessa forma, na press&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea global. O ac&#250;mulo de sangue no territ&#243;rio venoso inicia-se imediatamente durante a ortostase e se completa de 3 a 5 minutos<sup>26</sup>. O volume venoso dos membros inferiores aumenta em aproximadamente 500 a 700 ml<sup>27</sup>. Cerca de 200 a 300 ml do sangue s&#227;o transferidos para as veias abaixo do abdome. Essa transloca&#231;&#227;o de volume sang&#252;&#237;neo &#233; derivada, principalmente, do compartimento intrator&#225;cico e resulta em diminui&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de enchimento card&#237;aco e do volume sist&#243;lico<sup>28-31</sup>. </p>
    <p>Al&#233;m da transfer&#234;ncia do sangue do compartimento tor&#225;cico, o volume sang&#252;&#237;neo central &#233; afetado pela filtra&#231;&#227;o transcapilar de fluido para o espa&#231;o intersticial em determinadas partes do corpo, em resposta &#224; alta press&#227;o capilar, associada &#224; baixa contraposi&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o intersticial. Al&#233;m disso, a filtra&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua para o espa&#231;o intersticial reduz ainda mais o volume circulante<sup>32</sup>. A perda de fluido transcapilar se estabiliza ap&#243;s aproximadamente 20 a 30 minutos, com uma queda do volume plasm&#225;tico de cerca de 15%, embora esse processo ainda se mantenha presente com a manuten&#231;&#227;o da ortostase<sup>33</sup>. Dessa forma, a distribui&#231;&#227;o do volume sang&#252;&#237;neo faz-se de maneira complexa, pelas caracter&#237;sticas intr&#237;nsecas do sistema venoso, ao efeito de bombeamento da musculatura esquel&#233;tica dos membros inferiores (musculatura antigravidade) e, conforme citado anteriormente, ao deslocamento do ponto indiferente hidrost&#225;tico<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>A capacidade de manter o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e a press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia durante o "desafio" ortost&#225;tico pode ser influenciada pelo comprometimento do retorno venoso. Entre outros fatores, a redu&#231;&#227;o do retorno venoso pode resultar de uma combina&#231;&#227;o da diminui&#231;&#227;o do volume sang&#252;&#237;neo total com o ac&#250;mulo de sangue nos membros inferiores, que pode subseq&#252;entemente ocasionar uma press&#227;o de enchimento subnormal ventricular e desviar a curva de Frank-Starling para uma por&#231;&#227;o na qual a capacidade de compensar a hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica se encontra limitada<sup>14,34-35</sup>. De qualquer forma, o sistema cardiovascular humano tem "embutido" um mecanismo de defesa contra o estresse gravitacional t&#227;o poderoso que pode neutralizar completamente a redistribui&#231;&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea gravidade-induzida imposta pela postura ortost&#225;tica. O mecanismo &#233; o bombeamento perif&#233;rico. </p>
    <p>Os membros inferiores est&#227;o equipados com um sistema espec&#237;fico de bombeamento de sangue, a musculatura da panturrilha, muitas vezes denominada de "cora&#231;&#227;o venoso perif&#233;rico". As veias profundas da panturrilha, que se encontram dentro de uma musculatura compartimentada, apresentam valvas, as quais, como as valvas card&#237;acas, previnem o refluxo de sangue e s&#227;o capazes de resistir a press&#245;es de v&#225;rias centenas de mmHg. A compress&#227;o do seguimento venoso durante a contra&#231;&#227;o muscular aumenta a press&#227;o dentro do compartimento muscular, o qual leva ao fechamento das valvas e causa um fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo ascendente. Atrav&#233;s da contra&#231;&#227;o regular dos m&#250;sculos da panturrilha, durante a ortostase, o sangue venoso &#233; bombeado para fora dos membros inferiores contra a gravidade, revertendo a a&#231;&#227;o gravitacional na distribui&#231;&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea. Dessa forma, a inabilidade do cora&#231;&#227;o em "sugar" o sangue da por&#231;&#227;o venosa do circuito cardiovascular &#233; compensada pela presen&#231;a da bomba adicional no sistema venoso. Esse sistema composto pelas panturrilhas gera um bombeamento efetivo, o qual n&#227;o &#233; dependente da press&#227;o de enchimento auxiliando a manter, com &#234;xito, a circula&#231;&#227;o durante a ortostase.</p>
    <p>Dessa maneira, a equa&#231;&#227;o final do estresse gravitacional pode ser expressa da seguinte forma: EG = g x h x M (t) / R<sub>p x </sub>C<sub>per</sub>, aonde R<sub>p</sub> &#233; a resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica e C<sub>per</sub> &#233; o trabalho do "cora&#231;&#227;o venoso perif&#233;rico"<sup> 24</sup>.</p>
    <p>Embora estudos iniciais tenham demonstrado uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo cerebral durante a postura ortost&#225;tica<sup>36</sup>, atualmente se sabe que a perfus&#227;o cerebral nos humanos &#233; mantida por meio da auto-regula&#231;&#227;o cerebrovascular, que permite um funcionamento cerebral efetivo e uma distribui&#231;&#227;o de fluxo regional satisfat&#243;ria dentro de uma ampla varia&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o<sup>37</sup>. </p>
    <p>Em compara&#231;&#227;o com o que ocorre com animais quadr&#250;pedes, o ser humano apresenta uma distribui&#231;&#227;o mais constante do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo total nos v&#225;rios segmentos corporais, durante a postura ortost&#225;tica, inclusive para as grandes art&#233;rias, sugerindo uma melhor adaptabilidade funcional ao estresse gravitacional<sup>8</sup>.</p>
    <p>A redistribui&#231;&#227;o do volume, do fluxo e da press&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea, ocasionada pela ado&#231;&#227;o da postura ereta, pode colocar em risco a pr&#233;-carga, a press&#227;o arterial e a perfus&#227;o org&#226;nica, e &#233; contrabalan&#231;ada por uma seq&#252;&#234;ncia compensat&#243;ria de mecanismos neuro-humorais inter-relacionados, que se op&#245;em ao direcionamento cont&#237;nuo caudal circulat&#243;rio imposto pela press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica<sup>15</sup>. J&#225; em 1904, Erlanger e Hooker observaram, utilizando o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o (TI) passiva, que a acelera&#231;&#227;o da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a diminui&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o de pulso ocorriam na postura ereta. Consideraram esse padr&#227;o de comportamento similar ao observado durante evento hemorr&#225;gico e julgaram ser essa a resposta normal do ser humano ao estresse postural<sup>1</sup>. Turner ressaltou que o ajuste circulat&#243;rio seria particular para cada indiv&#237;duo, de acordo com seu padr&#227;o pessoal, e que alguns padr&#245;es de resposta individual seriam superiores a outros<sup>1</sup>.</p>
    <p>V&#225;rios mecanismos regulat&#243;rios ocorrem de maneira imediata em resposta aos efeitos da gravidade. O ajuste inicial &#224; ortostase &#233; mediado pelo sistema neural regulat&#243;rio<sup>30,31</sup>. Os principais receptores envolvidos nesses ajustes s&#227;o os mecanorreceptores cardiopulmonares, localizados no n&#237;vel do &#225;trio direito e das veias pulmonares, e os receptores sinoa&#243;rticos, localizados no seio carot&#237;deo e no arco a&#243;rtico<sup>38</sup>. Al&#233;m de esses barorreceptores responderem, de forma isolada, pelas altera&#231;&#245;es do volume circulat&#243;rio, uma intera&#231;&#227;o complexa inibit&#243;ria entre o barorreflexo cardiopulmonar e o sinoa&#243;rtico faz com que uma redu&#231;&#227;o no <italic>input</italic> aferente cardiopulmonar aumente o ganho do barorreflexo sinoa&#243;rtico<sup>39</sup>. Em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, a diminui&#231;&#227;o da ativa&#231;&#227;o dos receptores cardiopulmonares produz uma vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica para manuten&#231;&#227;o da normotens&#227;o, em face da diminui&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o venosa central e do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco<sup>40</sup>.</p>
    <p>O objetivo prim&#225;rio do barorreflexo arterial &#233; manter a press&#227;o arterial pr&#243;xima de um ponto de refer&#234;ncia por um per&#237;odo de tempo relativamente curto. A regulagem r&#225;pida dos barorreceptores arteriais, independentemente do novo n&#237;vel da press&#227;o, deve-se ao fato de que esse reflexo age como um sistema "tamp&#227;o" eficaz sobre as flutua&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o arterial que ocorrem na vida cotidiana. Os barorreceptores arteriais tamb&#233;m desempenham um papel menor no controle, a longo prazo, do n&#237;vel da press&#227;o arterial<sup>41</sup>.</p>
    <p>Esses barorreceptores aorticocarotideanos inibem tonicamente os centros vasomotores do tronco cerebral. Uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea remove esse est&#237;mulo inibit&#243;rio, resultando em aumento do t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e em diminui&#231;&#227;o do t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico<sup>42</sup>. Do ponto de vista funcional, os dois componentes do barorreflexo arterial (carot&#237;deo e a&#243;rtico) n&#227;o s&#227;o equivalentes. Sugere-se que o barorreflexo a&#243;rtico tenha maior limiar e menor sensibilidade que o carot&#237;deo<sup>38</sup>. A informa&#231;&#227;o dos barorreceptores &#233; transmitida atrav&#233;s de v&#225;rias vias que acompanham o trajeto do nono e do d&#233;cimo pares cranianos at&#233; os centros do tronco cerebral. Esses dois nervos s&#227;o a via aferente do reflexo, enquanto a via eferente &#233; constitu&#237;da pelo vago e pelas vias simp&#225;ticas que correm em n&#237;vel da medula intermediolateral<sup>6</sup>. As mudan&#231;as na descarga neural podem resultar em mudan&#231;as do t&#244;nus vasomotor, do volume sist&#243;lico e da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>O sistema vestibular tamb&#233;m parece contribuir para a ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica por meio do recrutamento dos &#243;rg&#227;os otol&#237;ticos. Isso se d&#225; atrav&#233;s do reflexo vestibulossimp&#225;tico. Esse reflexo &#233; um sistema neural de <italic>feedback</italic> que regula a descarga neural simp&#225;tica por meio de afer&#234;ncias nervosas provenientes do sistema vestibular<sup>43</sup>. </p>
    <p>Durante o prolongamento do per&#237;odo em ortostase, al&#233;m dos barorreceptores e do sistema vestibular, mecanismos regulat&#243;rios de atua&#231;&#227;o mais retardada, baseados em reflexos adicionais do sistema humoral, que incluem a secre&#231;&#227;o de horm&#244;nio natriur&#233;tico, renina e aldosterona, s&#227;o envolvidos com a manuten&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial<sup>15,27,44</sup>. </p>
    <p>No que diz respeito aos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos, o ortostatismo provoca no indiv&#237;duo cronicamente adaptado ao estresse gravitacional uma queda discreta da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, em geral inferior a 20 mmHg. A press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica permanece est&#225;vel ou se eleva discretamente, e a press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia n&#227;o se altera de forma significativa. A press&#227;o telediast&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo direito diminui, o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco cai em torno de 20%, a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica se elevam de 10% a 30% do valor inicial<sup>6</sup>. </p>
    <p>Quando, entretanto, o vetor de acelera&#231;&#227;o +Gz cabe&#231;a-membros inferiores &#233; cronicamente diminu&#237;do, como por per&#237;odos prolongados de repouso supino, os seres humanos demonstram uma redu&#231;&#227;o da toler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica, associada a um comprometimento da regula&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial. Essas observa&#231;&#245;es incluem um aumento da complac&#234;ncia dos membros inferiores, altera&#231;&#227;o da resposta reflexa cardiovagal, contra&#231;&#227;o do volume sang&#252;&#237;neo circulante e diminui&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em contrapartida, Muenter e cols. observaram que, em indiv&#237;duos submetidos &#224; restri&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo de sono (aproximadamente 4h/noite durante quatro dias consecutivos), ocorreu uma melhor regula&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea em situa&#231;&#227;o de ortostase<sup>45</sup>. Os indiv&#237;duos apresentaram um aumento da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante o estresse ortost&#225;tico, simulado com utiliza&#231;&#227;o de press&#245;es subatmosf&#233;ricas aplicadas &#224;s por&#231;&#245;es inferiores do corpo denominadas <italic>lower body negative pressure</italic> (LBNP), refor&#231;ando a hip&#243;tese de que, em indiv&#237;duos jovens normais, a exposi&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua ao estresse gravitacional desencadeia uma melhor adapta&#231;&#227;o circulat&#243;ria. O mesmo pode-se afirmar de pacientes portadores de s&#237;ncope neuromediada, que, quando submetidos a treinamento ortost&#225;tico di&#225;rio, mediante a t&#233;cnica denominada <italic>tilt training</italic> (treinamento postural), apresentaram remiss&#227;o da sintomatologia cl&#237;nica, mesmo quando a terap&#234;utica farmacol&#243;gica se mostrou ineficaz<sup>46</sup>. J&#225; Newman e cols., utilizaram o TI para avaliar aviadores, habitualmente expostos a altos n&#237;veis de gravidade (+Gz), e indiv&#237;duos normais<sup>47</sup>. Esses autores observaram que os pilotos apresentavam uma eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia e press&#227;o de pulso durante o TI com 75&#176;, quando comparados ao grupo-controle (p &lt; 0,05). N&#227;o se evidenciaram altera&#231;&#245;es significativas entre os dois subgrupos desse estudo na resposta da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ao estresse ortost&#225;tico. </p>
    <p>Quando analisado em n&#237;vel sist&#234;mico, o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, mais que a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, representa a resposta org&#226;nica final reflexa &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o dos barorreceptores pelo estresse ortost&#225;tico<sup>33</sup>. Baseado nessa premissa, Convertino<sup>14</sup> analisou as mudan&#231;as do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco que poderiam ocorrer em resposta &#224; varia&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em indiv&#237;duos expostos de forma repetitiva a altos n&#237;veis de acelera&#231;&#227;o gravitacional. Esse autor observou a import&#226;ncia da an&#225;lise tanto da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca quanto do volume sist&#243;lico, na avalia&#231;&#227;o do ganho efetivo da integridade barorreflexa card&#237;aca em manter a press&#227;o arterial durante o "desafio" hipotensivo ortost&#225;tico. A melhor <italic>performance</italic> ortost&#225;tica observada nesses indiv&#237;duos favorece a hip&#243;tese de que uma exposi&#231;&#227;o repetida &#224; acelera&#231;&#227;o gravitacional &#233; associada a mudan&#231;as do volume sang&#252;&#237;neo e da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, em oposi&#231;&#227;o ao que ocorre em indiv&#237;duos, por exemplo, restritos ao leito<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos que administram a regula&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial no ser humano (exemplo: barorreflexo, controle do volume vascular) t&#234;m de se adaptar constantemente &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o di&#225;ria da gravidade; em outras palavras, &#224;s varia&#231;&#245;es da postura. A an&#225;lise da resposta do volume sang&#252;&#237;neo e do barorreflexo carot&#237;deo-card&#237;aco em adapta&#231;&#227;o &#224;s mudan&#231;as provocadas pelo est&#237;mulo gravitacional pode ter particular import&#226;ncia, porque o volume sang&#252;&#237;neo e a responsividade do reflexo carot&#237;deo-card&#237;aco s&#227;o dois fatores prim&#225;rios (em adi&#231;&#227;o &#224; altura) em predizer a evolu&#231;&#227;o para a hipotens&#227;o arterial e a s&#237;ncope<sup>48</sup>.</p>
    <p>A compara&#231;&#227;o do comportamento funcional cardiocir&#173;culat&#243;rio diante das oscila&#231;&#245;es gravitacionais permite duas afirmativas: 1) o ser humano &#233; capaz de sofrer cont&#237;nua adapta&#231;&#227;o ao estresse gravitacional; 2) os mecanismos que permitem tolerar o efeito gravitacional s&#227;o altamente pl&#225;sticos e trein&#225;veis, ou adquir&#237;veis por meio do treinamento<sup>14</sup>. Fica estabelecido, ent&#227;o, que um sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo, capaz de manter um comportamento adaptativo din&#226;mico que permita um d&#233;bito card&#237;aco adequado, em resposta &#224;s oscila&#231;&#245;es do volume sang&#252;&#237;neo impostas pela postura ortost&#225;tica, &#233; fundamental<sup>39,49</sup>. Sendo assim, condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que interfiram na responsividade do sistema barorreflexo podem, de alguma forma, interferir na homeostase circulat&#243;ria<sup>50-53</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>FATORES QUE INFLUENCIAM A SENSIBILIDADE DO BARORREFLEXO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Sabe-se que altera&#231;&#245;es no n&#237;vel de atividade e/ou no equil&#237;brio dos v&#225;rios ramos do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo podem ser consideradas um dos fatores principais respons&#225;veis pelo desenvolvimento da hipertens&#227;o arterial cr&#244;nica essencial. Os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos apresentam um aumento da variabilidade da flutua&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e uma redu&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade dos barorreceptores<sup>9,54</sup>. O sexo do paciente hipertenso tamb&#233;m parece ser um importante determinante da sensibilidade do barorreflexo, j&#225; que a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica se mostra mais comprometida no sexo feminino<sup>54</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os indiv&#237;duos hipertensos s&#227;o menos responsivos &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica induzida<sup>55,56</sup>. De fato, a an&#225;lise da resposta auton&#244;mica dos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos &#224; mudan&#231;a postural, quando comparada &#224; de indiv&#237;duos normais, mostra que, embora exista um aumento basal da atividade simp&#225;tica durante a postura ortost&#225;tica, a resposta simp&#225;tica se encontra significativamente reduzida, sugerindo um comprometimento no controle da press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia pelo barorreflexo nesses indiv&#237;duos<sup>9</sup>.</p>
    <p>As respostas hemodin&#226;micas reflexas ao estresse ortost&#225;tico tamb&#233;m se encontram atenuadas com o envelhecimento. Quando indiv&#237;duos jovens saud&#225;veis se erguem da postura sentada ou da supina, ocorre uma mudan&#231;a vari&#225;vel da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica em torno de 10 mmHg, um aumento da press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica de 10 a 15 mmHg e um aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de 25 a 30 bpm. Essa resposta se estabelece com aproximadamente 30 segundos. Em contraste, quando um indiv&#237;duo idoso saud&#225;vel se levanta, observa-se uma tend&#234;ncia &#224; queda da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (0 a 5 mmHg), a manuten&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica e uma aus&#234;ncia ou atenua&#231;&#227;o da resposta positiva da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (10 a 15 bpm)<sup>57</sup>. Cerca de 6% a 30% dos indiv&#237;duos idosos apresentam hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica (queda na press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 20 mmHg, ou na press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 10 mmHg), ao adotar a postura de p&#233;<sup>58,59</sup>. Ao contr&#225;rio do que se poderia prever, a maior parte dos indiv&#237;duos idosos com uma inadapta&#231;&#227;o ao estresse ortost&#225;tico n&#227;o apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas definidas, como degenera&#231;&#227;o central ou perif&#233;rica das vias auton&#244;micas ou insufici&#234;ncia adrenal. Esses indiv&#237;duos representam, possivelmente, uma condi&#231;&#227;o extrema da distribui&#231;&#227;o das mudan&#231;as fisiol&#243;gicas &#224; postura relacionadas &#224; idade<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>A mudan&#231;a biol&#243;gica mais bem conhecida no controle da PA que ocorre com a idade &#233; uma atenua&#231;&#227;o da responsividade dos barorreceptores, que &#233; representada pelo reflexo barorreceptores-cora&#231;&#227;o<sup>3,60,61</sup>. Esse achado &#233; comumente considerado como indica&#231;&#227;o de uma anormalidade prim&#225;ria relacionada &#224; idade no controle cardiovascular, j&#225; que o barorreflexo &#233; o maior fator que influencia uma r&#225;pida resposta adaptativa &#224; ortostase<sup>53</sup>. Existem, entretanto, muitas outras altera&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; idade que ocorrem na fun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, as quais podem contribuir de forma significativa para uma resposta inadequada &#224; ortostase, como uma redu&#231;&#227;o na complac&#234;ncia arterial<sup>27,62</sup> e mioc&#225;rdica<sup>63</sup>, na ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona<sup>64</sup>, na conserva&#231;&#227;o renal de s&#243;dio<sup>65</sup>, um defeito na auto-regula&#231;&#227;o cerebral e a presen&#231;a de hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>A localiza&#231;&#227;o dos barorreceptores arteriais nas gran&#173;des art&#233;rias complacentes significa que mudan&#231;as na complac&#234;ncia arterial, que podem ocorrer pelo simples envelhecimento, por doen&#231;a ou atividade f&#237;sica, t&#234;m o potencial de tamb&#233;m influir nas atividades aferentes dos barorreceptores e refletir-se, por conseguinte, na fun&#231;&#227;o reflexa auton&#244;mica<sup>66</sup>. A complac&#234;ncia arterial tem papel fundamental na demanda energ&#233;tica card&#237;aca, na manuten&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica e do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo coronariano<sup>66,67</sup>. Provavelmente, o menos &#243;bvio seja a influ&#234;ncia das propriedades mec&#226;nicas vasculares na fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica por altera&#231;&#245;es na atividade aferente dos barorreceptores. Embora seja dif&#237;cil investigar a extens&#227;o &#224; qual esses dois fen&#244;menos est&#227;o interligados, Kingwell e cols., analisando a complac&#234;ncia arterial e sua poss&#237;vel influ&#234;ncia no barorreflexo em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos e em atletas, observaram n&#227;o s&#243; uma rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre a complac&#234;ncia arterial e uma maior press&#227;o arterial pela ativa&#231;&#227;o reflexa nos atletas, mas tamb&#233;m o d&#233;ficit do barorreflexo nos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos<sup>66</sup>. Contudo, estimativas basais da rigidez vascular podem n&#227;o representar o estresse mec&#226;nico que incide sobre as grandes art&#233;rias com fun&#231;&#227;o barossensorial, durante mudan&#231;as din&#226;micas da press&#227;o que caracterizam o papel do barorreflexo<sup>68,69</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, uma fun&#231;&#227;o neuronal comprometida pode participar com papel proeminente, gerando, com a diminui&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica vascular, a redu&#231;&#227;o do ganho do barorreflexo<sup>70</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por meio das medidas do ganho integrado do barorre&#173;flexo cardiovagal e de seus componentes mec&#226;nico e neural, analisado de forma din&#226;mica (durante adminis&#173;tra&#231;&#227;o parenteral de nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio e fenilefrina), Hunt e cols. observaram que o ganho integrado nos indiv&#237;duos idosos sedent&#225;rios do sexo masculino foi menor que a metade do encontrado nos jovens igualmente sedent&#225;rios<sup>70</sup>. Esse achado derivou de uma diminui&#231;&#227;o tanto na transdu&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica quanto na neural. Outra observa&#231;&#227;o significativa desse estudo foi que a atividade f&#237;sica foi capaz de compensar esses resultados, fazendo com que o idoso fisicamente ativo tivesse valores duplicados no ganho do barorreflexo em rela&#231;&#227;o ao dos indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios de igual idade e compar&#225;vel ao dos jovens sedent&#225;rios. Uma baixa transdu&#231;&#227;o neural nos indiv&#237;duos idosos sedent&#225;rios &#233; compat&#237;vel com as evid&#234;ncias de uma integra&#231;&#227;o central auton&#244;mica alterada<sup>40,71</sup>, de um d&#233;bito vagal reduzido<sup>72</sup> e de uma menor densidade de receptores muscar&#237;nicos no n&#243; sinusal<sup>73</sup>, os quais ocorrem com o envelhecimento. A forte rela&#231;&#227;o entre o ganho do barorreflexo cardiovagal e o componente neural pode refletir alguns desses decl&#237;nios.</p>
    <p>Partindo da premissa de que a idade tanto faz diminuir o ganho do barorreflexo<sup>53,60,61</sup> quanto gera um enrijecimento nas grandes art&#233;rias<sup>67</sup>, &#233; poss&#237;vel estabelecer que a fun&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica das art&#233;rias com papel barossensorial &#233; importante no decl&#237;nio idade-dependente do barorreflexo cardiovagal. Outro aspecto fundamental &#233; que a an&#225;lise do comportamento das grandes art&#233;rias e do barorreflexo em situa&#231;&#227;o de repouso supino pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es limitadas a respeito da diferen&#231;a idade-dependente nos mecanismos vasculares, durante mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o arterial que caracterizam o papel do barorreflexo<sup>70</sup>. A import&#226;ncia da interfer&#234;ncia do comportamento din&#226;mico da press&#227;o arterial no paciente hipertenso sobre a sensibilidade do barorreflexo foi confirmada por Sich&#233; e cols., que observaram que o determinante mais importante da sensibilidade do barorreflexo foi o n&#237;vel da press&#227;o arterial em 24 horas, e que essa n&#227;o foi significativamente determinada pela idade<sup>41</sup>. </p>
    <p>Uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na complac&#234;ncia arterial carotideana pode ser um mecanismo importante respons&#225;vel pela redu&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo cardiovagal com o envelhecimento. Entretanto, tem sido sugerido que a associa&#231;&#227;o entre barorreflexo cardiovagal/complac&#234;ncia arterial n&#227;o seja simplesmente devida a uma colinearidade com a idade<sup>74</sup>. Sabe-se que a estrutura vascular da &#225;rea do seio carot&#237;deo e da aorta determina a deforma&#231;&#227;o e a tens&#227;o em n&#237;vel dos barorreceptores arteriais, durante mudan&#231;as agudas na PA sang&#252;&#237;nea<sup>75</sup>. Nesse contexto, uma redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida com a idade pode restringir a habilidade de seus segmentos mec&#226;nicos sensitivos em identificar e traduzir, de forma apropriada, mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o intravascular em sinais nervosos aferentes para o sistema nervoso central<sup>76,77</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entre as v&#225;rias teorias propostas para a fisiopatologia da s&#237;ncope vasovagal, a da disfun&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo tem sido uma das mais estudadas<sup>44</sup>. Mosqueda-Garcia e cols. investigaram a sensibilidade do barorreflexo em indiv&#237;duos com s&#237;ncope vasovagal e TI positivo e observaram uma resposta reduzida dos componentes cardiovagais e simp&#225;ticos do barorreflexo quando comparado ao grupo controle<sup>78</sup>. Alguns autores t&#234;m sugerido que a fun&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo se encontra preservada, mas que sofre uma supress&#227;o s&#250;bita em raz&#227;o de um reflexo depressor oriundo do cora&#231;&#227;o<sup>79</sup>. De uma maneira geral, todos os artigos que tratam desse tema relatam algum tipo de disfun&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo que resulta em uma inabilidade para sentir ou compensar as altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas desencadeadas pela for&#231;a da gravidade em pacientes portadores de s&#237;ncope neuromediada<sup>44</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dessa forma, &#233; poss&#237;vel considerar que a an&#225;lise da influ&#234;ncia da complac&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica no barorreflexo pode permitir maior elucida&#231;&#227;o da adapta&#231;&#227;o ao ortostatismo e da fisiopatologia da s&#237;ncope neuromediada.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>GRANDES ART&#201;RIAS E ADAPTA&#199;&#195;O AO ORTOSTATISMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Uma caracter&#237;stica t&#237;pica dos tecidos vivos &#233; sua habilidade em responder a mudan&#231;as de sobrecarga, alterando sua geometria, estrutura e/ou propriedades mec&#226;nicas<sup>80</sup>. </p>
    <p>Conforme j&#225; estabelecido, o aumento da rigidez das grandes art&#233;rias, ocasionado, por exemplo, pela hipertens&#227;o arterial e pela idade, tamb&#233;m resulta em comprometimento da sensibilidade do barorreflexo, o qual pode interferir na adequa&#231;&#227;o da resposta cardiocirculat&#243;ria ao estresse ortost&#225;tico<sup>42,81</sup>.</p>
    <p>Kingwell e cols. avaliaram a influ&#234;ncia da complac&#234;ncia arterial na fun&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo em indiv&#237;duos atletas normotensos e em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos. Esses autores sugeriram que, por causa da diminui&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia arterial, em pacientes hipertensos, amplas varia&#231;&#245;es na press&#227;o arterial n&#227;o provocam mudan&#231;as adequadas na circunfer&#234;ncia vascular, interferindo assim no disparo dos barorreceptores<sup>66</sup>. Uma complac&#234;ncia arterial reduzida pode ent&#227;o explicar o comportamento de bradicardia em <italic>plateau</italic> nos hipertensos. </p>
    <p>Sich&#233; e cols. utilizaram a medida da velocidade da onda de pulso (VOP)carot&#237;deo-femoral em indiv&#237;duos portadores de HAS de leve a moderada, aferida pelo monitoramento ambulatorial da press&#227;o arterial, para avaliar a sensibilidade do barorreflexo em rela&#231;&#227;o ao endurecimento das grandes art&#233;rias. Nesse estudo, o aumento da VOP esteve significativamente associado a uma altera&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade do barorreflexo. O desenvolvimento de uma altera&#231;&#227;o da distensibilidade arterial esteve relacionado a um d&#233;ficit da sensibilidade do barorreflexo, predominando sobre a al&#231;a do controle vagal<sup>41</sup>. A altera&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade do barorreflexo poderia assim traduzir o grau de severidade da altera&#231;&#227;o da distensibilidade vascular com conseq&#252;ente interesse progn&#243;stico. A estrutura vascular da &#225;rea do seio carot&#237;deo e da aorta determina a deforma&#231;&#227;o da tens&#227;o nos barorreceptores arteriais durante mudan&#231;as agudas na press&#227;o arterial. Nesse contexto, uma redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia arterial<sup>76</sup> pode ser esperada para restringir a habilidade de seus segmentos mec&#226;nicos sensitivos em identificar e traduzir apropriadamente mudan&#231;as na press&#227;o intravascular em sinais nervosos aferentes para o sistema nervoso central<sup>74</sup>.</p>
    <p>Como pode ser observado, a grande maioria dos dados referentes &#224; hemodin&#226;mica circulat&#243;ria central no homem foi formulada com base em modelos hidr&#225;ulicos, que s&#227;o conhecidos primordialmente na postura supina, por quest&#245;es de ordem t&#233;cnica e &#233;tica.</p>
    <p>Os primeiros estudos realizados com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos do estresse gravitacional nos par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos e sua influ&#234;ncia no contorno da onda de pulso a&#243;rtica foram realizados em primatas<sup>82-84</sup>. Foi observado que a hemodin&#226;mica central apresentava um padr&#227;o de resposta com fases bem definidas ao estresse gravitacional. Imediatamente ap&#243;s o in&#237;cio do estresse gravitacional, n&#227;o existiria ainda uma resposta do barorreflexo, em raz&#227;o de um retardo no tempo de resposta fisiol&#243;gica. Nessa fase, em compara&#231;&#227;o ao que se observou na fase basal, deixaria de ocorrer, no contorno da onda de pulso da aorta ascendente, um pico sist&#243;lico mais tardio, resultante da onda de pulso refletida retornando ao cora&#231;&#227;o. Dessa forma, a onda refletida apareceria mais tardiamente na di&#225;stole, sugerindo uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na VOP, provavelmente em raz&#227;o de um aumento da complac&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica com uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o m&#233;dia. Logo em seguida viria a fase dita compensat&#243;ria, na qual j&#225; estaria presente a resposta do barorreflexo. Nessa nova fase, o contorno da onda de pulso retornaria aos padr&#245;es basais, com um aumento da press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia. A onda refletida apareceria precocemente, sugerindo uma aorta mais r&#237;gida nessa fase do que na fase anterior. Um aumento no volume sist&#243;lico e na resist&#234;ncia vascular perif&#233;rica poderia tamb&#233;m contribuir para um aumento da reflex&#227;o de onda. Segundo os autores, essa resposta teria como objetivo manter a efici&#234;ncia do acoplamento ventr&#237;culo/vascular, em contraposi&#231;&#227;o ao efeito gravitacional<sup>83</sup>. </p>
    <p>Apesar da import&#226;ncia do emprego de modelos experimentais que utilizam animais filogeneticamente pr&#243;ximos ao homem, como no caso dos babu&#237;nos, &#233; importante tamb&#233;m atentar para as caracter&#237;sticas espec&#237;ficas da arquitetura do sistema circulat&#243;rio, as quais s&#227;o dependentes dos h&#225;bitos corporais posturais e afetam o contorno da onda de pulso, em raz&#227;o da varia&#231;&#227;o na amplitude, na soma&#231;&#227;o e/ou no cancelamento das reflex&#245;es arteriais<sup>84</sup>. A an&#225;lise das caracter&#237;sticas da transmiss&#227;o de pulso e da forma da onda de pulso em babu&#237;nos foi realizada por Lathan e cols.<sup>84</sup>. Esses autores observaram que o formato de onda, a imped&#226;ncia a&#243;rtica e a VOP nesses primatas se mostraram diferentes quando comparados aos dos seres humanos<sup>84</sup>. Uma diferen&#231;a significativa evidenciada nesse estudo foi que a dimens&#227;o da aorta abdominal foi apenas discretamente menor que a da aorta tor&#225;cica, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a dos humanos, nos quais a aorta apresenta um aspecto cuneiforme tendo o seu segmento abdominal, abaixo das art&#233;rias renais, um di&#226;metro marcantemente reduzido, quando comparado ao da por&#231;&#227;o mais baixa da aorta tor&#225;cica<sup>85,86</sup>. Esse achado seria respons&#225;vel por um baixo coeficiente de reflex&#227;o a&#243;rtica no n&#237;vel das art&#233;rias renais nos babu&#237;nos, achado que poderia responder pelas diferen&#231;as em rela&#231;&#227;o aos humanos.</p>
    <p>As evid&#234;ncias existentes apontam para o enrijecimento arterial, aferido pela medida da VOP, como fator de risco importante para a morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular, e destacam sua influ&#234;ncia no controle adaptativo da press&#227;o arterial<sup>87-89</sup>. Sendo assim, a medida da VOP poderia contribuir para melhor compreens&#227;o do comportamento din&#226;mico das grandes art&#233;rias diante do estresse gravitacional.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>UMA NOVA HIP&#211;TESE PARA O ENTENDIMENTO DA ADAPTA&#199;&#195;O CARDIOVASCULAR AO ORTOSTATISMO &#150; PAPEL DOS GRANDES VASOS ARTERIAIS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estudos recentes mostram que as grandes art&#233;rias deixaram de ser vistas apenas como condutores passivos de sangue, com fun&#231;&#227;o de transporte e distribui&#231;&#227;o sang&#252;&#237;nea, e passaram a ser encaradas com papel fundamental e complexo na manuten&#231;&#227;o da fisiologia circulat&#243;ria, bem como na g&#234;nese da doen&#231;a cardiovascular<sup>66,87,90,91</sup>.</p>
    <p>As limita&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas, a complexidade estrutural da parede arterial e o comportamento din&#226;mico das grandes art&#233;rias, entretanto, t&#234;m dificultado o estudo da &#225;rvore arterial em situa&#231;&#245;es muito comuns, como na resposta e na acomoda&#231;&#227;o ao estresse postural<sup>92-94</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em estudo recente, Elias<sup>95</sup> avaliou, pela primeira vez, em humanos normais e hipertensos de ambos os sexos, a influ&#234;ncia da postura ortost&#225;tica comparada &#224; postura supina, sobre a distensibilidade a&#243;rtica, utilizando como &#237;ndice de rigidez a&#243;rtica a medida da VOP carot&#237;deo-femoral obtida durante dec&#250;bito supino e ao longo do TI. Nesse estudo foi poss&#237;vel demonstrar a exist&#234;ncia de uma eleva&#231;&#227;o imediata significativa da VOP associada &#224; ado&#231;&#227;o da postura ortost&#225;tica (11,7%) (10,1 &#177; 2,3 <italic>versus</italic> 11,7 &#177; 2,5; postura supina e durante o TI, respectivamente, p &lt; 0,001). Esse padr&#227;o de comportamento funcional vascular esteve presente em todos os indiv&#237;duos do estudo, independentemente da idade, levando indiv&#237;duos jovens a apresentar n&#237;veis de VOP, durante o TI, similares aos de indiv&#237;duos idosos, durante o dec&#250;bito supino. Outro aspecto relevante desse estudo foi a observa&#231;&#227;o do car&#225;ter din&#226;mico na resposta da VOP, que retornou de forma imediata aos padr&#245;es basais com a volta ao dec&#250;bito supino. Nesse estudo, a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e a idade foram as principais vari&#225;veis que responderam pelo aumento da VOP, tanto em dec&#250;bito supino quanto durante o ortostatismo. Uma vez que n&#227;o foi observado um incremento significativo da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica na postura ortost&#225;tica, o autor considerou que a eleva&#231;&#227;o da VOP decorreu possivelmente de altera&#231;&#245;es na din&#226;mica circulat&#243;ria, conseq&#252;entes da a&#231;&#227;o gravitacional, em associa&#231;&#227;o &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas estruturais e geom&#233;tricas da aorta<sup>95</sup>. Essa hip&#243;tese foi fundamentada no conhecimento de que a VOP, baseada na f&#243;rmula de Moens-Korteweg, &#233; dependente do raio e da espessura vascular, bem como do seu m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico.</p>
    <p>Sabe-se que, estruturalmente, a rela&#231;&#227;o de fibras el&#225;sticas/col&#225;genas varia de 3,1:1, na aorta ascendente proximal; para 2,8:1, na regi&#227;o m&#233;dia da aorta tor&#225;cica; e para 0,8:1, na aorta abdominal<sup>96</sup>. O m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico do col&#225;geno &#233; muito superior ao da elastina, o que significa dizer que, quanto mais distante do cora&#231;&#227;o, mais r&#237;gida se torna a art&#233;ria, e que seu m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico e sua VOP aumentam. Em outras palavras, a distens&#227;o vascular &#233; limitada pelas fibras col&#225;genas, pelo elevado m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico de Young<sup>97,98</sup>. O fato de se ter obtido a VOP durante o TI coloca os segmentos arteriais expostos de forma diferenciada &#224; a&#231;&#227;o gravitacional, mimetizando, de certa forma, o ocorrido durante a postura ortost&#225;tica ativa. Enquanto o segmento compreendido entre a raiz da aorta e o arco a&#243;rtico at&#233; o n&#237;vel da art&#233;ria car&#243;tida se encontra sofrendo diretamente a contraposi&#231;&#227;o da gravidade, os demais segmentos da aorta at&#233; o n&#237;vel das art&#233;rias femorais apresentam o fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo propagando-se no sentido do vetor de a&#231;&#227;o gravitacional. A conseq&#252;&#234;ncia imediata disso &#233; que a gravidade favorece um aumento progressivo da press&#227;o arterial nos segmentos abaixo do n&#237;vel card&#237;aco, em postura ortost&#225;tica<sup>15,30,99</sup>.</p>
    <p>Dada a press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica gerada pela a&#231;&#227;o gravita&#173;cional e a conseq&#252;ente mudan&#231;a no ponto indiferente hidrost&#225;tico, ocorre um maior afluxo de sangue para segmentos arteriais com um maior m&#243;dulo el&#225;stico e menor raio, tornando-se evidente o incremento da VOP carot&#237;deo-femoral medida durante a ortostase<sup>100,101</sup>. Esse incremento na VOP &#233; respons&#225;vel pelo retorno precoce das ondas refletidas dos s&#237;tios perif&#233;ricos para a aorta ascendente. Essas ondas refletidas de maneira mais precoce (durante o per&#237;odo de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular) somam-se &#224; onda incidente gerada pela eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e influenciam no contorno das ondas de press&#227;o e de fluxo<sup>102</sup>. Dessa forma, a antecipa&#231;&#227;o no retorno do componente refletido, ocorrendo durante o componente sist&#243;lico da onda de pulso, leva a um conseq&#252;ente incremento na press&#227;o de pulso<sup>103,104</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>). &#201; prov&#225;vel que esse acr&#233;scimo, oferecido pela onda refletida na por&#231;&#227;o inicial da onda de pulso arterial, decorra de uma adapta&#231;&#227;o funcional evolutiva complexa do sistema vascular com o fim de manter um fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo cerebral eficaz em resposta ao bipedismo<sup>95</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-02-0209-00023-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>O papel da reflex&#227;o de onda na homeostase circulat&#243;ria durante a ortostase &#233; refor&#231;ado pela observa&#231;&#227;o de que a nitroglicerina, utilizada por via sublingual para sensibiliza&#231;&#227;o no TI, ao gerar uma vasodilata&#231;&#227;o perif&#233;rica, leva a um retardo no componente refletido da onda de pulso e &#224; conseq&#252;ente redu&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o sist&#243;lica proximal, culminando em sintomas de baixo fluxo cerebral nos pacientes portadores de s&#237;ncope neuromediada<sup>105,106</sup>. Na verdade, embora se registre uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do coeficiente de reflex&#227;o com o uso da nitroglicerina, observa-se, de forma paradoxal, um incremento na rigidez a&#243;rtica. Soma e cols.<sup>107 </sup>atribuem esse enrijecimento a&#243;rtico secund&#225;rio a uma poss&#237;vel ativa&#231;&#227;o reflexa do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico. Esses autores argumentam que o aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, conseq&#252;ente da ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica, pode ser desfavor&#225;vel por reduzir o tempo de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular, o tempo para o pico de fluxo na raiz a&#243;rtica, o volume sist&#243;lico e o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco<sup>107</sup>.</p>
    <p>Outros aspectos que merecem an&#225;lise s&#227;o o compor&#173;tamento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, associada &#224; mudan&#231;a postural, e o papel potencial das altera&#231;&#245;es na hemo&#173;din&#226;mica e na estrutura dos grandes vasos arteriais no seu padr&#227;o de resposta<sup>97</sup>. Estudos iniciais, experimentais e em humanos no dec&#250;bito supino, demonstraram a exist&#234;ncia de uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre o incremento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e um aumento na rigidez a&#243;rtica<sup>108-111</sup>. Observando que o efeito da eleva&#231;&#227;o da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, ge&#173;rando enrijecimento das art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas, ocorria in&#173;dependentemente da modula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica, Mircoli e cols.<sup>112</sup> sugeriram que a diminui&#231;&#227;o da distensibilidade arterial freq&#252;&#234;ncia-dependente ocorreria, primariamente, por causa da natureza viscosa da parede vascular e da sua in&#233;rcia de resposta &#224;s mudan&#231;as da press&#227;o intra&#173;vascular<sup>112</sup>. Entretanto, Wilkinson e cols.<sup>113</sup>, em estudo no qual foi avaliado o comportamento da VOP em indiv&#237;&#173;duos saud&#225;veis submetidos a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, n&#227;o observaram altera&#231;&#245;es significativas na distensibilidade a&#243;rtica diante do incremento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Em contraposi&#231;&#227;o aos achados obtidos em dec&#250;bito supino, Elias<sup>95</sup> observou a exist&#234;ncia de uma correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a VOP em postura ortost&#225;tica (r= -0,37, P&lt;0,001). A idade foi a principal vari&#225;vel respons&#225;vel pelo comportamento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na postura ortost&#225;tica (r= -0,52, P&lt;0,001). Buscando um melhor entendimento desse achado, o autor analisou tamb&#233;m a correla&#231;&#227;o entre a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, tomada durante o estresse ortost&#225;tico e a medida basal da VOP, tendo sido observada a exist&#234;ncia de correla&#231;&#227;o negativa entre a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e a VOP basal (r = -0,30, P &lt; 0,01). Esse resultado demonstrou a possibilidade de uma associa&#231;&#227;o do padr&#227;o basal de complac&#234;ncia arterial com o n&#237;vel de resposta da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, mediante a ortostase<sup>95</sup>.</p>
    <p>Estudos "transversais" t&#234;m indicado que a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca basal n&#227;o difere entre indiv&#237;duos jovens e idosos na postura supina<sup>114,115</sup>. Entretanto, a an&#225;lise da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis na postura sentada tem mostrado que a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca diminui com a idade em ambos os sexos<sup>116,117</sup>. J&#225; estudos realizados utilizando o TI para avaliar a adapta&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular ao estresse ortost&#225;tico tamb&#233;m relataram uma resposta da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca significativamente menor nos indiv&#237;duos idosos<sup>17,117,118</sup>. Sabe-se que a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em repouso &#233; modulada, em parte, pelo balanceamento entre os t&#244;nus simp&#225;tico e o parassimp&#225;tico, com um predom&#237;nio do &#250;ltimo. A interven&#231;&#227;o da idade e da postura na freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca sugere que altera&#231;&#245;es ligadas ao envelhecimento ocorrem nos mecanismos regulat&#243;rios da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>101</sup>. O aumento agudo da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em resposta &#224; mudan&#231;a r&#225;pida para a postura ortost&#225;tica, em geral ocorrendo no primeiro segundo ap&#243;s a ado&#231;&#227;o da postura de p&#233;, embora presente em todos os indiv&#237;duos, diminui em magnitude com a idade, e pode mostrar-se mais tardia<sup>118</sup>. Essa diminui&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca observada em pacientes idosos, quando comparados a indiv&#237;duos jovens na postura ortost&#225;tica <italic>versus</italic> supina, tem sido atribu&#237;da a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o do recrutamento da atividade dos barorreceptores com a ado&#231;&#227;o da posi&#231;&#227;o de p&#233;<sup>17,117,118</sup>.</p>
    <p>Uma vez que o sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo &#233; o principal intermediador entre os sistemas nervoso e cardiovascular, &#233; fundamental a compreens&#227;o de sua participa&#231;&#227;o na modula&#231;&#227;o da resposta da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante a mudan&#231;a postural<sup>103</sup>. Encontra-se estabelecido que a sensibilidade do barorreceptor est&#225; negativamente correlacionada com o aumento da idade, o incremento da press&#227;o arterial basal e o da VOP<sup>39,64,75,119</sup>, sendo essas altera&#231;&#245;es em parte decorrentes de altera&#231;&#245;es arteriais din&#226;micas c&#237;clicas<sup>68,72</sup>. Embora a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aumente menos nos indiv&#237;duos idosos quando comparados aos jovens, durante o estresse postural, a redu&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico tende a ser menor no indiv&#237;duo idoso saud&#225;vel que no jovem, fazendo com que o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco n&#227;o varie significativamente com a idade, uma vez que o menor incremento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; compensado por uma redu&#231;&#227;o menor do volume sist&#243;lico<sup>101</sup>.</p>
    <p>Admitindo-se o comportamento din&#226;mico da compla&#173;c&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica diante da mudan&#231;a postural, poder-se-ia supor que uma queda maior do volume sist&#243;lico no jovem levaria a uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da deforma&#231;&#227;o puls&#225;til a&#243;rtica, com subseq&#252;ente diminui&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o dos barorreceptores e incremento na freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>A manuten&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico nos indiv&#237;duos idosos &#233; atribu&#237;da a uma complac&#234;ncia venosa menor nesse grupo, a qual permitiria uma preserva&#231;&#227;o do volume de enchimento card&#237;aco e, em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia, do volume sist&#243;lico<sup>101</sup>. Entretanto, uma freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca menor associada &#224; idade tamb&#233;m poderia significar um mecanismo de adapta&#231;&#227;o do homem ao bipedismo<sup>95</sup>. Sabe-se que a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca afeta a pr&#233;-carga via seu efeito no tempo de enchimento diast&#243;lico. A freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca tamb&#233;m modula o estado de contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica mediante seu efeito, alterando a concentra&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de Ca<sup>2+ </sup>e Na<sup>+</sup>. Como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do aumento da contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica, a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca tamb&#233;m modula o volume sist&#243;lico final, o volume sist&#243;lico e a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o<sup>101</sup>. Dessa forma, uma freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca menor poderia, em um primeiro instante, permitir uma <italic>performance</italic> card&#237;aca melhor diante de um sistema arterial mais r&#237;gido. Caber&#225; a futuros estudos longitudinais de larga escala definir se essa recente observa&#231;&#227;o no comportamento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#233; decorrente das altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais das grandes art&#233;rias, inerentes ao envelhecimento e a algum grau de interfer&#234;ncia no componente mec&#226;nico do barorreflexo.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>COMPORTAMENTO FUNCIONAL DOS GRANDES VASOS ARTERIAIS &#150; POSS&#205;VEIS IMPLICA&#199;&#213;ES CL&#205;NICAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Considerando o que foi apresentado aqui, podemos elaborar a seguinte hip&#243;tese: o retorno do componente refletido da onda de pulso &#233; fundamental na adapta&#231;&#227;o imediata ao ortostatismo, bem como na ativa&#231;&#227;o em grau adequado dos barorreceptores. Assumindo ser correta essa hip&#243;tese, &#233; poss&#237;vel ponderar a participa&#231;&#227;o desses recentes achados em algumas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas muito comuns associadas &#224; postura ortost&#225;tica. A ocorr&#234;ncia mais freq&#252;ente da s&#237;ncope neuromediada em indiv&#237;duos jovens encontra-se bem estabelecida<sup>120</sup>. Outro aspecto &#233; que esses eventos ocorrem mais comumente em indiv&#237;duos de maior estatura. Como o comprimento a&#243;rtico se encontra relacionado com a altura corporal, a onda de reflex&#227;o arterial ocorre mais tardiamente nos indiv&#237;duos mais altos<sup>121</sup>, n&#227;o seria demais supor que, em indiv&#237;duos jovens, principalmente do sexo feminino, portadores de n&#237;veis basais mais baixos de press&#227;o arterial, uma aorta mais alongada poderia levar a interferir no retorno do componente refletido &#224;s por&#231;&#245;es proximais a&#243;rticas de forma otimizada, fato que poderia culminar na ativa&#231;&#227;o dos reflexos relacionados &#224; g&#234;nese da s&#237;ncope (exemplo: reflexo de Bezold-Jarisch). Outro aspecto que favorece essa hip&#243;tese &#233;, conforme j&#225; discutido anteriormente, a import&#226;ncia da altura (h) no estresse gravitacional<sup>24</sup>. Dessa forma, nos indiv&#237;duos jovens, o retorno precoce do componente refletido da onda de pulso, decorrente do incremento da VOP, durante a ortostase, atuaria em conjunto com o barorreflexo e demais mecanismos regulat&#243;rios da press&#227;o arterial, permitindo uma imediata adapta&#231;&#227;o ao ortostatismo<sup>95</sup>. </p>
    <p>Tomando como base os dados recentes, a hip&#243;tese da participa&#231;&#227;o dos grandes vasos arteriais, tanto na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase circulat&#243;ria quanto no mecanismo desencadeador da s&#237;ncope, deve ser considerada, visando a uma nova teoria a ser incorporada &#224;s v&#225;rias existentes para a fisiopatologia da s&#237;ncope neuromediada<sup>44</sup>.</p>
    <p>Na an&#225;lise da adapta&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica dos indiv&#237;duos idosos, os quais apresentam maior suscetibilidade a eventos m&#243;rbidos cardiovasculares e &#224; hipotens&#227;o postural, &#233; ainda question&#225;vel a aplica&#231;&#227;o desses recentes achados.</p>
    <p>Dados de literatura evidenciaram uma ampla varia&#231;&#227;o diurna na ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares, com um pico de incid&#234;ncia de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca e acidente vascular isqu&#234;mico e hemorr&#225;gico nas primeiras horas da manh&#227;<sup>122-124</sup>. Uma an&#225;lise mais detalhada desse padr&#227;o circadiano tem identificado a hora que sucede ao despertar, mais que qualquer outra do dia, como aquela em que mais acontecem eventos cardiovasculares<sup>122,123</sup>. Embora n&#227;o se encontre estabelecido se o aumento suplementar da VOP, durante a ortostase, seja apenas um mecanismo indutor de processos adaptativos estruturais, ou um marcador de eventos m&#243;rbidos, esse achado deve ser valorizado.</p>
    <p>Deve-se considerar que, embora um retorno precoce do componente refletido da onda de pulso possa contribuir para uma freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca menor, durante o estresse ortost&#225;tico, gerando potenciais vantagens na adapta&#231;&#227;o postural do idoso, anormalidades cr&#244;nicas na distensibilidade a&#243;rtica, como as possivelmente geradas pela postura ortost&#225;tica, criam uma incompatibilidade entre a eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular e a energia de fluxo a&#243;rtica. Assim, um retorno mais precoce da reflex&#227;o de onda, ocasionado pelo aumento da VOP<bold>, </bold>pode gerar um aumento da carga hidr&#225;ulica para o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<sup>125</sup>.</p>
    <p>Sendo assim, um enrijecimento combinado ventr&#237;culo-vascular pode potencialmente trazer conseq&#252;&#234;ncias importantes para a resposta card&#237;aca &#224; varia&#231;&#227;o do volume de enchimento, j&#225; que um sistema cora&#231;&#227;o-arterial mais endurecido gera maior altera&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o sist&#243;lica para uma dada mudan&#231;a no volume sist&#243;lico ejetado ou no volume ventricular<sup>126,127</sup>.</p>
    <p>A superposi&#231;&#227;o das anormalidades sabidamente existentes na regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mico/barorreflexa associadas &#224; idade<sup>59,128,129</sup>, com o enrijecimento arterial idade-dependente, pode exacerbar as flutua&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o arterial relacionadas ao estresse postural e p&#243;s-prandial<sup>126,127</sup>. Essa eleva&#231;&#227;o postural da VOP poderia somar-se ao aumento da atividade nervosa simp&#225;tica, particularmente a adren&#233;rgica e a outros fatores de risco agudos, tais como a hiperatividade plaquet&#225;ria, a hipercoagulabilidade e hipofibrin&#243;lise, a viscosidade sang&#252;&#237;nea e o aumento do vasoespasmo<sup>130</sup>, contribuindo para o aumento da morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular no per&#237;odo da manh&#227;. Por fim, as oscila&#231;&#245;es vol&#234;micas impostas pela postura de p&#233; s&#227;o potencialmente mais pass&#237;veis de ser sentidas nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Isso coloca o indiv&#237;duo idoso em maior risco, n&#227;o s&#243; porque uma hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica transit&#243;ria gera uma descompensa&#231;&#227;o de uma doen&#231;a estrutural card&#237;aca (exemplo: insufici&#234;ncia coronariana), mas tamb&#233;m porque, em situa&#231;&#245;es de diminui&#231;&#227;o suplementar da volemia (exemplo: processos infecciosos, uso de agentes vasodilatadores ou diur&#233;ticos, diarr&#233;ia e v&#244;mitos), se apresentam sintomas de intoler&#226;ncia ortost&#225;tica ou mesmo eventos sincopais<sup>52,131</sup>.</p>
    <p>De qualquer forma, uma investiga&#231;&#227;o longitudinal de um grupo n&#227;o selecionado e grande da popula&#231;&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;ria, com vistas a avaliar a contribui&#231;&#227;o independente da varia&#231;&#227;o postural da VOP para o risco cardiovascular individual.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>CONCLUS&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os mecanismos exatos respons&#225;veis pela adapta&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular ao ortostatismo necessitam de maiores esclarecimentos. Diversas teorias t&#234;m sido propagadas como fundamentais na manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase circulat&#243;ria diante do estresse gravitacional. Entretanto, a melhor compreens&#227;o da adapta&#231;&#227;o humana &#224; ortostase tem que levar em considera&#231;&#227;o o gradiente gravitacional criado nessa postura.</p>
    <p>Possivelmente, a hip&#243;tese aqui apresentada, contribua no entendimento da participa&#231;&#227;o dos grandes vasos arteriais na adapta&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular a ortostase e possibilite uma melhor an&#225;lise da resposta das grandes art&#233;rias ao estresse gravitacional, da fisiopatologia da s&#237;ncope neuromediada e da hipotens&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
    <p>Outro aspecto &#233; o quanto os fen&#244;menos adaptativos antigravitacionais do sistema cardiovascular possam contribuir para morbidade e mortalidade cardiovascular quando somados &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es degenerativas inerentes, por exemplo, &#224; hipertens&#227;o arterial, ao envelhecimento e a marcadores gen&#233;ticos predeterminados.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ao Prof. Dr. Roberto S&#225; Cunha, pela orienta&#231;&#227;o t&#233;cnica e sugest&#245;es. Ao Prof. Dr. Dalton Vassallo e ao Dr. M&#225;rcio Augusto Silva, pela revis&#227;o do texto.</p>
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    <p>96. Rogers WJ, Hu YL, Coast D, et al. Age-associated changes in regional aortic pulse wave velocity. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2001; 38: 1123-9.</p>
    <p>97. O&#146;Rourke MF. Mechanical Principles. Arterial stiffness and wave reflection. Pathologie Biologie. 1999, 47: 623-33.</p>
    <p>98. London GM, Guerin AP. Influence of arterial pulse and reflected waves on blood pressure and cardiac function. Am Heart J. 1999; 138: S220-S224.</p>
    <p>99. Hasegawa M, Rodbard S. Effect of posture on arterial pressures, timing of the arterial sounds and pulse wave velocities in the extremities. Cardiology. 1979; 64: 122-32.</p>
    <p>100. Iida N, Iriuchijima J. Postural changes in finger and toe pulse waves. Kokyu. To. Junkan 1992; 40: 981-6.</p>
    <p>101. Lakatta EG. Cardiovascular regulatory mechanisms in advanced age. Physiol Reviews. 1993; 73: 413-67.</p>
    <p>102. Kroeker EJ, Wood EH. Comparison of simultaneously recorded central and peripheral arterial pressure pulses during rest, exercise and tilted position in man. Circ Res. 1955; 3: 6223-31.</p>
    <p>103. Nichols WW, O&#146;Rourke MF, et al. Effects of age on ventricular-vascular coupling. Am J Cardiol. 1985; 55: 1179-84.</p>
    <p>104. Gatzka CD, Kingwell BA, Cameron JD, et al and the ANBP2 investigators. Gender differences in the timing of arterial wave reflection beyond differences in body hight. J Hypertension. 2001; 19: 2197-203.</p>
    <p>105. Bartoletti A, Alboni P, Ammirati F, et al. &#145;The Italian Protocol&#146;: a simplified head-up tilt testing potentiated with oral nitroglycerin to assess patients with unexplained syncope. Europace. 2000; 2: 339-42.</p>
    <p>106. Aerts AJ, Dendale P. Diagnostic value of nitrate stimulated tilt testing without preceding passive tilt in patients with suspected vasovagal syncope and a healthy control group. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2005; 28: 29-32.</p>
    <p>107. Soma J, Angelsen AJ, Techn D, Aakhus S, Skjaerpe T. Sublingual nitroglycerin arterial wave reflections despite increased aortic "stiffness" in patients with hypertension: a Doppler echocardiography study. J Am Soc Echocardiogr. 2000; 13: 1100-8.</p>
    <p>108. S&#225; Cunha R, Pannier B, Benetos A, et al. Association between high heart rate and high arterial rigidity in normotensive and hypertensive subjects. J Hypertension. 1997; 15: 1423-30.</p>
    <p>109. Asmar R, Topouchian J, Pannier B, Rudnichi A, Safar M. Reversion of arterial abnormalities by long-term antihypertensive therapy in a large population. The Complior<sup>&#174;</sup> study. J Hipertension. 1999; 17: Suppl 3: S9.</p>
    <p>110. Albaladejo P, Asmar R, Safar M, Benetos A. Association between 24-hours ambulatory heart rate and arterial stiffness. J Human Hypertension. 2000; 14: 137-41.</p>
    <p>111. Benetos A, Adamopoulos C, Bureau JA, et al. Stiffness in normotensive subjects and in treated hypertensive subjects over a 6-Year Period. Circulation. 2002; 105: 1202-7.</p>
    <p>112. Mircoli L, Mangoni AA, Giannattasio C, Mancia G, Ferrari AU. Heart rate-dependent stiffening of large arteries in intact and sympathectomized rats. Hypertension. 1999; 34:598-602.</p>
    <p>113. Wilkinson IB, Mohammad NH, Tyrrell S, et al. Heart rate dependency of pulse pressure amplification and arterial stiffness. Am J Hypertens. 2002; 15 (1 Pt 1): 24-30.</p>
    <p>114. Simpson DM, Wicks R. Spectral analysis of heart rate indicated reduced baroreceptor-related heart rate variability in elderly persons. J Gerontol. 1988; 43: M21- M24.</p>
    <p>115. Schwartz JB, Gibb WJ, Tran T. Aging effects on heart rate variation. J Gerontol. 1991; 46: M99-M106.</p>
    <p>116. Dambrink JHA, Wieling W. Circulatory response to postural change in healthy male subjects in relation to age. Clinical Science. 1987; 72: 335-41.</p>
    <p>117. Hainsworth R, Al-Shamma YMH. Cardiovascular response to upright tilting in healthy subjects. Clinical Science. 1988; 74: 17-22.</p>
    <p>118. Rodeheffer RJ, Gerstenblith G, Beard E, et al. Postural changes in cardiac volumes in men in relation to adult age. Exp Gerontol. 1986; 21: 367-78.</p>
    <p>119. Crandall CG, Engelke KA, Convertino VA, Raven PB. Aortic baroreflex control of heart rate after 15 days of simulated microgravity exposure. J Appl Physiol. 1994; 77: 2134-9.</p>
    <p>120. Colman N, Nahm K, Ganzeboom KS, et al. Epidemiology of reflex syncope. Clin Auton Res. 2004; 14 (Suppl 1): 9-17.</p>
    <p>121. Smulyan H, Marchais SJ, Pannier B, Guerin AP, Safar ME, London G. Influence of body height on pulsatile arterial hemodynamic data. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1998; 31: 1103-9.</p>
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    <p>126. Chen HC, Hu HH, Lin YP, Chern CM, Hsu TK, Ding PYA. Increased arterial wave reflection may predispose syncopal attacks. Clin Cardiol. 2000; 23: 825-30.</p>
    <p>127. Chen MY, Goldenberg IF, Milstein S, et al. Cardiac electrophysiologic and hemodynamic correlates of neurally mediated syncope. Am J Cardiol. 1989; 63: 66-72.</p>
    <p>128. Seals DR, Taylor JA, Ng AV, Esler MD. Exercise and aging: autonomic control of the circulation. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994; 26: 568-76. </p>
    <p>129. White M, Roden R, Minobe W. Age-related changes in beta-adrenergic neuroeffector systems in the human heart. Circulation. 1994; 90: 1225-38.</p>
    <p>130. Kario K, Pickering TG, Umeda Y, et al. Morning surge in blood pressure as a predictor of silent and clinical cerebrovascular disease in elderly hypertensives. A prospective study. Circulation. 2003; 107: 1401-6.</p>
    <p>131. Naschitz JE, Mazov I, Eridzhanyan K, Keren D, Rennert HS, Yeshurun D. Hypotensive reactions on passive head-up tilt testing of hypertensive patients. J Human Hypertension. 1996; 10: 369-73.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia:</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Jorge Elias Neto </p>
        <p> Rua Ala&#244;r de Queiroz, 115/101 </p>
        <p> 29050-000 &#150; Vit&#243;ria, ES </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="eliasj@terra.com.br">eliasj@terra.com.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="jeneto@cardiol.br">jeneto@cardiol.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p> Recebido em 14/05/05 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 08/12/05</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Great arteries contribution in orthostasis cardiovascular adaptation</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Great arteries contribution in orthostasis cardiovascular adaptation</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Jorge Elias Neto</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Departamento de Ci&#234;ncias Fisiol&#243;gicas - Universidade Federal do Esp&#237;rito Santo &#150; UFES - Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="nt-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>The capacity of adopting an orthostatic posture is, undoubtedly, a milestone in the evolution of the human species and has motivated extensive research in the physiological and anthropological areas. The physiological mechanisms involved in adopting and maintaining an orthostatic posture and its complications have been investigated through the centuries. The anatomists do not consider the postural adaptation of the human being a peculiar transformation that occurred to mankind, but the culmination of a series of evolutionary phases that might have started in the body of the primate ancestors<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>It is believed that the human cardiovascular system is adapted to maintain cerebral perfusion during the orthostatic posture. Although the gravitational force creates a gradient of pressure at the level of the circulatory system, the human being is capable of maintaining an upright posture because the gravitational pressure is partially neutralized by mechanisms that prevent the accumulation of fluids in the lower limbs<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>Despite that, syncope, defined as a transient loss of consciousness and postural tonus due to cerebral hypoperfusion, has a considerable medical, social and economical impact. This clinical syndrome can be the consequence of not only reflex mechanisms<sup>3</sup>, but also a clinical manifestation of a broad range of distinct clinical conditions<sup>4</sup>.</p>
      <p>A perspective of the cardiovascular adaptation to orthostatism is presented herein, in an attempt to assess evolutionary and physiological issues regarding the maintenance of circulatory homeostasis during orthostasis, stressing the role of the great arteries.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>ORTHOSTATIC POSTURE AND GRAVITATIONAL STRESS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Years of experiments carried out in quadrupeds or models constructed in the horizontal plane have helped researchers of the cardiovascular system to develop a type of "horizontal" idea about the cardiovascular system, completely neglecting the effects of gravity because the "vertical" gravity force exerts a minimal effect on circulation in the horizontal plane. However, the human cardiovascular system works in the orthostatic posture two-thirds of the time, in which the classical experiments conducted by the Guyton group, for the study of cardiovascular hemodynamics, present large limitations<sup>5</sup>.</p>
      <p>The change from a quadrupedal posture to a bipedal one created difficulties that can be interpreted through several signs, which are representative of an inadequate adaptation to orthostatic stress<sup>6</sup>. Bipedism presupposes a complete reorganization of the orthodynamics of the human body when compared to other mammals. This implicates in a different reorganization of the energetic supply for the body (oxygen and nutrients). As oxygen and the nutrients are carried by the blood, a complete reorganization and rearrangement of the blood supply between the different parts of the body is expected when there is a change from the quadrupedal posture to the bipedal one<sup>7</sup>. Thus, the hemodynamics must also be different. </p>
      <p>The control of blood flow distribution in man is more complex due to the fact that the human brain has larger proportions compared to the other species. The brain represents 2% of the total body weight in man, demands 15% of the cardiac output at rest and requires the maintenance of a stable output regardless of posture or locomotion<sup>8</sup>. The change from a supine posture to the orthostatic one results in a displacement of blood at the thorax level to the subdiaphragmatic venous system, a phenomenon usually called venous pooling<sup>9</sup>. If compensatory adjustments do not occur promptly after the change in posture, the arterial pressure decreases, and the individual can present from milder symptoms related to orthostatic intolerance to the sudden loss of consciousness<sup>10</sup>. </p>
      <p>Although gravity has long<sup>11</sup> been recognized as the main deforming force that acts against the human body through changes in posture, its implications in the cardiovascular system, with possible influences in the development, morbidity and mortality of cardiovascular diseases are yet to be well defined<sup>12-15</sup>. Nonetheless, it is clear at this point that, despite all the benefits inherent to the orthostatic posture, gravitational stress has become accepted as a primary variable capable of affecting circulatory homeostasis. It is gravity (+Gz), acting at a mean velocity of 9.8 m/s<sup>2</sup>, the variable responsible for the blood redistribution present through the adoption of orthostasis.</p>
      <p>The hydrostatic opposition to the venous return, the third-space loss of fluid, venous return decrease and cardiac output reduction, all of which are hemodynamic alterations secondary to the gravitational effect, act as multiple stimuli, generating a variety of compensatory mechanisms<sup>16,17</sup>. Additionally, the gravitational stress can be aggravated by the level of physical activity, environmental temperature, and drug use and by several physiopathological processes, all capable of augmenting the disparity between the vascular volumetric capacity and blood flow volume <sup>18-20</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>MAN AND MICROGRAVITY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>If gravity did not exist, man would not need such a complex cardiovascular system, particularly the presence of protection mechanisms to maintain a circulatory homeostasis during orthostatism. In general, the adaptation to gravity is, in part, acquired, and needs to be continuously trained. </p>
      <p>For astronauts, the possibility of absence of weight due to microgravity causes major alterations in the cardiovascular system. The new pattern of blood distribution is interpreted as a volemia increase and compensatory mechanisms are promptly initiated (increase of natriuretic hormone secretion, inhibition of the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system), leading to a plasmatic volume decrease. A decrease in the sensitivity of the baroreflex and vestibulosympathetic reflex, as well as alterations in the autonomic nervous system, increase of vessel compliance in the lower limbs and disorders of arteriolar vasoconstriction are also observed<sup>21-23</sup>. </p>
      <p>All these alterations can be considered as a cardio&#173;vascular "deconditioning" capable of generating intolerance to orthostatism when astronauts return to the Earth&#146;s environment. Similar cardiovascular system alterations have been observed after long periods of bed rest (a situation that simulates microgravity), indicating that the orthostatic posture has a fundamental role in gravitational stress. The studies that seek the functional "understanding" of the organism in space are extended to high-prevalence clinical situations in the Earth&#146;s environment, such as arterial hypertension, orthostatic hypotension, and finally, syncope. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>THE FORCE OF GRAVITY AND GRAVITATIONAL STRESS - GENERAL ASPECTS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The effect of the Earth&#146;s gravitational field on the human cardiovascular system is similar to the effect of an electric field in a conduit. Similarly to an electric field that moves free electrons along a conduit, the gravitational field moves blood (free particles) along the cardiovascular system. The effect of the gravitational field is measured by the gradient of the gravitational potential (U<sub>gr</sub>), which is equal to the work performed by the field to move the mass of blood unit through the system towards Earth (U<sub>gr</sub>=gz x r). The direction of the Earth&#146;s gravitational field close to the surface is vertical, and the distance r is equal to the system height: U<sub>gr</sub>=gz x h. That explains why the effect of gravity is significant only in the orthostatic posture. In the horizontal posture, the height of the human body, h, is too little, making U<sub>gr</sub> negligible, but it increases several fold during orthostasis<sup>24</sup>.</p>
      <p>The gravitational stress can be defined as follows: gravity causes a significant displacement of blood to the infradiaphragmatic territory when the cardiovascular system is in the orthostatic posture. For the adequate maintenance of circulation to the supradiaphragmatic territory during orthostasis, the cardiovascular system must perform an additional work to return blood to the heart and neutralize the effect of gravity. The sum of this work (W), equal to the product of the gradient of the gravitational potential and the displaced mass of blood (M) represents the gravitational stress on the cardiovascular system: GS = W = U<sub>gr</sub> x M(t). It is unnecessary to mention that this additional overload on the cardiovascular system during orthostasis remains unknown in the traditional studies on the human circulatory hemodynamics. Nonetheless, the gravitational stress can increase with no gravity force augmentation. The natural action of the gravitational stress is to generate a redistribution of blood to the lower limbs in the cardiovascular system.</p>
      <p>Contrary to water in a glass, the blood contained in an elastic and complex vascular system is redistributed slowly, and the change of blood does not happen instantly, but increases proportionally to the time the individual remains in orthostasis. Thus, based on the equation established for the gravitational stress, the mass of blood displaced by influence of gravity, M, is a function of time, GS=U<sub>gr</sub> x M (t) = g x h x M (t). This means that gravitational stress can increase not only through the gravity force increase, but also depending on the duration of the orthostatic posture period<sup>24</sup>. Hence, remaining an excessive period of time in orthostasis requires a more advanced stage of anti-gravitational response with higher sympathetic hyperactivity, hypervolemia and arterial pressure increment, similarly to what would occur with an increment of the gravitation force. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>DYNAMIC CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSE TO THE ORTHOSTATIC POSTURE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>During bipedal posture, gravity causes gradients of pressure in all of the body fluid compartments, including veins and arteries. In the arterial system, there is a change in the hydrostatic indifferent point, defined as the axial reference in which the pressure of the venous blood column is not altered by the postural rearrangement, located at the level of the right atrium in supine decubitus, going to the infradiaphragmatic aortic territory in orthostasis<sup>25</sup>. However, due to higher vessel compliance, the main effect is the redistribution of the venous volume, which thus interferes with the global blood pressure. The accumulation of blood in the venous territory starts immediately during orthostasis and is completed in 3 to 5 minutes<sup>26</sup>. The venous volume of the lower members increases in approximately 500 to 700 ml<sup>27</sup>. Around 200 to 300 ml of blood is transferred to the veins below the abdomen. This translocation of blood volume is mainly derived from the intrathoracic compartment and results in the decrease of cardiac filling pressure and systolic volume<sup>28-31</sup>.</p>
      <p>In addition to the blood transference from the thoracic compartment, the central blood volume is affected by the transcapillary filtration of fluid into the interstitial space in some body parts, in response to the high capillary pressure associated to the low contraposition of the interstitial pressure. Additionally, the continuous filtration into the interstitial space further reduces the circulating volume<sup>32</sup>. The loss of transcapillary fluid is stabilized after approximately 20 to 30 minutes, with a plasmatic volume decrease of around 15%, although this process remains present with the maintenance of orthostasis<sup>33</sup>. Therefore, the distribution of blood volume is carried out through a complex system, by the intrinsic characteristics of the venous system, to the pumping effect of the skeletal musculature of the lower limbs (antigravity musculature) and, as mentioned previously, to the displacement of the hydrostatic indifferent point<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>The capacity to maintain the cardiac output and the mean arterial pressure during the orthostatic "challenge" can be influenced by the behavior of the venous return. Amongst other factors, the venous return decrease can be the result of a combination of the decrease of the total blood volume with the accumulation of blood in the lower limbs, which subsequently may cause a subnormal ventricular filling pressure and deviate the curve of Frank-Starling to a segment in which the capacity of compensating for the orthostatic hypotension is limited<sup>14,34,35</sup>. Nonetheless, the human cardiovascular system has such a powerful "built-in" defense mechanism against the gravitational stress that it can completely neutralize the gravity-induced blood redistribution imposed by the orthostatic posture. The mechanism is the peripheral pumping. </p>
      <p>The lower limbs are equipped with a specific system of blood pumping, the calf musculature, which is many times called "the peripheral venous heart". The deep veins of the calf, which are found inside a compartmented musculature, present valves that, similar to the cardiac valves, prevent blood reflux and are able to resist to pressures of several hundreds of mmHg. The compression of the venous segment during muscular contraction increases the pressure inside the muscular compartment, which leads to the closing of the valves and causes an ascendant blood flow. Through the regular contraction of the calf muscles during the orthostasis, the venous blood is pumped out of the lower limbs against gravity, reversing the gravitational action in blood distribution. Thus, the incapacity of the heart in "drawing" blood from the venous segment of the cardiovascular circuit is compensated by the presence of the additional pump in the venous system. This system, which consists of the calves, generates an effective pumping action that is not dependent on the filling pressure, helping to successfully maintain circulation during orthostasis.</p>
      <p>Therefore, the final equation of gravitational stress can be expressed as follows: GS = g x h x M (t) / R<sub>p x </sub>H<sub>per</sub>, where R<sub>p</sub> is the peripheral resistance and H<sub>per</sub> is the work of the "peripheral venous heart"<sup>24 </sup>. </p>
      <p>Although initial studies have demonstrated a decrease in the brain blood flow during the orthostatic posture<sup>36</sup>, it is currently known that cerebral perfusion in humans is maintained by a cerebrovascular self-regulation, which allows an effective cerebral functioning and a satisfactory distribution of regional flow within a broad variation of perfusion pressure<sup>37</sup>. In comparison to what occurs with quadrupeds, human beings present a more constant distribution of total blood flow in the several body segments during the orthostatic posture, including for the great arteries, suggesting a better functional adaptability to gravitational stress<sup>8</sup>.</p>
      <p>The redistribution of blood volume, flow and pres&#173;sure, caused by the upright posture, can endanger pre-load, arterial pressure and organic perfusion, and it is compensated by a compensatory sequence of interconnected neurohumoral mechanisms that are opposed to the continuous circulatory caudal direction imposed by the hydrostatic pressure<sup>15</sup>. As early as 1904, Erlanger and Hooker observed, using the passive inclination test (IT), that the acceleration of the cardiac frequency and the decrease of the pulse pressure occurred in the upright posture. They considered this pattern of behavior similar to that observed during a hemorrhagic event and concluded it was the normal response of the human being to postural stress<sup>1</sup>. Turner emphasized that the circulatory adjustment would be specific for each individual, according to his own personal pattern, and that some patterns of individual response would be higher than others<sup>1</sup>.</p>
      <p>Several regulatory mechanisms occur instantly in response to the effects of gravity. The initial adjustment to orthostasis is mediated by the regulatory neural system<sup>30,31</sup>. The main receptors involved in these adjustments are the cardiopulmonary mechanoreceptors, located at the level of the right atrium and the pulmonary veins, and the sinoaortic receptors, located in the carotid sinus and aortic arch<sup>38</sup>. In addition to responding, in an isolated form, for the alterations in circulatory volume, these baroreceptors present a complex inhibitory interaction between the cardiopulmonary and the sinoaortic baroreflexes, which causes the reduction in the cardiopulmonary afferent input to increase the gain of sinoaortic baroreflex<sup>39</sup>. Finally, the decrease in the activation of the cardiopulmonary receptors produces a peripheral vasoconstriction for normotension maintenance, due to the decrease of the central venous pressure and cardiac output<sup>40</sup>.</p>
      <p>The primary objective of the arterial baroreflex is to maintain the arterial pressure close to a point of reference for a relatively short period of time. The rapid regulation of the arterial baroreceptors, regardless of the new pressure level, is due to the fact that this reflex acts as a "buffer" system, which is effective on the arterial pressure fluctuations that occur in everyday life. The arterial baroreceptors also play a smaller role in the long-term control of the arterial pressure level<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>These aorticocarotid baroreceptors tonically inhibit the vasomotor centers of the brainstem. A decrease in the blood pressure removes this inhibitory stimulus, resulting in an increase of the sympathetic tonus and decrease of the parasympathetic tonus<sup>42</sup>. From a functional point of view, the two components of the arterial baroreflex (carotid and aortic) are not equivalent. It has been suggested that the aortic baroreflex has a higher threshold and lower sensitivity than the carotid one<sup>38</sup>. The information of the baroreceptors is transmitted through several pathways that accompany the route of the ninth and tenth cranial pairs until the brainstem centers. These two nerves are the afferent pathway of the reflex, whereas the efferent pathway consists of the vagus nerve and the sympathetic pathways that run at the level of the intermediolateral spinal cord<sup>6</sup>. The changes in the neural discharge can result in changes of vasomotor tonus, systolic volume and cardiac frequency.</p>
      <p>The vestibular system also seems to contribute to the sympathetic activation through the recruiting of otolytic organs. This is achieved through the vestibulosympathetic reflex. This reflex is a feedback neural system that regulates the sympathetic neural discharge through nerve afferences from the vestibular system<sup>43</sup>.</p>
      <p>During a prolonged orthostatic period, in addition to the baroreceptors and the vestibular system, delayed-action regulatory mechanisms based on additional reflexes of the humoral system that include the natriuretic hormone secretion, rennin and aldosterone, are also involved with the maintenance of arterial pressure<sup>15,27,44</sup>.</p>
      <p>Regarding the hemodynamic parameters, orthostatism causes, in the individual chronically adapted to gravitational stress, a slight decrease in the systolic arterial pressure, in general lower than 20 mmHg. The diastolic arterial pressure remains stable or is slightly elevated, and the mean arterial pressure is not significantly altered. The telediastolic pressure in the right ventricle diminishes, the cardiac output decreases around 20%, and the cardiac frequency and peripheral vascular resistance increase 10% to 30% of the initial value<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>When, however, the head-lower limb acceleration vector +Gz is chronically diminished, such as during long supine rest periods, human beings demonstrate a reduction in the orthostatic tolerance, associated to a compromised regulation of the arterial pressure. These observations include an increase in the compliance of the lower limbs, alteration of the cardiovagal reflex response, contraction of the circulating blood volume and decrease of the systolic volume<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>On the other hand, Muenter et al observed that, individuals submitted to sleep restriction periods (approximately 4 hrs/night for 4 consecutive days), showed a better blood pressure regulation in an orthostatic situation<sup>45</sup>. The individuals presented an increase in systolic arterial pressure and a decrease in cardiac frequency during orthostatic stress, simulated through the use of sub-atmospheric pressures applied to the lower part of the body, called "lower body negative pressure" (LBNP), reinforcing the hypothesis that, in normal individuals, the continuous exposition to gravitational stress triggers a better circulatory adaptation. The same can be said of patients with neuromediated syncope, who, when submitted to daily orthostatic training through a technique called "tilt training", presented remission of clinical symptoms, even when the drug therapy was ineffective<sup>47</sup>. Newman et al (1998) used IT to assess plane pilots, routinely exposed to high levels of gravity (+Gz) and normal individuals<sup>47</sup>. These authors observed that the pilots presented a significant increase in the systolic arterial pressure, mean arterial pressure and pulse pressure during the IT with 75&#186;, when compared to the control group (p&lt; 0.05). No significant alterations were observed between the two subgroups of this study regarding the response of cardiac frequency to orthostatic stress.</p>
      <p>When analyzed at a systemic level, cardiac output, more than cardiac frequency, represents the final organic reflex response to the stimulation of the baroreceptors by orthostatic stress<sup>33</sup>. Based on this fact, Convertino<sup>14</sup> analyzed cardiac output alterations that could occur in response to arterial pressure and cardiac frequency variation in individuals repeatedly exposed to high levels of gravitational acceleration. This author observed the importance of not only cardiac frequency analysis but also of the systolic volume, in the assessment of the effective gain of cardiac baroreflex integrity in maintaining arterial pressure during the orthostatic hypotensive "challenge". The better orthostatic performance observed in these individuals supports the hypothesis that a repeated exposition to gravitational acceleration is associated to changes in blood volume and autonomic function, in opposition to what occurs with bedridden individuals<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p>The physiological mechanisms that administrate arte&#173;rial pressure regulation in the human being (example: baroreflex, vascular volume control) have to constantly adapt to the daily stimulation of gravity; in other words, to the postural variations. The analysis of the response of the blood volume and the carotid-cardiac baroreflex in adapting to changes caused by the gravitational stimulation can have significant importance, because the blood volume and the responsiveness of the carotid-cardiac reflex are two primary factors (in addition to height) when predicting the evolution for arterial hypotension and syncope<sup>48</sup>.</p>
      <p>The comparison of the cardiocirculatory functional behavior when facing gravitational oscillations allows two conclusions: 1) the human being is capable of undergoing continuous adaptation to gravitational stress; 2) the mechanisms that allow us to tolerate the gravitational effect are highly malleable and trainable, or acquirable through training<sup>14</sup>. Therefore, it has been established that an autonomic nervous system, capable of maintaining a dynamic adaptive behavior that allows an adequate cardiac output in response to the blood volume oscillations caused by the orthostatic posture, is fundamental<sup>39,49</sup>. Thus, clinical conditions that interfere in the responsiveness of the baroreflex system can somehow interfere in the circulatory homeostasis<sup>50-53</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE BAROREFLEX SENSITIVITY </bold>
      </p>
      <p>It is known that alterations at activity and/or balance level of the several branches of the autonomic nervous system can be considered one of the main factors responsible for the development of essential chronic arterial hypertension. The hypertensive individuals present an increase in the variability of arterial pressure fluctuation and a decreased sensitivity of the baroreceptors<sup>9,54</sup>. The hypertensive patient&#146;s gender also seems to be an important determinant in baroreflex sensitivity, as the autonomic function shows to be more compromised in the female sex<sup>54</sup>. </p>
      <p>Hypertensive individuals are less responsive to induced sympathetic stimulation<sup>55,56</sup>. In fact, the analysis of the autonomic response of hypertensive individuals to postural change, when compared to that of normal individuals, shows that, although there is a basal increase of sympathetic activity during the orthostatic posture, the sympathetic response is significantly decreased, suggesting an impairment of the mean arterial pressure control by the baroreflex in these individuals<sup>9</sup>. </p>
      <p>The reflex hemodynamic responses to orthostatic stress are also attenuated by aging. When a young healthy individual rises from a sitting or supine posture, there is a variable change in the systolic arterial pressure of around 10 mmHg, an increase in the diastolic arterial pressure of 10 to 15 mmHg and an increase in the cardiac frequency of 25 to 30 bpm. This response occurs within approximately 30 seconds. In contrast, when an elderly healthy individual rises, a trend towards a decrease in the systolic arterial pressure (0 to 5 mmHg), as well as the maintenance of the diastolic arterial pressure and the absence or attenuation of the cardiac frequency positive response (10 to 15 bpm) are observed. Around 6% to 30% of elderly individuals present orthostatic hypotension (decrease in the systolic arterial pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 20 mmHg, or in the diastolic arterial pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 10 mmHg), when standing upright<sup>58,59</sup>. Contrarily to what could be predicted, the majority of elderly individuals who present inadaptation to orthostatic stress do not have well-defined pathological alterations, such as central or peripheral degeneration of the autonomic pathways or adrenal failure. These individuals possibly represent an extreme condition of the distribution of age-related physiological changes to posture<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>The best-known biological change in arterial pressure control that occurs with age is an attenuation of the baroreceptor responsiveness, which is represented by the baroreceptor-heart reflex<sup>3,60,61</sup>. This finding is commonly considered as indicative of an age-related primary abnormality in cardiovascular control, as the baroreflex is the main factor that influences a rapid adaptive response to orthostasis<sup>53</sup>.</p>
      <p>There are, however, many other age-related alterations in the cardiovascular function, which can contribute significantly to an inadequate response to orthostasis, such as reduction in arterial<sup>27,62</sup> and myocardial<sup>63</sup> compliance, in the activation of the rennin-angiotensin-aldosterone system<sup>64</sup>, in renal sodium retention<sup>65</sup>, a defect in the brain self-regulation and the presence of systolic arterial hypertension<sup>27</sup>. </p>
      <p>The location of arterial baroreceptors in the compliant great arteries means that changes in the natural compliance, which can be caused simply by aging, disease or physical activity, also have the potential of influencing the afferent activities of the baroreceptors and consequently affect the autonomic reflex activity<sup>66</sup>. </p>
      <p>The arterial compliance has a fundamental role in the cardiac energy demand, in maintaining the diastolic arterial pressure and the coronary blood flow<sup>66,67</sup>. Probably, the least evident is the influence of the vascular mechanical properties on the autonomic function by alterations in the afferent activity of the baroreceptors. Although it is difficult to investigate the extension to which these two phenomena are interconnected, Kingwell et al, analyzing arterial compliance and its possible influence on the baroreflex in hypertensive individuals and athletes, observed not only a direct relation between arterial compliance and higher blood pressure due to reflex activation in athletes, but also a baroreflex deficit in hypertensive individuals<sup>66</sup>. Nevertheless, basal assessments of vascular stiffness might not represent the mechanical stress that affects the great arteries with barosensory function during dynamic changes in pressure that characterize the baroreflex role<sup>68,69</sup>. Additionally, a compromised neuronal function can participate with an outstanding role, causing the reduction of the baroreflex gain with the decrease of the vascular mechanical function<sup>70</sup>. </p>
      <p>Through the measurements of the integrated gain of the cardiovagal baroreflex and its mechanical and neural components, analyzed dynamically (during parenteral administration of sodium nitroprussiate and phenylephrine), Hunt et al observed that the integrated gain in sedentary male elderly individuals was lower than half of that found in young, equally sedentary, individuals<sup>70</sup>. This finding was derived from a decrease in the mechanical as well as neural transduction. Another significant observation of this study was that physical activity was able to compensate these results, making the physically active elderly individual to present duplicated baroreflex gain values in relation to sedentary individuals of the same age and comparable to that of young sedentary individuals. A low neural transduction in sedentary elderly individuals is compatible with the evidence of an altered central autonomic integration<sup>40,71</sup>, of a decreased vagal output<sup>72</sup> and a lower density of muscarinic receptors in the sinus node<sup>73</sup>, which occur with aging. The strong relation between the cardiovagal baroreflex gain and the neural component can reflect some of these declines. </p>
      <p>Considering that age not only decreases the baroreflex gain<sup>53,60,61</sup>, but also causes a hardening of the great arteries<sup>67</sup>, it is possible to establish that the dynamic function of the arteries with a barosensory role is important in the age-related cardiovagal baroreflex decline. Another fundamental aspect is that the analysis of the behavior of the great arteries and the baroreflex in a supine resting position can provide limited information regarding the age-related difference in vascular mechanisms during changes in the arterial pressure, which characterize the baroreflex role<sup>70</sup>. The importance of the interference of the arterial pressure dynamic behavior on the baroreflex sensitization in the hypertensive patient was confirmed by Sich&#233; et al, who observed that the major determinant of the baroreflex sensitivity was the 24-hour arterial pressure level, and that the latter was not significantly determined by age<sup>41</sup>.</p>
      <p>A decrease in the carotid arterial compliance can be an important mechanism responsible for the age-related cardiovagal baroreflex reduction. However, it has been suggested that the association between cardiovagal baroreflex/arterial compliance is not simply due to a co-linearity with aging<sup>74</sup>. It is known that the vascular structure of the carotid and aortic sinus area determines the distortion and tension at the level of the arterial baroreceptors during acute changes in the blood arterial pressure<sup>75</sup>. In this context, an age-related decrease in the compliance of the carotid artery can restrict the capacity of its sensitive mechanical segments to adequately identify and translate changes in the intravascular pressure into afferent nervous signals to the central nervous system<sup>76,77</sup>.</p>
      <p>Among the several theories proposed for the physiopathology of the vasovagal syncope, one of the most studied is the baroreflex dysfunction<sup>44</sup>. Mosqueda-Garcia et al investigated the baroreflex sensitivity in individuals with vasovagal syncope and positive IT and observed a decreased response of the baroreflex cardiovagal and sympathetic components when compared to the control group<sup>78</sup>. Some authors have suggested that the function of the baroreflex is preserved, but it undergoes a sudden suppression due to a depressor reflex that originates from the heart<sup>79</sup>. In general, all studies that deal with this issue report some type of baroreflex dysfunction that results in the incapacity to feel or compensate the hemodynamic alterations triggered by the gravity force in patients with neuromediated syncope<sup>44</sup>.</p>
      <p>Thus, it is possible to consider that the analysis of the influence of aortic compliance on the baroreflex can allow a further elucidation of the adaptation to orthostatism and the physiopathology of neuromediated syncope.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>GREAT ARTERIES AND ADAPTATION TO ORTHOSTATISM </bold>
      </p>
      <p>A typical characteristic of living tissues is their capacity to respond to overload changes, altering their geometry, structure and/or mechanical properties<sup>80</sup>. </p>
      <p>As previously established, the increase of stiffness of the great arteries, caused by arterial hypertension and aging, for instance, also results in a compromised sensitivity of the baroreflex, which can interfere in the adequacy of the cardiocirculatory response to orthostatic stress<sup>42,81</sup>.</p>
      <p>Kingwell et al evaluated the influence of arterial compliance in the baroreflex function in normotense athlete and hypertensive individuals. These authors suggested that, due to the decreased arterial compliance in hypertensive patients, broad arterial pressure variations do not cause adequate changes in vascular circumference, thus interfering with the baroreceptor firing<sup>66</sup>. A decreased arterial compliance can thus explain the behavior of in <italic>plateau</italic> bradycardia in hypertensive subjects.</p>
      <p> Sich&#233; et al utilized the measurement of the carotid-femoral pulse wave velocity (PWV) in individuals with slight to moderate systemic arterial hypertension (SAH), measured by out-patient monitoring of arterial pressure, to evaluate the baroreflex sensitivity in relation to the hardening of the great arteries. In this study, the increase of PWV was significantly associated with an alteration in the baroreflex sensitivity. The development of an arterial distensibility alteration was related to a deficit in the baroreflex sensitivity, predominating over the vagal control loop<sup>41</sup>. The baroreflex sensitivity alteration would then translate the degree of severity of the vascular distensibility alteration, with a consequent prognostic interest. The vascular structure of the carotid sinus area and aorta determines the tension and the distortion in the arterial baroreceptors during acute changes in arterial pressure. In this context, a decrease in arterial compliance<sup>76</sup> can be expected to restrict the capacity of its sensitive mechanical segments to identify and adequately translate changes in the intravascular pressure into afferent nervous signals to the central nervous system<sup>74</sup>.</p>
      <p>As it can be observed, most data regarding the central circulatory hemodynamics in human beings were formulated based on hydraulic models, which are predominantly known in the supine posture, due to technical and ethical issues.</p>
      <p>The first studies performed with the objective of assessing the effects of gravitational stress on hemodynamic parameters and its influence on the contour of the aortic pulse wave were carried out in primates<sup>82-84</sup>. It was observed that the central hemodynamics presented a pattern of response to gravitational stress that had well-defined phases. Immediately after the start of gravitational stress, there would not be a baroreflex yet, due to a delay in the physiological response time. In this phase, in comparison to what was observed in the basal phase, a later systolic peak would not occur in the contour of the ascending aorta pulse wave, resulting from a reflected pulse wave returning to the heart. Therefore, the reflected wave would later appear in the diastole, suggesting a decrease in the pulse wave velocity, likely due to an increase of aortic compliance together with a mean pressure decrease. </p>
      <p>Immediately after that, the so-called compensatory phase would ensue, in which the baroreflex response would be present. In this new phase, the pulse wave contour would return to the basal patterns, with an increase in the mean arterial pressure. The reflected wave would appear prematurely, suggesting a stiffer aorta at this phase, compared to the anterior one. An increase in the systolic volume and peripheral vascular resistance could also contribute to an increase in wave reflection. According to the authors, the aim of this response would be to maintain the efficiency of the ventricular/vascular coupling, in opposition to the gravitational effect<sup>83</sup>.</p>
      <p>In spite of the importance of using experimental models that utilize animals that are phylogenetically close to humans, such as baboons, it is also important to bear in mind the specific characteristics of the circulatory system architecture, which depend on postural body habits and affect the pulse wave contour due to the variation of amplitude, the summation and/or cancellation of arterial reflexions<sup>84</sup>.</p>
      <p>The analysis of the characteristics of pulse transmission and pulse wave shape in baboons was performed by Lathan et al<sup>84</sup>. These authors observed that the wave shape, the aortic impedance and the PWV in these primates were different when compared to those of humans<sup>84</sup>. A significant difference demonstrated in this study was that the dimension of the abdominal aorta was only slightly smaller than that of the thoracic aorta in comparison with those of humans, in whom the aorta presents a cuneiform aspect, with its abdominal segment, located below the renal arteries, presenting a markedly decreased diameter when compared to that of the lower portion of the thoracic aorta<sup>85,86</sup>. This finding would be responsible for a low coefficient of aortic reflection at the level of the renal arteries in baboons, a finding that could be accountable for the differences observed in humans. </p>
      <p>The current evidence points out to the arterial stiffening, calculated by the PWV measurement, as an important risk factor for cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and emphasize its influence in the adaptive control of arterial pressure<sup>87-89</sup>. Thus, the measurement of PWV might contribute to a better understanding of the dynamic behavior of the great arteries against the gravitational stress. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>A NEW HYPOTHESIS FOR THE UNDERSTANDING OF CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATION TO ORTHOSTATISM &#151; THE ROLE OF THE GREAT ARTERIES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Recent studies demonstrate that the great arteries are no longer seen merely as passive blood conduits that have the function of transporting and distributing blood, but are now seen as having a fundamental and complex role in maintaining the circulatory physiology, as well as in the origin of cardiovascular disease<sup>66,87,90,91</sup>. </p>
      <p>The technical limitations, the structural complexity of the arterial wall and the dynamic behavior of the great arteries, however, have hindered the study of the arterial tree under very common situations, such as the response and accommodation to postural stress<sup>92-94</sup>. </p>
      <p>In a recent study, Elias<sup>95</sup> assessed for the first time, the influence of the orthostatic posture compared to the supine posture, over the aortic distensibility in normal and hypertensive individuals of both sexes, utilizing the carotid-femoral PWV measurement obtained during supine decubitus and during the IT as the aortic stiffness index. This study demonstrated the existence of an immediate significant elevation of the PWV associated to the adoption of the orthostatic posture (11.7%) (10.1 &#177; 2.3 <italic>versus</italic> 11.7 &#177; 2.5, for the supine posture and during the IT, respectively; p &lt; 0.001). This vascular functional behavior pattern was observed in all study individuals, regardless of age, causing many young individuals to present PWV levels during the IT that were similar to those presented by elderly individuals during the supine decubitus. Another relevant aspect of this study was the observation of the dynamic characteristic of the PWV response, which promptly returned to the basal patterns when the supine decubitus was resumed. In this study, the systolic arterial pressure and age were the main variables responsible for the increase in PWV, in supine decubitus as well as during orthostatism. As there was no significant systolic arterial pressure increase in the orthostatic posture, the author considered that the PWV increase was probably caused by alterations in the circulatory dynamics due to the gravitational action, in association to the structural and geometric characteristics of the aorta<sup>95</sup>. This hypothesis was supported by the knowledge that the PWV, based on the Moens-Korteweg formula, depends on the vascular radius and thickness, as well as on its elastic modulus.</p>
      <p>It is known that, structurally, the ratio of elastic/collagen fibers varies from 3.1:1 in the proximal descending aorta, to 2.8:1 in the region of the middle thoracic aorta, and to 0.8:1 in the abdominal aorta<sup>96</sup>. The collagen elastic module is much superior to that of elastin, which means that, the farther from the heart, the stiffer the artery becomes, and also that its elastic module and its PWV increase. In other word, the vascular distension is limited by the collagen fibers, and by the elevated Young&#146;s elastic modulus<sup>97,98</sup>. The fact that PWV was obtained during the IT places the arterial segments differentially exposed to the gravitational action, somehow mimicking what happens during the active orthostatic posture. While the segment located between the aortic root and the aortic arch up to the level of the carotid artery is under the direct contraposition of gravity, the remaining aortic segments, up to the level of the femoral arteries, present the circulating blood flow going along with the vector of gravitational action. The immediate result of this is that gravity promotes a progressive increase in arterial pressure in the segments below the cardiac level in the orthostatic posture<sup>15,30,99</sup>.</p>
      <p>Given the hydrostatic pressure generated by the gravitational action and the consequent change in the hydrostatic indifferent point, there is a higher blood flow to the arterial segments with a bigger elastic modulus and smaller radius, disclosing the increment of the carotid-femoral PWV measured during orthostasis<sup>100,101</sup>. This PWV increase is responsible for the premature return of the reflected waves from the peripheral sites to the ascending aorta. These prematurely reflected waves (during the ventricular ejection period) are added to the reflected component of the pulse wave caused by the left ventricular ejection and influence the contour of the pressure and flow waves<sup>102</sup>. Hence, the early return of the reflected component that occurs during the systolic component of the pulse wave leads to a consequent increase in pulse pressure<sup>103,104</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig. 1</xref>). It is likely that this increase, caused by the reflected wave in the initial portion of the arterial pulse wave, is due to a complex evolutional functional adaptation of the vascular system with the objective of maintaining an effective blood flow to the brain in response to bipedism<sup>95</sup>.</p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-87-02-0209-00023-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p> The role of the wave reflection in the circulatory homeostasis during orthostasis is reinforced by the observation that, when nitroglycerin, utilized in the sublingual route for IT sensitization, generates a peripheral vasodilation, it leads to a delay in the reflected component of the pulse wave and the consequent reduction in the proximal systolic pressure, resulting in symptoms of low brain flow in patients with neuromediated syncope<sup>105,106</sup>. In fact, although a decrease in the coefficient of reflection is verified with the use of nitroglycerin, paradoxically, an increment in aortic stiffness is also observed. Soma et al<sup>107</sup> ascribe this secondary aortic stiffness to a possible reflex activation of the sympathetic nervous system. These authors state that the cardiac frequency increase, which is a consequence of sympathetic activation, can be unfavorable as it reduces ventricular ejection time, time for the aortic root peak flow, the systolic volume and the cardiac output<sup>107</sup>. </p>
      <p>Other aspects that deserve to be analyzed are the cardiac frequency behavior associated to postural change and the potential role of the alterations in the hemodynamics and structure of the great arterial vessels in their response patterns<sup>97</sup>. Initial experimental studies of humans in supine decubitus showed a positive correlation between the cardiac frequency increase and an augmented aortic stiffness<sup>108-111</sup>. By observing that the effect of the cardiac frequency increase, causing the stiffening of the elastic arteries, occurred independently from the sympathetic modulation, Mircoli et al<sup>112</sup> suggested that the decrease of frequency-dependent arterial distensibility would primarily occur because of the viscous characteristic of the vascular wall and its response inertia to the intravascular pressure changes<sup>112</sup>. However, Wilkinson et al<sup>113</sup>, in a study that assessed the behavior of PWV in healthy individuals submitted to atrial stimulation, did not observe significant alterations in aortic distensibility in the face of cardiac frequency increase. </p>
      <p>In opposition to the findings obtained in supine decubitus, Elias<sup>95</sup> observed a negative correlation between cardiac frequency and PWV in orthostatic posture (r= -0.37, P &lt; 0.001). Age was the main variable responsible for the cardiac frequency behavior in the orthostatic posture (r= -0.52, P &lt; 0.001). In search for a better understanding of this finding, the author also analyzed the correlation between the cardiac frequency, obtained during orthostatic stress, and the basal measurement of the PWV, having observed a negative correlation between the cardiac frequency and the basal PWV (r= -0.30, P &lt; 0.01). These results showed the possibility of an association of the basal pattern of arterial compliance with the cardiac frequency response level, during orthostasis<sup>95</sup>.</p>
      <p>"Transversal" studies have shown that the basal cardiac frequency does not differ between young and elderly individuals in the supine posture<sup>114-115</sup>. However, the analysis of cardiac frequency in healthy individuals in the sitting posture has shown that cardiac frequency decreases with age in both sexes<sup>116,117</sup>. The studies utilizing the IT to assess the cardiovascular adaptation to orthostatic stress also reported a significantly lower cardiac frequency in elderly individuals<sup>17,117,118</sup>. We know that the resting cardiac frequency is modulated, in part, by the equilibrium between the sympathetic and the parasympathetic tonus, with a predominance of the latter. The intervention of age and posture on cardiac frequency suggest that age-related alterations occur in the regulatory mechanisms of cardiac frequency<sup>101</sup>. The acute cardiac frequency increase in response to the rapid change into the orthostatic posture, in general occurring within the first seconds after standing upright, although present in all individuals, decreases in magnitude with age, and can be delayed<sup>118</sup>. This decrease in the variability of the cardiac frequency observed in elderly patients, when compared to young individuals in the orthostatic <italic>versus</italic> the supine posture, has been attributed to a decrease in the recruitment of baroreceptor activity when the upright position is adopted<sup>17,117,118</sup>. </p>
      <p>As the autonomous nervous system is the main intermediator between the nervous and cardiovascular systems, the understanding of its participation in the modulation of the cardiac frequency response during postural change is essential<sup>103</sup>. It has been established that the sensitivity of the baroreceptor is negatively correlated with aging, the increment of basal arterial pressure and the PWV<sup>39,64,75,119</sup>, being such alterations partly caused by cyclic dynamic arterial alterations<sup>68,72</sup>. Although the cardiac frequency increases less during postural stress in elderly individuals when compared to young ones, the systolic volume reduction tends to be smaller in the healthy elderly individual than in the young one; consequently, the cardiac output does not significantly vary with age, as the smaller increment of cardiac frequency is compensated by a smaller systolic volume reduction<sup>101</sup>.</p>
      <p>Considering the dynamic behavior of the aortic compliance when facing postural change, one could presume that a higher systolic volume decrease would lead to a decrease in the aortic pulsatile deformation, with a subsequent decrease of baroreceptor stimulation and cardiac frequency increase.</p>
      <p>The maintenance of the systolic volume in elderly individuals is attributed to a lower venous compliance in this group, which would allow the preservation of the cardiac filling volume, and consequently, of the systolic volume<sup>101</sup>. However, an age-related lower cardiac frequency could also mean an adaptation mechanism of man to bipedism<sup>95</sup>. It is known that the cardiac frequency affects pre-load through its effect on the diastolic filling time. The cardiac frequency also modulates the state of myocardial contractility through its effect, by altering the myocardial concentration of Ca<sup>2+</sup> and Na<sup>+</sup>. As a consequence of the increase of myocardial contractility, the cardiac frequency also modulates the final systolic volume, the systolic volume and the ejection fraction<sup>101</sup>. Thus, a lower cardiac frequency could, at first, allow a better cardiac performance when facing a stiffer arterial system. Further large-scale longitudinal studies will define whether this recent observation in the cardiac frequency behavior is caused by structural alterations of the great arteries, which are inherent to the aging process, and to some degree of interference in the mechanical component of the baroreflex. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>FUNCTIONAL BEHAVIOR OF THE GREAT ARTERIES - POSSIBLE CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Considering what was presented here, the following hypothesis can be formulated: the return of the reflected component of the pulse wave is essential for the immediate adaptation to orthostatism, as well as in the activation, at an adequate degree, of the baroreceptors. Assuming that such hypothesis is correct, it is possible to consider the participation of these recent findings in some very common clinical conditions associated to the orthostatic posture. The more frequent occurrence of neuromediated syncope in young individuals is well established<sup>120</sup>. Another aspect is that such events occur more commonly with taller individuals. As the aortic length is related to body height, the arterial reflection wave occurs later in taller individuals<sup>121</sup>, and it would not be incongruous to suppose that, in young individuals, especially females, those who present lower basal levels of arterial pressure, the presence of a more elongated aorta could interfere with the return of the reflected component to the proximal aortic portions in an optimized way, which could result in the activation of reflexes related to the genesis of the syncope (for instance, the Bezold-Jarisch reflex). Another aspect that supports this hypothesis is, as previously discussed, the importance of height (h) in gravitational stress<sup>24</sup>. Therefore, in young individuals, the premature return of the reflected component of the pulse wave caused by the increment of the PWV during orthostasis would act together with the baroreflex and other regulatory mechanisms of the arterial pressure, allowing an immediate adaptation to orthostatism<sup>95</sup>. </p>
      <p>Based on the recent data, the hypothesis of the participation of the great arteries in the maintenance of circulatory homeostasis as well as in the syncope-triggering mechanism must be taken into account, aiming at a new theory, to be incorporated to the several existing ones, for the physiopathology of neuromediated syncope<sup>44</sup>. </p>
      <p>As for the analysis of the orthostatic adaptation in elderly individuals, who present higher susceptibility to morbid cardiovascular events and postural hypotension, the application of these recent findings is still questionable.</p>
      <p>Literature data have shown a broad diurnal variation in the occurrence of cardiovascular events, with a peak incidence of myocardial infarction, sudden cardiac death and ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke occurring in the first hours of the morning<sup>122-124</sup>. A more detailed analysis of this circadian pattern has identified the hour that follows awakening, more than any other time of the day, as the one during which more cardiovascular events occur<sup>122,123</sup>. Although it has not been established whether the additional increase of PWV during orthostasis is just a structural adaptive process inducing mechanism or a marker of morbid events, this finding must be taken into account. </p>
      <p>One must consider that, although a premature return of the reflected component of the pulse wave can contribute to a lower cardiac frequency during orthostatic stress, generating potential advantages in the postural adaptation of the elderly, chronic abnormalities in the aortic distensibility, such as those possibly generated by the orthostatic posture, create an incompatibility between the ventricular ejection and the aortic flow energy. Hence, a more premature return of wave reflection caused by the increase of the PWV can create an increase in the hydraulic load for the left ventricle<sup>125</sup>. </p>
      <p>Therefore, a combined ventricle-vascular stiffening can potentially have important consequences for the cardiac response to the variation of filling volume, as a stiffer heart-arterial system generates higher alterations in systolic pressure for a given change in ejected systolic volume or in the ventricular volume<sup>126,127</sup>.</p>
      <p>The overlapping of the known autonomic/baroreflex regulation abnormalities associated to aging<sup>59,128,129</sup>, with the age-related arterial hardening, can aggravate the arterial pressure fluctuations related to postural and postprandial stress<sup>126,127</sup>. This postural increase of PWV can add to the sympathetic nervous activity augmentation, particularly the adrenergic activity and other acute risk factors such as platelet hyperactivity, hypercoagulability and hypofibrinolysis, blood viscosity and vasospasm increase<sup>130</sup>, contributing for the increase of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the morning period. Finally, the volemic oscillations caused by the upright posture are potentially more likely to be experienced by this population. This puts the elderly individual at higher risk, not only because a transient orthostatic hypotension generates the decompensation of a cardiac structural disease (for instance, coronary failure), but also because in situations of additional volemia decrease (for instance, infectious processes, use of vasodilator or diuretic agents, diarrhea and vomiting) there may be symptoms of orthostatic intolerance or even syncopal events<sup>53,131</sup>.</p>
      <p>Hence, a longitudinal investigation of a large, unselected population group is necessary, aiming at assessing the independent contribution of the postural variation of the PWV for the individual cardiovascular risk.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>CONCLUSION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The exact mechanisms responsible for the cardiovascular adaptation to orthostatism need further clarification. Several theories have been proposed as being fundamental in maintaining the circulatory homeostasis against the gravitational stress. However, a better understanding of the human adaptation to orthostasis must take into account the gravitational gradient generated by such posture. </p>
      <p>Possibly, the hypothesis presented herein will contribute to the understanding of the participation of the great arteries in the cardiovascular adaptation to orthostasis and will enable a better analysis of the response of the great arteries to gravitational stress, of the physiopathology of neuromediated syncope and orthostatic hypotension.</p>
      <p>Another aspect is how much the anti-gravitational adaptive phenomena can contribute to cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, when added to the inherent degenerative alterations such as arterial hypertension, aging and pre-determined genetic markers. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgements</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To Prof. Dr. Roberto S&#225; Cunha, for the technical assistance and suggestions. To Prof. Dr. Dalton Vassalo and Dr. M&#225;rcio Augusto Silva, for text review. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>REFERENCES</bold>
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      <p>
        <fn id="nt-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing Address:</p>
          <p> Jorge Elias Neto </p>
          <p> Rua Ala&#244;r de Queiroz, 115/101 </p>
          <p> 29050-000 &#150; Vit&#243;ria, ES - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p><email xlink:href="eliasj@terra.com.br">eliasj@terra.com.br</email>, </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="jeneto@cardiol.br">jeneto@cardiol.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received on 05/14/05 </p>
      <p> Accepted on 12/08/05</p>
      <p>Kingwell e cols. avaliaram a influ&#234;ncia da complac&#234;ncia arterial na fun&#231;&#227;o do barorreflexo em indiv&#237;duos atletas normotensos e em indiv&#237;duos hipertensos. Esses autores sugeriram que, por causa da diminui&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia arterial, em pacientes hipertensos, amplas varia&#231;&#245;es na press&#227;o arterial n&#227;o provocam mudan&#231;as adequadas na circunfer&#234;ncia vascular, interferindo assim no disparo dos barorreceptores<sup>66</sup>. Uma complac&#234;ncia arterial reduzida pode ent&#227;o explicar o comportamento de bradicardia em <italic>plateau</italic> nos hipertensos. </p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
