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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">k3S8ZtP37sr9LsqHrM7tKck</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2006000300002</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(06)08600302</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2006000300002</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Perfil da press&#227;o arterial ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial e gen&#233;tica da hipertens&#227;o</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bortolotto</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Aparecido</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Safar</surname>
            <given-names>Michel E.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Paris</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">France</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Diagnosis Center</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hotel-Dieu Hospital </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">FMUSP</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>86</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>166</fpage>
      <lpage>169</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2006</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Perfil da press&#227;o arterial ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial e gen&#233;tica da hipertens&#227;o </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto; Michel E. Safar</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas &#150; FMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP e Diagnosis Center, Hotel-Dieu Hospital - Paris, France</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>A conforma&#231;&#227;o da curva de press&#227;o arterial varia bastante a partir das art&#233;rias de maior di&#226;metro para as art&#233;rias de menor di&#226;metro, em virtude das diferen&#231;as estruturais e propriedades funcionais da parede dos vasos ao longo do sistema arterial. A maioria dos estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos e gen&#233;ticos sobre hipertens&#227;o baseou-se na simples determina&#231;&#227;o de dois pontos da curva de press&#227;o arterial, as press&#245;es sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, sem levar em considera&#231;&#227;o o diferente perfil da curva da press&#227;o ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial. Recentemente, uma an&#225;lise n&#227;o-invasiva da onda de pulso identificou a medida da rigidez arterial como um fator independente de risco cardiovascular em hipertensos. Os diferentes determinantes da rigidez arterial parecem ter bases gen&#233;ticas. Os futuros estudos sobre gen&#233;tica da hipertens&#227;o dever&#227;o levar em considera&#231;&#227;o o perfil da press&#227;o arterial e seus principais determinantes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>INTRODU&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A hipertens&#227;o &#233; um importante fator de risco para complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, como doen&#231;a arterial coronariana e acidente vascular cerebral. As rela&#231;&#245;es de risco da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS) e diast&#243;lica (PAD) s&#227;o consideradas cont&#237;nuas, graduais, fortes e independentes de outros fatores de risco. Entretanto, as medidas da PAS e PAD est&#227;o associadas ao componente fixo do perfil da curva de press&#227;o arterial. O componente puls&#225;til da curva depende da rigidez arterial das grandes art&#233;rias e das reflex&#245;es da onda<sup>1</sup>. Esses componentes n&#227;o foram levados em considera&#231;&#227;o nos estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos sobre risco cardiovascular em pacientes hipertensos.</p>
    <p>Mais recentemente, diversos estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos relataram que a press&#227;o de pulso (PP), a diferen&#231;a entre a PAS e a PAD, constitui um preditor &#250;til de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) ou doen&#231;a cardiovascular total, sobretudo em pessoas de meia-idade ou idosas<sup>2-5</sup>. A press&#227;o de pulso &#233; conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do car&#225;ter epis&#243;dico da contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, bem como da estrutura e da fun&#231;&#227;o da circula&#231;&#227;o arterial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>)<sup>6</sup>. Assim, embora o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e a resist&#234;ncia perif&#233;rica total descrevam apropriadamente a press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia, as origens da PP s&#227;o mais complexas. Intrinsecamente, a PP n&#227;o pode ser explicada por um &#250;nico modelo de circula&#231;&#227;o. A press&#227;o de pulso depende da eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e das propriedades da parede arterial, que determinam tanto as caracter&#237;sticas de distensibilidade quanto as de transmiss&#227;o do sistema arterial<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-86-03-0166-00002-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>A perda de elasticidade da art&#233;ria, sem dilata&#231;&#227;o compensat&#243;ria, aumenta a rigidez arterial e a velocidade de transmiss&#227;o da onda, uma vez que essa &#250;ltima depende das propriedades da parede do vaso. O aumento da velocidade de transmiss&#227;o da onda acarreta um retorno mais r&#225;pido da onda de pulso refletida. Ocorre, assim, uma sobreposi&#231;&#227;o precoce da onda refletida durante a s&#237;stole, levando &#224; amplifica&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica e, conseq&#252;entemente, tamb&#233;m &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da PP central. Essas caracter&#237;sticas costumam ser observadas em pessoas idosas com hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada, que apresentam maior rigidez arterial em decorr&#234;ncia de quebra de elastina, prolifera&#231;&#227;o de col&#225;geno e deposi&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio, fatores freq&#252;entemente associados a uma aorta alargada e tortuosa<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Esses determinantes de maior rigidez arterial e da eleva&#231;&#227;o da PP aparentemente s&#227;o influenciados por fatores gen&#233;ticos independentes de outros fatores cl&#225;ssicos de risco cardiovascular<sup>8,9</sup>. A influ&#234;ncia mais importante parece ser sobre as propriedades estruturais e funcionais das grandes art&#233;rias. J&#225; foi demonstrado que os fatores gen&#233;ticos afetam diretamente a estrutura da parede arterial ou atuam indiretamente por meio de fatores como idade, press&#227;o arterial, tabagismo, n&#237;veis de colesterol e glicemia, culminando num aumento da rigidez arterial<sup>9-11</sup>. Nesta revis&#227;o, discutimos os principais mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos envolvidos na configura&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial. Dessa forma, caracterizamos as propriedades mec&#226;nicas das art&#233;rias de grande e pequeno calibre e os principais determinantes das press&#245;es sist&#243;lica, diast&#243;lica e de pulso em diferentes s&#237;tios arteriais. Esses aspectos dever&#227;o ser levados em considera&#231;&#227;o nas pesquisas futuras sobre gen&#233;tica da hipertens&#227;o. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>CURVA DA PRESS&#195;O ARTERIAL AO LONGO DA &#193;RVORE ARTERIAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A aorta emerge do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e, quase imediatamente, curva-se de uma maneira complexa tridimensional, emitindo ramos para o cora&#231;&#227;o, para o c&#233;rebro e para os membros superiores e inferiores<sup>1,12,13</sup>. Em geral, o di&#226;metro dos ramos individuais corresponde ao volume de sangue por eles transportado, mesmo quando existem varia&#231;&#245;es consider&#225;veis. N&#227;o resta d&#250;vida de que, depois dos primeiros ramos, a &#225;rea total de sec&#231;&#227;o transversal da &#225;rvore arterial come&#231;a a se expandir acentuadamente. Enquanto a &#225;rea transversal aumenta, o di&#226;metro m&#233;dio &#233; reduzido, refletindo no maior n&#250;mero de bifurca&#231;&#245;es para arter&#237;olas<sup>1,12,13</sup>.</p>
    <p>Quando as for&#231;as que regem o fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo s&#227;o levadas em considera&#231;&#227;o ao longo da &#225;rvore arterial e arteriolar, elas est&#227;o exclusivamente envolvidas na press&#227;o gerada pelo cora&#231;&#227;o. Esse valor representa a diferen&#231;a entre a press&#227;o real e o seu componente hidrost&#225;tico, e &#233; comumente chamado de "press&#227;o arterial" (PA). O que propulsiona o fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo &#233; o gradiente do excesso de press&#227;o. A distribui&#231;&#227;o do excesso de press&#227;o atrav&#233;s da circula&#231;&#227;o, ilustrada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">figura 2</xref>, &#233; amplamente dissipada quando o sangue &#233; for&#231;ado atrav&#233;s da microcircula&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, o bombeamento do cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; intermitente.</p>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-86-03-0166-00002-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>No in&#237;cio da s&#237;stole, a press&#227;o no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo sobe rapidamente, logo excedendo a press&#227;o a&#243;rtica. A valva a&#243;rtica ent&#227;o se abre, o sangue &#233; ejetado e a press&#227;o a&#243;rtica sobe. Durante a primeira parte da fase de eje&#231;&#227;o, a press&#227;o ventricular &#233; maior que a press&#227;o a&#243;rtica. Aproximadamente na metade da fase de eje&#231;&#227;o, os dois tra&#231;os de press&#227;o se cruzam, e ocorre um gradiente de press&#227;o adverso na valva a&#243;rtica, que &#233; mantido quando ambas as press&#245;es come&#231;am a cair (incisura dicr&#243;tica)<sup>13</sup>. Nesse ponto, a redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o a&#243;rtica &#233; muito mais lenta que a do ventr&#237;culo, porque as grandes art&#233;rias centrais, sobretudo a aorta, s&#227;o el&#225;sticas e, portanto, atuam como um reservat&#243;rio durante a s&#237;stole, armazenando um pouco do sangue ejetado que, em seguida, &#233; expulso para os vasos perif&#233;ricos durante a di&#225;stole (efeito de Windkessel)<sup>1,12,13</sup>. </p>
    <p>Mas, quando a PA &#233; aferida em dois pontos sobre o eixo da aorta, pode-se observar que os registros da press&#227;o t&#234;m uma forma quase id&#234;ntica nos dois locais, mas no ponto da vertente descendente &#233; ligeiramente retardado. Em outras palavras, a press&#227;o de pulso gerada pela contra&#231;&#227;o ventricular percorre a aorta como uma onda. Conhecendo a dist&#226;ncia entre os dois locais de mensura&#231;&#227;o, &#233; poss&#237;vel calcular a velocidade da onda (velocidade da onda de pulso, VOP) com base nesse atraso (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">fig. 3</xref>).</p>
    <fig id="fig03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-86-03-0166-00002-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Quando medidas simult&#226;neas s&#227;o aferidas em diversos pontos da aorta, a onda da press&#227;o muda de forma ao longo desse vaso. A onda &#233; progressivamente retardada, mas tamb&#233;m mais acentuada e mais ampla, enquanto, ao mesmo tempo, perde a incisura dicr&#243;tica aguda (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">fig. 2</xref>). Assim, o paradoxo &#233; que a press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS), na verdade, aumenta &#224; medida que se distancia do cora&#231;&#227;o. Obviamente, o n&#237;vel m&#233;dio da press&#227;o arterial (PAM) cai &#224; medida que aumenta a dist&#226;ncia do cora&#231;&#227;o (a queda &#233; de apenas cerca de 4 mmHg) ao longo da aorta, enquanto a amplitude da oscila&#231;&#227;o press&#243;rica entre a s&#237;stole e a di&#225;stole, que representa a press&#227;o de pulso (PP), praticamente dobra. Esse processo de amplifica&#231;&#227;o da PP continua nos ramos da aorta at&#233; aproximadamente a terceira gera&#231;&#227;o de ramos. Desse ponto em diante, tanto a PP quando a PAM diminuem rapidamente para os n&#237;veis encontrados na microcircula&#231;&#227;o, em que um fluxo quase fixo &#233; observado (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">fig. 2</xref>). Enquanto a macrocircula&#231;&#227;o &#233; influenciada pela propaga&#231;&#227;o da onda de press&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">figs. 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">3</xref>) e amplifica&#231;&#227;o da VOP e PP, a microcircula&#231;&#227;o &#233; influenciada pelo fluxo fixo, de acordo com a lei de Poiseuille<sup>12</sup>. O gradiente de press&#227;o, portanto, &#233; proporcional &#224; velocidade e viscosidade do sangue e ao comprimento da &#225;rvore arteriolar, e inversamente proporcional ao di&#226;metro elevado &#224; quarta pot&#234;ncia.</p>
    <p>Diversos estudos realizados com animais analisaram o perfil da press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica ao longo dos elementos vasculares entre o cora&#231;&#227;o e os capilares. O consenso geral &#233; de que a redu&#231;&#227;o da PA ocorre predominantemente nos vasos pr&#233;-capilares com 10 a 300 &#181;m (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">fig. 2</xref>). Em contrapartida, uma enorme resist&#234;ncia vascular (que representa as for&#231;as mec&#226;nicas contr&#225;rias ao fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo) desenvolve-se abruptamente das art&#233;rias mais calibrosas para as menos calibrosas, ao longo de um curto trecho entre as art&#233;rias e as veias, provocando uma queda vertiginosa da PAM. A elevada resist&#234;ncia vascular, portanto, reduz tanto os fen&#244;menos puls&#225;teis quanto o fluxo fixo. Ao mesmo tempo, a amplitude da PP diminui, produzindo um fluxo quase inteiramente fixo atrav&#233;s dos vasos de resist&#234;ncia. Outra contribui&#231;&#227;o &#224; oposi&#231;&#227;o ao fluxo &#233; atribu&#237;da &#224; reflex&#227;o das pulsa&#231;&#245;es arteriais que n&#227;o conseguem penetrar nos vasos de alta resist&#234;ncia e se juntam &#224;s ondas de press&#227;o que se aproximam da &#225;rea de grande resist&#234;ncia. A &#225;rea de reflex&#227;o est&#225; diretamente relacionada ao n&#250;mero e &#224;s propriedades geom&#233;tricas das bifurca&#231;&#245;es arteriolares.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>APLICA&#199;&#213;ES AOS ASPECTOS GEN&#201;TICOS DA HIPERTENS&#195;O CL&#205;NICA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nos artigos tradicionais sobre gen&#233;tica da hipertens&#227;o arterial humana, a hip&#243;tese de que a variabilidade gen&#233;tica poderia acarretar a eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial foi testada sobretudo com base na compara&#231;&#227;o dos valores m&#233;dios da PAD braquial em pais com gen&#243;tipos distintos<sup>9,14</sup>. Nesses estudos, a classifica&#231;&#227;o dos sujeitos hipertensos baseava-se constantemente num &#250;nico ponto da curva c&#237;clica da PA, isto &#233;, a PAD braquial. Os resultados obtidos nesses estudos foram relativamente limitados, uma vez que exclu&#237;ram a PAS braquial e a PP, principais fatores preditivos de risco cardiovascular (CV)<sup>1</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, nos seres humanos, a PA central, que difere acentuadamente da PA braquial ou radial, nunca tinha sido investigada de forma sistem&#225;tica. </p>
    <p>Como mostramos anteriormente, a curva da PA a&#243;rtica &#233; conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de uma intera&#231;&#227;o entre dois componentes distintos: um componente fixo, que corresponde &#224; PAM, e um componente puls&#225;til, que corresponde &#224; PP. Enquanto a PAM, que &#233; influenciada pelo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e pela resist&#234;ncia vascular, refere-se &#224;s pequenas art&#233;rias, a PP refere-se &#224;s grandes art&#233;rias e &#233; determinada pela eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular, pela rigidez das grandes art&#233;rias e, por fim, pela amplitude e pelo tempo certo das reflex&#245;es da onda<sup>1,12,13</sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>).</p>
    <p>Estudos realizados com camundongos geneticamente modificados (<italic>knock-out</italic>) revelaram que os dois componentes da curva de PA a&#243;rtica podem ser analisados separadamente<sup>15</sup>. Uma an&#225;lise de todo o genoma associado &#224; PP demonstrou a import&#226;ncia da identifica&#231;&#227;o dos fatores gen&#233;ticos em sujeitos hipertensos<sup>16,17</sup>. Para avaliar a gen&#233;tica da hipertens&#227;o arterial e a rigidez arterial &#233; necess&#225;rio analisar toda a curva de PA, principalmente a curva da PA a&#243;rtica, uma vez que qualquer altera&#231;&#227;o em um desses componentes pode levar a diferentes fen&#243;tipos da curva de PA. Por exemplo, dos polimorfismos de genes relacionados ao sistema renina-angiotensina (SRA), os relacionados ao angiotensinog&#234;nio refletem a PAM, enquanto os relacionados aos receptores do tipo I de angiotensina II ou &#224; enzima conversora de angiotensina (ECA D/I) refletem a PP e a rigidez arterial<sup>1,18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Um dos mais importantes achados em sujeitos hipertensos foi obtido em estudos recentes sobre o polimorfismo de inser&#231;&#227;o/dele&#231;&#227;o do gene da ECA. Staessen e cols.<sup>18,19 </sup>foram os primeiros a demonstrar que o gen&#243;tipo DD estava significativamente associado com hipertens&#227;o, mas principalmente com hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica isolada em idosos. Nessa popula&#231;&#227;o, o gen&#243;tipo DD estava associado &#224; maior rigidez arterial, resultado observado tanto em sujeitos diab&#233;ticos quanto em n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos, sobretudo acima dos cinq&#252;enta anos de idade<sup>10,11</sup>. </p>
    <p>Idosos hipertensos com gen&#243;tipo DD apresentam um aumento acelerado da PP com a idade em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia de uma diminui&#231;&#227;o acelerada da PAD, e n&#227;o de um aumento acelerado da PAS que ocorre com o aumento da idade. Al&#233;m disso, pesquisas recentes mostram que, em sujeitos idosos com hipertens&#227;o sist&#243;lica, a combina&#231;&#227;o de polimorfismos de dois ou tr&#234;s genes espec&#237;ficos (polimorfismos dos genes da ECA, da aldosterona sintetase e da alfa-aducina) afeta mais profundamente as propriedades mec&#226;nicas das paredes dos vasos que o polimorfismo de um &#250;nico gene<sup>18,19</sup>. Outros polimorfismos tamb&#233;m foram associados ao aumento da rigidez arterial e &#224; hipertrofia vascular, como os relacionados aos genes da elastina e da prote&#237;na G<sup>20,21</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>IMPLICA&#199;&#213;ES E PERSPECTIVAS CL&#205;NICAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Essas considera&#231;&#245;es indicam que os fen&#243;tipos da curva de PA variam bastante das grandes art&#233;rias para as pequenas art&#233;rias, e que a idade pode acentuar sobremaneira as diferen&#231;as entre esses fen&#243;tipos. Essa observa&#231;&#227;o simples mostra claramente que as descri&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas tradicionais de seres humanos hipertensos a partir de dois pontos da curva de PA, a PAS e a PAD, s&#227;o demasiadamente simplificadas.</p>
    <p>Esses achados foram corroborados por uma an&#225;lise n&#227;o-invasiva da onda de pulso que, recentemente, salientou o papel da VOP e das reflex&#245;es da onda como fatores independentes de risco cardiovascular em sujeitos hipertensos<sup>22-25</sup>. A idade exerce uma grande influ&#234;ncia em todas essas modifica&#231;&#245;es. Al&#233;m disso, tende a aumentar a PP mais rapidamente no compartimento central, e n&#227;o no compartimento distal, da &#225;rvore arterial, resultando numa redu&#231;&#227;o da amplifica&#231;&#227;o da PP. Essa redu&#231;&#227;o associada &#224; idade constitui um preditor independente de mortalidade por causas cardiovasculares em sujeitos hipertensos<sup>26</sup>.</p>
    <p>Resumindo, esta atualiza&#231;&#227;o mostrou que, no sistema cardiovascular, as art&#233;rias el&#225;sticas amortecem as pulsa&#231;&#245;es, as art&#233;rias musculares alteram ativamente a velocidade da propaga&#231;&#227;o e as arter&#237;olas servem como locais de maior reflex&#227;o para amplificar as altera&#231;&#245;es da PA. Qualquer perturba&#231;&#227;o dessas mudan&#231;as pode acarretar um aumento predominante ou seletivo da PAS e da PP, como o observado nas popula&#231;&#245;es idosas e/ou hipertensas com alto risco cardiovascular. As conseq&#252;&#234;ncias desses conhecimentos sobre as bases gen&#233;ticas da hipertens&#227;o dever&#227;o ser levadas em considera&#231;&#227;o no futuro.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>REFER&#202;NCIAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Safar ME, Levy BI, Struijker-Boudier H. Current perspectives on arterial stiffness and pulse pressure in hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Circulation 2003; 107: 2864-9.</p>
    <p>2. Benetos A, Safar M, Rudnichi A et al. Pulse pressure: a predictor of long-term cardiovascular mortality in a French male population. Hypertension 1997; 30: 1410-5.</p>
    <p>3. Chae CU, Pfeffer MA, Glynn RJ, Mitchell GF, Taylor JO, Hennekens CH. Increased pulse pressure and risk of heart failure in the elderly. JAMA 1999; 281: 634-9.</p>
    <p>4. Dyer AR, Stamler J, Shekelle RB et al. Pulse pressure-III. Prognostic significance in four Chicago epidemiologic studies. J Chronic Dis 1982; 35: 283-94.</p>
    <p>5. Franklin SS, Gustin Wt, Wong ND et al. Hemodynamic patterns of age-related changes in blood pressure. The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 1997; 96: 308-15.</p>
    <p>6. Dart AM, Kingwell BA. Pulse pressure - a review of mechanisms and clinical relevance. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37: 975-84.</p>
    <p>7. Franklin SS. Arterial stiffness and hypertension: a two-way street? Hypertension 2005; 45: 349-51.</p>
    <p>8. North KE, MacCluer JW, Devereux RB et al. Heritability of carotid artery structure and function: the Strong Heart Family Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1698-703.</p>
    <p>9. Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Lacolley P. Structural and genetic bases of arterial stiffness. Hypertension 2005; 45: 1050-5.</p>
    <p>10. Rudnichi A, Safar ME, Lajemi M, Benetos A. Gene polymorphisms of the renin-angiotensin system and age-related changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure in subjects with hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2004; 17: 321-7.</p>
    <p>11. Safar ME, Lajemi M, Rudnichi A, Asmar R, Benetos A. Angiotensin-converting enzyme D/I gene polymorphism and age-related changes in pulse pressure in subjects with hypertension. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 782-6.</p>
    <p>12. Nichols WW, O&#146;Rourke M. McDonald's blood flow in arteries. Theoretical, experimental and clinical principles. 4th ed. London: Arnold E; 1998.</p>
    <p>13. Caro CG, Pedley TJ, Schroter RC, Seed WA. The mechanics of the circulation. New York: Oxford University Press; 1978.</p>
    <p>14. Luft FC. Molecular genetics of human hypertension. J Hypertens 1998; 16: 1871-8.</p>
    <p>15. Lacolley P, Challande P, Boumaza S et al. Mechanical properties and structure of carotid arteries in mice lacking desmin. Cardiovasc Res 2001; 51: 178-87.</p>
    <p>16. Camp NJ, Hopkins PN, Hasstedt SJ et al. Genome-wide multipoint parametric linkage analysis of pulse pressure in large, extended utah pedigrees. Hypertension 2003; 42: 322-8.</p>
    <p>17. DeStefano AL, Larson MG, Mitchell GF et al. Genome-wide scan for pulse pressure in the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute&#146;s Framingham Heart Study. Hypertension 2004; 44: 152-5.</p>
    <p>18. Staessen JA, Wang JG, Ginocchio G et al. The deletion/insertion polymorphism of the angiotensin converting enzyme gene and cardiovascular-renal risk. J Hypertens 1997; 15: 1579-92.</p>
    <p>19. Staessen JA, Wang JG, Brand E et al. Effects of three candidate genes on prevalence and incidence of hypertension in a Caucasian population. J Hypertens 2001; 19: 1349-58.</p>
    <p>20. Hanon O, Luong V, Mourad JJ, Bortolotto LA, Jeunemaitre X, Girerd X. Aging, carotid artery distensibility, and the Ser422Gly elastin gene polymorphism in humans. Hypertension 2001; 38: 1185-9.</p>
    <p>21. Hanon O, Luong V, Mourad JJ, Bortolotto LA, Safar M, Girerd X. Association between the G protein beta3 subunit 825t allele and radial artery hypertrophy. J Vasc Res 2002; 39: 497-503.</p>
    <p>22. Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in end-stage renal disease. Circulation 1999; 99: 2434-9.</p>
    <p>23. Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Asmar R et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2001; 37: 1236-41.</p>
    <p>24. London GM, Blacher J, Pannier B, Guerin AP, Marchais SJ, Safar ME. Arterial wave reflections and survival in end-stage renal failure. Hypertension 2001; 38: 434-8.</p>
    <p>25. Meaume S, Rudnichi A, Lynch A et al. Aortic pulse wave velocity as a marker of cardiovascular disease in subjects over 70 years old. J Hypertens 2001; 19: 871-7.</p>
    <p>26. Safar ME, Blacher J, Pannier B et al. Central pulse pressure and mortality in end-stage renal disease. Hypertension 2002; 39: 735-8.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Correspond&#234;ncia</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto </p>
        <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 </p>
        <p> 05403-000 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="luizab@cardiol.br">luizab@cardiol.br</email>/ </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="hipluiz@incor.usp.br">hipluiz@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 30/06/05 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 01/07/05</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Blood pressure profile along the arterial tree and genetics of hypertension</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Blood pressure profile along the arterial tree and genetics of hypertension </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto; Michel E. Safar</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas &#150; FMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil and Diagnosis Center, Hotel-Dieu Hospital - Paris, France</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing Address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>The conformation of blood pressure curve varies extremely from larger to smaller arteries due to different predominant structure and functional properties of the arterial wall along the arterial system. The simple determination of two points of the blood pressure curve, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, has been used in most of epidemiologic and genetic studies on hypertension, without taken into account the difference profile of blood pressure curve along the arterial tree. Recently, non-invasive pulse wave analysis has identified measurements of arterial stiffness as an independent factor of cardiovascular risk in hypertensives. Different determinants of arterial stiffness seem to be genetically determined. Future studies on the genetics of hypertension should consider the blood pressure profile and its main determinants. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>INTRODUCTION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>High blood pressure is a major risk factor for cardiovascular complications as coronary heart disease and stroke. Risk relations for both systolic (SBP) and diastolic (DBP) blood pressure are generally regarded as continuous, graded, strong and independent of other risk factors. However measurements of both SBP and DBP are related to the steady component of blood pressure curve profile. The pulsatile component of blood pressure curve is dependent on arterial stiffness of large arteries and on wave reflections<sup>1</sup>. These components have not been taken into account in the epidemiologic studies regarding cardiovascular risk in hypertensive patients. </p>
      <p>More recently, several epidemiological studies reported that pulse pressure (PP), the difference between SBP and DBP, is a useful predictor for coronary artery disease or total cardiovascular disease, especially in middle-aged or older persons<sup>2-5</sup>. Pulse pressure arises as a consequence of the episodic nature of cardiac contraction and the structure and function of the arterial circulation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig. 1</xref>)<sup>6</sup>. Thus, while cardiac output and total peripheral resistance adequately describe mean arterial pressure, the origins of PP are more complex. Intrinsically, PP is not explicable by any single, simple model of the circulation. It depends on left ventricle ejection and the properties of the arterial wall, which determine both the distensibility and the transmission characteristics of the arterial system<sup>6</sup>. Loss of arterial elasticity, in the absence of compensatory dilation, will both increrase arterial stiffness and the speed of wave transmission due to the dependence of the latter on vessel wall properties. The latter effect will lead to earlier return of the reflected pressure wave. Hence, the reflected wave superposes earlier during systole, resulting in increased systolic pressure augmentation, thereby also increasing central PP. These characteristics are typically present in elderly persons with isolated systolic hypertension where the arterial stiffness is increased by fissuring and fracturing of the elastin protein, collagen proliferation, and calcium deposition, frequently associated with a widened and torturous aorta<sup>7</sup>. </p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-86-03-0166-00002-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>These determinants of increased arterial stiffness and increased PP seems to be influenced by genetic factors independent of other classical cardiovascular risk factors<sup>8,9</sup>. The most important influence seems to be on the structural and functional properties of the large arteries. It has been previously demonstrated that genetic factors directly influence the structure of the arterial wall or act indirectly through age, blood pressure, smoking, cholesterol levels, and glycemia, finally resulting in an increase in arterial stiffness<sup>9-11</sup>. In this review we discuss the main physiological mechanisms that are involved in the blood pressure configuration along the arterial tree. Thus, we characterize the mechanical properties of large and small arteries and the main determinants of systolic, diastolic and pulse pressure in different arterial sites. These considerations have to be taken into account for future investigation on genetics of hypertension.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>THE BLOOD PRESSURE CURVE ALONG THE ARTERIAL TREE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The aorta takes origin from the left ventricle and almost immediately curves, in a complicated three-dimensional way, giving off branches to the heart, head, and upper and lower limbs<sup>1,12,13</sup>. In general the size of individual branches corresponds well to the amount of flow they conduct, even if there are considerable variations. There is no doubt that, beyond the early branches, the total cross-sectional area of the arterial tree begins to expand dramatically. Whereas total cross-sectional increases, the average diameter is reduced, reflecting the increased number of bifurcations toward arterioles <sup>1,12,13</sup>. </p>
      <p>When along the arterial and the arteriolar tree, the forces governing flow are considered, they are exclusively interested in the pressure generated by the heart. This quantity is the difference between the actual pressure and its hydrostatic component, and is commonly referred to as "blood pressure" (BP). It is the gradient of excess pressure, which drives the flow. The distribution of excess pressure through the circulation, which is illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Figure 2</xref>, is largely dissipated in forcing the blood through the microcirculation. Nevertheless, the cardiac pump is intermittent. </p>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-86-03-0166-00002-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Pressure rises rapidly in the left ventricle at the beginning of the systole, and soon exceeds that in aorta. Thus the aortic valve opens, blood is ejected, and aortic pressure rises. During the early part of the ejection phase, ventricular pressure exceeds aortic pressure. About half way through ejection, the two pressure traces cross, and there is now an adverse pressure gradient across the aortic valve, which is maintained as both pressures start to fall (dichrotic notch)<sup>13</sup>. At this point the pressure in the aorta falls much more slowly than in the ventricle because the large central arteries, and particularly the aorta, are elastic, and thus act as a reservoir during systole, storing some of the ejected blood, which is then forced out into the peripheral vessels during diastole (Windkessel effect) <sup>1,12,13</sup>. Now, if BP is examined at two points on the axis of aorta, it can be seen that the pressure records are almost identical in shape at the two sites, but the one at the downstream point is slightly delayed (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">Fig. 3</xref>). In other words, the pressure pulse generated by ventricular contraction is traveling along the aorta as a wave. It is possible to calculate its velocity (which is pulse wave velocity, PWV) from the delay if the distance between measuring sites is known (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">Fig. 3</xref>).</p>
      <fig id="fig03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-86-03-0166-00002-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>If simultaneous measurements are done at several points all along the aorta, the pressure wave changes shape as it travels down the aorta. It is progressively delayed, but also steeping and increases in amplitude, whilst at the same time losing the sharp dichrotic notch (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Fig. 2</xref>). Thus the paradox is that the systolic blood pressure (SBP) actually increases with distance from the heart. In fact, of course the mean level of the arterial pressure (MAP) falls with distance from the heart (the fall is only about 4 mmHg) along the length of the aorta, whilst the amplitude of the pressure oscillation between systole and diastole, which is pulse pressure (PP) nearly doubles. This process of PP amplification continues in the branches of the aorta out to the level of about the third generation of branches. Thereafter both PP and MAP decrease rapidly to the levels found in the microcirculation where a quasi steady flow is observed (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Fig. 2</xref>). Whereas the macrocirculation is influenced by the concepts of propagation of pressure wave (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Fig. 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">3</xref>), PWV and PP amplification, the microcirculation is influenced by steady flow, as results from the Poiseuille&#146;s law<sup>12</sup>. The pressure gradient is then proportional to the velocity and viscosity of blood, to the length of the arteriolar tree, and mostly inversely proportional to the power four of vascular diameter.</p>
      <p>Several animal studies have examined the hydrostatic pressure profile along the vascular elements between the heart and capillaries. The general consensus is that the BP decrease occurs predominantly in precapillary vessels ranging from 10 to 300 &#181;m (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">Fig. 2</xref>). Conversely, a very high vascular resistance (which represents the mechanical forces opposed to blood flow) builds up abruptly from larger to smaller arteries, over a transitional short length of the path between arteries and veins, causing a dramatic decrease in MAP. The high resistance thus reduces both pulsatile phenomena and steady flow. At the same time, the PP amplitude decreases, resulting in almost completely steady flow through resistance vessels. A further contribution to opposition to flow derives from the reflection of arterial pulsations that cannot enter the high resistance vessels and are summated with pressure waves approaching the area of high resistance. This area of reflection is directly related to the number and the geometrical properties of the arteriolar bifurcations.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>APPLICATIONS TO THE GENETIC ASPECTS OF CLINICAL HYPERTENSION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In traditional reports on genetics of human hypertension, the hypothesis that genetic variability could lead to high BP has been mainly tested on the basis of comparison of mean values of brachial DBP in parents with different genotypes<sup>9,14</sup>. In these studies, the classification of hypertensive subjects was constantly based on a single point of the cyclic BP curve, namely brachial DBP. The results were relatively limited since they excluded brachial SBP and PP, the major predictors of cardiovascular (CV) risk<sup>1</sup>. Furthermore, in humans, central BP, which differs markedly from brachial or radial BP, has never been systematically investigated in the past. As we have shown earlier, the aortic BP curve is the consequence of an interaction between two different components: a steady component, corresponding to MAP, and a pulsatile component, corresponding to PP. Whereas MAP, which is influenced by cardiac output and vascular resistance, refers to small arteries, PP refers to large arteries and is determined by ventricular ejection, the stiffness of large arteries, and finally the amplitude and timing of wave reflections<sup>1,12,13 </sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Fig. 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>Studies of knock-out mice have indicated that the two components of the aortic BP curve may be analyzed separately<sup>15</sup>. Genome-wide linkage analysis of PP have shown the importance of identifying genetic factors in subjects with high<sup>16,17</sup>. Evaluation of the totality of the BP curve, mainly of the aortic BP curve, is necessary for estimation of genetics of hypertension and arterial stiffness, since changes in one of the components may lead to different phenotypes of the BP curve. For instance, from the gene polymorphisms related to the renin-angiotensin system, those related to angiotensinogen rather reflect MAP whereas those related to angiotensin II-AT1 receptors or to angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE D/I) reflect rather PP and arterial stiffness<sup>9,18</sup>.</p>
      <p>One of the most important finding in subjects with hypertension results from recent studies on the ACE I/D gene polymorphism. Staessen et al<sup>18,19</sup> were the first to show that the DD genotype was significantly associated with hypertension, but mostly with isolated systolic hypertension in the elderly. In this population, the DD genotype was associated with increased arterial stiffness, a result observed both in diabetic and non-diabetic subjects, particularly above 50 years of age<sup>10,11</sup>. In old hypertensive subjects, those with DD genotype have an accelerated increase of PP with age, as a consequence of an accelerated lowering of DBP with age, and not of an accelerated increase of SBP with age<sup>10,11</sup>. Furthermore, in old subjects with systolic hypertension, recent research suggests that the combination of 2 or 3 specific gene polymorphism (ACE, aldosterone synthase and alpha-adducin gene polymorphisms) affect vessel wall mechanical properties more profoundly than a simple gene polymorphism<sup>9,18,19</sup>. Also, other polymorphisms have been associated to increased arterial stiffness and vascular hypertrophy, as those related to elastin and G protein genes<sup>20,21</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS AND PERSPECTIVES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The present considerations indicate that the phenotypes of BP curve vary greatly from larger to smaller arteries and that age may greatly accentuate the differences between such phenotypes. This simple observation clearly shows that the traditional genetic descriptions obtained in hypertensive humans from two points of the BP curve, SBP and DBP, are oversimplified. </p>
      <p>Further evidences for these finding result from non-invasive pulse wave analysis which has recently highlighted the role of PWV and wave reflections as independent factors of CV risk in subjects with hypertension<sup>22-25</sup>. Age influences greatly all these modifications and tends to increase PP more rapidly in the central than in the distal compartment of the arterial tree, resulting in an age-dependent reduction of PP amplification. This age-dependent reduction has been shown also to be an independent predictor of CV mortality in hypertensive subjects<sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>In summary, this description has shown that, in the CV system, elastic arteries buffer the pulsations, muscular arteries actively alter propagation velocity and arterioles serve as major reflection sites to amplify BP changes. Any disturbance of such alterations may cause a predominant or selective increase of SBP and PP as observed in aged and/or hypertensive populations with high CV risk. Consequences of this knowledge on the genetics of hypertension should have to be taken into consideration in the future.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>REFERENCES </bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Safar ME, Levy BI, Struijker-Boudier H. Current perspectives on arterial stiffness and pulse pressure in hypertension and cardiovascular diseases. Circulation 2003; 107: 2864-9.</p>
      <p>2. Benetos A, Safar M, Rudnichi A et al. Pulse pressure: a predictor of long-term cardiovascular mortality in a French male population. Hypertension 1997; 30: 1410-5.</p>
      <p>3. Chae CU, Pfeffer MA, Glynn RJ, Mitchell GF, Taylor JO, Hennekens CH. Increased pulse pressure and risk of heart failure in the elderly. JAMA 1999; 281: 634-9.</p>
      <p>4. Dyer AR, Stamler J, Shekelle RB et al. Pulse pressure-III. Prognostic significance in four Chicago epidemiologic studies. J Chronic Dis 1982; 35: 283-94.</p>
      <p>5. Franklin SS, Gustin Wt, Wong ND et al. Hemodynamic patterns of age-related changes in blood pressure. The Framingham Heart Study. Circulation 1997; 96: 308-15.</p>
      <p>6. Dart AM, Kingwell BA. Pulse pressure - a review of mechanisms and clinical relevance. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001; 37: 975-84.</p>
      <p>7. Franklin SS. Arterial stiffness and hypertension: a two-way street? Hypertension 2005; 45: 349-51.</p>
      <p>8. North KE, MacCluer JW, Devereux RB et al. Heritability of carotid artery structure and function: the Strong Heart Family Study. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2002; 22: 1698-703.</p>
      <p>9. Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Lacolley P. Structural and genetic bases of arterial stiffness. Hypertension 2005; 45: 1050-5.</p>
      <p>10. Rudnichi A, Safar ME, Lajemi M, Benetos A. Gene polymorphisms of the renin-angiotensin system and age-related changes in systolic and diastolic blood pressure in subjects with hypertension. Am J Hypertens 2004; 17: 321-7.</p>
      <p>11. Safar ME, Lajemi M, Rudnichi A, Asmar R, Benetos A. Angiotensin-converting enzyme D/I gene polymorphism and age-related changes in pulse pressure in subjects with hypertension. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2004; 24: 782-6.</p>
      <p>12. Nichols WW, O&#146;Rourke M. McDonald's blood floww in arteries. Theoretical, experimental and clinical principles<italic>.</italic> 4th ed. London: Arnold E; 1998.</p>
      <p>13. Caro CG, Pedley TJ, Schroter RC, Seed WA. The mechanics of the circulation. New York: Oxford University Press; 1978.</p>
      <p>14. Luft FC. Molecular genetics of human hypertension. J Hypertens 1998; 16: 1871-8.</p>
      <p>15. Lacolley P, Challande P, Boumaza S et al. Mechanical properties and structure of carotid arteries in mice lacking desmin. Cardiovasc Res 2001; 51: 178-87.</p>
      <p>16. Camp NJ, Hopkins PN, Hasstedt SJ et al. Genome-wide multipoint parametric linkage analysis of pulse pressure in large, extended utah pedigrees. Hypertension 2003; 42: 322-8.</p>
      <p>17. DeStefano AL, Larson MG, Mitchell GF et al. Genome-wide scan for pulse pressure in the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute&#146;s Framingham Heart Study. Hypertension 2004; 44: 152-5.</p>
      <p>18. Staessen JA, Wang JG, Ginocchio G et al. The deletion/insertion polymorphism of the angiotensin converting enzyme gene and cardiovascular-renal risk. J Hypertens 1997; 15: 1579-92.</p>
      <p>19. Staessen JA, Wang JG, Brand E et al. Effects of three candidate genes on prevalence and incidence of hypertension in a Caucasian population. J Hypertens 2001; 19: 1349-58.</p>
      <p>20. Hanon O, Luong V, Mourad JJ, Bortolotto LA, Jeunemaitre X, Girerd X. Aging, carotid artery distensibility, and the Ser422Gly elastin gene polymorphism in humans. Hypertension 2001; 38: 1185-9.</p>
      <p>21. Hanon O, Luong V, Mourad JJ, Bortolotto LA, Safar M, Girerd X. Association between the G protein beta3 subunit 825t allele and radial artery hypertrophy. J Vasc Res 2002; 39: 497-503.</p>
      <p>22. Blacher J, Guerin AP, Pannier B, Marchais SJ, Safar ME, London GM. Impact of aortic stiffness on survival in end-stage renal disease. Circulation 1999; 99: 2434-9.</p>
      <p>23. Laurent S, Boutouyrie P, Asmar R et al. Aortic stiffness is an independent predictor of all-cause and cardiovascular mortality in hypertensive patients. Hypertension 2001; 37: 1236-41.</p>
      <p>24. London GM, Blacher J, Pannier B, Guerin AP, Marchais SJ, Safar ME. Arterial wave reflections and survival in end-stage renal failure. Hypertension 2001; 38: 434-8.</p>
      <p>25. Meaume S, Rudnichi A, Lynch A et al. Aortic pulse wave velocity as a marker of cardiovascular disease in subjects over 70 years old. J Hypertens 2001; 19: 871-7.</p>
      <p>26. Safar ME, Blacher J, Pannier B et al. Central pulse pressure and mortality in end-stage renal disease. Hypertension 2002; 39: 735-8.</p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Mailing Address:</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Luiz Aparecido Bortolotto</p>
          <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44</p>
          <p> 05403-000 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p><email xlink:href="luizab@cardiol.br">luizab@cardiol.br</email>/ </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="hipluiz@incor.usp.br">hipluiz@incor.usp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received on 06/30/05</p>
      <p> Accepted on 07/01/05</p>
      <p>17. DeStefano AL, Larson MG, Mitchell GF et al. Genome-wide scan for pulse pressure in the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute&#146;s Framingham Heart Study. Hypertension 2004; 44: 152-5.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
