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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">GkVdXdtWz6pHtkvzNkyTXKB</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2005002200001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(05)08500001</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2005002200001</article-id>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>I Diretriz Latino-Americana para avalia&#231;&#227;o e conduta na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bocchi</surname>
            <given-names>Edimar Alcides</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vilas-Boas</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Perrone</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Caama&#241;o</surname>
            <given-names>Angel G</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Clausell</surname>
            <given-names>Nadine</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Maria da Consola&#231;&#227;o V</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Thierer</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Grancelli</surname>
            <given-names>Hugo Omar</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Serrano Junior</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Vicente</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Albuquerque</surname>
            <given-names>Denilson</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Dirceu</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bacal</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Felipe</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mendonza</surname>
            <given-names>Adonay</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Maga&#241;a</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tejeda</surname>
            <given-names>Arturo</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chafes</surname>
            <given-names>Daniel</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gomez</surname>
            <given-names>Efraim</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bogantes</surname>
            <given-names>Erick</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azeka</surname>
            <given-names>Estela</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Reis</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Jos&#233; Farias B</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Mora</surname>
            <given-names>Hector</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vilacorta</surname>
            <given-names>Humberto</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sanches</surname>
            <given-names>Jesus</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Souza Neto</surname>
            <given-names>David de</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vuksovic</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Lu&#237;s</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paes Moreno</surname>
            <given-names>Juan</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aspe y Rosas</surname>
            <given-names>J&#250;lio</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moura</surname>
            <given-names>Lidia Zytynski</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campos</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Antonio de Almeida</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rohde</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Parioma Javier</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Garrido Gardu&#241;o</surname>
            <given-names>Martin</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tavares</surname>
            <given-names>M&#250;cio</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castro G&#225;lvez</surname>
            <given-names>Pablo</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Spinoza</surname>
            <given-names>Raul</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Miranda</surname>
            <given-names>Reynaldo Castro de</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rocha</surname>
            <given-names>Ricardo Mourilhe</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paganini</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Guerra</surname>
            <given-names>Rodolfo Castano</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Rassi</surname>
            <given-names>Salvador</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lagudis</surname>
            <given-names>Sofia</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Bordignon</surname>
            <given-names>Solange</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Navarette</surname>
            <given-names>Solon</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Waldo</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barretto</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Carlos Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Issa</surname>
            <given-names>Victor</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Guimar&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>Jorge Ilha</given-names>
          </name>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>85</volume>
      <issue>suppl 3</issue>
      <fpage>1</fpage>
      <lpage>48</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>I Diretriz Latino-Americana para avalia&#231;&#227;o e conduta na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Edimar Alcides Bocchi; F&#225;bio Vilas-Boas; Sergio Perrone; Angel G Caama&#241;o; Nadine Clausell; Maria da Consola&#231;&#227;o V Moreira; Jorge Thierer; Hugo Omar Grancelli; Carlos Vicente Serrano Junior; Denilson Albuquerque; Dirceu Almeida; Fernando Bacal; Lu&#237;s Felipe Moreira; Adonay Mendonza; Antonio Maga&#241;a; Arturo Tejeda; Daniel Chafes; Efraim Gomez; Erick Bogantes; Estela Azeka; Evandro Tinoco Mesquita; Francisco Jos&#233; Farias B Reis; Hector Mora; Humberto Vilacorta; Jesus Sanches; Jo&#227;o David de Souza Neto; Jos&#233; Lu&#237;s Vuksovic; Juan Paes Moreno; J&#250;lio Aspe y Rosas; Lidia Zytynski Moura; Lu&#237;s Antonio de Almeida Campos; Luis Eduardo Rohde; Marcos Parioma Javier; Martin Garrido Gardu&#241;o; M&#250;cio Tavares; Pablo Castro G&#225;lvez; Raul Spinoza; Reynaldo Castro de Miranda; Ricardo Mourilhe Rocha; Roberto Paganini; Rodolfo Castano Guerra; Salvador Rassi; Sofia Lagudis; Solange Bordignon; Solon Navarette; Waldo Fernandes; Antonio Carlos Pereira Barretto; Victor Issa; Jorge Ilha Guimar&#227;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Institui&#231;&#245;es: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, Federaci&#243;n Argentina de Cardiologia, Sociedade Argentina de Cardiologia, Sociedade Chilena de Cardiologia, Associaci&#243;n Costarriquense de Cardiologia, Sociedade Colombiana de Cardiologia, Sociedade Equatoriana de Cardiologia, Associaci&#243;n Guatemalteca de Cardiologia, Sociedade Peruana de Cardiologia, Sociedade Uruguaia de Cardiologia, Sociedade Venezuelana de Cardiologia, Sociedade Mexicana de Cardiologia, Sociedade Mexicana de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca, Sociedade Interamericana de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Introdu&#231;&#227;o </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Raz&#245;es para a I Diretriz Latino-Americana de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Descompensada - ICD</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; uma s&#237;ndrome end&#234;mica em todo o mundo, que pode se manifestar como doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica est&#225;vel ou descompensada. De acordo com a I Diretriz Latino-Americana de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Descompensada, a ICD pode ser aguda (de recente come&#231;o), descompensada propriamende dita (com instabiliza&#231;&#227;o de um quadro cr&#244;nico), ou refrat&#225;ria, persistente. &#201; justamente a ICD a principal causa de interna&#231;&#227;o nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos. No Brasil, trata-se da terceira causa geral de interna&#231;&#227;o e a primeira cardiovascular, apresentando alta mortalidade. </p>
    <p>Uma vez que, geralmente, os pacientes manifestam a forma descompensada da IC, antes de IC progressiva, que &#233; raz&#227;o importante de &#243;bito, o grande desafio no tratamento da ICD &#233; a preven&#231;&#227;o da morte e melhora da qualidade de vida. Para este tratamento, o cardiologista deve utilizar as melhores evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis. Entretanto, como pode ser facilmente notado nesta Diretriz, as evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis, na maioria das vezes, s&#227;o de grau C ou D, insatisfat&#243;rias para embasar melhores decis&#245;es. Assim, diante das limitadas evid&#234;ncias, a reuni&#227;o de opini&#245;es de cardiologistas considerados autoridades na &#225;rea tem papel fundamental no aux&#237;lio dos m&#233;dicos que assistem pacientes com ICD. Por sua vez, a participa&#231;&#227;o de cardiologistas de toda a Am&#233;rica Latina constitui oportunidade &#250;nica de incluir conhecimentos de especialistas de diferentes &#225;reas geogr&#225;ficas, com padr&#245;es culturais e sociais nem sempre semelhantes, o que possibilitar&#225; a aplica&#231;&#227;o da I Diretriz para toda a regi&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Dessa forma, a disponibilidade desta I Diretriz Latino-Americana de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Descompensada, resultante do trabalho conjunto da maioria das sociedades latino-americanas e de uma revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica da avalia&#231;&#227;o e tratamento da ICD, auxiliar&#225; aqueles que enfrentam o desafio de condutas e tratamento desta s&#237;ndrome t&#227;o grave quanto freq&#252;ente.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Participantes e desenho da I Diretriz Latino-Americana de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca Descompensada</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O Grupo de Estudos de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (GEIC), atrav&#233;s da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia, solicitou &#224;s Sociedades Latino-Americanas que seus representantes fossem especialistas em insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, quer em pesquisa ou assist&#234;ncia. Houve sugest&#245;es de nomes, mas a decis&#227;o final coube a cada Sociedade. Seguindo o programa que incluiu itens fundamentais em ICD, um texto pr&#233;vio foi preparado por integrantes do GEIC e distribu&#237;do a cada participante para modifica&#231;&#245;es. Um encontro definitivo foi realizado, no qual, numa fase inicial, cada participante integrou um grupo que elaborou um cap&#237;tulo ou parte. Cada texto resultante foi a debate em reuni&#227;o conjunta com todos os participantes e votado com sigilo individual preservado. Assim, de "consenso" e vota&#231;&#227;o surgiu o documento oficial aqui apresentado. Acredita-se que este desenho permitiu uma Diretriz com conclus&#245;es os mais independentes poss&#237;veis. Aquelas poucas Sociedades que n&#227;o puderam enviar a tempo seus representantes para o encontro final, revisaram o documento, posteriormente, e demonstraram sua concord&#226;ncia. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Edimar Alcides Bocchi </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Classifica&#231;&#227;o dos Graus de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o e N&#237;veis de Evid&#234;ncia </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Graus de Recomenda&#231;&#227;o:</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Classe I: Evid&#234;ncias e/ou concord&#226;ncia geral de que o procedimento &#233; ben&#233;fico e efetivo. </p>
    <p>Classe II: Evid&#234;ncias conflitantes e/ou divergentes sobre a utilidade e efic&#225;cia do procedimento ou tratamento. </p>
    <p> IIa: Evid&#234;ncias e opini&#245;es favorecem a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do procedimento ou tratamento. </p>
    <p> IIb: Evid&#234;ncias e opini&#245;es n&#227;o suportam adequadamente a utiliza&#231;&#227;o ou efic&#225;cia do procedimento ou tratamento. </p>
    <p>Classe III: Evid&#234;ncias e/ou concord&#226;ncias de que o procedimento ou tratamento n&#227;o &#233; ben&#233;fico, podendo ser delet&#233;rio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>N&#237;veis de Evid&#234;ncia:</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A: Dados obtidos a partir de v&#225;rios ensaios randomizados ou de meta-an&#225;lise de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados. </p>
    <p>B: Dados obtidos de um &#250;nico ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado, ou de v&#225;rios estudos n&#227;o randomizados. </p>
    <p>C: Dados obtidos de estudos que inclu&#237;ram s&#233;rie de casos. </p>
    <p>D: Dados obtidos de opini&#245;es consensuais de especialistas no assunto.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>I. Import&#226;ncia epidemiol&#243;gica da ICD</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) &#233; uma doen&#231;a de preval&#234;ncia e incid&#234;ncia elevada em praticamente todo o mundo. Nos Estados Unidos s&#227;o diagnosticados cerca de 400.000 novos casos anualmente<sup>1</sup>. Dados do estudo de Framinghan demonstram que a incid&#234;ncia de IC aumenta progressivamente em ambos os sexos de acordo com a idade, atingindo mais de 10 casos novos anuais por 1.000 septuagen&#225;rios e 25 casos novos anuais por 1.000 octogen&#225;rios<sup>2</sup>. A intera&#231;&#227;o entre idade e surgimento de IC tamb&#233;m foi demonstrada em estudos de preval&#234;ncia de diversos pa&#237;ses europeus<sup>3</sup>. A ICD &#233; a causa isolada mais freq&#252;ente de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o na popula&#231;&#227;o idosa, um fen&#244;meno que tem se acentuado progressivamente. Altas hospitalares com diagn&#243;stico final de IC, por exemplo, cresceram de 377.000, em 1979, para 999.000, em 2000, um incremento absoluto de 164%. </p>
    <p>No Brasil, as admiss&#245;es hospitalares por IC representaram aproximadamente 4% de todas as hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es e 31% das interna&#231;&#245;es do aparelho circulat&#243;rio no ano de 2002<sup>4</sup>. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela I</xref> ilustra dados relativos &#224;s admiss&#245;es por IC em hospitais p&#250;blicos brasileiros nos &#250;ltimos 3 anos.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>A. Morbidade e mortalidade</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a primeira hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por ICD, a taxa de readmiss&#245;es em salas de emerg&#234;ncia e hospitais &#233; particularmente elevada, podendo representar a progress&#227;o inevit&#225;vel da s&#237;ndrome e/ou, possivelmente, alta hospitalar precoce. Entre pacientes norte-americanos com mais de 70 anos, por exemplo, aproximadamente 60% s&#227;o readmitidos em 90 dias<sup>5</sup>. Uma compara&#231;&#227;o internacional, envolvendo dois registros hospitalares de pacientes internados por IC, no Brasil e nos Estados Unidos, demonstra taxas de readmiss&#227;o, em 90 dias, de 36% e 51%, respectivamente<sup>6</sup>. </p>
    <p>Diversos estudos internacionais buscaram identificar fatores associados com readmiss&#245;es ap&#243;s hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IC<sup>7</sup>. Embora os resultados n&#227;o sejam consensuais, as caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas preditoras de reinterna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar mais freq&#252;entes na literatura est&#227;o descritas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tabela II</xref>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Em aproximadamente 30-40% dos casos, entretanto, n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel identificar o motivo da descompensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica ou fatores que predisponham a hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o<sup>8</sup>. Dados brasileiros sugerem que existem diferen&#231;as importantes na etiologia, nos fatores de descompensa&#231;&#227;o, no tratamento e no progn&#243;stico de pacientes com IC nas diferentes regi&#245;es brasileiras<sup>9,10</sup>. </p>
    <p>Nos Estados Unidos, a taxa geral de mortalidade por IC, em 2000, foi de 18,7 por 10.0000 habitantes, tendo ocorrido um total de 262.300 &#243;bitos. Baseada em dados de seguimento de 44 anos, a mortalidade em 1 ano se aproxima de 20%, estimando-se que, ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico, menos de 15% dos pacientes estar&#227;o vivos em 8-12 anos. No Brasil, a mortalidade intra-hospitalar por IC em hospitais do SUS variou de 5,6% a 6,0% nos &#250;ltimos 3 anos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tab. I</xref>). Dados internacionais demonstram grande varia&#231;&#227;o entre diferentes tipos de institui&#231;&#245;es nos &#237;ndices de fatalidade intra-hospitalar (entre 8,5% at&#233; 23,1%)<sup>11</sup>, possivelmente atribu&#237;vel a diferen&#231;as substanciais nas caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e de tratamento de cada popula&#231;&#227;o estudada. Alguns dados tamb&#233;m demonstram tend&#234;ncia temporal na redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade intra-hospitalar<sup>12</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>B. Custos e custo-efetividade </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A maioria das interven&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas na IC (retirada de digoxina, uso de hidralazina/nitrato, de inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina e de betabloqueadores) demonstrou rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade favor&#225;veis dentro de par&#226;metros internacionalmente aceitos<sup>13</sup>. No estudo SOLVD, por exemplo, o tratamento com enalapril economizou U$ 717 por paciente tratado e custou apenas U$115 por ano de vida salvo, ajustado para a qualidade de vida (QALY)<sup>14</sup> Uma an&#225;lise econ&#244;mica inicial do estudo LIDO sugere que o uso de levosimendan, para pacientes com IC hospitalizados com sinais de baixo-d&#233;bito, implica um custo adicional por ano de vida salvo relativamente pequeno, quando comparado com o uso de dobutamina<sup>15</sup>. </p>
    <p>Estrat&#233;gias de interven&#231;&#227;o multidisciplinar se mostraram eficazes na redu&#231;&#227;o de readmiss&#245;es 90 dias ap&#243;s alta hospitalar, al&#233;m de diminuir, significativamente, os custos, quando comparadas ao tratamento convencional<sup>16</sup>. Abordagens multidisciplinares envolvendo acompanhamento de pacientes com IC em hospital-dia tamb&#233;m se mostraram custo-efetivas<sup>17</sup>. Por fim, poucos estudos avaliaram rela&#231;&#245;es de custo-efetividade de dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular ou de transplante card&#237;aco. Um estudo publicado h&#225; mais de 15 anos sugere que o transplante card&#237;aco custe U$ 44,300.00 por ano de vida salvo<sup>14</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>II. Defini&#231;&#227;o de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada (ICD) &#233; definida como a s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica na qual uma altera&#231;&#227;o estrutural ou funcional do cora&#231;&#227;o leva &#224; incapacidade do cora&#231;&#227;o de ejetar e/ou acomodar sangue dentro de valores press&#243;ricos fisiol&#243;gicos, causando limita&#231;&#227;o funcional e necessitando interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica imediata. Esse quadro pode se apresentar de forma aguda ou como exacerba&#231;&#227;o de quadros cr&#244;nicos, podendo ser assim classificado para facilitar a nomenclatura e integrar os objetivos terap&#234;uticos espec&#237;ficos de cada tipo de apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica<sup>18</sup>. </p>
    <p><bold>A. insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda</bold> (sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio) - corresponde &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica na qual uma determinada agress&#227;o leva ao desencadeamento da s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes sem sinais e sintomas pr&#233;vios de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que exemplificam este quadro incluem infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, com ou sem complica&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas, e miocardite aguda. Corresponde &#224; minoria dos casos de interna&#231;&#227;o por ICD. </p>
    <p><bold>B. insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica descompensada (exacerba&#231;&#227;o aguda de quadro cr&#244;nico)</bold> - corresponde &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica na qual ocorre exacerba&#231;&#227;o aguda ou gradual de sinais e sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em repouso, em pacientes com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, requerendo interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica adicional e imediata. A imensa maioria dos pacientes apresenta sinais ou sintomas de congest&#227;o, mais ou menos evidentes clinicamente, mas de magnitude relevante o suficiente para limitar de forma incapacitante a realiza&#231;&#227;o de atividade f&#237;sica. Esta apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica representa, de longe, a causa mais importante de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por ICD. </p>
    <p><bold>C. insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica refrat&#225;ria (baixo d&#233;bito cr&#244;nico, associada ou n&#227;o a graus diversos de congest&#227;o)</bold> &#150; corresponde &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica na qual pacientes com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio conhecido de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca se apresentam com quadro de baixo d&#233;bito e/ou congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica e/ou limita&#231;&#227;o funcional persistente, refrat&#225;rio ao melhor tratamento cl&#237;nico poss&#237;vel. </p>
    <p><bold>D. edema agudo de pulm&#227;o</bold> - corresponde &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica na qual ocorre aumento abrupto de press&#227;o capilar pulmonar, levando a aumento de l&#237;quido no espa&#231;o intersticial e alveolar pulmonar, causando dispn&#233;ia s&#250;bita e intensa em repouso. Contrariamente ao observado nas exacerba&#231;&#245;es da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica, esta situa&#231;&#227;o ocorre mais comumente em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica preservada ou levemente deprimida. &#201; mais freq&#252;ente em pacientes idosos, hipertensos e diab&#233;ticos. </p>
    <p><bold>E. disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada</bold> - corresponde &#224; situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica na qual ocorrem sinais e sintomas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca devidos a dist&#250;rbio no enchimento ventricular, por marcada redu&#231;&#227;o da distensibilidade ventricular e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada no repouso. Nela se enquadram os pacientes com cardiopatia hipertensiva ou hipertr&#243;fica, sendo os ventr&#237;culos, geralmente, n&#227;o dilatados. Dados dispon&#237;veis indicam que, aproximadamente, 40% dos casos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca apresentam este padr&#227;o de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>19</sup>. </p>
    <p>A not&#243;ria dificuldade em definir e classificar os quadros de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada, em parte, dificulta a padroniza&#231;&#227;o do limitado arsenal terap&#234;utico dispon&#237;vel, contribuindo para os pobres resultados relacionados ao seu manejo, com altas taxas de morbidade e mortalidade. A combina&#231;&#227;o da dificuldade de classifica&#231;&#227;o ou de nomenclatura com a heterogeneidade das popula&#231;&#245;es envolvidas e as controv&#233;rsias sobre os objetivos terap&#234;uticos a serem atingidos (al&#237;vio de sintomas e/ou melhora da sobrevida) tamb&#233;m contribui para a dificuldade do manejo destes pacientes<sup>5,20</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>III. Etiologia e fisiopatologia da ICD</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>A. ICD devida &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A causa mais comum de ICD, na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, &#233; a redu&#231;&#227;o da contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica, freq&#252;entemente associada &#224; cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, miocardiopatia dilatada idiop&#225;tica, hipertensiva, ou doen&#231;a de Chagas. Tamb&#233;m s&#227;o causas de ICD as condi&#231;&#245;es nas quais o cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; submetido &#224; sobrecarga hemodin&#226;mica (sobrecarga de volume ou de press&#227;o), dist&#250;rbios de freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ou condi&#231;&#245;es que interfiram com o enchimento ventricular. Na maioria das formas de ICD, a inapropriada perfus&#227;o tecidual &#233; conseq&#252;ente &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco (DC). A ICD tamb&#233;m pode ser caracterizada como uma s&#237;ndrome multissist&#234;mica, ocorrendo anormalidades da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, muscular esquel&#233;tica, da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e metab&#243;lica, associada &#224; elevada estimula&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e um complexo padr&#227;o de altera&#231;&#245;es neuro-humorais e inflamat&#243;rias<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>A fisiopatologia da ICD marca seu in&#237;cio a partir de um dano mioc&#225;rdico prim&#225;rio que gera disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Esta disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular deflagra mecanismos adaptativos associados &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-humoral, gerando altera&#231;&#245;es na forma e efici&#234;ncia mec&#226;nica do cora&#231;&#227;o (remodelamento ventricular) e altera&#231;&#245;es perif&#233;ricas circulat&#243;rias, havendo tamb&#233;m danos secund&#225;rios devido a aumento do estresse oxidativo, inflama&#231;&#227;o e morte celular (apoptose). A s&#237;ndrome de ICC pode evoluir de um est&#225;gio compensado, assintom&#225;tico, at&#233; formas mais avan&#231;adas, ocasionando a ICD. Diversos determinantes contribuem para o desempenho da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, e alguns ou v&#225;rios est&#227;o comprometidos no desenvolvimento da descompensa&#231;&#227;o da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, conforme o mecanismo de dano principal e a evolu&#231;&#227;o temporal. </p>
    <p>Os dist&#250;rbios hemodin&#226;micos inicialmente deflagrados na ICD se associam a altera&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas neuro-humorais (sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona, sistema simp&#225;tico, pept&#237;deos vasomotores como endotelina-1 e &#243;xido n&#237;trico), com repercuss&#245;es em n&#237;vel tecidual card&#237;aco, em que a a&#231;&#227;o destes fatores leva &#224; apoptose de mi&#243;citos e a altera&#231;&#245;es na estrutura card&#237;aca (matriz extracelular), caracterizando o remodelamento ventricular. Al&#233;m disto, h&#225; reconhecida atividade inflamat&#243;ria associada com a progress&#227;o da IC, na qual citocinas desempenham pap&#233;is importantes<sup>21</sup>. As citocinas pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rias vasodepressoras (TNF-alfa, interleucina-6 e interleucina-1 beta) parecem ser as mais importantes neste processo<sup>22</sup>. Por outro lado, elementos protetores (vasodilatadores e diur&#233;ticos), como os pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos, a bradicinina e algumas prostaciclinas, encontram-se aumentados na IC<sup>23,24</sup>. Em quadros de descompensa&#231;&#227;o de IC, h&#225; ind&#237;cios de maior ativa&#231;&#227;o de alguns destes sistemas, por exemplo, n&#237;veis de catecolaminas e citocinas aumentam de forma significativa.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>B. ICD devida &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular diast&#243;lica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dentro desta categoria, encontram-se aqueles casos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada. A despeito de uma importante lacuna de estudos envolvendo esse tipo de apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, dados epidemiol&#243;gicos sugerem que, aproximadamente, 40% dos casos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca se incluem nessa categoria. Dois tipos de dist&#250;rbios dividem os mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos mais importantes na disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica: altera&#231;&#227;o no relaxamento ou complac&#234;ncia ventricular, embora a concomit&#226;ncia desses fen&#244;menos talvez componha o cen&#225;rio mais comum. </p>
    <p><bold>1. Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular diast&#243;lica predominantemente secund&#225;ria a dist&#250;rbios do relaxamento &#150;</bold> Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica por diminui&#231;&#227;o da fase de relaxamento diast&#243;lico ocorre quando h&#225; assincronia ventricular, aumento de p&#243;s-carga, atraso do processo de t&#233;rmino da contra&#231;&#227;o (dist&#250;rbios de recapta&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio para o ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico) e isquemia, j&#225; que este &#233; um processo ativo que requer gasto de ATP. Exemplos em que este tipo de altera&#231;&#227;o &#233; predominante s&#227;o cardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica, hipertrofia ventricular conseq&#252;ente &#224; estenose a&#243;rtica e &#224; cardiopatia hipertensiva e isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. </p>
    <p><bold>2. Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular diast&#243;lica predominantemente secund&#225;ria &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia &#150;</bold> Tr&#234;s mecanismos b&#225;sicos contribuem para reduzir a complac&#234;ncia ventricular, alterando as propriedades diast&#243;licas dos ventr&#237;culos: 1) aumento das press&#245;es de enchimento (sobrecarga de volume &#150; insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica ou mitral); 2) aumento da rigidez mioc&#225;rdica propriamente dita (processos infiltrativos &#150; amiloidose, endomiocardiofibrose, ou isquemia mioc&#225;rdica); 3) compress&#227;o extr&#237;nseca do ventr&#237;culo (tamponamento peric&#225;rdico, pericardite constritiva). </p>
    <p>Finalmente, no contexto da miocardiopatia dilatada, h&#225; um componente de disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, mesmo com comprometimento sist&#243;lico avan&#231;ado. Esse &#233; um padr&#227;o do tipo restritivo com baixa complac&#234;ncia. Verificado em associa&#231;&#227;o com grandes aumentos de volumes ventriculares<sup>25</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>C. Edema pulmonar agudo cardiog&#234;nico </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Neste quadro, o aumento s&#250;bito das press&#245;es de enchimento por redu&#231;&#227;o da complac&#234;ncia ventricular ou hipervolemia importante leva a aumento da press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica capilar, causando edema pulmonar<sup>26</sup>. Entretanto, em situa&#231;&#245;es de IC cr&#244;nica, mecanismos adaptativos poder&#227;o estar operando h&#225; mais tempo, permitindo acomoda&#231;&#227;o de aumentos de volemia cronicamente e evitando edema pulmonar agudo. Portanto, no edema agudo de pulm&#227;o pode n&#227;o haver cardiomegalia, predominando o comprometimento diast&#243;lico, com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada ou levemente comprometida. Exemplos deste tipo de quadro s&#227;o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio e crise hipertensiva.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>IV. Avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e laboratorial da ICD </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>A. Avalia&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria dos pacientes com ICD</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na abordagem cl&#237;nica inicial de um paciente com suspeita de ICD, &#233; necess&#225;rio que o m&#233;dico conhe&#231;a as formas cl&#237;nicas da ICD e hist&#243;ria natural. Durante o curso evolutivo do paciente portador de IC cr&#244;nica, tr&#234;s padr&#245;es cl&#237;nicos caracter&#237;sticos podem ser observados: 1 - a fase cr&#244;nica, durante a qual os sintomas do paciente s&#227;o est&#225;veis ou de progress&#227;o lenta; 2 - a fase de r&#225;pida piora, por descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda ou exacerba&#231;&#227;o, a qual pode ocorrer v&#225;rias vezes durante a hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a e, freq&#252;entemente, requer hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o; 3 - a fase terminal ou refrat&#225;ria, que responde mal ao tratamento medicamentoso e acarreta uma qualidade de vida muito ruim<sup>27</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com ICD </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O paciente com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada se apresenta, habitualmente, com dispn&#233;ia e/ou sinais de hipoperfus&#227;o perif&#233;rica e/ou de congest&#227;o de diversas magnitudes<sup>28,29</sup>. </p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial deve determinar se &#233; uma insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda secund&#225;ria a dano mioc&#225;rdio recente ou cr&#244;nica descompensada. Esta diferencia&#231;&#227;o &#233; importante, pois determina condutas diagn&#243;sticas e terap&#234;uticas distintas e implica progn&#243;stico diferente. </p>
    <p>As <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tabelas III</xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab04">IV</xref> descrevem as principais caracter&#237;sticas diferenciais presentes em pacientes com IC aguda versus IC cr&#244;nica descompensada e IC sist&#243;lica versus IC diast&#243;lica<sup>30, 31</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab04"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e01.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Identifica&#231;&#227;o das causas e fatores precipitantes da ICD </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A identifica&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da ICD &#233; relevante, pois esta pode ser potencialmente revers&#237;vel, principalmente em pacientes com IC aguda. Tamb&#233;m o progn&#243;stico pode ser pior em algumas etiologias como na miocardiopatia chag&#225;sica. Por exemplo: s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas, miocardites, disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar aguda, emerg&#234;ncias hipertensivas, bradi e taquiarritmias e tamponamento card&#237;aco. </p>
    <p>Em pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica descompensada, al&#233;m das etiologias hipertensiva, isqu&#234;mica e valvar, est&#227;o tamb&#233;m presentes as miocardiopatias, particularmente chag&#225;sica, idiop&#225;tica, hipertr&#243;fica, restritiva.e alco&#243;lica. Neste grupo, a busca de fatores de descompensa&#231;&#227;o &#233; fundamental na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, pois, na maioria dos pacientes, eles podem ser identificados e corrigidos, prevenindo novas interna&#231;&#245;es<sup>32</sup>. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab05">tabela V</xref>).</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab05">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da volemia e da perfus&#227;o perif&#233;rica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A defini&#231;&#227;o do perfil cl&#237;nico/hemodin&#226;mico do paciente &#233; uma sistematiza&#231;&#227;o utilizada na abordagem dos pacientes com IC e pode ter import&#226;ncia no tratamento inicial, principalmente sem monitora&#231;&#227;o invasiva dispon&#237;vel. Os pacientes podem ser divididos em 4 subgrupos dependendo da presen&#231;a de congest&#227;o/edema e da qualidade da perfus&#227;o perif&#233;rica<sup>29</sup>: a) congest&#227;o pulmonar sem sinais de hipoperfus&#227;o (paciente &#250;mido e quente); b) congest&#227;o pulmonar e sinais de hipoperfus&#227;o (paciente &#250;mido e frio); c) hipoperfus&#227;o, sem congest&#227;o pulmonar (paciente frio e seco); d) sem congest&#227;o pulmonar e sem hipoperfus&#227;o (paciente seco e quente). Os 3 primeiros subgrupos constituem os pacientes descompensados e o &#250;ltimo engloba os compensados. A avalia&#231;&#227;o do perfil hemodin&#226;mico nesses subgrupos pode ser estabelecida com maior precis&#227;o, quando indicada, atrav&#233;s da monitora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica invasiva.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>B. Avalia&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria dos pacientes com ICD</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Logo ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial, procede-se &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria, que busca identificar altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais card&#237;acas e laboratoriais, as quais podem ter impacto nas condutas terap&#234;uticas. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial e identifica&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades estruturais</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os exames laboratoriais b&#225;sicos<sup>33,34</sup>, como hemograma, glicemia, ur&#233;ia, creatinina, eletr&#243;litos e an&#225;lise de urina, s&#227;o m&#233;todos simples que auxiliam na observa&#231;&#227;o da gravidade da ICD e da presen&#231;a de co-morbidades que podem ter desencadeado a descompensa&#231;&#227;o. As dosagens seriadas de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica, al&#233;m de enzimas hep&#225;ticas, TSH (na aus&#234;ncia de etiologia definida para a IC e na suspeita de doen&#231;a tireoidiana associada), sorologia para v&#237;rus cardiotr&#243;picos, TTPa e RNI est&#227;o indicadas em casos selecionados. </p>
    <p>A telerradiografia de t&#243;rax &#233; um m&#233;todo que auxilia na identifica&#231;&#227;o de cardiomegalia, congest&#227;o pulmonar e na presen&#231;a de doen&#231;as associadas, como pneumonia, dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, que podem ser fatores desencadeantes ou diagn&#243;stico diferenciais de ICD<sup>35</sup>. </p>
    <p>O eletrocardiograma &#233; &#250;til na identifica&#231;&#227;o de cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, que &#233; uma das principais etiologias da ICD, bem como na avalia&#231;&#227;o de arritmias associadas, dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular e/ou bloqueios de ramos e sobrecargas cavit&#225;rias. Um ECG normal &#233; incomum na IC cr&#244;nica<sup>36</sup>. </p>
    <p>O ecocardiograma com Doppler &#233; um dos principais m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos no diagn&#243;stico da ICD, pois ir&#225; definir a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, diast&#243;lica ou ambas, acometimento ventricular esquerdo e/ou direito, les&#245;es orovalvares associadas, altera&#231;&#245;es de contratilidade segmentar, al&#233;m das dimens&#245;es e espessuras cavit&#225;rias<sup>37</sup>. Recentemente, o Doppler tecidual tem sido utilizado para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. </p>
    <p>A cardiologia nuclear,com a cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica de perfus&#227;o com t&#225;lio ou tecn&#233;cio (avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia, necrose e viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica), a ventriculografia radioisot&#243;pica (para avaliar fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica esquerda e direita, como alternativa &#224; ecocardiografia) e o uso de g&#225;lio 67 (pesquisa de atividade inflamat&#243;ria, como nas miocardites) s&#227;o t&#233;cnicas &#250;teis na ICD<sup>38</sup>. </p>
    <p>A resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica tem sido usada como mais um m&#233;todo auxiliar na avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e funcional na ICD, tanto nas formas sist&#243;licas quanto diast&#243;licas. </p>
    <p>Dentre os m&#233;todos invasivos, deve-se ressaltar a coronariografia, que &#233; &#250;til na defini&#231;&#227;o da anatomia coronariana (etiologia isqu&#234;mica) para melhor definir a estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica. A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica &#233; importante nos casos de suspeita de miocardite. A monitora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica com o cateter de Swan-Ganz tem sua indica&#231;&#227;o no manuseio farmacol&#243;gico da ICD, definindo press&#245;es intracavit&#225;rias que nortear&#227;o a melhor estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica a ser utilizada<sup>39</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os graus de recomenda&#231;&#245;es e n&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncia do uso dos exames complementares iniciais est&#227;o relacionados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab06">tabela VI</xref>. Recentemente, complementando a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, o pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico do tipo B (BNP), pelo m&#233;todo de dosagem r&#225;pida (<italic>point of care</italic>) tem sido utilizado como importante m&#233;todo no diagn&#243;stico diferencial de dispn&#233;ia na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, no diagn&#243;stico e na avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica da IC e no acompanhamento terap&#234;utico. O BNP eleva-se tanto nos casos de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica quanto diast&#243;lica, com n&#237;veis mais elevados no primeiro<sup>40,41 </sup>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab07">tabela VII</xref>). Mais recentemente, o pr&#243;-BNP tem sido estudado neste contexto e, embora pare&#231;a ser equivalente ao BNP, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; dados definitivos estabelecendo o seu real papel<sup>42</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab06">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt05.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab07">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt06.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do padr&#227;o evolutivo e resposta ao tratamento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O atendimento inicial &#233; realizado na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia ou na Unidade de IC e deve dar prioridade ao tratamento sindr&#244;mico agudo, com medidas de suporte b&#225;sico e avan&#231;ado de vida. Deve-se procurar a manuten&#231;&#227;o de uma perfus&#227;o tecidual.adequada, redu&#231;&#227;o da congest&#227;o/edema, e um <italic>status </italic>hemodin&#226;mico e respirat&#243;rio que impe&#231;a o agravamento das condi&#231;&#245;es j&#225; existentes e a ocorr&#234;ncia de les&#245;es secund&#225;rias por isquemia/hip&#243;xia, tais como insufici&#234;ncia renal ou isquemia do sistema nervoso central (SNC). Dependendo do quadro cl&#237;nico, o paciente deve ser admitido no hospital. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab08">tabela VIII</xref>). </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab08">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt07.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Ap&#243;s essa etapa, e, muitas vezes, simultaneamente ao descrito, segue-se a fase de reavalia&#231;&#227;o e acompanhamento da resposta terap&#234;utica. Nessa fase, indica-se a interna&#231;&#227;o em uma das diferentes unidades que possam dar suporte a esses pacientes &#150; unidade intermedi&#225;ria, unidade de terapia intensiva, enfermaria/quarto, unidade observacional de IC, at&#233; a alta hospitalar. </p>
    <p>Pacientes portadores da IC cr&#244;nica descompensada, sem uso de medica&#231;&#227;o ou com quadro de edema agudo hipertensivo com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica normal, respondem rapidamente &#224; oxigenoterapia e &#224; terap&#234;utica farmacol&#243;gica simples com diur&#233;ticos e vasodilatadores intravenosos. Dessa forma &#233; poss&#237;vel, antecipar para este grupo uma baixa complexidade, baixo custo e evolu&#231;&#227;o favor&#225;vel. Os pacientes com IC aguda devida &#224; choque cardiog&#234;nico por IAM, doen&#231;a valvar ou miocardite e aqueles com IC refrat&#225;ria s&#227;o de manuseio complexo, alto custo e necessitam abordagem especializada, com infra-estrutura que assegure tratamento intensivo com inotr&#243;picos e/ou vasodilatadores, monitora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica invasiva, dispositivos de circula&#231;&#227;o assistida, hemofiltra&#231;&#227;o/di&#225;lise, suporte ventilat&#243;rio, cirurgia card&#237;aca e todo um contexto de equipe especializada e de alta tecnologia, al&#233;m de um tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o prolongado. </p>
    <p>A vigil&#226;ncia dos par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos, hemodin&#226;micos e respirat&#243;rios deve ser adequada ao modelo fisiopatol&#243;gico da ICD. Em qualquer contexto, o acompanhamento e avalia&#231;&#227;o dos par&#226;metros vitais devem ser realizados com o aux&#237;lio de monitores n&#227;o invasivos, com ampla capacidade de registro/mem&#243;ria, de prefer&#234;ncia com possibilidade de detec&#231;&#227;o de arritmias ventriculares, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e desvios do padr&#227;o do segmento ST-T. Os seguintes dados devem ser monitorados: peso di&#225;rio, press&#227;o arterial, freq&#252;&#234;ncia e ritmo card&#237;aco, padr&#227;o e freq&#252;&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria, oximetria de pulso, avalia&#231;&#227;o do grau subjetivo do desconforto respirat&#243;rio, n&#237;vel de consci&#234;ncia e d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio, atrav&#233;s do qual avalia-se indiretamente a perfus&#227;o renal. </p>
    <p>A terapia medicamentosa tem como metas alcan&#231;ar, sempre que poss&#237;vel, o desaparecimento da ortopn&#233;ia, press&#227;o venosa jugular normal, redu&#231;&#227;o do edema perif&#233;rico e pulmonar (aus&#234;ncia de estertores e derrame pleural), press&#227;o sist&#243;lica &gt; 80mmHg e press&#227;o de pulso, no m&#237;nimo, de 25%, fun&#231;&#227;o renal est&#225;vel e habilidade de deambular sem tontura ou dispn&#233;ia. </p>
    <p>A monitora&#231;&#227;o freq&#252;ente da fun&#231;&#227;o renal &#233; importante, pois 25% dos pacientes com ICD agravam a fun&#231;&#227;o renal durante a interna&#231;&#227;o. N&#237;veis elevados de ur&#233;ia e creatinina, assim como a hiponatremia, est&#227;o associados com pior sobrevida intra e extra-hospitalar. A s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal na ICD &#233; um fator refrat&#225;rio ao tratamento e manuten&#231;&#227;o da congest&#227;o pulmonar e sist&#234;mica. Algumas vezes pode determinar a descontinuidade do tratamento com IECA ou antagonistas dos receptores AT1 e da espironolactona, caso os n&#237;veis de creatinina mantenham-se acima de 3 mg%<sup>43,44</sup>. Alguns pacientes podem apresentar piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal devido &#224; hipovolemia por uso excessivo de diur&#233;ticos. </p>
    <p>Novas t&#233;cnicas n&#227;o invasivas, como bioimped&#226;ncia, monitores implant&#225;veis e dosagem do BNP, est&#227;o sendo testadas para avaliar a import&#226;ncia da monitora&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos da terap&#234;utica adotada e seu impacto na morbi-mortalidade da ICD. </p>
    <p>Evid&#234;ncias recentes apontam a import&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica da dosagem de troponinas, cujos valores elevados indicam maior mortalidade intra-hospitalar<sup>45</sup>. As troponinas s&#227;o &#250;teis na detec&#231;&#227;o de infarto do mioc&#225;rdico n&#227;o diagnosticado nas &#250;ltimas 2 semanas, pois seus n&#237;veis permanecem elevados quando outros marcadores j&#225; normalizaram. </p>
    <p>Pacientes com IC e fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica preservada necessitam uma abordagem diferenciada, relacionada ao controle da hipertens&#227;o, da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, particularmente na presen&#231;a de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. A redu&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento ventricular &#233; necess&#225;ria para a melhoria dos sintomas, por&#233;m o uso excessivo de diur&#233;ticos e de vasodilatadores pode ocasionar hipotens&#227;o arterial, s&#237;ncope, fadiga e repercuss&#227;o negativa na fun&#231;&#227;o renal. </p>
    <p>Uma vez atingidos os crit&#233;rios de compensa&#231;&#227;o e estabilidade cl&#237;nica procede-se &#224; alta hospitalar. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab09">tabela IX</xref> lista os crit&#233;rios adotados para alta hospitalar dos pacientes com ICD. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; alta hospitalar, tradicionalmente, tem-se utilizado a melhora da classe funcional, devendo o paciente estar, preferencialmente, em classe funcional I ou II da NYHA, na vig&#234;ncia de medica&#231;&#227;o por via oral, peso e press&#227;o arterial e n&#237;veis de ur&#233;ia e creatinina est&#225;veis, bem como aus&#234;ncia de angina freq&#252;ente ou progressiva, de arritmias ventriculares sintom&#225;ticas e/ou disparos do cardioversor/desfibrilador (CDI). Alguns pacientes muito graves n&#227;o atingem estas classes e podem ter alta mesmo em classe funcional III, desde que possam estar livres de medica&#231;&#227;o endovenosa. Recentemente, tem sido sugerida a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do BNP como crit&#233;rio para alta hospitalar. Valores de BNP por ocasi&#227;o da alta hospitalar menor que 430 pg/ml mostraram bom valor preditivo negativo para readmiss&#227;o. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab09">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt08.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>No momento da alta hospitalar, o paciente dever&#225; ser, preferencialmente, encaminhado para uma Cl&#237;nica de IC, uma vez que esta estrat&#233;gia reduz a taxa de rehospitaliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab10"><bold>tabela X</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Na ICD, o progn&#243;stico vai depender da gravidade da doen&#231;a de base<sup>46</sup>. Enquanto nas s&#237;ndromes isqu&#234;micas agudas, esses par&#226;metros est&#227;o bem definidos (classifica&#231;&#227;o de Killip-Kimball, classifica&#231;&#227;o de Forrester, dados cl&#237;nicos, eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos e laboratoriais, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e presen&#231;a de arritmias ventriculares, etc), nas outras etiologias ainda n&#227;o o est&#227;o. Na IC cr&#244;nica descompensada, in&#250;meros fatores progn&#243;sticos s&#227;o descritos, destacando-se marcadores cl&#237;nicos, hemodin&#226;micos, neuro-hormonais e inflamat&#243;rios. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab10">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt09.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>V. Tratamento geral </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A. Medidas gerais (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab11"><bold>tabela XI</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p>1. Atividade f&#237;sica: Pacientes com ICD n&#227;o devem ser estimulados a praticar atividade f&#237;sica rotineira e nem a repouso absoluto, devendo ser a atividade individualizada, de acordo com o diagn&#243;stico e situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do paciente. Durante os epis&#243;dios de descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda, os pacientes devem permanecer em repouso, de acordo com as suas limita&#231;&#245;es. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab11">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt10.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>2. Oxig&#234;nio: Recomenda-se, inicialmente, o emprego rotineiro de oxigenoterapia suplementar, com o objetivo de manter a satura&#231;&#227;o adequada de O<sub>2</sub> (<underline>&gt;</underline> 90%). Na vig&#234;ncia de congest&#227;o pulmonar, recomenda-se o CPAP, o qual constitui medida n&#227;o invasiva e efetiva para se alcan&#231;ar a satura&#231;&#227;o de O<sub>2</sub> desejada. </p>
    <p>3. Restri&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica e salina: Nos pacientes em estado congestivo, a ingesta l&#237;quida deve ser restringida de acordo com a superf&#237;cie corporal, na busca de um balan&#231;o h&#237;drico negativo inicial, at&#233; que se alcance um estado normovol&#234;mico. O valor da restri&#231;&#227;o m&#225;xima pode atingir at&#233; 600 a 700 ml por m<sup>2</sup> de superf&#237;cie corporal/dia. A ingest&#227;o de s&#243;dio deve ser, no m&#225;ximo, de 2-3 g/dia, podendo ser modificada de acordo com o s&#243;dio plasm&#225;tico e a toler&#226;ncia &#224; dieta hiposs&#243;dica. </p>
    <p>4. Nutri&#231;&#227;o: O paciente deve ter ingesta prot&#233;ico-cal&#243;rica que satisfa&#231;a suas necessidades, de forma adequada &#224;s suas co-morbidades. Emprego de superalimenta&#231;&#227;o ou suplementos alimentares de rotina n&#227;o &#233; indicado. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>B. Tratamento farmacol&#243;gico geral </bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Diur&#233;ticos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab12"><bold>tabela XII</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p>Diur&#233;ticos venosos est&#227;o indicados para todos os pacientes com congest&#227;o pulmonar e/ou sist&#234;mica, com gravidade que resulte em hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, j&#225; que a perfus&#227;o intestinal diminu&#237;da, motilidade intestinal reduzida e edema de al&#231;as intestinais reduzem a absor&#231;&#227;o da droga por via oral. Esse defeito &#233; revers&#237;vel ap&#243;s o controle do edema com a terapia endovenosa, permitindo, posteriormente, o emprego da via oral<sup>47</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab12">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt11.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>O tratamento deve ser feito com diur&#233;ticos de al&#231;a e a dose, individualizada para que o paciente diminua o estado congestivo, tomando-se o cuidado de evitar a hipovolemia. Os diur&#233;ticos, especialmente os de al&#231;a, podem alterar o estado hidroeletrol&#237;tico, o qual deve ser monitorado. Ap&#243;s resolu&#231;&#227;o do quadro congestivo, inicia-se o tratamento de manuten&#231;&#227;o por via oral, para evitar o retorno do ac&#250;mulo de l&#237;quido<sup>48-51</sup>. </p>
    <p>Alguns pacientes desenvolvem resist&#234;ncia a diur&#233;ticos, caracterizada por aus&#234;ncia de resposta adequada &#224;s doses habituais da droga. O tratamento da resist&#234;ncia diur&#233;tica come&#231;a pelo aumento do n&#237;vel plasm&#225;tico e, conseq&#252;entemente, da taxa de excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria da droga, aumentando a dose do diur&#233;tico at&#233; a dose m&#225;xima efetiva e/ou adicionando diur&#233;tico com outro s&#237;tio de a&#231;&#227;o. Doses elevadas devem ser administradas lentamente, em 30 a 60 min, para reduzir o risco de ototoxicidade. O <italic>bolus </italic>por via endovenosa inicial, para um paciente em uso cr&#244;nico de diur&#233;ticos, deve ser de 50% da dose oral total pr&#233;via. Em seguida, pode-se iniciar uma infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua de furosemida, na dose de 20 mg/h. Se a diurese n&#227;o for mantida, um segundo <italic>bolus</italic> &#233; administrado, seguido de infus&#227;o de 40 mg/h. O risco de elevar mais ainda a infus&#227;o deve ser pesado com rela&#231;&#227;o a outras op&#231;&#245;es, tais como procedimentos de hemofiltra&#231;&#227;o, ou ultrafiltra&#231;&#227;o. Nesses casos, a infus&#227;o cont&#237;nua, quando comparada com a administra&#231;&#227;o em <italic>bolus</italic> intermitentes, tem se mostrado t&#227;o eficaz e, potencialmente, e mais segura em rela&#231;&#227;o a efeitos colaterais<sup>52</sup>. Para furosemida, a dose m&#225;xima di&#225;ria efetiva endovenosa &#233; de 80 a 120 mg. Se houver insufici&#234;ncia renal concomitante, a dose pode ser de 160 a 240 mg e, na presen&#231;a de insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda grave, at&#233; 500 mg. </p>
    <p>2. Antagonistas de aldosterona (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab12"><bold>tabela XII</bold></xref>)  </p>
    <p>A espironolactona deve ser utilizada em associa&#231;&#227;o com o tratamento padr&#227;o da ICD, com dose m&#233;dia recomendada de 25 mg por dia, sendo que os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de pot&#225;ssio e creatinina devem ser monitorados. N&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de pot&#225;ssio entre 5.0 e 5,5 mEq/L requerem redu&#231;&#227;o da dose, em conjunto com outras medica&#231;&#245;es que causem hipercalemia. N&#237;veis acima de 5,5 mEq/L demandam suspens&#227;o da droga<sup>53,54</sup>. N&#227;o se recomenda o seu uso nos pacientes com creatinina s&#233;rica acima de 2,5mg/dL. </p>
    <p>O eplerenone &#233; um antagonista da aldosterona que se mostrou eficaz no tratamento de pacientes com IC p&#243;s-infarto<sup>55</sup>. Embora n&#227;o tenha sido ainda estudado em casos em ICD, poderia ser utilizado nos pacientes que desenvolveram ginecomastia por espironolactona.</p>
    <p>3. Vasodilatadores perif&#233;ricos endovenosos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab13"><bold>tabela XIII</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab14"><bold>XIV</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Pacientes com ICD, freq&#252;entemente, necessitam de suporte farmacol&#243;gico com drogas vasoativas, na tentativa de melhorar o desempenho card&#237;aco, reduzir as press&#245;es de enchimento e a resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica e pulmonar, facilitar a diurese e promover a estabilidade cl&#237;nica. As drogas vasodilatadoras para uso endovenoso na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca dispon&#237;veis na Am&#233;rica Latina s&#227;o o nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio, a nitroglicerina e a prostaciclina. O nesiritide ainda n&#227;o &#233; comercializado na regi&#227;o. Essas drogas t&#234;m utiliza&#231;&#227;o preferencial nas situa&#231;&#245;es de press&#245;es de enchimento ventricular elevadas, aumentos significativos na resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar e sist&#234;mica, al&#233;m das situa&#231;&#245;es de sobrecarga aguda de volume secund&#225;ria a les&#245;es valvares regurgitantes (insufici&#234;ncia mitral e a&#243;rtica)<sup>56</sup>. Podem aumentar debito card&#237;aco e diurese como conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do efeito vasodilatador. Para serem usadas isoladamente &#233; necess&#225;rio que a press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica esteja adequada e ideal <underline>&gt;</underline> 85 mmhg. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab13">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt12.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab14"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e02.jpg"/></p>
    <p><bold>a) Nitroglicerina: </bold>Trata-se de vasodilatador direto, que atua pelo aumento do GMPc intracelular. Em doses baixas, tem efeito venodilatador predominante, sendo seu efeito vasodilatador arterial observado com doses maiores. Auxilia no tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, tanto pela diminui&#231;&#227;o da congest&#227;o pulmonar, quanto pelo aumento do fluxo sang&#252;&#237;neo coronariano. Assim como outros nitratos, pode promover taquicardia reflexa, cefal&#233;ia e hipotens&#227;o. Seu uso cont&#237;nuo n&#227;o &#233; recomendado em virtude do fen&#244;meno de toler&#226;ncia farmacol&#243;gica. Em situa&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia, &#233; bastante pr&#225;tico por ter in&#237;cio e t&#233;rmino de a&#231;&#227;o imediatos, o que permite ajustes mais precisos, de acordo com a hemodin&#226;mica do paciente. A dose inicial &#233; de 0,5&#181;g/Kg/min, podendo ser aumentada a cada 5min, at&#233; controle dos sintomas ou efeitos colaterais limitantes<sup>57</sup>. </p>
    <p>Seu emprego &#233; particularmente &#250;til nos casos de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica sem hipotens&#227;o. N&#227;o se recomenda o emprego de nitroglicerina em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita. </p>
    <p><bold>b) Nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio: </bold>&#201; um potente vasodilatador arterial e venoso, de fundamental import&#226;ncia no controle da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na vig&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o arterial e/ou regurgita&#231;&#227;o importante, mitral ou a&#243;rtica, pela diminui&#231;&#227;o da p&#243;s-carga que promove. &#201; capaz de melhorar o desempenho ventricular esquerdo, tendo tamb&#233;m efeito vasodilatador arterial pulmonar, diminuindo a p&#243;s-carga ventricular direita. Como &#233; rapidamente metabolizado em cianeto que, posteriormente, &#233; transformado pelo f&#237;gado em tiocianato, deve ser utilizado com cautela em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal e/ou hep&#225;tica. Seu uso por tempo prolongado pode necessitar de monitora&#231;&#227;o do n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de tiocianato (n&#237;vel t&#243;xico &gt; 10ng/ml). A dose inicial &#233; de 0,2&#181;g/Kg/minuto, titulada a cada 5 min, at&#233; melhora hemodin&#226;mica. Como necessita de monitora&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua da PA, sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o se restringe, quase sempre, &#224; sala de emerg&#234;ncia ou UTI.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4. Agentes inotr&#243;picos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O emprego de terapia inotr&#243;pica, em pacientes em baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco pode ser necess&#225;rio para melhorar a perfus&#227;o tissular<sup>58,59</sup>. A sua a&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica e indica&#231;&#227;o com n&#237;veis de evid&#234;ncias est&#227;o descritas nas <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab15">tabelas XV</xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab16">XVI</xref>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab15">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt13.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab16"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e03.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Os agentes inotr&#243;picos s&#227;o divididos em 3 categorias: os agonistas betadren&#233;rgicos, os inibidores da fosfodiesterase III e os sensibilizadores de c&#225;lcio. </p>
    <p><bold>a) Agentes que estimulam os receptores betadren&#233;rgicos</bold> (dopamina, dobutamina, noradrenalina, isoproteterenol, adrenalina) Os agentes agonistas betadren&#233;rgicos estimulam os receptores beta do cora&#231;&#227;o a aumentarem os n&#237;veis do segundo mensageiro AMP c&#237;clico (AMPc), gerando, assim, o sinal para eleva&#231;&#227;o do c&#225;lcio intracelular; o que produz efeito inotr&#243;pico positivo. A dopamina e a noradrenalina devem ser usadas se houver hipotens&#227;o grave. A dobutamina &#233; indicada para os estados de baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual, podendo ser associada a dopamina ou noradrenalina. S&#227;o v&#225;rios os efeitos adversos relacionados ao aumento do influxo intracelular de c&#225;lcio produzido pela estimula&#231;&#227;o betadren&#233;rgica: consumo energ&#233;tico aumentado, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, arritmias card&#237;acas, ativa&#231;&#227;o de proteases, endonucleases e fosfolipases intracelulares, que fazem parte do processo de morte e necrose celular<sup>60,61</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, drogas que aumentam os n&#237;veis de AMPc levam &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade ao c&#225;lcio, pela fosforila&#231;&#227;o da troponina I. Essas a&#231;&#245;es podem resultar em efeitos cl&#237;nicos adversos<sup>62-65</sup>. </p>
    <p><bold>b) Inibidores da fosfodiesterase: </bold>Os inibidores de fosfodiesterase agem inibindo a degrada&#231;&#227;o do AMP- c&#237;clico, aumentando a disponibilidade e a concentra&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio na c&#233;lula e o inotropismo<sup>66</sup>. Possuem tamb&#233;m um efeito vasodilatador perif&#233;rico, atrav&#233;s da a&#231;&#227;o no GMP-c e produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico. Podem ser usados com ou sem dose de ataque, sendo maior a ocorr&#234;ncia de hipotens&#227;o durante esta dosagem. Os agentes inodilatadores devem ser utilizados com cautela em pacientes com hipotens&#227;o grave. Estudos recentes demonstraram que o uso do milrinone em pacientes com ICD, mas sem baixo d&#233;bito, aumenta a ocorr&#234;ncia de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e de hipotens&#227;o<sup>66</sup>. </p>
    <p>Com o aumento crescente do n&#250;mero de pacientes em uso de betabloqueador e que se apresentam com ICD, a terapia com inibidores de fosfodiesterase pode ser mais atrativa, j&#225; que n&#227;o compete com os receptores betadren&#233;rgicos. Entretanto, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; dados suficientes para sua recomenda&#231;&#227;o nessa situa&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica<sup>67</sup>. </p>
    <p><bold>c) Sensibilizadores de c&#225;lcio: </bold>Estes f&#225;rmacos constituem uma nova classe terap&#234;utica para o tratamento da ICD, representada pelo pimobendan e levosimendan, sendo que apenas este &#250;ltimo est&#225; dispon&#237;vel na Am&#233;rica Latina. Este agente exerce sua a&#231;&#227;o inotr&#243;pica, aumentando a sensibilidade da troponina-C ao c&#225;lcio j&#225; dispon&#237;vel no citoplasma, sem sobrecarga adicional de c&#225;lcio, nem incremento do consumo de oxig&#234;nio<sup>68,69</sup>. O levosimendan melhora a contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica e hemodin&#226;mica em grau compar&#225;vel ao observado com betagonistas e inibidores de fosfodiesterase e possui a&#231;&#227;o vasodilatadora como resultado da ativa&#231;&#227;o de canais de pot&#225;ssio ATP-dependentes<sup>70-72</sup>. Em ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados, foi associado &#224; menor mortalidade, no acompanhamento em curto e m&#233;dio prazos<sup>73,74</sup>. Na presen&#231;a de betabloqueador, os efeitos hemodin&#226;micos do levosimendan est&#227;o potencializados, quando comparado com a dobutamina.</p>
    <p>5. Digital (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Ainda n&#227;o foi realizado um grande estudo sobre o efeito do digital na ICD. Em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) e resposta ventricular alta, seu uso diminui a FC, podendo contribuir para a melhora cl&#237;nica.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab17">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt14.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>6. Inibidores da enzima conversora de angiotensina (IECA) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab18"><bold>XVIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Os inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o de angiotensina (IECA) reduzem a press&#227;o capilar pulmonar, levando &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o da pr&#233;-carga e da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, reduzindo a p&#243;s-carga<sup>75</sup>. Esses efeitos, em curto prazo, s&#227;o desej&#225;veis e podem acelerar o processo de compensa&#231;&#227;o e melhora dos sintomas. </p>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab18"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e04.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Estudos realizados em pacientes com ICC classes funcionais III e IV demonstraram que os IECA t&#234;m um forte impacto na qualidade de vida e na sobrevida em longo prazo<sup>76,77</sup>, o que permite concluir que essas drogas n&#227;o devem ser suspensas na fase descompensada, a n&#227;o ser que exista hiperpotassemia, piora acentuada da fun&#231;&#227;o renal ou hipotens&#227;o importante e refrat&#225;ria. </p>
    <p>A dose inicial deve ser baixa (especialmente se o paciente necessitar interna&#231;&#227;o, estiver hipotenso ou houver piora da fun&#231;&#227;o renal (creatinina <underline>&gt;</underline> 2,5mg%)), devendo ser titulada, gradualmente, at&#233; a dose ideal. Caso o paciente j&#225; esteja em uso da droga, e sua administra&#231;&#227;o tenha sido interrompida, sua reintrodu&#231;&#227;o &#233; feita dessa mesma forma. A dose ideal &#233; a mesma dos pacientes com ICC cr&#244;nica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17">tabela XVII</xref>). Recomenda-se que, nos pacientes em uso de inotr&#243;picos e vasodilatadores EV, os IECA sejam introduzidos antes do desmame daqueles.</p>
    <p>7. Antagonistas dos receptores da angiotensina II (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Esta classe de drogas n&#227;o foi testada no tratamento da ICD. Devido aos seus benef&#237;cios na mortalidade em longo prazo, &#233; recomend&#225;vel a manuten&#231;&#227;o da mesma dose usada anteriormente, exceto se houver hiperpotassemia, piora acentuada da fun&#231;&#227;o renal, hipotens&#227;o importante e refrat&#225;ria. Sua indica&#231;&#227;o se faz nos pacientes que n&#227;o toleraram o IECA. </p>
    <p>8. Heparinas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p>As heparinas de baixo peso molecular ou as n&#227;o fracionadas devem ser usadas nos pacientes imobilizados, a fim de prevenir a trombose venosa profunda e a embolia pulmonar, com as seguintes doses por via subcut&#226;nea: heparina n&#227;o fracionada (5.000 UI 2 vezes ao dia), nadroparina (0,3 mL 1 vez ao dia), enoxaparina (40 mg 1 vez ao dia) e dalteparina (200 UI/kg 1 vez ao dia).</p>
    <p>9. Betabloqueadores (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Nos pacientes que fazem uso cr&#244;nico de betabloqueador, deve-se tentar n&#227;o suspender a droga, mesmo naqueles que necessitarem de drogas inotr&#243;picas, a n&#227;o ser nos casos de hipotens&#227;o acentuada, bradiarritmia ou outros efeitos colaterais graves. O risco do efeito rebote &#233; indesej&#225;vel, especialmente nos casos de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Al&#233;m disso, t&#234;m surgido evid&#234;ncias de que os pacientes que usam betabloqueadores se beneficiam de sua manuten&#231;&#227;o<sup>78</sup>, com um potencial benef&#237;cio destas drogas na preven&#231;&#227;o de morte s&#250;bita intra-hospitalar. </p>
    <p>Em pacientes em ICC CF IV (NYHA), mesmo naqueles tratados com inotr&#243;pico endovenoso at&#233; 2 dias antes, a introdu&#231;&#227;o e a titula&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa da dose do betabloqueador podem ser bem toleradas<sup>79,80</sup>.</p>
    <p>C) Drogas para pacientes selecionados (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Hidralazina e nitratos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>N&#227;o existem trabalhos com esta associa&#231;&#227;o em que foram inclu&#237;dos, especificamente, pacientes em classe IV ou descompensados. Entretanto, a possibilidade de efeito semelhante entre enalapril e a associa&#231;&#227;o de dinitrato e hidralazina &#233; atrativa, ainda mais no paciente de etiologia isqu&#234;mica. O uso da associa&#231;&#227;o &#233; justificado, pois foi demonstrado que a hidralazina previne o desenvolvimento da toler&#226;ncia aos nitratos. No entanto, a posologia dessa associa&#231;&#227;o &#233; mais complexa<sup>81</sup>, al&#233;m de n&#227;o existir evid&#234;ncia de benef&#237;cio quando tais drogas s&#227;o usadas isoladamente<sup>82-86</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Amiodarona</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O uso, por via oral em baixas doses, &#233; bem tolerado, entretanto, seu uso endovenoso, em doses mais elevadas, requer melhor observa&#231;&#227;o, principalmente na ICD devida ao risco de hipotens&#227;o. A amiodarona est&#225; indicada na ICD para controle da resposta ventricular em pacientes com FA, revers&#227;o qu&#237;mica da FA e tratamento de arritmia ventricular freq&#252;ente e/ou complexa<sup>87,88</sup>. </p>
    <p>Houve demonstra&#231;&#227;o de redu&#231;&#227;o de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, principalmente na classe funcional IV, com melhora da classe funcional<sup>89,90</sup>. Nos pacientes com freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca acima de 90, a sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o pode ser ben&#233;fica<sup>90</sup>, provavelmente, devido ao efeito antiadren&#233;rgico. Recentemente, em pequenas s&#233;ries de casos, foi demonstrado benef&#237;cio da amiodarona em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca que n&#227;o toleravam betabloqueador<sup>91</sup>.</p>
    <p>D. Drogas ou interven&#231;&#245;es sob investiga&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Nesiritide</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Recentemente aprovado nos Estados Unidos, &#233; um pept&#237;deo natriur&#233;tico recombinante humano, do tipo B, com efeito natriur&#233;tico, em parte devido &#224; inibi&#231;&#227;o da aldosterona e &#224; vasodilata&#231;&#227;o. Entretanto, ainda n&#227;o est&#225; dispon&#237;vel na Am&#233;rica Latina. Os estudos realizados mostraram maior redu&#231;&#227;o na press&#227;o capilar pulmonar, quando comparado &#224; nitroglicerina<sup>92-95</sup>, sem aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca basal e sem efeito pr&#243;-arr&#237;tmico<sup>94</sup>. Estudo n&#227;o cego sugeriu que nesiritide pode reduzir custos e mortalidade quando comparada com dobutamina<sup>96</sup>. </p>
    <p>Metan&#225;lise recente levantou d&#250;vidas quanto &#224; seguran&#231;a da droga em rela&#231;&#227;o aos seus efeitos sobre a mortalidade em curto prazo<sup>97</sup>, mas ainda s&#227;o necess&#225;rios estudos delineados para avaliar mortalidade, ainda que os trabalhos sugiram que a mesma seja &#250;til no manuseio de pacientes com ICD.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Antagonistas da vasopressina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>S&#227;o drogas que bloqueiam os receptores V1, V2 ou ambos. V&#225;rias drogas est&#227;o em teste e v&#234;m mostrando sua utilidade para o controle de pacientes em fase avan&#231;ada da doen&#231;a, quando a vasopressina encontra-se especialmente elevada. Os antagonistas da vasopressina t&#234;m indica&#231;&#227;o nos pacientes edemaciados, com s&#243;dio baixo, situa&#231;&#227;o na qual o tratamento convencional tem mostrado pouca efic&#225;cia<sup>98-100</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3. F&#225;rmacos antagonistas de citocinas </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A tentativa de antagonizar o fator de necrose tumoral-alfa com o etanercept e outros antagonistas de citocinas n&#227;o promoveu resultados efetivos<sup>101,102</sup>. H&#225; sugest&#245;es de que a pentoxifilina e a talidomida podem ser de utilidade no tratamento da IC. Estudos preliminares v&#234;m demonstrando que a pentoxifilina e talidomida revertem a remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular, sendo um dos mecanismos desta a&#231;&#227;o mediado pela redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de fator de necrose tumoral-alfa<sup>103,104</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4. Horm&#244;nio do crescimento (GH)</bold>
    </p>
    <p>H&#225; evid&#234;ncias de resist&#234;ncia &#224; a&#231;&#227;o do GH na IC. A administra&#231;&#227;o de GH em pacientes caqu&#233;ticos, em resultados preliminares, parece determinar melhora cl&#237;nica e permitir a otimiza&#231;&#227;o da terap&#234;utica<sup>105</sup>, contudo estudos randomizados s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para avaliar o seu real efeito<sup>106,107</sup>. Deve ser usado com cuidado nos pacientes com risco de c&#226;ncer ou com arritmias.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>5. Utiliza&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas progenitoras da medula</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A regenera&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o, atrav&#233;s de c&#233;lulas progenitoras obtidas da medula ap&#243;s pun&#231;&#227;o ou do sangue perif&#233;rico ap&#243;s mobiliza&#231;&#227;o, ou, simplesmente, atrav&#233;s da mobiliza&#231;&#227;o, tem sido investigada em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca refrat&#225;ria devida &#224; miocardiopatia chag&#225;sica, isqu&#234;mica e dilatada. As c&#233;lulas obtidas podem se injetadas por via intracoronariana, por via transendococ&#225;rdica, transepic&#225;rdica, via seio venoso coronariano ou durante cirurgia. Resultados preliminares de estudos n&#227;o controlados t&#234;m demonstrado benef&#237;cio para a ICD<sup>108-111</sup>.</p>
    <p>E. Drogas de efic&#225;cia n&#227;o comprovada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17"><bold>tabela XVII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Inibidores da vasopeptidase (INEP)</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O ecodatril, o candoxatril e o omapatrilato s&#227;o drogas que bloqueiam a enzima respons&#225;vel pela degrada&#231;&#227;o dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos e, teoricamente, poderiam oferecer benef&#237;cios semelhantes &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o do neseritide na ICD. N&#227;o existem estudos sobre ICD com estas drogas e, na ICC compensada, ainda n&#227;o existem evid&#234;ncias de benef&#237;cios<sup>112</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Antagonistas de endotelina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Embora os antagonistas das endotelinas, como o bosentan, sitaxsentan, darusentan, tezosentan e enrasentan, tenham efeito hemodin&#226;mico ben&#233;fico, o uso em humanos n&#227;o demonstrou benef&#237;cios<sup>92,113</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3. Prostaciclina</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os resultados com a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da prostaciclina (epoprostenol) para tratamento da IC demonstraram piora da sobrevida, tendo sido interrompido precocemente o estudo<sup>112-114</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>VI. Avalia&#231;&#227;o e tratamento de popula&#231;&#245;es especiais </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A. Pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) confirmada ou sob suspeita (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab19"><bold>tabela XIX</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab20"><bold>XX</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p>A defini&#231;&#227;o da etiologia da ICD resulta em significativas implica&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas e terap&#234;uticas, com &#234;nfase para isquemia. Demonstrou-se que a etiologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca pode ser considerada um determinante maior na sobrevida em longo prazo. Assim, pacientes com etiologia isqu&#234;mica, geralmente, apresentam pior progn&#243;stico quando comparados aos n&#227;o-isqu&#234;micos<sup>1-3,114-116</sup>. &#201; desconhecido se tal rela&#231;&#227;o entre etiologia e evolu&#231;&#227;o pode ser aplicada no contexto da doen&#231;a descompensada, entretanto dados n&#227;o publicados do estudo OPTIME CHF<sup>4,66</sup> sugerem que pacientes com miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica t&#234;m pior progn&#243;stico em curto prazo em rela&#231;&#227;o aos portadores de outra etiologia. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab19">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt15.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab20"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e05.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Acredita-se tamb&#233;m que a DAC seja respons&#225;vel por cerca de dois ter&#231;os dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca devida &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<sup>5,17</sup>. Portanto, parece &#250;til definir a presen&#231;a, as caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas e a signific&#226;ncia funcional da DAC em casos selecionados que se apresentam com a s&#237;ndrome. Tendo em vista que, na maior parte dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia ventricular aguda, a isquemia &#233; a causa mais importante de redu&#231;&#227;o da reserva contr&#225;til mioc&#225;rdica e que, em muitos, este processo representa hiberna&#231;&#227;o ou atordoamento, estados potencialmente revers&#237;veis, como o tratamento da isquemia, o r&#225;pido controle do evento isqu&#234;mico, devem ser o alvo do tratamento. </p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nico-laboratorial inicial da presen&#231;a de isquemia em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada inclui o acesso do <italic>status</italic> funcional, h&#237;drico, testes bioqu&#237;micos e hematol&#243;gicos precoces, al&#233;m da realiza&#231;&#227;o do eletrocardiograma e da telerradiografia do t&#243;rax. </p>
    <p>&#201; importante a avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica precoce no sentido de estimar a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular regional e identificar qualquer complica&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, quais sejam, les&#227;o valvar grave, rotura de septo ou de parede livre, como causadora da disfun&#231;&#227;o aguda. A presen&#231;a de uma dessas complica&#231;&#245;es exige reparo cir&#250;rgico imediato ap&#243;s a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica. </p>
    <p> Pacientes com DAC e isquemia - Est&#225; bem estabelecido que a cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio melhora a evolu&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e isquemia. Uma vez que a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o &#233; recomendada em indiv&#237;duos com dor tor&#225;cica isqu&#234;mica, a despeito do grau de isquemia ou viabilidade, um pequeno papel poderia ser atribu&#237;do aos testes n&#227;o-invasivos nesses pacientes. Deve-se proceder diretamente &#224; angiografia coronariana nos pacientes com angina e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. </p>
    <p>Pacientes com DAC sem isquemia - N&#227;o est&#225; claro se a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pode melhorar sintomas e a sobrevida em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca que n&#227;o apresentam isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Entretanto, recomenda-se revasculariza&#231;&#227;o nos pacientes com estenose significativa de tronco da coron&#225;ria esquerda e naqueles com extensas &#225;reas n&#227;o-infartadas, mas hipoperfundidas, com mioc&#225;rdio hipocontr&#225;til nos testes n&#227;o-invasivos. </p>
    <p>Pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica indefinida - Mais de um ter&#231;o dos pacientes com miocardiopatia n&#227;o-isqu&#234;mica queixa-se de dor tor&#225;cica. Recomenda-se, geralmente, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de angiografia coronariana, j&#225; que a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o desempenha efeito positivo na dor de origem isqu&#234;mica. Contudo, &#233; comum a realiza&#231;&#227;o de testes n&#227;o-invasivos antes da angiografia coronariana nesta popula&#231;&#227;o, porque s&#227;o freq&#252;entes, em casos de miocardiopatia n&#227;o-isqu&#234;mica, imagens nucleares heterog&#234;neas e padr&#245;es de motilidade ventricular anormal. </p>
    <p>Para os pacientes em que a DAC foi exclu&#237;da como causa de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, n&#227;o est&#225; indicada a realiza&#231;&#227;o repetida de testes invasivos e n&#227;o-invasivos. </p>
    <p>Na situa&#231;&#227;o de ICD, a isquemia mioc&#225;rdica pode desempenhar importante fun&#231;&#227;o como agente descompensador. Pacientes com isquemia demonstrada necessitam de terapia antiisqu&#234;mica apropriada, incluindo aspirina, heparina, inibidores da glicoprote&#237;na IIb/IIIa, bem como estrat&#233;gias de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, conjuntamente ao manejo da descompensa&#231;&#227;o. Novas terapias para o manuseio da ICD no cen&#225;rio da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica v&#234;m sendo estudadas<sup>117,118</sup>. </p>
    <p>Nos pacientes com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST, deve-se executar, prontamente, interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea prim&#225;ria. Alternativamente, caso a interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea n&#227;o seja dispon&#237;vel, pode-se optar pela terapia trombol&#237;tica. Nos casos de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio sem supradesn&#237;velamento, deve-se iniciar terapia antiisqu&#234;mica m&#225;xima, seguida de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea, se poss&#237;vel. A aplica&#231;&#227;o do bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico como m&#233;todo de redu&#231;&#227;o imediata do fen&#244;meno isqu&#234;mico e como dispositivo para melhorar o desempenho cardiovascular &#233; altamente efetiva no tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca secund&#225;ria &#224; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica refrat&#225;ria. </p>
    <p>Recomenda-se que, ap&#243;s estabiliza&#231;&#227;o inicial, os pacientes que evolu&#237;rem com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante um evento isqu&#234;mico sejam submetidos &#224; angiografia coronariana imediata, seguida de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o completa, devido &#224; grave condi&#231;&#227;o da combina&#231;&#227;o das duas s&#237;ndromes. Para os pacientes com ICD e que n&#227;o demonstram sinais de isquemia, preconiza-se a realiza&#231;&#227;o precoce de um teste que avalie viabilidade e isquemia, seja cintilografia ou eco-estresse com dobutamina, considerando-se a possibilidade de angiografia. </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o, deve-se introduzir terapia medicamentosa em baixas doses e titular at&#233; doses m&#225;ximas, de maneira a evitar hipotens&#227;o e vasodilata&#231;&#227;o. Atualmente, os inibidores da enzima de convers&#227;o da angiotensina (IECA) s&#227;o a &#250;nica classe de agentes com benef&#237;cio comprovado nesta situa&#231;&#227;o<sup>119,120</sup>. Os mesmos podem ser substitu&#237;dos por antagonistas do receptor da angiotensina, se houver efeitos colaterais. Os betabloqueadores, extremamente ben&#233;ficos no tratamento de longo prazo da IC, devem ser administrados aos portadores de ICD somente quando a condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica estiver plenamente compensada. Os bloqueadores do canal de c&#225;lcio, que tamb&#233;m apresentam efeitos inotr&#243;picos negativos, devem ser evitados.</p>
    <p>B. Choque cardiog&#234;nico p&#243;s-infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab21"><bold>tabela XXI</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab22"><bold>XXII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Diagn&#243;stico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O choque cardiog&#234;nico caracteriza-se por hipotens&#227;o arterial grave (press&#227;o sist&#243;lica inferior a 90 mmHg ou 30% abaixo da basal), por um per&#237;odo m&#237;nimo de 30min, acompanhada de sinais de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual e disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica (taquicardia, palidez, extremidades frias, confus&#227;o mental, olig&#250;ria e acidose metab&#243;lica), de etiologia card&#237;aca (infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, miocardiopatias, valvopatias, arritmias). Nesta condi&#231;&#227;o, existem evid&#234;ncias de sobrecarga de volume ou, em caso negativo, o choque n&#227;o &#233; revers&#237;vel com reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica<sup>121</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab21">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt16.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab22"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e06.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Apesar dos avan&#231;os no tratamento do infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, esta complica&#231;&#227;o ainda &#233; respons&#225;vel por cerca de 60% da mortalidade nos pacientes hospitalizados<sup>122</sup>. Dentre os mecanismos do choque, encontram-se fal&#234;ncia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (78% dos casos), insufici&#234;ncia mitral aguda (7%), rotura do septo interventricular (4%), fal&#234;ncia isolada do ventr&#237;culo direito (2,8%) e rotura mioc&#225;rdica (2,7%).</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e laboratorial</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial permite estimar a repercuss&#227;o do choque nos diversos &#243;rg&#227;os, bem como identificar co-morbidades. O hemograma possibilita avaliar anemia, policitemia e infec&#231;&#245;es. Disfun&#231;&#245;es renais (como insufici&#234;ncia pr&#233;-renal e necrose tubular aguda) e dist&#250;rbios do equil&#237;brio hidroeletrol&#237;tico repercutem nos n&#237;veis de ur&#233;ia, creatinina, s&#243;dio, pot&#225;ssio e no sedimento urin&#225;rio. A taxa de glicemia pode alterar-se tanto por diabetes como pela condi&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica do paciente. O coagulograma pode refletir disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica, al&#233;m de ser necess&#225;rio antes da realiza&#231;&#227;o de alguns procedimentos invasivos. Eleva&#231;&#227;o da taxa de lactato arterial ou venoso central decorre de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual e metabolismo anaer&#243;bio, e sua avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada tem valor evolutivo. A gasometria (arterial e venosa central) tem import&#226;ncia na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial e no seguimento. A acidose metab&#243;lica, geralmente l&#225;ctica, reduz a afinidade do oxig&#234;nio pela hemoglobina, deprime adicionalmente a fun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e favorece a ocorr&#234;ncia de arritmias. A press&#227;o parcial de oxig&#234;nio e g&#225;s carb&#244;nico refletem a condi&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria do paciente, podendo auxiliar na indica&#231;&#227;o de suporte ventilat&#243;rio. A satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio no sangue venoso misto reflete sua extra&#231;&#227;o pelos tecidos. A dosagem de enzimas hep&#225;ticas, prote&#237;nas totais e fra&#231;&#245;es, c&#225;lcio, f&#243;sforo e magn&#233;sio tamb&#233;m pode ser &#250;til. A dosagem de marcadores de necrose mioc&#225;rdica (CKMB, troponina T e I, mioglobina) est&#225; indicada na suspeita de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda ou miocardite. O eletrocardiograma auxilia no diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico do choque cardiog&#234;nico. A radiografia de t&#243;rax permite avalia&#231;&#227;o do &#237;ndice cardiotor&#225;cico, al&#233;m de altera&#231;&#245;es pulmonares por congest&#227;o, infec&#231;&#227;o ou tromboembolismo. O ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico &#233; um exame fundamental na avalia&#231;&#227;o do choque cardiog&#234;nico por infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, permitindo diagnosticar altera&#231;&#245;es da contratilidade segmentar e global (hipocinesias, acinesias, discinesias), complica&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas (insufici&#234;ncia mitral, rotura de septo interventricular ou de parede livre, tromboembolismo pulmonar). Em casos de janela ac&#250;stica desfavor&#225;vel e suspeita de complica&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, est&#225; indicada a realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>3. Monitora&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A monitora&#231;&#227;o do paciente em choque cardiog&#234;nico &#233; fundamental para avalia&#231;&#227;o evolutiva da doen&#231;a e do tratamento. S&#227;o vari&#225;veis fundamentais e rotineiramente.monitoradas: ritmo e freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, press&#227;o arterial (n&#227;o invasiva), freq&#252;&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria, oximetria de pulso, temperatura e d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio. </p>
    <p>A press&#227;o arterial deve ser medida de modo invasivo (cateteriza&#231;&#227;o arterial), nas seguintes situa&#231;&#245;es: hipotens&#227;o arterial grave (press&#227;o sist&#243;lica inferior a 80 mmHg) e/ou choque cardiog&#234;nico, uso de agentes vasopressores (classe I), uso de nitroprussiato de s&#243;dio ou de outros vasodilatadores potentes (classe IIa). </p>
    <p>A cateteriza&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar permite avaliar a condi&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica e orientar o tratamento do paciente em choque cardiog&#234;nico de modo mais preciso que o exame cl&#237;nico<sup>123-126</sup>. Suas indica&#231;&#245;es no infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio s&#227;o<sup>127 </sup>choque cardiog&#234;nico, suspeita de complica&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas do infarto, como rotura de m&#250;sculo papilar, rotura de septo interventricular ou tamponamento peric&#225;rdico, hipotens&#227;o arterial n&#227;o responsiva, administra&#231;&#227;o de volume na aus&#234;ncia de congest&#227;o pulmonar, como no infarto de ventr&#237;culo direito. </p>
    <p>Constituem limita&#231;&#245;es &#224; cateteriza&#231;&#227;o arterial pulmonar a variabilidade da interpreta&#231;&#227;o interobservador na an&#225;lise dos tra&#231;ados<sup>128</sup>, com conseq&#252;ente inadequa&#231;&#227;o do tratamento, bem como a ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es potencialmente fatais<sup>129</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4. Tratamento </bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>4.1. Suporte ventilat&#243;rio - </bold>O suporte ventilat&#243;rio no choque cardiog&#234;nico p&#243;s-infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio visa assegurar a pat&#234;ncia das vias a&#233;reas, garantir oxigena&#231;&#227;o adequada e reduzir o trabalho respirat&#243;rio. O primeiro passo &#233; fornecer oxig&#234;nio por cateter ou m&#225;scara de Venturi, em concentra&#231;&#245;es crescentes, com o objetivo de manter a satura&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea superior a 90%. A ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica n&#227;o-invasiva (CPAP ou BiPAP) constitui o passo seguinte, pois, al&#233;m de melhorar a oxigena&#231;&#227;o, reduz o <italic>shunt</italic> pulmonar e tem efeitos hemodin&#226;micos ben&#233;ficos (redu&#231;&#227;o de pr&#233;-carga e p&#243;s-carga, aumento do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco). Estas modalidades ventilat&#243;rias podem reduzir a necessidade de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica invasiva<sup>130</sup>. A ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica invasiva deve ser realizada em caso de fal&#234;ncia da n&#227;o-invasiva, grave instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, arritmias complexas, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica atual, redu&#231;&#227;o do n&#237;vel de consci&#234;ncia e necessidade de seda&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p><bold>4.2. Suporte farmacol&#243;gico - </bold>&#201; fundamental avaliar a condi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica e tratar prontamente a hipovolemia, por meio de cristal&#243;ide, col&#243;ide ou solu&#231;&#227;o hipert&#244;nica. Dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos devem ser corrigidos. Arritmias card&#237;acas requerem aten&#231;&#227;o particular, pois podem precipitar ou agravar o choque. Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial aguda associada &#224; isquemia ou repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica deve ser tratada com cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica, enquanto que situa&#231;&#245;es menos cr&#237;ticas podem ser tratadas com drogas sem efeito inotr&#243;pico negativo significante (digital, amiodarona). Taquicardia ventricular (TV) sustentada ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular devem ser tratadas com cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica (iniciar com 100 J, se TV monom&#243;rfica e 200 J, se TV polim&#243;rfica ou FV; se necess&#225;rio aplicar um segundo choque entre 200 e 300J; se necess&#225;rio aplicar um terceiro choque de 360 J), seguida de droga de manuten&#231;&#227;o (lidoca&#237;na, amiodarona). Com refer&#234;ncia.&#224;s drogas inotr&#243;picas positivas, vasopressoras e vasodilatadoras, as recomenda&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o as mesmas discutidas anteriormente. Antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios devem ser ministrados de rotina aos pacientes com choque cardiog&#234;nico por infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (aspirina, ou em caso de alergia ou intoler&#226;ncia, clopidogrel ou ticlopidina). </p>
    <p><bold>4.3. Terapia de reperfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica -</bold> A despeito de efic&#225;cia reduzida, a tromb&#243;lise pode ser considerada nos pacientes com choque cardiog&#234;nico por infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, caso n&#227;o se disponha de angioplastia ou cirurgia, respeitando suas indica&#231;&#245;es e contra-indica&#231;&#245;es, e, se poss&#237;vel, associada a drogas vasoativas e bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico. Dados da literatura demonstraram que a mortalidade com o uso isolado de trombol&#237;ticos foi de 63%, contra 47% quando. utilizados em associa&#231;&#227;o ao bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico<sup>131</sup>. A angioplastia coronariana percut&#226;nea tamb&#233;m se mostrou capaz de reduzir a mortalidade em compara&#231;&#227;o com tratamento cl&#237;nico<sup>132</sup>. Apesar deste procedimento ser indicado, a princ&#237;pio, para o tratamento da art&#233;ria relacionada ao evento, em pacientes multiarteriais com choque cardiog&#234;nico, pode haver benef&#237;cio na abordagem de todas as les&#245;es proximais. </p>
    <p><bold>4.4. Tratamento cir&#250;rgico -</bold> A cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica encontra-se indicada quando a anatomia coronariana n&#227;o for favor&#225;vel &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea, em pacientes multiarteriais inicialmente tratados com angioplastia de urg&#234;ncia ou em caso de complica&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas do infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio. H&#225; evid&#234;ncias sugerindo que a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica precoce (menos de 6h), seja por angioplastia ou revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica, pode reduzir a mortalidade em 6 meses<sup>133,134</sup>. </p>
    <p><bold>4.5. Suporte mec&#226;nico - </bold>O bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico, pelo mecanismo de contrapulsa&#231;&#227;o, reduz a p&#243;s-carga do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, melhora a perfus&#227;o coronariana na di&#225;stole, promove um aumento de at&#233; 30% no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco<sup>133</sup>, redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade de 32%, quando utilizado isoladamente e de 39%, quando associado a medidas de restabelecimento da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica<sup>134</sup>. Os dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular, usados de forma tempor&#225;ria, substituem a fun&#231;&#227;o do &#243;rg&#227;o, sendo os mais utilizados na atualidade: Roller, BioPump, Sarns, BVS 5000, Thoratec, HeartMate, Novacor, LionHeart.</p>
    <p>C. Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda ou descompensada em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias card&#237;acas e n&#227;o card&#237;acas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab23"><bold>tabela XXIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1.Cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares s&#227;o a causa mais comum de morte em pacientes submetidos a procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos<sup>135,136</sup>, nos quais a ICD e o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio recente s&#227;o os dois maiores preditores de risco perioperat&#243;rio<sup>137,138</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab23">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt17.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A ICD pode se manifestar durante o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio em duas situa&#231;&#245;es: pacientes com ICD que necessitam de interven&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas de urg&#234;ncia, e pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica est&#225;vel que desenvolvem descompensa&#231;&#227;o durante ou ap&#243;s a cirurgia. A mortalidade perioperat&#243;ria na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca guarda rela&#231;&#227;o com a classe funcional<sup>139</sup> e com a presen&#231;a de congest&#227;o pulmonar<sup>140</sup>, especialmente na presen&#231;a de terceira bulha<sup>2</sup>. A ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos adversos no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio relaciona-se &#224; condi&#231;&#227;o do paciente na ocasi&#227;o da cirurgia, mais do que &#224; intensidade da cardiopatia<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p> A melhor recomenda&#231;&#227;o a pacientes com IC aguda ou descompensada candidatos a cirurgias &#233; o adiamento do procedimento, at&#233; que a descompensa&#231;&#227;o esteja resolvida<sup>141</sup>. Apenas as cirurgias de emerg&#234;ncia devem ser realizadas em pacientes com ICD. Naqueles pacientes para os quais a cirurgia &#233; inadi&#225;vel, a avalia&#231;&#227;o perioperat&#243;ria deve ser r&#225;pida, simples e efetiva, centrando-se na verifica&#231;&#227;o de sinais vitais, avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado vol&#234;mico, hemodin&#226;mico e an&#225;lise de exames simples, como eletrocardiograma e radiografia de t&#243;rax. Somente interven&#231;&#245;es essenciais devem ser recomendadas antes do procedimento cir&#250;rgico de emerg&#234;ncia e an&#225;lises mais detalhadas devem ser deixadas para o per&#237;odo p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio. </p>
    <p><bold>Avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial: </bold>Recomenda-se para os pacientes que apresentam ICD durante ou ap&#243;s cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas a dosagem de ur&#233;ia e creatinina, pesquisa de dist&#250;rbios do s&#243;dio e do pot&#225;ssio; dosagem de hemoglobina e hemat&#243;crito; dosagem de CKMB e troponina, quando houver suspeita de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda. </p>
    <p><bold>Eletrocardiograma: </bold>N&#227;o h&#225; estudos que tenham avaliado o eletrocardiograma de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es na avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de pacientes com ICD. Em pacientes assintom&#225;ticos, o achado de ondas q correlacionou-se a eventos adversos, al&#233;m de ter rela&#231;&#227;o com a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo<sup>142,143</sup>. Recomenda-se realiza&#231;&#227;o de eletrocardiograma por ser exame simples, r&#225;pido, de baixo custo. Deve-se ter especial aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de isquemia, bloqueios, arritmias ventriculares e supraventriculares sem controle da resposta ventricular. </p>
    <p><bold>Ecocardiograma: </bold>Estudos demonstraram correla&#231;&#227;o entre eventos perioperat&#243;rios e o achado de fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo inferior a 35%. Entretanto, n&#227;o existem informa&#231;&#245;es que indiquem benef&#237;cio da realiza&#231;&#227;o rotineira de ecocardiograma perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes com IC j&#225; documentada. </p>
    <p>Recomenda-se a realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico em paciente sem ecocardiograma pr&#233;vio conhecido, quando h&#225; suspeita de causa mec&#226;nica como fator precipitante ou contribuinte da IC (ap&#243;s infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, tamponamento card&#237;aco, insufici&#234;ncia valvar, embolia pulmonar), ou em descompensa&#231;&#227;o de IC ap&#243;s cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas. O ecocardiograma pode ser &#250;til na detec&#231;&#227;o de novas &#225;reas de hipocontratilidade e de disfun&#231;&#245;es valvares, sendo m&#233;todo comparativo da fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, diagn&#243;stico no tamponamento card&#237;aco e avaliador da fun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito na suspeita de embolia de pulm&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Poucos estudos avaliaram a utilidade da ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica transoperat&#243;ria em cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas em pacientes com IC descompensada. Alguns estudos sugerem que este procedimento pode ser capaz de detectar isquemia<sup>144</sup>. N&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias que permitam recomendar o uso da ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica em cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas. </p>
    <p><bold>Monitora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica invasiva: </bold>A monitora&#231;&#227;o com cateter de art&#233;ria pulmonar (CAP) objetiva ajustes &#243;timos da perfus&#227;o e oxigena&#231;&#227;o tecidual e tem sido proposta para pacientes em diferentes situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas com resultados conflitantes<sup>145-148</sup>. O uso de CAP foi relacionado a alta freq&#252;&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es e a altos custos<sup>128</sup>, e a sua interpreta&#231;&#227;o possui alta variabilidade entre m&#233;dicos<sup>149</sup>. </p>
    <p>Diferentes estudos prospectivos avaliaram a efic&#225;cia da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o invasiva da art&#233;ria pulmonar em pacientes de alto risco cir&#250;rgico<sup>150-152</sup>. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;as entre os pacientes que receberam terapia guiada por par&#226;metros oferecidos pelo cateter de art&#233;ria pulmonar e os seguidos clinicamente. Metan&#225;lise recente analisou pacientes com trauma, com alto risco cir&#250;rgico submetidos a cirurgias eletivas e com choque s&#233;ptico e sugeriu benef&#237;cio na mortalidade para os pacientes submetidos &#224; otimiza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica<sup>153</sup>. </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225;, entretanto, estudos que tenham avaliado de maneira prospectiva o valor da CAP em pacientes com ICD submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Considerando a gravidade de tais pacientes e at&#233; que haja informa&#231;&#245;es mais precisas, recomenda-se que os seus cuidados perioperat&#243;rios sejam feitos em unidade de terapia intensiva, com ajustes hemodin&#226;micos e de oxigena&#231;&#227;o tecidual guiados por monitora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica invasiva. </p>
    <p><bold>Manejo perioperat&#243;rio: </bold>Os betabloqueadores reduzem a mortalidade em pacientes de risco para doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o, quando administrados durante o per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio<sup>154,155</sup>. Foi descrito, recentemente, o uso de carvedilol durante o per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio em pacientes portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca III e IV (NYHA) submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca<sup>156</sup>. N&#227;o h&#225; estudos que tenham avaliado a introdu&#231;&#227;o de betabloqueadores em paciente com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca submetidos a cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Os betabloquedores devem ser introduzidos antes das cirurgias eletivas em pacientes com ICD e mantidos durante todo o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, especialmente nos portadores de miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica. N&#227;o h&#225;, contudo, informa&#231;&#245;es que permitam a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de in&#237;cio de tal medica&#231;&#227;o para pacientes que n&#227;o a vinham recebendo previamente e que est&#227;o em ICD antecedendo cirurgias de emerg&#234;ncia. </p>
    <p>Os pacientes devem, ainda, ser mantidos o mais pr&#243;ximo da euvolemia, j&#225; que congest&#227;o pulmonar est&#225; associada a maior freq&#252;&#234;ncia de eventos. A congest&#227;o pulmonar &#233; mais comumente causada por excesso de administra&#231;&#227;o de fluido durante cirurgia e, em geral, ocorre 24 a 48h ap&#243;s a cirurgia, quando o paciente &#233; retirado de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica com press&#227;o positiva e h&#225; mobiliza&#231;&#227;o de fluidos acumulados em espa&#231;o extravascular. O uso de diur&#233;ticos, entretanto, deve ser cauteloso, pois a deple&#231;&#227;o do volume intravascular pode precipitar hipotens&#227;o durante anestesia. </p>
    <p>Quando houver evid&#234;ncia de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual (olig&#250;ria, acidose, eleva&#231;&#227;o de lactato, rebaixamento do n&#237;vel da consci&#234;ncia ou hipotens&#227;o) est&#225; recomendado o uso de inotr&#243;picos endovenosos. Inotr&#243;picos t&#234;m sido relacionados a aumento de mortalidade em pacientes portadores de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e, por isso, n&#227;o devem ser usados com car&#225;ter profil&#225;tico durante o per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. </p>
    <p>O uso de bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico (BIAC) de contrapulsa&#231;&#227;o tem sido sugerido para pacientes p&#243;s- infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio submetidos a cirurgias de emerg&#234;ncia<sup>157,158</sup>. N&#227;o h&#225; todavia, estudos randomizados que tenham avaliado o seu uso em pacientes com ICD submetidos &#224; cirurgia de emerg&#234;ncia. Apenas nos indiv&#237;duos que mant&#233;m hipotens&#227;o ou hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual, apesar de uso de inotr&#243;picos, o uso do BIAC deve ser considerado.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Cirurgias card&#237;acas</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, tanto esquerda quanto direita, &#233; fator de risco para pacientes submetidos a cirurgias card&#237;acas. &#192; semelhan&#231;a das cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas, as card&#237;acas devem ser postergadas em pacientes com ICD. Nos pacientes que necessitam de cirurgias de emerg&#234;ncia, deve-se buscar a melhor compensa&#231;&#227;o poss&#237;vel ainda no per&#237;odo pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio. </p>
    <p>Recentemente, estudo retrospectivo com 1586 pacientes sugeriu efeito ben&#233;fico dos betabloqueadores em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular normal submetidos a cirurgias de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica<sup>159</sup>. Trabalho recente sugeriu a administra&#231;&#227;o de betabloqueadores previamente a cirurgias card&#237;acas para reduzir risco perioperat&#243;rio em pacientes portadores de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular por miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica ou valvar. Os betabloquedores devem ser introduzidos antes das cirurgias eletivas em pacientes com ICD j&#225; estabilizados e mantidos durante todo o per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio, especialmente nos portadores de miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica. N&#227;o h&#225;, entretanto, informa&#231;&#245;es que permitam a recomenda&#231;&#227;o de in&#237;cio de tais medica&#231;&#245;es para pacientes que n&#227;o as vinham recebendo previamente e que est&#227;o em ICD antecedendo cirurgias de emerg&#234;ncia. </p>
    <p>Pacientes com ICD que ser&#227;o submetidos &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca devem ser monitorados com cateter de art&#233;ria pulmonar<sup>160,161</sup>. Alguns autores t&#234;m sugerido o uso rotineiro da ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica em cirurgias card&#237;acas<sup>162</sup>; n&#227;o h&#225;, contudo, dados que permitam recomendar o uso rotineiro da ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica intra-operat&#243;ria para pacientes com IC. </p>
    <p>Nos pacientes com hipotens&#227;o ou sinais de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual, o uso de inotr&#243;picos est&#225; indicado. Diferentes estudos compararam os efeitos de inotr&#243;picos em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias card&#237;acas<sup>163,164</sup>; mas n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia que respalde recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para quaisquer deles. Os inibidores da fosfodiesterase, assim como a nitroglicerina t&#234;m sido sugeridos para pacientes com hipertens&#227;o pulmonar pelo seu efeito vasodilatador pulmonar. Quando h&#225; hipotens&#227;o, deve-se usar drogas vasopressoras, como noradrenalina, adrenalina e/ou dopamina. </p>
    <p>Nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca grave e sinais de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual, apesar do uso de inotr&#243;picos endovenosos, deve-se considerar suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico, como terapia de suporte at&#233; recupera&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio (por exemplo, na depress&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica associada &#224; circula&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o-corp&#243;rea), ou at&#233; transplante card&#237;aco. O BIAC tem sido recomendado para pacientes com obstru&#231;&#227;o de tronco de coron&#225;ria esquerda<sup>165</sup>, na insufici&#234;ncia mitral em estado de baixo d&#233;bito p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio<sup>166</sup>. Nos pacientes em que os sinais de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e de hipoperfus&#227;o tecidual s&#227;o intensos desde o in&#237;cio, ou naqueles em que houve falha do BIAC em restaurar a perfus&#227;o tecidual, deve-se considerar o implante de suporte ventricular artificial<sup>167,168</sup>. </p>
    <p>D. Mioc&#225;rdio atordoado e hibernado (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab24"><bold>tabela XXIV</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na miocardiopatia isqu&#234;mica, as altera&#231;&#245;es da contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica decorrem tanto de fibrose tecidual como de disfun&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas vi&#225;veis, em combina&#231;&#245;es vari&#225;veis. O mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel apresenta disfun&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica potencialmente revers&#237;vel, podendo ser classificado em atordoado (<italic>stunned</italic>) e hibernado (<italic>hibernating</italic>). Enquanto a hipocontratilidade do mioc&#225;rdio atordoado persiste apesar de ter havido reperfus&#227;o, no hibernado representa uma adapta&#231;&#227;o a hipofluxo cr&#244;nico. Diversos estudos demonstraram potencial de melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o por meio de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes com identifica&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria de segmentos vi&#225;veis<sup>169-175</sup>. Assim, em pacientes com IC isqu&#234;mica, a avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica &#233; importante para verificar reversibilidade parcial ou total da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular com tratamento cir&#250;rgico. Cabe ressaltar, no entanto, que estes estudos foram realizados em pacientes est&#225;veis. At&#233; o presente momento, n&#227;o h&#225; dados na literatura sobre avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes com ICD. Os exames de viabilidade devem ser realizados ap&#243;s estabiliza&#231;&#227;o do quadro cl&#237;nico.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab24">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt18.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>2. M&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica </bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>2.1. Ecocardiografia sob estresse com dobutamina</bold><sup>176,177</sup>. O mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel tem sua reserva contr&#225;til (capacidade de resposta a inotr&#243;pico) preservada. Segmentos com disfun&#231;&#227;o - hipocin&#233;ticos graves, acin&#233;ticos ou discin&#233;ticos - tipicamente apresentam resposta bif&#225;sica &#224; dobutamina, melhorando a contratilidade em doses baixas e piorando com o incremento da dose. A sensibilidade varia de 75 a 80%, enquanto que a especificidade varia de 80-85%. Este m&#233;todo tem alto valor preditivo positivo (85%) e negativo (93%), mas requer experi&#234;ncia do avaliador e janela tor&#225;cica adequada. </p>
    <p><bold>2.2. Cintilografia com t&#225;lio-201</bold><sup>178,179</sup>. Enquanto a capta&#231;&#227;o inicial deste tra&#231;ador depende primordialmente de perfus&#227;o, a capta&#231;&#227;o tardia (ap&#243;s 24 horas) decorre da integridade da membrana celular do mioc&#225;rdio hibernado. Apresenta alta sensibilidade (85-90%), mas sua especificidade relativamente baixa (65-70%) pode superestimar o potencial de recupera&#231;&#227;o regional. O valor preditivo positivo &#233; de 33%, enquanto que o negativo &#233; de 94%. </p>
    <p><bold>2.3. Tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons (PET)</bold><sup>180,181</sup>. O tra&#231;ador FDG F-18 &#233; um an&#225;logo da glicose captado por c&#233;lulas metabolicamente ativas. A viabilidade fica demonstrada quando ocorre discord&#226;ncia entre fluxo e metabolismo. Tamb&#233;m tem especificidade inferior (70-75%) &#224; ecocardiografia sob estresse com dobutamina. Considerado padr&#227;o-ouro na avalia&#231;&#227;o de viabilidade mioc&#225;rdica, este m&#233;todo &#233; limitado pelo custo elevado e disponibilidade limitada. </p>
    <p><bold>2.4. Resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica</bold><sup>182,183</sup>. Pode ser combinada a estresse com dobutamina para avalia&#231;&#227;o da reserva contr&#225;til. Apresenta sensibilidade de 81% e especificidade de 95%. Tem alta resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial, permitindo discrimina&#231;&#227;o entre &#225;reas com altera&#231;&#227;o transmural e n&#227;o-transmural. </p>
    <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre viabilidade, aumento da contratilidade, melhora do quadro cl&#237;nico e melhora do progn&#243;stico est&#225; por ser demonstrada em estudos prospectivos randomizados.</p>
    <p>E. Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab25"><bold>tabela XXV</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes com IC apresentam nenhum ou m&#237;nimo comprometimento da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, sendo, por exclus&#227;o, diagnosticados como portadores de IC diast&#243;lica<sup>184-187</sup>. Assume-se a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca diast&#243;lica como aquela relacionada a aumento na resist&#234;ncia ao enchimento diast&#243;lico em parte ou em todo o cora&#231;&#227;o. Diferentes condi&#231;&#245;es podem levar &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Enfocam-se, na presente an&#225;lise, as causas mioc&#225;rdicas<sup>188,189</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab25">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt19.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p><bold>1. Diagn&#243;stico:</bold> A despeito da falta de crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos e ecocardiogr&#225;ficos, a apresenta&#231;&#227;o de IC num paciente com fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica preservada representa, provavelmente, insufici&#234;ncia diast&#243;lica. A incorpora&#231;&#227;o da dosagem do pept&#237;deo atrial natriur&#233;tico tipo-B pode aumentar a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica<sup>190</sup>. Deve-se atentar para alguns princ&#237;pios gerais no tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia diast&#243;lica: reduzir a sobrecarga vol&#234;mica, controlar a press&#227;o arterial e aliviar isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Drogas que bloqueiam o sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona s&#227;o particularmente atraentes com base em estudos de fisiopatologia. </p>
    <p><bold>2. Medidas gerais:</bold> A terapia medicamentosa envolve, geralmente, o uso de diur&#233;ticos e agentes inotr&#243;picos negativos. Os bloqueadores do canal de c&#225;lcio e os betabloqueadores mostraram benef&#237;cio para aumentar a capacidade f&#237;sica e, em pequenos estudos e an&#225;lises de subgrupos, reduzir a mortalidade<sup>188</sup>. No estudo conduzido pelo <italic>Digoxin Investigators Group</italic><sup>191</sup>, a digoxina mostrou impacto na redu&#231;&#227;o nas taxas de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o para pacientes com e sem disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica (acredita-se que mecanismo envolvido seja o controle da freq&#252;&#234;ncia ventricular). Para pacientes em fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, o restabelecimento do ritmo sinusal e da contra&#231;&#227;o atrial organizada pode melhorar o enchimento diast&#243;lico<sup>192</sup>. </p>
    <p>Estudos cl&#237;nicos e experimentais revelaram que bloqueio do sistema renina-angiotensina-aldosterona pode melhorar o desempenho diast&#243;lico, tendo em vista o papel delet&#233;rio da angiotensina II no relaxamento ventricular<sup>141,193,194</sup>. O tratamento em curto prazo com losartan parece estar associado a melhora na toler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio, talvez por redu&#231;&#227;o na p&#243;s-carga<sup>195</sup>. Ademais, nos casos em que a hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE) &#233; o elemento principal da disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, indutores de regress&#227;o da hipertrofia parecem ter benef&#237;cio. O estudo <italic>Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction in Arterial Hypertension</italic> (LIFE)<sup>23,196 </sup>demonstrou, em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o associada &#224; HVE (diagnosticada ao ECG), redu&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, quando comparado ao atenolol. &#201; poss&#237;vel que o losartan tenha a&#231;&#227;o ben&#233;fica na regress&#227;o de fibrose mioc&#225;rdica e redu&#231;&#227;o da rigidez de parede <sup>24,197</sup>. Atualmente, est&#227;o sendo conduzidos in&#250;meros estudos multic&#234;ntricos, randomizados, placebo-controlados, visando a avaliar o papel dos inibidores de convers&#227;o &#224; angiotensina, antagonistas do receptor de angiotensina e betabloqueadores nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca diast&#243;lica <sup>25,188</sup>. O candersartan pode reduzir hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca diast&#243;lica<sup>198</sup>. </p>
    <p><bold>3. Terapias em investiga&#231;&#227;o:</bold> Aldosterona parece ser importante no desenvolvimento de fibrose, tanto no remodelamento da IC sist&#243;lica como no desenvolvimento da HVE. No estudo <italic>Randomized Aldactone (spironolactone) Evaluation Study for Congestive Heart Failure</italic> (RALES)<sup>199</sup>, direcionado para disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, os pacientes do grupo placebo com os maiores valores s&#233;ricos de marcadores de degrada&#231;&#227;o do col&#225;geno tiveram a pior evolu&#231;&#227;o, mas foram os que melhor responderam ao uso da espironolactona. N&#227;o se sabe se tamanho benef&#237;cio poderia ser observado em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. </p>
    <p><bold>4. Co-morbidades:</bold> A hipertens&#227;o arterial constitui o maior fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de IC congestiva. Sendo assim, &#233; imprescind&#237;vel o controle rigoroso da press&#227;o arterial nestes pacientes. Eventualmente, a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca diast&#243;lica pode exigir investiga&#231;&#227;o completa para isquemia coronariana. Epis&#243;dios isqu&#234;micos podem levar &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica por meio de altera&#231;&#227;o no relaxamento ventricular, o que pode resultar em congest&#227;o pulmonar. Terapia medicamentosa e revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio (percut&#226;nea ou cir&#250;rgica) reduzem sintomas e podem prolongar a sobrevida de pacientes com DAC, que devem ser tratados de acordo com diretrizes atuais<sup>200</sup>.</p>
    <p>F. Edema agudo de pulm&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab26"><bold>tabela XXVI</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Os pacientes que se apresentam com edema agudo de pulm&#227;o (EAP) tendem a ser mais idosos, mais hipertensos e com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda preservada<sup>24,28,17,124</sup>. Os epis&#243;dios de EAP, com freq&#252;&#234;ncia, est&#227;o associados &#224; isquemia (transmural ou subendoc&#225;rdica) e/ou a mau controle diet&#233;tico e/ou press&#243;rico. Este grupo, de modo geral, n&#227;o &#233; bem representado nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos, o que leva a uma pequena aplicabilidade das informa&#231;&#245;es neles contidas. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab26">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt20.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Geralmente, a melhora da oxigena&#231;&#227;o pode ser alcan&#231;ada com o paciente em posi&#231;&#227;o sentada e com administra&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio atrav&#233;s de m&#225;scaras de alto fluxo. Recentemente, tem sido proposto que o uso de ventila&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva com press&#227;o positiva (VNI) pode melhorar a troca de oxig&#234;nio<sup>201</sup>. </p>
    <p>Dois estudos prospectivos, randomizados foram realizados com esse prop&#243;sito. No primeiro<sup>202</sup>, a VNI foi comparada ao uso de nitratos em altas doses. O estudo foi interrompido, precocemente, em virtude do excesso de eventos adversos e efic&#225;cia reduzida no bra&#231;o VNI. Por outro lado, foi demonstrado<sup>203 </sup>melhor controle do edema pulmonar com VNI, se comparada ao tratamento conservador. Seu uso, portanto, deve ser considerado como uma estrat&#233;gia alternativa e reservada aos pacientes que n&#227;o responderam ao suprimento convencional de oxig&#234;nio e terapia medicamentosa. </p>
    <p>H&#225; muito que se considera a furosemida e a morfina como o tratamento padr&#227;o do EAP. Estudo recente<sup>204</sup> randomizou pacientes para receber doses baixas de nitrato e <italic>bolus </italic>de 80mg de furosemida, ou 40mg de furosemida e altas doses de nitrato administradas em <italic>bolus</italic> repetidos de 3mg de dinitrato de isossorbida endovenoso (EV). O estudo mostrou que altas doses de nitrato EV s&#227;o claramente superiores &#224; furosemida no tratamento do EAP. </p>
    <p>Estudos recentes<sup>124,205-207 </sup>mostraram que o mais importante preditor de sucesso terap&#234;utico imediato (medido alcan&#231;ando-se satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio maior do que 95%, em 60min) foi a habilidade de reduzir a press&#227;o arterial em 15 a 30% em 15 a 30min. Isto representa uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica, o que corrobora para a import&#226;ncia da r&#225;pida arteriodilata&#231;&#227;o como objetivo prim&#225;rio no tratamento do EAP. </p>
    <p>Entretanto, nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda, nos quais a reserva mioc&#225;rdica &#233; reduzida, a vasodilata&#231;&#227;o inapropriada pode levar a uma queda importante na press&#227;o arterial, o que pode resultar em instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, isquemia, insufici&#234;ncia renal e choque. Portanto, &#233; imprescind&#237;vel a aten&#231;&#227;o sobre monitora&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial. Recomenda-se reduzir a dose das medica&#231;&#245;es em caso de queda da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica para menos de 90-100 mmHg e descontinuar se houver nova queda. Logo, durante as primeiras 24 horas, a dose vasodilatadora deve ser progressivamente reduzida de maneira a prevenir epis&#243;dios recorrentes de vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o inapropriada. </p>
    <p>A escolha da droga a ser utilizada para prevenir novos epis&#243;dios de descompensa&#231;&#227;o, ap&#243;s a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o inicial nos pacientes admitidos por insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda, ainda n&#227;o est&#225; bem definida. Os nitratos nunca foram avaliados em estudos prospectivos randomizados. Recentemente, duas classes de vasodilatadores foram desenvolvidas para o tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda, sendo que os antagonistas da endotelina, de a&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, est&#227;o sob investiga&#231;&#227;o em fase II. Estudos maiores s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para verificar seu papel exato na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda. A segunda classe de vasodilatadores &#233; constitu&#237;da dos pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos. A primeira droga investigada num estudo cl&#237;nico foi a niseritida<sup>93</sup>. A droga mostrou-se eficaz em melhorar o escore subjetivo de dispn&#233;ia bem como em induzir vasodilata&#231;&#227;o significante, tendo sido aprovada, recentemente, pelo FDA para o tratamento da IC aguda. Outro grupo de drogas usado durante os primeiros dias ap&#243;s a estabiliza&#231;&#227;o inicial &#233; constitu&#237;do pelos diur&#233;ticos. Embora com benef&#237;cio testado na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, o seu uso excessivo pode ser delet&#233;rio<sup>205,206</sup>. Estudo recente comparou baixas doses de dopamina com altas doses de furosemida EV em pacientes com epis&#243;dio de descompensa&#231;&#227;o refrat&#225;ria<sup>207</sup>. O estudo foi descontinuado em raz&#227;o de eventos adversos significativos no bra&#231;o furosemida. Portanto, a dose de furosemida administrada aos pacientes com ICD deve ser titulada visando &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas e da congest&#227;o sem desencadear efeitos adversos.</p>
    <p>G. Miocardiopatia periparto (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab27"><bold>tabela XXVII</bold></xref>)  </p>
    <p>A miocardiopatia periparto (CMP) &#233; doen&#231;a rara, grave, com mortalidade que gira em torno de 18 a 56%<sup>208</sup>, de etiologia desconhecida, estando sua ocorr&#234;ncia relacionada ao ciclo grav&#237;dico-puerperal<sup>209,210</sup>. Ocorre em mulheres sem cardiopatia pr&#233;via, desde o &#250;ltimo trimestre da gravidez at&#233; 6 meses ap&#243;s o parto. Estima-se que a incid&#234;ncia seja de 1/1.435 a 1/15.000 partos, o que acometeria de 1.000 a 1.300 mulheres por ano nos Estados Unidos. Os fatores de risco s&#227;o multiparidade, gravidez gemelar, idade avan&#231;ada da gestante, pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia, hipertens&#227;o gestacional e ra&#231;a negra. Seu diagn&#243;stico requer a exclus&#227;o de outras causas de miocardiopatia e &#233; confirmado pela disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular sist&#243;lica pelo ecocardiograma. A bi&#243;psia endomioc&#225;rdica pode ser indicada, se houver refratariedade ao tratamento e pode mostrar miocardite.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab27">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt21.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>H. Miocardites (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab28"><bold>tabela XXVIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>A miocardite &#233; definida como uma inflama&#231;&#227;o do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco, freq&#252;entemente causada por um agente infeccioso, que, usualmente, compromete os mi&#243;citos, interst&#237;cio, elementos vasculares e o peric&#225;rdio. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab28">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt22.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A agress&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ocorre basicamente por tr&#234;s mecanismos: 1) les&#227;o mediada imunologicamente, provavelmente o principal mecanismo<sup>211</sup>; 2) a&#231;&#227;o direta sobre o mioc&#225;rdio; 3) produ&#231;&#227;o de uma toxina mioc&#225;rdica (ex: difteria). </p>
    <p>A suspeita diagn&#243;stica deve ser feita na presen&#231;a de uma IC aguda, ap&#243;s um quadro infeccioso, ou hist&#243;ria de curta dura&#231;&#227;o. A express&#227;o cl&#237;nica de uma miocardite varia desde um quadro oligossintom&#225;tico at&#233; IC fulminante. Entre os achados, um dos mais caracter&#237;sticos &#233; taquicardia desproporcional &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da temperatura, quase sempre acompanhada de terceira bulha, sopro de regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral e arritmias. Os principais agentes associados com miocardites s&#227;o virais (adenov&#237;rus, arbov&#237;rus, <italic>coxsackievirus</italic>, citomegalov&#237;rus, <italic>echovirus</italic>, v&#237;rus da hepatite, da imunodefici&#234;ncia humana, influenza, poliomielite e <italic>mycoplasma pneumoniae); </italic>riqu&#233;tsias (tifo end&#234;mico e febre Q); infec&#231;&#245;es bacterianas (estreptococos, estafilococos, pneumococos, hem&#243;filos e difteria); infec&#231;&#245;es parasit&#225;rias (cisticercose, toxoplasmose, esquistossomose tripanossom&#237;ase) e infec&#231;&#245;es f&#250;ngicas (asgergilose, actinomicose, blastomicose e candid&#237;ase). </p>
    <p>As conseq&#252;&#234;ncias tardias das miocardites podem estar relacionadas &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o da auto-imunidade celular e humoral. Sendo assim, alguns autores acreditam que a imunossupress&#227;o possa ser ben&#233;fica em casos selecionados. A imunossupress&#227;o tem importante papel no tratamento de pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca por doen&#231;a auto-imune, como na esclerodermia, lupus eritematoso, polimiosite ou sarco&#237;dose. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o endovenosa de imunoglobulina, contudo, n&#227;o demonstrou efeito ben&#233;fico na imunossupress&#227;o<sup>212-214</sup>.</p>
    <p>I. Ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab29"><bold>tabela XXIX</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab30"><bold>XXX</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab31"><bold>XXXI</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>A s&#237;ndrome de IC no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de transplante card&#237;aco pode ser decorrente de v&#225;rias situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, podendo se manifestar tanto no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato como no seguimento tardio &#201; importante considerar as altera&#231;&#245;es eletrofisiol&#243;gicas e hemodin&#226;micas da denerva&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, assim como os efeitos da hipertens&#227;o pulmonar do receptor sobre o desempenho funcional do enxerto<sup>215</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab29">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt23.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab30"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e07.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab31"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e08.jpg"/></p>
    <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda no per&#237;odo de p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato com ICD &#233; geralmente grave e pode estar relacionada a: </p>
    <p> 1. m&#225; preserva&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica correlacionada com a solu&#231;&#227;o cardiopl&#233;gica, contus&#245;es card&#237;acas, uso de altas doses de catecolaminas, tempo de isquemia e uso de solu&#231;&#245;es inadequadas para preserva&#231;&#227;o; manuten&#231;&#227;o inadequada do doador. </p>
    <p>2. bradiarritmias, cujas principais causas s&#227;o rejei&#231;&#227;o aguda celular e humoral, influ&#234;ncia da linha de sutura, manipula&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica pr&#243;xima ao n&#243; sinusal, isquemia do enxerto, influ&#234;ncia de drogas usadas no pr&#233;-operat&#243;rio (betabloqueadores e amiodarona). </p>
    <p>3. rejei&#231;&#227;o aguda, causa freq&#252;ente de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e/ou biventricular no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de transplante card&#237;aco, principalmente quando presente o componente humoral. A rejei&#231;&#227;o humoral &#233; grave, de elevada mortalidade, e caracteriza-se por vasculite, edema, necrose e dep&#243;sito de imunocomplexos e complementos nos capilares<sup>216</sup>. </p>
    <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita &#233; respons&#225;vel por cerca de 50% das complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas do p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e por 19% do total de &#243;bitos precoces. A causa principal da inadapta&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito &#233; a hipertens&#227;o pulmonar e a m&#225; preserva&#231;&#227;o do enxerto<sup>217,218</sup>. Tardiamente, a IC pode ser devida &#224; doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto, rejei&#231;&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide. A doen&#231;a vascular do enxerto &#233; a principal complica&#231;&#227;o tardia ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco. O aparecimento de IC aguda decorre de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, usualmente assintom&#225;tico, j&#225; que os pacientes s&#227;o denervados. </p>
    <p>J. Valvopatias (<xref ref-type="table" rid="a01tab32"><bold>tabela XXXII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <table-wrap id="a01tab32">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt24.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    </p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a de IC significa hist&#243;ria natural mais avan&#231;ada e subentende poss&#237;vel corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica. </p>
    <p>O manuseio farmacol&#243;gico da IC na valvopatia tem por objetivo ajustar a condi&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica pela otimiza&#231;&#227;o da pr&#233; e p&#243;s-carga, al&#233;m de a&#231;&#245;es sobre a contratilidade do mioc&#225;rdio, freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e corre&#231;&#227;o de eventuais fatores de descompensa&#231;&#227;o<sup>219</sup>.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Estenose mitral (EM)</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Sintomas de IC na EM est&#227;o relacionados &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea valvar, aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o pulmonar.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Insufici&#234;ncia mitral (IM)</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A presen&#231;a de sintomas de IC na vig&#234;ncia de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular normal ou em assintom&#225;ticos com preju&#237;zo na fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou ainda em pacientes com IM aguda sintom&#225;tica determina corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica<sup>220</sup>. O tratamento da regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral &#233; introduzido para al&#237;vio dos sintomas at&#233; o tratamento operat&#243;rio e para prevenir complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>3. Estenose a&#243;rtica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O tratamento cl&#237;nico da IC na estenose a&#243;rtica (EAO) n&#227;o altera a hist&#243;ria natural e a necessidade de cirurgia. A base do tratamento &#233; o controle dos fatores precipitantes da IC enquanto aguarda corre&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4. Insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Na insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica aguda, n&#227;o h&#225; tempo para a adapta&#231;&#227;o ventricular e ocorre s&#250;bita eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica ventricular esquerda, seguida de edema pulmonar e, por vezes, choque.</p>
    <p>L. Cardiopatia chag&#225;sica descompensada (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab33"><bold>tabela XXXIII</bold></xref>)  </p>
    <p> A cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica pode se apresentar na sua fase cr&#244;nica como s&#237;ndrome de IC, arritmog&#234;nica e tromboemb&#243;lica<sup>221</sup>. Tais formas de apresenta&#231;&#227;o podem ocorrer isoladamente ou associadas, sendo mais freq&#252;ente a concomit&#226;ncia de IC e arritmias<sup>2</sup>. Embora rara, na fase aguda a miocardiopatia chag&#225;sica, tamb&#233;m pode se manifestar mais freq&#252;entemente como s&#237;ndrome de IC. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab33">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt25.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p> A IC na fase cr&#244;nica, usualmente, evolui lentamente, surgindo em m&#233;dia ap&#243;s 20 anos ou mais da infec&#231;&#227;o aguda. Uma fal&#234;ncia card&#237;aca biventricular, com predom&#237;nio dos sintomas relacionados ao maior comprometimento do ventr&#237;culo direito &#233; a forma mais freq&#252;ente de apresenta&#231;&#227;o. O diagnostico da miocardiopatia chag&#225;sica se baseia em dados epidemiol&#243;gicos, demonstra&#231;&#227;o direta de anticorpos contra ant&#237;genos do <italic>Trypanossoma cruzi,</italic> ou testes sorol&#243;gicos (imunofluoresc&#234;ncia indireta, hemaglutina&#231;&#227;o indireta, fixa&#231;&#227;o do complemento e teste imunoenzim&#225;tico). Sugerem o diagn&#243;stico a presen&#231;a ao ECG de bloqueio completo de ramo direto e bloqueio &#226;ntero-superior do ramo esquerdo, e ecocardiograma com aneurisma apical no ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, com ou sem trombo e uma acinesia p&#243;stero-basal. Pacientes com IC devida &#224; miocardiopatia chag&#225;sica geralmente tem progn&#243;stico pior do que outras etiologias, alta preval&#234;ncia de miocardite e dist&#250;rbios de condu&#231;&#227;o ou bradiarritmias. </p>
    <p>O tratamento da ICD secund&#225;ria &#224; doen&#231;a de Chagas habitualmente segue o mesmo tratamento para outras etiologias. Entretanto, devido as suas particularidades &#233; poss&#237;vel que pacientes com ICD e doen&#231;a de Chagas n&#227;o tenham a mesma resposta terap&#234;utica. N&#227;o existe, at&#233; o momento, evid&#234;ncias na literatura quanto a efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a do uso de betabloqueadores na cardiopatia chag&#225;sica. Essa doen&#231;a ocorre junto com alta preval&#234;ncia de bloqueios atrioventriculares avan&#231;ados e bradiarritmias que podem ser agravadas com o uso de betabloqueadores. Se decidido pela sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o, depois da compensa&#231;&#227;o ou na forma ICD persistente, deve haver cuidados redobrados. Refer&#234;ncia deve ser feita ao emprego de benzonidazol na reativa&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a ou na forma aguda. O transplante card&#237;aco para o tratamento da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca parece ter melhores resultados do que outra etiologia<sup>222</sup>.</p>
    <p>M. Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em feto, lactente e crian&#231;a (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab34"><bold>tabela XXXIV</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab35"><bold>XXXV</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>A causa mais freq&#252;ente de IC em lactentes e crian&#231;as s&#227;o os defeitos card&#237;acos cong&#234;nitos, com incid&#234;ncia anual de 0,1 a 0,2% de nascidos vivos<sup>223</sup>. As principais causas de IC s&#227;o<sup>224</sup>: (1) defeitos cong&#234;nitos (por desvio de sangue de esquerda para direita; les&#245;es obstrutivas do fluxo sist&#234;mico, como hipoplasia de cora&#231;&#227;o esquerdo, interrup&#231;&#227;o de arco a&#243;rtico e coarcta&#231;&#227;o de aorta; f&#237;stulas arteriovenosas extracard&#237;acas, levando a aumento das c&#226;maras direitas; origem an&#244;mala da art&#233;ria coronariana esquerda); (2) tamponamento card&#237;aco; (3) disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular por miocardite aguda, apresenta&#231;&#227;o aguda de cardiomiopatias cong&#234;nitas, adquiridas (por erros inatos do metabolismo, distrofias musculares, infec&#231;&#227;o, drogas, toxinas, doen&#231;a de Kawasaki), mitocondriopatias, defici&#234;ncias nutricionais e idiop&#225;ticas, febre reum&#225;tica<sup>225</sup>; (4) arritmias; (5) insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no feto; (6) disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ap&#243;s corre&#231;&#227;o de defeitos card&#237;acos (no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio imediato ap&#243;s circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea ou na evolu&#231;&#227;o tardia); (7) ap&#243;s transplante card&#237;aco ortot&#243;pico (fal&#234;ncia prim&#225;ria do enxerto, hipertens&#227;o pulmonar, rejei&#231;&#227;o celular, rejei&#231;&#227;o humoral, doen&#231;a coronariana p&#243;s-transplante) e (8) s&#237;ndrome de Eisenmenger. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab34">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt26.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab35"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e09.jpg"/></p>
    <p>As manifesta&#231;&#245;es clinicas da ICD em lactentes, apresentam como sintomas mais comuns taquipn&#233;ia, taquicardia, baixa aceita&#231;&#227;o alimentar. Outros sinais incluem hepatomegalia e ritmo de galope, no exame f&#237;sico. A presen&#231;a de retra&#231;&#245;es intercostais, sudorese e palidez pode indicar imin&#234;ncia de colapso circulat&#243;rio. Os pulsos e a press&#227;o arterial devem ser avaliados nos quatro membros. Cardiomegalia, edema pulmonar podem ser visibilizados na telerradiografia de t&#243;rax. Crian&#231;as maiores podem exibir taquicardia e taquipn&#233;ia, por&#233;m a manifesta&#231;&#227;o t&#237;pica &#233; fadiga e intoler&#226;ncia ao exerc&#237;cio. Falta de apetite, dificuldade de crescimento, desenvolvimento s&#227;o tamb&#233;m freq&#252;entes na hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica. Podem-se observar distens&#227;o venosa e edema perif&#233;rico. Adolescentes apresentam sintomas semelhantes aos adultos. Utiliza-se a classifica&#231;&#227;o modificada pela <italic>New York Heart Association</italic><sup>226</sup> para crian&#231;as e a escala de Ross para lactentes<sup>227</sup>. </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab34">tabela XXXIV</xref> ilustra avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica<sup>228</sup>. </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab35">tabela XXXV</xref> mostra as principais recomenda&#231;&#245;es<sup>229</sup> para tratamento de defeitos card&#237;acos cong&#234;nitos<sup>230</sup>, cardiomiopatias<sup>231</sup>, miocardite<sup>232</sup>, baixo d&#233;bito ap&#243;s corre&#231;&#227;o de defeitos cong&#234;nitos<sup>233</sup>, transplante card&#237;aco<sup>234</sup>, s&#237;ndrome de Eisenmenger, arritmias e cardiopatias fetais.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>VII. Tratamento cir&#250;rgico e estrat&#233;gias mec&#226;nicas no tratamento da ICD </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A ICD pode resultar de complica&#231;&#245;es de v&#225;rias afec&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas que podem ser tratadas cirurgicamente ou invasivamente por cateteres. A insufici&#234;ncia coronariana aguda, as bradi e taquiarritmias e a descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda de afec&#231;&#245;es das valvas card&#237;acas ou de miocardiopatias avan&#231;adas s&#227;o suas causas mais freq&#252;entes. Por causa da alta mortalidade observada, a terap&#234;utica cir&#250;rgica deve ser sempre considerada em complemento &#224; terap&#234;utica cl&#237;nica, quando esta n&#227;o apresenta uma resposta favor&#225;vel. Entretanto, qualquer interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica deve ser baseada no diagn&#243;stico imediato para avaliar o tipo e a gravidade da afec&#231;&#227;o, bem como os fatores envolvidos no seu progn&#243;stico. As op&#231;&#245;es cir&#250;rgicas de tratamento incluem a revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio, a corre&#231;&#227;o das complica&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, a reconstru&#231;&#227;o ou substitui&#231;&#227;o valvar, o transplante card&#237;aco, os procedimentos sobre o peric&#225;rdio, o implante de marcapassos ou de desfibriladores autom&#225;ticos, bem como o emprego tempor&#225;rio de dispositivos mec&#226;nicos de suporte circulat&#243;rio.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>A. Procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos </bold>
    </p>
    <p>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab36"><bold>tabela XXXVI</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab37"><bold>XXXVII</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab38"><bold>XXXVIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>A ICD decorrente do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ou de suas complica&#231;&#245;es evolui, freq&#252;entemente, com quadros de choque cardiog&#234;nico e edema pulmonar. Nos casos de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o complicado, as medidas cl&#237;nicas e /ou. revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea constituem os procedimentos de primeira escolha. A indica&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; reservada para os pacientes que evoluem com choque cardiog&#234;nico e evid&#234;ncia de isquemia e que apresentam anatomia desfavor&#225;vel para angioplastia percut&#226;nea. Da mesma forma, s&#227;o inclu&#237;dos aqueles que tenham sido submetidos a este procedimento sem sucesso, desde que tenham art&#233;rias coronarianas com leito distal favor&#225;vel para a abordagem cir&#250;rgica<sup>235-237</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab36">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt27.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab37"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e10.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab38"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e11.jpg"/></p>
    <p>O tratamento cir&#250;rgico &#233; sempre considerado nas complica&#231;&#245;es do infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio que evoluem com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, como comunica&#231;&#227;o interventricular<sup>238</sup> e insufici&#234;ncia valvar mitral decorrente da rotura ou disfun&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;sculo papilar<sup>239</sup>. Nessas condi&#231;&#245;es, a cirurgia deve ser desencadeada com urg&#234;ncia, sendo importante a melhor estabiliza&#231;&#227;o poss&#237;vel durante o preparo, inclusive com o suporte do BIAC. </p>
    <p>A cardiopatia isqu&#234;mica pode tamb&#233;m ser acompanhada de quadros de IC cr&#244;nica, que podem necessitar a indica&#231;&#227;o de terap&#234;utica cir&#250;rgica durante as fases de descompensa&#231;&#227;o, associadas ou n&#227;o com aneurisma de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. </p>
    <p>As valvopatias que evoluem com quadro de ICD s&#227;o, geralmente, decorrentes de les&#245;es de grande magnitude e de ocorr&#234;ncia aguda. Nesta situa&#231;&#227;o, podem-se incluir a regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica aguda, que est&#225; normalmente associada &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia da dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, a insufici&#234;ncia da valva mitral por rotura de folhetos ou de componentes do aparelho subvalvar e as insufici&#234;ncias valvares decorrentes da endocardite infecciosa. As estenoses valvares tamb&#233;m podem ser respons&#225;veis por quadros de descompensa&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca nas fases finais da evolu&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica da afec&#231;&#227;o. Como as valvopatias podem levar ao choque cardiog&#234;nico e ao edema pulmonar geralmente por altera&#231;&#245;es da mec&#226;nica circulat&#243;ria, o tratamento cir&#250;rgico deve ser indicado desde que n&#227;o exista comprometimento irrevers&#237;vel da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular<sup>240</sup>. Em todas estas situa&#231;&#245;es, idealmente, o quadro cl&#237;nico deve ser estabilizado antes do procedimento cir&#250;rgico, inclusive com a coloca&#231;&#227;o do BIAC, quando este n&#227;o estiver contra-indicado. </p>
    <p>O tratamento cir&#250;rgico de pacientes portadores de doen&#231;as do mioc&#225;rdio que evoluem com ICD tem no transplante card&#237;aco a sua principal op&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab39">tabela XXXIX</xref>)<sup>241</sup>. Procedimentos alternativos t&#234;m sido investigados, mas atualmente apenas a corre&#231;&#227;o da insufici&#234;ncia mitral funcional tamb&#233;m tem sido indicada no tratamento das miocardiopatias de origem isqu&#234;mica ou idiop&#225;tica<sup>242</sup>. A realiza&#231;&#227;o do transplante card&#237;aco pode tamb&#233;m ser considerada em pacientes que apresentem instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica refrat&#225;ria &#224; terap&#234;utica medicamentosa durante o p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca ou ap&#243;s o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, desde que n&#227;o existam outras alternativas cir&#250;rgicas de tratamento. A necessidade de espera para a obten&#231;&#227;o do &#243;rg&#227;o, por outro lado, leva, eventualmente, ao emprego de dispositivos mec&#226;nicos de assist&#234;ncia circulat&#243;ria como ponte para o transplante. Finalmente, as contra-indica&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas ao transplante devem ser sempre consideradas na discuss&#227;o de sua indica&#231;&#227;o. Procedimentos paliativos podem ser indicados em casos selecionados. (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab40">tabela XL</xref>).</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab39">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt28.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <table-wrap id="tab40">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt29.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <bold>B. Procedimentos cir&#250;rgicos para arritmias e bloqueios </bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter para tratamento de taquiarritmias card&#237;acas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab41"><bold>tabela XLI</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p>Em um grupo espec&#237;fico de pacientes com taquiarritmias, a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular pode instalar-se, com subseq&#252;ente desenvolvimento de ICD descompensada, na aus&#234;ncia de outra causa detect&#225;vel. Esta disfun&#231;&#227;o revers&#237;vel, causada por arritmias cr&#244;nicas, &#233; denominada taquimiocardiopatia. Qualquer taquiarritmia supraventricular, ao ocorrer, por longo per&#237;odo, com elevada freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e/ou com irregularidade do ritmo card&#237;aco, ou uma taquicardia ventricular apresentando-se de modo incessante podem levar &#224; taquimiocardiopatia. Em outros pacientes, a taquiarritmia pode agravar uma miocardiopatia j&#225; instalada. Em ambas as circunst&#226;ncias, a taquiarritmia pode ser diagnosticada e/ou tornar-se sintom&#225;tica na vig&#234;ncia de um quadro de ICD<sup>243-245</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab41">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt30.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter, utilizando-se energia de radiofreq&#252;&#234;ncia, est&#225; indicada e &#233; empregada com bons resultados (90 a 99% de &#234;xito) nos portadores de vias acess&#243;rias, na taquicardia nodal reentrante AV, na taquicardia atrial e no <italic>flutter</italic> atrial<sup>246</sup>. A FA est&#225; presente em 15 a 30% dos pacientes portadores de IC. Embora com a introdu&#231;&#227;o de betabloqueadores seja mais f&#225;cil o controle da resposta ventricular, em alguns casos refrat&#225;rios, este controle pode ser obtido com a abla&#231;&#227;o da jun&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular, acompanhada de implante de marca-passo definitivo<sup>247-249</sup>. </p>
    <p>A taquicardia ventricular incessante pode decorrer de pr&#243;-arritmia e acometer, principalmente, aqueles pacientes portadores de cardiopatia estrutural, tais como a de etiologia chag&#225;sica ou a isqu&#234;mica, com comprometimento grave da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Ela tamb&#233;m pode apresentar-se em pacientes com IC avan&#231;ada e candidatos ao transplante card&#237;aco. Raramente, pacientes sem cardiopatia estrutural de base podem apresentar-se com piora gradativa da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ao serem acometidos, cronicamente, por taquicardia ventricular incessante idiop&#225;tica. A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter deve ser considerada nestes casos, tendo um &#234;xito em torno de 85%. Ao restaurar-se o ritmo sinusal, espera-se que haja uma melhora gradual e progressiva da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. O implante de cardioversor/desfibrilador implant&#225;vel est&#225; contra-indicado na taquicardia ventricular incessante.</p>
    <p>2. Estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab42"><bold>tabela XLII</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab43"><bold>XLIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Bradiarritmias importantes podem, eventualmente, levar &#224; ICD, sendo o bloqueio AV total a anomalia encontrada na maior parte destes pacientes. Desde que n&#227;o seja decorrente de fatores revers&#237;veis, tais como drogas, dist&#250;rbios hidro-eletrol&#237;ticos e/ou metab&#243;licos, o implante de marcapasso definitivo est&#225; indicado. Nos casos de recupera&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea da condu&#231;&#227;o AV, como ap&#243;s o infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, existindo a d&#250;vida quanto ao n&#237;vel do bloqueio e quanto ao risco de progress&#227;o para bloqueio AV total, indica-se o estudo eletrofisiol&#243;gico. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab42">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt31.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab43"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e12.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Recentes ensaios multic&#234;ntricos, prospectivos e randomizados demonstraram, em pacientes com IC com predom&#237;nio de CF III e dura&#231;&#227;o aumentada do complexo QRS, que a estimula&#231;&#227;o biventricular pode melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e a qualidade de vida. Houve tamb&#233;m redu&#231;&#227;o significativa das reinterna&#231;&#245;es por IC. Todavia, cerca de 20 a 30% dos pacientes podem n&#227;o apresentar melhora cl&#237;nica, o que deve ser levado em considera&#231;&#227;o devido ao custo deste tratamento<sup>250,251</sup>. Alguns trabalhos sugerem que o benef&#237;cio possa ser menor na cardiomiopatia isqu&#234;mica<sup>252,253</sup>. Em todos os estudos, os pacientes tamb&#233;m s&#243; foram inclu&#237;dos ap&#243;s otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento cl&#237;nico para IC e estando com as mesmas dosagens dos medicamentos por, pelo menos, trinta dias. Desta forma, n&#227;o existem estudos espec&#237;ficos a respeito do uso desta terap&#234;utica em pacientes com ICD.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>C. Suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Entende-se por suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico qualquer medida auxiliar tempor&#225;ria para manuten&#231;&#227;o das condi&#231;&#245;es circulat&#243;rias essenciais ao organismo. Os dispositivos mec&#226;nicos de suporte circulat&#243;rio t&#234;m sido empregados com os objetivos de propiciar a recupera&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio e de servir de ponte para a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um procedimento cir&#250;rgico corretivo ou de um transplante card&#237;aco. Estes dispositivos incluem o BIAC, as bombas de fluxo cont&#237;nuo, os ventr&#237;culos artificiais paracorp&#243;reos ou implant&#225;veis e o cora&#231;&#227;o artificial total. </p>
    <p>Bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico (BIAC) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab44"><bold>tabela XLIV</bold></xref>): O BIAC &#233; capaz de implementar o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco prim&#225;rio do paciente de 10 a 30%, reduzir a resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica (p&#243;s-carga), melhorando globalmente a perfus&#227;o. O seu emprego est&#225; bem estabelecido na literatura<sup>254-257</sup>, devendo ser indicado no tratamento do choque cardiog&#234;nico de dif&#237;cil revers&#227;o com terap&#234;utica farmacol&#243;gica. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab44">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt32.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>As contra-indica&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para o uso do BIAC incluem apenas a insufici&#234;ncia valvar a&#243;rtica e as afec&#231;&#245;es da aorta tor&#225;cica. Nas doen&#231;as da aorta abdominal e seus ramos, pode-se realizar sua inser&#231;&#227;o pela art&#233;ria subcl&#225;via ou atrav&#233;s da aorta ascendente, nas situa&#231;&#245;es em que o t&#243;rax est&#225; aberto. </p>
    <p>Dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia circulat&#243;ria mec&#226;nica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab45"><bold>tabela XLV</bold></xref>): As bombas de fluxo cont&#237;nuo funcionam impulsionando o sangue unidirecionalmente, sem a necessidade da interposi&#231;&#227;o de v&#225;lvulas. Essas bombas s&#227;o implantadas em paralelo com a circula&#231;&#227;o esquerda ou direita, atrav&#233;s de c&#226;nulas exteriorizadas atrav&#233;s do t&#243;rax. A sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o &#233; restrita a um per&#237;odo m&#233;dio de uma semana, em decorr&#234;ncia das limita&#231;&#245;es do fluxo cont&#237;nuo e da pouca mobilidade permitida ao paciente. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab45">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt33.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os ventr&#237;culos artificiais s&#227;o dispositivos constitu&#237;dos por uma c&#226;mara valvulada, com um diafragma que se move ejetando o sangue para fora da &#225;rea de bombeamento e o aspirando ao voltar &#224; posi&#231;&#227;o inicial. Os ventr&#237;culos paracorp&#243;reos, de acionamento pneum&#225;tico, podem ser implantados em paralelo com a circula&#231;&#227;o esquerda ou direita, atrav&#233;s de c&#226;nulas suturadas nas estruturas card&#237;acas e exteriorizadas na regi&#227;o abdominal. Apesar de serem localizados externamente, proporcionam uma mobilidade relativa ao paciente, sendo capazes de manter a circula&#231;&#227;o por v&#225;rios meses. Os ventr&#237;culos implant&#225;veis, de acionamento eletromec&#226;nico, s&#227;o utilizados apenas na assist&#234;ncia &#224; circula&#231;&#227;o esquerda, sendo suturados diretamente nas estruturas card&#237;acas e tendo exteriorizado apenas o cabo de fornecimento de energia. A sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o pode ser mantida por per&#237;odos superiores a um ano. O cora&#231;&#227;o artificial total &#233; implantado em substitui&#231;&#227;o ao cora&#231;&#227;o do pr&#243;prio paciente. Existem v&#225;rios tipos de acionamento, sendo o mais comum o pneum&#225;tico. </p>
    <p>A indica&#231;&#227;o e a sele&#231;&#227;o dos dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia total &#224; circula&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o invariavelmente influenciadas pela sua disponibilidade e pela experi&#234;ncia da equipe cir&#250;rgica. As situa&#231;&#245;es nas quais o emprego destes dispositivos &#233; justificado s&#227;o apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab45">tabela XLV</xref><sup>258-261</sup>. Com rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso destes dispositivos, v&#225;rios fatores est&#227;o relacionados a mau progn&#243;stico p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio e devem ser considerados como contra-indica&#231;&#245;es: idade &gt;65 anos; epis&#243;dio de embolia pulmonar no &#250;ltimo m&#234;s; entuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal prolongada (per&#237;odo &gt;48h); epis&#243;dio de reanima&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar nas &#250;ltimas 24h; seq&#252;ela neurol&#243;gica aguda; insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda ou cr&#244;nica, com creatinina &gt;2,5mg/dl e/ou ur&#233;ia &gt;100 mg/dl; disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica, com bilirrubinas totais &gt;3mg/dl e quadro infeccioso ativo. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>VIII. Tratamento de pacientes com condi&#231;&#245;es especiais e co-morbidades </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A. Tromboembolismo pulmonar (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab46"><bold>tabela XLVI</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab47"><bold>XLVII</bold></xref>)</p>
    <p>Pacientes com IC t&#234;m risco aumentado de tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP), o que constitui causa relativamente freq&#252;ente de descompensa&#231;&#227;o. As condi&#231;&#245;es predisponentes s&#227;o: baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco atrav&#233;s de cavidades dilatadas; hipocontratilidade dos ventr&#237;culos; anormalidades na cin&#233;tica segmentar; superf&#237;cie endoc&#225;rdica modificada ap&#243;s infarto do mioc&#225;rdio ou miocardiopatias inflamat&#243;rias ou infiltrativas; estado de hipercoagulabilidade e a presen&#231;a de FA<sup>262,263</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab46">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt34.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab47"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e13.jpg"/></p>
    <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita est&#225; presente em cerca de 50% dos casos e constitui marcador de mau progn&#243;stico, principalmente nos pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica. Diferente dos pacientes sem IC pr&#233;via, pequenos &#234;mbolos podem causar grande repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica na presen&#231;a de IC. Cerca de 90% dos pacientes em choque tinha doen&#231;a cardiopulmonar pr&#233;via, enquanto 56% dos pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiopulmonar pr&#233;via se apresentaram em choque, comparados com 2% nos pacientes sem essa condi&#231;&#227;o<sup>264</sup>. Obstru&#231;&#227;o maci&#231;a <underline>&gt;</underline> 50% &#233; incomum nesta popula&#231;&#227;o, o que sugere que pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiopulmonar pr&#233;via, acometidos de TEP maci&#231;o, com freq&#252;&#234;ncia, n&#227;o sobrevivem para serem inclu&#237;dos nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos. </p>
    <p>A exata incid&#234;ncia e preval&#234;ncia de TEP relacionado &#224; IC ainda &#233; controversa, sendo que os dados divergem entre estudos cl&#237;nicos e de aut&#243;psias<sup>76,265-269</sup>. Nos estudos VHeF-T e SOLVD, a propor&#231;&#227;o de TEP foi similar a eventos sist&#234;micos, 10%-20%, por&#233;m diferente de AVC, 60%-80%<sup>270</sup>. </p>
    <p>O diagn&#243;stico de TEP em pacientes com IC deve ser sempre avaliado, pesquisando-se o relato de hemoptise, dor tor&#225;cica ou tosse persistente. Fatores de risco associados a estes eventos, como FA, fen&#244;meno emb&#243;lico pr&#233;vio ou diagn&#243;stico por imagem de trombo intracavit&#225;rio, devem ser valorizados. Os sinais e sintomas padr&#245;es utilizados para estimar a gravidade do evento emb&#243;lico em pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiopulmonar subjacente podem n&#227;o ser indicadores confi&#225;veis. A presen&#231;a de choque cardiog&#234;nico (PA sist&#243;lica =90mmHg) est&#225; associada com aumento de 3 a 7 vezes na mortalidade, com a maioria dos &#243;bitos ocorrendo na primeira hora de apresenta&#231;&#227;o. &#201; necess&#225;ria uma r&#225;pida integra&#231;&#227;o da hist&#243;ria e exame f&#237;sico sugestivos com exames laboratoriais e, subseq&#252;entemente, o estabelecimento de uma estrat&#233;gia diagn&#243;stica e terap&#234;utica em um curto per&#237;odo de tempo. Todos os pacientes devem ser submetidos a uma telerradiografia do t&#243;rax, para excluir outras morbidades que podem simular TEP. A ecodopplercardiografia &#233; um exame muito &#250;til, por poder ser realizado &#224; beira do leito, n&#227;o ser invasivo, possibilitar diferenciar a causa do choque e reconhecer as caracter&#237;sticas do TEP. A realiza&#231;&#227;o de uma cintilografia pulmonar de ventila&#231;&#227;o-perfus&#227;o em pacientes criticamente doentes pode ser dif&#237;cil. A tomografia computadorizada helicoidal vem sendo utilizada para substituir, progressivamente, a angiografia pulmonar para confirma&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico, podendo substituir o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico e o transesof&#225;gico. A angiografia pulmonar &#233; considerada o padr&#227;o ouro para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico, entretanto &#233; invasiva, tem custo elevado, requer profissionais experientes e nem sempre est&#225; dispon&#237;vel. Os n&#237;veis de d&#237;mero D est&#227;o elevados na presen&#231;a de um evento tromboemb&#243;lico agudo, mas n&#227;o s&#227;o suficientes para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de TEP, entretanto o teste negativo pode excluir o diagn&#243;stico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab46">tabela XLVI</xref>). </p>
    <p>Na fase precoce de avalia&#231;&#227;o, os pacientes requerem estabiliza&#231;&#227;o e terapia agressiva<sup>271,272 </sup>(<xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab47">tabela XLVII</xref>). Hipoxemia (refrat&#225;ria) n&#227;o revertida com altas concentra&#231;&#245;es de oxig&#234;nio necessita assist&#234;ncia ventilat&#243;ria mec&#226;nica; hipotens&#227;o arterial que n&#227;o reverte com reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica requer terapia inotr&#243;pica. A terapia trombol&#237;tica tem sido considerada.a op&#231;&#227;o de escolha em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, com ou sem disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita, ficando a embolectomia reservada para aqueles casos em que a tromb&#243;lise est&#225; contra-indicada. Outras indica&#231;&#245;es potenciais de trombol&#237;ticos s&#227;o a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular direita, hipoxemia grave, insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria e trombose ileofemoral maci&#231;a. A heparina fracionada ou n&#227;o fica reservada para os casos sem instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica.</p>
    <p>B. Anemia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab48"><bold>tabela XLVIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Embora a anemia (e sua corre&#231;&#227;o) seja uma co-morbidade bem conhecida em v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, incluindo isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, s&#243; recentemente, o seu papel na IC tem sido reconhecido como fator progn&#243;stico independente de morbidade e mortalidade, mas sua fisiopatologia ainda n&#227;o est&#225; bem estabelecida. Diversos mecanismos est&#227;o implicados em seu aparecimento: (1) defici&#234;ncia de ferro por baixa ingesta, m&#225;-absor&#231;&#227;o ou perda cr&#244;nica, principalmente nas miocardiopatias isqu&#234;micas com uso de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios, os quais levam a perdas digestivas por sangramento; (2) co-morbidades, como o diabete, hipertens&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica associadas; (3) perdas urin&#225;rias de eritropoietina e transferrina; (4) uso de inibidores da ECA<sup>273</sup>; (5) atividade aumentada das citocinas, ocasionando depress&#227;o medular<sup>274</sup>; e (6) hemodilui&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab48">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt35.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Aproximadamente 50% dos pacientes com ICD s&#227;o an&#234;micos (Hb&lt;12 g/dl e/ ou Ht &lt;37%). A preval&#234;ncia, bem como a gravidade aumentam com a classe funcional (CF) da IC (NYHA), com estudos apontando uma percentagem de pacientes an&#234;micos de 52,6% na CF III e 79,1% na CF IV<sup>275,276</sup>, sendo mais comum entre os idosos, mulheres, hipertensos e na presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a renal associada<sup>277-279</sup>. Anemia e insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica s&#227;o fatores progn&#243;sticos independentes para mortalidade em pacientes com IC e s&#227;o associadas com piora dos sintomas e redu&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional<sup>280-282</sup>. </p>
    <p>Anemia grave e aguda costuma ser bem tolerada em cora&#231;&#245;es normais em repouso, por&#233;m a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana piora a capacidade do mioc&#225;rdio de adaptar-se a essas condi&#231;&#245;es, visto que a anemia pode predispor o mioc&#225;rdio a isquemia, atordoamento repetitivo, apoptose e necrose, contribuindo para a progress&#227;o da dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular e IC<sup>283,284</sup>. </p>
    <p>A s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal &#233; um c&#237;rculo vicioso que ocorre na IC, causada por baixo fluxo, levando &#224; insufici&#234;ncia renal e subseq&#252;ente redu&#231;&#227;o na produ&#231;&#227;o de eritropoietina, o que ocasiona anemia. A disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e a anemia levam &#224; exacerba&#231;&#227;o da hip&#243;xia mioc&#225;rdica e perif&#233;rica, ao aumento do retorno venoso, aumento do trabalho card&#237;aco e hipertrofia ventricular esquerda. A hip&#243;xia leva ainda a ativa&#231;&#227;o dos neuro-horm&#244;nios e citocinas que, por si s&#243;, exacerbam a anemia, agravando o ciclo vicioso. A anemia piora a IC que agrava a insufici&#234;ncia renal e reduz ainda mais a produ&#231;&#227;o de eritropoietina. </p>
    <p>N&#227;o h&#225; ainda evid&#234;ncias suficientes sobre transfus&#245;es sang&#252;&#237;neas para tratamento de ICD em pacientes an&#234;micos. A maioria das Diretrizes recomenda transfus&#245;es sang&#252;&#237;neas para pacientes que n&#227;o est&#227;o criticamente doentes, somente quando n&#237;veis de hemoglobina est&#227;o abaixo de 8 a 7g/dl. Entretanto, deve-se individualizar e rastrear os pacientes de alto risco que podem se beneficiar de transfus&#227;o, tais como os idosos, coronarianos e portadores de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica (IRC), cujos n&#237;veis de hemoglobina devem ser mantidos por volta de 10g/dl<sup>285,286</sup>. A eritropoietina &#233; fator de crescimento glicoprot&#233;ico, produzido pelos rins para regular a produ&#231;&#227;o de gl&#243;bulos vermelhos. Foi utilizada, originalmente, em pacientes an&#234;micos com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica (IRC) em tratamento dial&#237;tico ou pr&#233;-di&#225;lise, com sucesso. Um estudo prospectivo, com 26 pacientes com IC grave e anemia (Hb&lt;12 g%) considerados resistentes ao tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado, o uso de eritropoietina subcut&#226;nea e ferro endovenoso aumentou os n&#237;veis de Hb de 10,16 &#177; 0,95 para 12,10&#177;1,21g/dl, ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de 7,2&#177;5,5 meses, com subseq&#252;ente melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular de 27,7&#177;4,8 para 35,4 &#177;7,6, redu&#231;&#227;o das hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es de 91,9%<sup>287</sup>.</p>
    <p>C. Insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab49"><bold>tabela XLIX</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="fn" rid="tab50"><bold>L</bold></xref>, e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab51"><bold>LI</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o as que mais contribuem para morbidade e mortalidade de pacientes ur&#234;micos. A mortalidade por DCV &#233; aumentada de 10-20 vezes, sendo que a preval&#234;ncia de IC &#233; 12 a 36 vezes superior nos pacientes em terapia substitutiva renal do que na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, sendo respons&#225;vel por at&#233; 50% das mortes na fase final da doen&#231;a. A etiologia da IC na IRC &#233; multifatorial: uremia, n&#237;veis elevados de c&#225;lcio, fosfato, diabete, hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica (HAS) e doen&#231;a coronariana. As altera&#231;&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas observadas s&#227;o hipertrofia ventricular esquerda (HVE), les&#245;es arteriais degenerativas, envolvendo art&#233;rias coronarianas e, menos freq&#252;entemente, pericardites e valvopatias calcificadas<sup>288</sup>. Apesar desta popula&#231;&#227;o estar exclu&#237;da dos grandes estudos sobre preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria e secund&#225;ria, acredita-se que, mesmo na fase avan&#231;ada da doen&#231;a, tratamentos espec&#237;ficos para HAS, anemia, hiperparatireoidismo e dislipidemia tamb&#233;m t&#234;m se mostrado ben&#233;ficos<sup>289,290</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab49">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt36.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <fn id="tab50">
        <p>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e14.jpg"/></p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab51"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e15.jpg"/></p>
    <p><bold>Corre&#231;&#227;o da anemia em IC e IRC: </bold>Alguns dados indicam que a corre&#231;&#227;o da anemia com Hb &lt;10g/dl, com conseq&#252;ente melhora da IC, est&#225;, freq&#252;entemente, associada com lentid&#227;o ou estabiliza&#231;&#227;o da progress&#227;o da IRC<sup>291</sup>, mesmo em pacientes diab&#233;ticos<sup>292</sup>, melhorando a qualidade de vida e a capacidade de exerc&#237;cio, sem impacto na mortalidade<sup>293</sup>. </p>
    <p>A anemia &#233; considerada como fator de risco independente para disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, risco de hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es por IC e descompensa&#231;&#245;es recorrentes e mortalidade em pacientes com IRC em terap&#234;utica dial&#237;tica<sup>294</sup>. As seguintes medidas s&#227;o importantes: (1) intensifica&#231;&#227;o da di&#225;lise com sess&#245;es de ultrafiltra&#231;&#227;o se necess&#225;rio, no sentido de restabelecer a volemia ideal, melhorar os n&#237;veis de ur&#233;ia e dist&#250;rbios eletrol&#237;ticos; (2) instituir tratamento da HAS associada, importante fator predisponente para descompensa&#231;&#227;o da IC; (3) tratamento da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica quando presente; (4) o uso de IECA ou inibidor da angiotensina II est&#225; indicado em pacientes em programa de di&#225;lise, independente dos n&#237;veis de creatinina; (5) digit&#225;licos devem ser usados com cautela e os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos devem ser monitorados freq&#252;entemente; (6) o uso de IECA est&#225; contra-indicado em pacientes com creatinina s&#233;rica <underline>&gt;</underline> 2,5 mg/dL e/ou pot&#225;ssio s&#233;rico <underline>&gt;</underline> 5,5 mEq/L que n&#227;o se encontram em terap&#234;utica dial&#237;tica, podendo ser substitu&#237;do pela associa&#231;&#227;o de hidralazina com nitrato.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>D. Insufici&#234;ncia renal agravada </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A maioria dos pacientes com IC cr&#244;nica, de gravidade suficiente para resultar em hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o, tem anormalidades da fun&#231;&#227;o renal. A disfun&#231;&#227;o renal pode ser secund&#225;ria &#224; baixa perfus&#227;o renal, doen&#231;a renal intr&#237;nseca ou &#224;s pr&#243;prias drogas utilizadas no tratamento da IC, podendo agravar-se durante a descompensa&#231;&#227;o aguda da IC e sua terapia. A causa da insufici&#234;ncia renal no contexto da ICD parece estar associada a uma intera&#231;&#227;o cardiorrenal complexa, que vai al&#233;m de apenas d&#233;bito card&#237;aco reduzido<sup>295</sup>. </p>
    <p>Doen&#231;as associadas, tais como aterosclerose, HAS, <italic>diabetes mellitus</italic> e amiloidose, podem causar doen&#231;a renal intr&#237;nseca. V&#225;rios outros fatores podem contribuir para uma hipoperfus&#227;o renal: queda do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, redu&#231;&#227;o do fluxo sangu&#237;neo renal, press&#227;o elevada nas veias renais, causada pela eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o no &#225;trio direito e regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide<sup>296,297</sup>. Aumento de subst&#226;ncias vasoconstritoras circulantes-norepinefrina, endotelina e angiotensina- constitui fator que contribui para a disfun&#231;&#227;o renal. Al&#233;m disso, a libera&#231;&#227;o e/ou sensibilidade alterada de vasodilatadores end&#243;genos, tais como pept&#237;deos natriur&#233;ticos e &#243;xido n&#237;trico, pode afetar a fun&#231;&#227;o renal<sup>298-230</sup>. </p>
    <p> Al&#233;m das altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas, a terapia para IC pode influenciar a fun&#231;&#227;o renal diretamente. A fun&#231;&#227;o renal pode piorar com o tratamento com diur&#233;ticos ou IECA, embora essas altera&#231;&#245;es, geralmente, sejam transit&#243;rias e revers&#237;veis. Disfun&#231;&#227;o renal persistente ou progressiva est&#225; associada com deteriora&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a renal de base e progn&#243;stico reservado. A despeito dessas potenciais intera&#231;&#245;es adversas, a maioria dos pacientes com IC tolera disfun&#231;&#227;o renal leve a moderada, sem necessidade de suspens&#227;o de medicamentos. Entretanto, se a creatinina s&#233;rica aumentar acima de 3mg/dL, a presen&#231;a de insufici&#234;ncia renal pode limitar a efic&#225;cia do tratamento e predispor &#224; intoxica&#231;&#227;o por f&#225;rmacos estabelecidos para o tratamento da IC. Pacientes com n&#237;veis de creatinina maior que 5mg/dL, geralmente, requerem di&#225;lise ou hemofiltra&#231;&#227;o para controle da reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica, redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de uremia/ hiperpotassemia e para permitir o uso de medica&#231;&#245;es necess&#225;rias para o tratamento adequado da IC<sup>301,302</sup>. </p>
    <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es renais podem ter impacto na terapia da IC. A disfun&#231;&#227;o renal pode resultar em suspens&#227;o dos diur&#233;ticos e IECA antes de se atingir o tratamento &#243;timo, com redu&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es de enchimento em n&#237;veis considerados ideais e com subseq&#252;ente manuten&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas de congest&#227;o. Os IECA s&#227;o ben&#233;ficos, mesmo em pacientes com n&#237;veis moderadamente elevados de creatinina<sup>303</sup>. Uma pr&#225;tica comum &#233; utilizar os n&#237;veis de ur&#233;ia e creatinina como &#237;ndices de perfus&#227;o global durante diurese progressiva. Altera&#231;&#245;es leves nos n&#237;veis de ur&#233;ia e creatinina podem ser interpretadas, equivocadamente, como uma redu&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco decorrente de excesso de diurese, levando a uma redu&#231;&#227;o da intensidade da terapia, apesar de press&#245;es de enchimento elevadas. Existem evid&#234;ncias de que eleva&#231;&#245;es discretas nos n&#237;veis de ur&#233;ia e creatinina raramente indicam uma redu&#231;&#227;o no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, mas, usualmente, refletem outros fatores cardiorrenais. Pacientes recebendo terapia considerada &#243;tima, com freq&#252;&#234;ncia, t&#234;m eleva&#231;&#245;es de ur&#233;ia e creatinina da ordem de 10% a 20%<sup>304</sup>. At&#233; o momento, n&#227;o existem recomenda&#231;&#245;es nas Diretrizes acerca dos n&#237;veis basais de creatinina, filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular estimada de creatinina, ou limites de aumento aceit&#225;veis durante a terapia. Entretanto, pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal, definida como aumento <underline>&gt;</underline> de 25% nos n&#237;veis de creatinina, alcan&#231;ando n&#237;veis <underline>&gt;</underline>2,5mg/dL, merecem aten&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa. Existem poucas op&#231;&#245;es dispon&#237;veis para aliviar os sintomas de congest&#227;o em pacientes que desenvolvem disfun&#231;&#227;o renal progressiva durante a terapia de IC. Ultrafiltra&#231;&#227;o ou hemodi&#225;lise podem ser indicadas com o objetivo de melhorar o conforto e qualidade de vida.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>E. Apn&#233;ia do sono na insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca </bold>
    </p>
    <p>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab52"><bold>tabela LII</bold></xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab53"><bold>LIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Apn&#233;ia obstrutiva e apn&#233;ia central ou padr&#227;o respirat&#243;rio do tipo Cheyne-Stockes s&#227;o comuns na IC, e a fisiopatologia destas duas condi&#231;&#245;es est&#225; intimamente relacionada. A abordagem convencional da avalia&#231;&#227;o e manejo da IC necessita ser modificada, em vista das evid&#234;ncias crescentes de que os transtornos respirat&#243;rios do sono aumentam o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es e aceleram a progress&#227;o da IC, constituindo-se em fatores de risco independentes de mortalidade na IC<sup>305</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab52">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt37.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab53"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e16.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Durante o sono, no est&#225;gio da aus&#234;ncia do movimento ocular r&#225;pido (ocupando 85% do per&#237;odo total do sono), observa-se redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade simp&#225;tica, das taxas metab&#243;licas, da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, da press&#227;o arterial e do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco<sup>306,307</sup>. A apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono &#233; causada pelo colapso da faringe durante o sono, que ocorre, principalmente, em indiv&#237;duos obesos, sonolentos durante o dia, que apresentam a voz anasalada<sup>308</sup>. A recorr&#234;ncia de apn&#233;ia obstrutiva durante o sono proporciona momentos de hip&#243;xia e hipercapnia, com eleva&#231;&#227;o exagerada da press&#227;o negativa intrat&#243;racica (levando a um aumento da p&#243;s-carga e redu&#231;&#227;o da pr&#233;-carga e, conseq&#252;entemente, diminui&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco) com libera&#231;&#227;o intensa da atividade simp&#225;tica, inibi&#231;&#227;o da atividade vagal, eleva&#231;&#227;o de mediadores inflamat&#243;rios, eleva&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo e subseq&#252;ente eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e da art&#233;ria pulmonar e aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>309-311</sup>. Estas altera&#231;&#245;es podem predispor ao aparecimento de arritmias, isquemia, apoptose, remodelamento adverso e progress&#227;o da ICD. </p>
    <p>Para o diagn&#243;stico de certeza da apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono, h&#225; necessidade da utiliza&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica chamada de polissonografia que apresenta o inconveniente de ser um exame dispendioso e, portanto, n&#227;o se prestar para a utiliza&#231;&#227;o generalizada nos pacientes com IC. A terap&#234;utica geral destes pacientes inclui perda de peso, abstin&#234;ncia de &#225;lcool e sedativos que predisp&#245;em ao colapso da faringe durante o sono e uso de press&#227;o respirat&#243;ria cont&#237;nua, positiva nasal ou oral, quando indicada. Adicionalmente, deve-se tratar a hipertens&#227;o e s&#237;ndrome plurimetab&#243;lica. N&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncia de que os f&#225;rmacos utilizados no tratamento da ICD tenham qualquer impacto na gravidade da apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono. Nenhum ensaio randomizado sobre IC avaliou o impacto da apn&#233;ia do sono nos desfechos cardiovasculares. Entretanto, a aboli&#231;&#227;o aguda da apn&#233;ia obstrutiva do sono pelo CPAP em pacientes com IC previne recorr&#234;ncia de hip&#243;xia, pode aumentar fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, reduzir di&#226;metros ventriculares, a press&#227;o arterial, freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca noturna e a sensibilidade do barorreflexo arterial.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Apn&#233;ia central durante o sono ou respira&#231;&#227;o de Cheyne-Stokes </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O padr&#227;o respirat&#243;rio de Cheyne-Stokes (PRCS) &#233; caracterizado por um aumento da freq&#252;&#234;ncia ventilat&#243;ria, seguido de hipoventila&#231;&#227;o at&#233; a apn&#233;ia. &#201; encontrado em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso central, em indiv&#237;duos que ascendem a grandes altitudes, pacientes com IC e est&#225; associado a mau progn&#243;stico. Apesar de descrito h&#225; muitos anos, s&#243; mais recentemente o seu mecanismo fisiopatog&#234;nico vem sendo melhor compreendido. Parece existir uma inadapta&#231;&#227;o e retardo na capta&#231;&#227;o de sinais sang&#252;&#237;neos relacionados &#224; concentra&#231;&#227;o de PaO<sub>2</sub> e PaCO<sub>2</sub> entre os receptores pulmonares e os corpos carot&#237;deos, em fun&#231;&#227;o do baixo d&#233;bito circulat&#243;rio existente na IC<sup>312</sup>. </p>
    <p>O tratamento espec&#237;fico para PRCS vem se consolidando na ultima d&#233;cada<sup>313</sup>. A suplementa&#231;&#227;o de O<sub>2</sub> nasal diminui os epis&#243;dios de apn&#233;ia, reduz as catecolaminas urin&#225;rias, melhora a capacidade respirat&#243;ria e a CF da IC<sup>314</sup>. Entretanto, n&#227;o existem ensaios cl&#237;nicos que analisaram o impacto na mortalidade. Considerando que a PRCS &#233; uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o da IC avan&#231;ada, a primeira considera&#231;&#227;o seria otimizar o tratamento da pr&#243;pria IC. Um tratamento agressivo com diur&#233;tico para abaixar as press&#245;es de enchimento, administra&#231;&#227;o de IECA e betabloqueadores podem reduzir a gravidade da apn&#233;ia central do sono, por&#233;m pode resultar alcalose metab&#243;lica do uso excessivo de diur&#233;ticos e predispor a PRCS. Se o PRCS persistir apesar da otimiza&#231;&#227;o do tratamento da ICD, outras interven&#231;&#245;es devem consideradas: (1) oxigenoterapia noturna pode abolir a apn&#233;ia associada &#224; hip&#243;xia, aliviar a PRCS, reduzir n&#237;veis de norepinefrinas noturnas e melhorar o VO2 max; (2) a CPAP foi testada em estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados em pacientes com IC e reduz a pr&#233; e p&#243;s carga card&#237;aca, reduz a atividade simp&#225;tica, melhora a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o, a regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral e a qualidade de vida.</p>
    <p>F. Disfun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab54"><bold>tabela LIV</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1.S&#237;ndrome do T3 baixo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As doen&#231;as da tire&#243;ide constituem co-morbidades que podem estar associadas &#224; s&#237;ndrome da IC<sup>315</sup>. Mais de 80% do horm&#244;nio biologicamente ativo tri-iodotironina (T3) &#233; derivado da convers&#227;o perif&#233;rica do pr&#243;- horm&#244;nio tiroxina (T4), o qual &#233; secretado pela gl&#226;ndula tire&#243;ide. Pelo menos 30% dos pacientes com IC t&#234;m baixas concentra&#231;&#245;es circulantes de T3 livre e eleva&#231;&#245;es dos n&#237;veis de T3 reverso (rT3), sem aumento compensat&#243;rio da concentra&#231;&#227;o de TSH. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o proporcionais ao grau da CF da IC, correlacionando-se com a gravidade da doen&#231;a<sup>316</sup>. Na IC, ocorre uma redu&#231;&#227;o da convers&#227;o perif&#233;rica do T4 em T3, resultando na s&#237;ndrome do T3 baixo ou do eutireoideu doente, que &#233; descrito na ICD<sup>317-320</sup>. A integridade funcional desse eixo hormonal n&#227;o est&#225; completamente elucidada, embora uma atenua&#231;&#227;o da resposta do TSH ao TRH tenha sido descrita. Em pacientes com IC avan&#231;ada, uma baixa rela&#231;&#227;o entre T3/rT3 est&#225; associada com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular grave, sendo um preditor de mau progn&#243;stico em curto prazo. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab54">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt38.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Tentativas iniciais de melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca com horm&#244;nio tireoidiano, administrado em pacientes com IC grave, parecem promissoras<sup>321,322</sup>. Essas observa&#231;&#245;es sugerem que a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de T3 em doen&#231;as n&#227;o tireoidianas afeta de forma adversa a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, e os pacientes se beneficiam da reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal, &#224; semelhan&#231;a do hipotireoidismo. A inabilidade dos pacientes com doen&#231;a n&#227;o tireoidiana em converter T4 em T3, talvez devido a um aumento na interleucina 6 e uma queda na atividade da deiodinase hep&#225;tica tipo I, sugere que a reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal deve ser feita com T3, em doses para normalizar os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos. Embora j&#225; existam pequenos estudos sugerindo que a administra&#231;&#227;o de T3 venoso &#233; ben&#233;fica em pacientes com IC avan&#231;ada, mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para estabelecer recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para o tratamento.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>2. Hipertireoidismo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Pacientes com hipertireoidismo podem se apresentar, ocasionalmente, com dispn&#233;ia de esfor&#231;o ou outros sinais e sintomas de IC. Eventualmente, pacientes com hipertireoidismo cr&#244;nico e grave podem apresentar d&#233;ficit grave da contratilidade card&#237;aca, baixo d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, sintomas e sinais de IC, terceira bulha e congest&#227;o pulmonar. Esta &#233; uma situa&#231;&#227;o complexa que ocorre, geralmente, em decorr&#234;ncia de taquicardia persistente ou FA. &#201; de extrema import&#226;ncia o pronto reconhecimento e adequado manejo das manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas em pacientes acima de 50 anos de idade, porque as complica&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas constituem a principal causa de morte ap&#243;s tratamento do hipertireoidismo. O tratamento inicial deve incluir antagonistas betadren&#233;rgicos, tais como o propranolol ou atenolol, com o objetivo de reduzir a freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca para n&#237;veis normais. A seguir, deve ser introduzida a terapia definitiva com iodo 131 isolado ou em combina&#231;&#227;o com uma droga antitireoidiana. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>3. Hipotireoidismo</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ao contr&#225;rio do hipertireoidismo, as concentra&#231;&#245;es baixas de horm&#244;nio tireoidianos s&#227;o associadas com redu&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, do volume sist&#243;lico, da contratilidade mioc&#225;rdica, bem com aumento da resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica. As manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas incluem bradicardia, derrame peric&#225;rdio e IC. Entretanto, a IC &#233; rara, porque o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco &#233;, usualmente, suficiente para suprir as demandas perif&#233;ricas de oxig&#234;nio. A terapia com tiroxina reverte todas as manifesta&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>4. Doen&#231;a tireoidiana induzida por amiodarona</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A administra&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de amiodarona, um f&#225;rmaco comumente usado em pacientes com IC para tratamento de arritmias ventriculares e supraventriculares, &#233; um outro fator respons&#225;vel por disfun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana. Seu alto conte&#250;do de iodo pode causar disfun&#231;&#227;o tireoidiana em pacientes com doen&#231;a de tire&#243;ide preexistente ou tireoidite destrutiva em pacientes com gl&#226;ndula tireoidiana previamente normal. A incid&#234;ncia combinada de hiper ou hipotireoidismo em pacientes utilizando amiodarona &#233; por volta de 14-18%. A administra&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica de amiodarona a pacientes eutireoidianos, sem evid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a tireoidiana de base, resulta em aumento da concentra&#231;&#227;o de T4 com T3 normal. </p>
    <p><bold>Hipertireoidismo</bold>. Dois tipos de hipertireoidismo podem ser induzidos: </p>
    <p>1. hipertireoidismo do tipo I: cada comprimido de 200 mg de amiodarona cont&#233;m 70mg de iodo, o que &#233; suficiente para induzir hipertireoidismo em pacientes com b&#243;cio nodular ou doen&#231;a de Graves em remiss&#227;o. Isto n&#227;o constitui, necessariamente, uma indica&#231;&#227;o para suspens&#227;o da amiodarona, porque muitos pacientes podem ser manejados com medica&#231;&#227;o antitireoidiana concomitante. Entretanto, essa forma de hipertireoidismo pode ser muito dif&#237;cil de tratar. </p>
    <p>2. hipertireoidismo do tipo II, que &#233; causado por uma tireoidite decorrente do uso de amiodarona sem doen&#231;a tireoidiana preexistente. A maioria dos casos tem resolu&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea ap&#243;s suspens&#227;o da amiodarona.O diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre os dois tipos pode ser dif&#237;cil. </p>
    <p><bold>Hipotireoidismo</bold>: Amiodarona pode causar hipotireoidismo em pacientes com tireoidite de Hashimoto preexistente. Entretanto, a eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de TSH antes ou durante o tratamento n&#227;o constitui contra-indica&#231;&#227;o para o uso de amiodarona, j&#225; que a fal&#234;ncia da tire&#243;ide pode ser adequadamente tratada com tiroxina.</p>
    <p>G. Caquexia card&#237;aca (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab55"><bold>tabela LV</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Caquexia &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o importante, associada com mau progn&#243;stico, ocorrendo nas doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, entre as quais a IC, mas cuja defini&#231;&#227;o &#233; controversa. Alguns autores consideram como m&#225; nutri&#231;&#227;o e conte&#250;do de gordura corp&#243;rea de &lt; 22% em mulheres e &lt; 15% em homens, e outros, de uma forma mais simples, quando a perda de peso seco &gt; 7,5%, em per&#237;odo de seis meses (afastando-se outras situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que possam levar &#224; caquexia)<sup>323-325</sup>. Pode-se subclassificar em grave a perda ponderal &gt; 15% e, em moderada ou inicial, entre 7,5 a 15%. Como a preval&#234;ncia e sobrevida da IC v&#234;m aumentando, a caquexia card&#237;aca acaba se estabelecendo nestes pacientes, acarretando maior morbidade, com taxas de mortalidade de 50%, no per&#237;odo de 18 meses de acompanhamento<sup>326</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab55">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt39.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os fatores principais envolvidos na etiologia da caquexia card&#237;aca parecem estar relacionados com defici&#234;ncia nutricional, m&#225; absor&#231;&#227;o intestinal, disfun&#231;&#227;o metab&#243;lica, disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito, eleva&#231;&#227;o das catecolaminas plasm&#225;ticas, ativa&#231;&#227;o neuro-humoral, mecanismos imunes, aumento do catabolismo e o fator de necrose tumoral (TNF)<sup>327-329</sup>. Outras citocinas, como interleucina-1 e 6, o interferon g e fator b do crescimento, tamb&#233;m apresentam-se elevadas no estado caqu&#233;tico de pacientes com IC<sup>330</sup>. As principais hip&#243;teses para a eleva&#231;&#227;o do TNF seriam a sua produ&#231;&#227;o dentro do mioc&#225;rdio e tamb&#233;m a transloca&#231;&#227;o bacteriana no intestino com endotoxinemia<sup>331</sup>. </p>
    <p>A terap&#234;utica para os pacientes com caquexia card&#237;aca objetiva o ganho de tecido muscular esquel&#233;tico e, conseq&#252;entemente, a melhora da sua capacidade f&#237;sica. Os IECA e betabloqueadores, al&#233;m de diminu&#237;rem a mortalidade, reduzem a perda de peso na IC<sup>332</sup>. Deve-se orientar o paciente para que tenha um suporte nutricional mais adequado. Naqueles casos de anorexia grave e subseq&#252;ente desnutri&#231;&#227;o importante, deve-se instituir alimenta&#231;&#227;o nasoenteral. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>H. Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca terminal </bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>1. Defini&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Aproximadamente, 10% das pessoas com IC t&#234;m a forma avan&#231;ada da doen&#231;a. A terminologia da IC cr&#244;nica nos seus est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados n&#227;o &#233; muito precisa, sendo que os termos "avan&#231;ada, grave, refrat&#225;ria e terminal" s&#227;o utilizados, indiscriminadamente, como sin&#244;nimos. O termo IC terminal surgiu na d&#233;cada passada e reflete mau progn&#243;stico. A introdu&#231;&#227;o de novos tratamentos na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica requer uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua das evid&#234;ncias e, se poss&#237;vel, com crit&#233;rios bem definidos<sup>333</sup>. </p>
    <p>N&#227;o existe uma defini&#231;&#227;o simples para a complexa s&#237;ndrome da IC avan&#231;ada<sup>334</sup>. Na verdade, a classifica&#231;&#227;o funcional da IC (NYHA) comumente usada para descrever o <italic>status</italic> cl&#237;nico do paciente &#233; tamb&#233;m imprecisa. A classe funcional constitui uma avalia&#231;&#227;o temporal do paciente, mas o estado cl&#237;nico pode flutuar tanto que uma &#250;nica avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o constitui uma base segura para a classifica&#231;&#227;o. Um paciente na classe IV, por defini&#231;&#227;o, &#233; sintom&#225;tico em repouso. Entretanto, ap&#243;s tratamento intensivo, ele pode migrar para classe III, mas, provavelmente, persiste como portador de IC avan&#231;ada. Foi desenvolvida uma defini&#231;&#227;o complexa que engloba sinais e sintomas, capacidade funcional, dura&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) e outros crit&#233;rios, como catecolaminas e hiponatremia. Os pacientes que preenchem esses crit&#233;rios sofrem forte impacto negativo na sobrevida. Mesmo esse esquema de classifica&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233;, contudo, aplic&#225;vel para todos os pacientes. Alguns pacientes podem ter disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular revers&#237;vel, sendo que outros podem melhorar muito com o tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado. Sendo assim, uma defini&#231;&#227;o para essa complexa s&#237;ndrome incluiria os pacientes que, a despeito do tratamento cl&#237;nico otimizado, persistem muito sintom&#225;ticos, com evid&#234;ncias de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a e com alta mortalidade em um ano. V&#225;rios ensaios cl&#237;nicos demonstraram que a sobrevida dos pacientes que progridem para a classe IV &#233; reduzida dramaticamente, mesmo com a estrat&#233;gia de tratamento modulando o sistema neuro-hormonal.<sup>76,112,335,336</sup>. </p>
    <p>Se uma condi&#231;&#227;o revers&#237;vel n&#227;o est&#225; presente ou se o transplante card&#237;aco n&#227;o constitui op&#231;&#227;o fact&#237;vel, por defini&#231;&#227;o, torna-se uma doen&#231;a terminal. Obviamente, o tratamento com IECA, betabloqueadores e espironolactona pode reduzir morbidade e mortalidade, mesmo nesse grupo de pacientes. Mas, infelizmente, mesmo com o tratamento &#243;timo, alguns pacientes com IC grave continuam a ter deteriorado o seu quadro cl&#237;nico e evoluem extremamente sintom&#225;ticos. Na atualidade, poucas op&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o dispon&#237;veis para esse n&#250;mero crescente de pacientes com IC terminal, refrat&#225;rios ao tratamento cl&#237;nico<sup>337,338</sup>. Embora os pacientes com a forma mais grave da doen&#231;a signifiquem uma propor&#231;&#227;o menor, eles representam o maior n&#250;mero de hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es e, conseq&#252;entemente, uma grande sobrecarga econ&#244;mica.</p>
    <p>2. Medida paliativas e cuidados de fase final da evolu&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab56"><bold>tabela LVI</bold></xref>)  </p>
    <p>Os cuidados paliativos s&#227;o destinados a pacientes cuja doen&#231;a n&#227;o responde ao tratamento curativo, e o objetivo &#233; centrado na sua qualidade de vida e de suas fam&#237;lias. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab56">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt40.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>O planejamento dos cuidados para o paciente com IC terminal envolve v&#225;rios problemas, porque n&#227;o existe um modelo definido para esse grupo. Tradicionalmente, o <italic>hospice care</italic> era oferecido a pacientes com c&#226;ncer terminal e, s&#243; recentemente, esses cuidados t&#234;m sido estendidos para outras doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, incluindo a IC terminal. A IC pode ser inclu&#237;da nos programas de <italic>hospice </italic>com muita propriedade, pois os pacientes sofrem de dispn&#233;ia importante e podem necessitar de administra&#231;&#245;es freq&#252;entes de diur&#233;ticos venosos e, em alguns casos, de inotr&#243;picos venosos, ansiol&#237;ticos e narc&#243;ticos para al&#237;vio de seu sofrimento. </p>
    <p>Tradicionalmente, a indica&#231;&#227;o de <italic>hospice care</italic> requer uma predi&#231;&#227;o de morte dentro de 6 meses, o que &#233; uma pol&#237;tica operacional dif&#237;cil de ser aplicada, principalmente para os pacientes com IC. Um progn&#243;stico estimado de sobrevida em torno de seis meses, concord&#226;ncia do paciente e familiares em n&#227;o aceitar medidas mais agressivas de tratamento, s&#227;o crit&#233;rios para inclus&#227;o no programa. Esses cuidados terminais excluem tratamentos que curam a doen&#231;a de base ou tratam a fisiopatologia subjacente. Ao contr&#225;rio do c&#226;ncer, um modelo de predi&#231;&#227;o de morte para pacientes com IC pode ser muito dif&#237;cil e complexo. A morte pode ocorrer por outras causas inesperadas, tais como acidente vascular cerebral, infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, arritmias ou infec&#231;&#227;o. Outros pacientes podem sobreviver mais de 6 meses. Muitos v&#227;o se tornando cada vez mais refrat&#225;rios &#224;s doses crescentes de medicamentos e falecem por deteriora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica. A inabilidade de predizer, com acur&#225;cia, o tempo de vida leva a uma esperan&#231;a de vida continuada, com o paciente fazendo a transi&#231;&#227;o muito dolorosa de gravemente enfermo para extremamente enfermo. </p>
    <p>O maior ensaio j&#225; realizado sobre essa quest&#227;o foi o SUPPORT<sup>339</sup>, no qual foram analisados pacientes com IC e suas prefer&#234;ncias, progn&#243;stico, tratamento e desfechos. Nesse estudo, somente 23% dos pacientes com IC classe IV recusaram ressuscita&#231;&#227;o. Mais da metade dos pacientes manifestou o desejo de conforto e al&#237;vio dos sintomas, tais como dor, dispn&#233;ia, nos &#250;ltimos dias de suas vidas. Mais de 60% sofreu dispn&#233;ia grave 3 dias antes da morte. Cerca de 40% recebeu, pelo menos, 1 a 3 tipos de tratamento de suporte de vida- sondas para alimenta&#231;&#227;o, ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica e manobras de ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar. Apesar do desejo dos pacientes e suas prefer&#234;ncias, muitos foram tratados agressivamente. </p>
    <p>Os cuidados paliativos podem ser oferecidos por uma equipe multidisciplinar, no domicilio ou no hospital, com os programas de<italic> hospice</italic>, que incluem diur&#233;tico venoso, inotr&#243;picos venosos (em alguns casos), morfina, suplemento de oxig&#234;nio, com ou sem hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o. A Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial de Sa&#250;de acrescentou objetivos adicionais aos cuidados paliativos<sup>340</sup>: (1) reafirma&#231;&#227;o da vida e considera&#231;&#227;o da morte como um processo natural; (2) n&#227;o acelerar ou adiar a morte; (3) prover al&#237;vio da dor e de outros sintomas dolorosos; (4) integrar os aspectos psicol&#243;gicos e espirituais do tratamento; (5) prover suporte no sentido de auxiliar os pacientes a se manterem ativos at&#233; a poss&#237;vel morte; (6) auxiliar a fam&#237;lia a suportar a dor e a doen&#231;a do paciente. </p>
    <p> Os principais sintomas comuns aos pacientes terminais podem ser manejados nesses locais, em casa ou nos hospitais. </p>
    <p><bold>Dispn&#233;ia: </bold>Mais da metade dos pacientes com doen&#231;a terminal sofre de dispn&#233;ia grave. O tratamento desse sintoma inclui o tratamento da doen&#231;a de base. Os opi&#225;ceos s&#227;o muito &#250;teis. Aliviam a tosse, a ansiedade, a dor, a exaust&#227;o e reduzem o estresse f&#237;sico e psicol&#243;gico. A administra&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio pode ser &#250;til, mesmo em casos sem hipoxemia. </p>
    <p><bold>N&#225;usea e v&#244;mito: </bold>&#218;lcera p&#233;ptica e constipa&#231;&#227;o devem ser tratadas. Bloqueadores da histamina podem exacerbar del&#237;rio, sendo assim, os anti&#225;cidos devem ser preferidos. A metoclopramida &#233; um excelente antiem&#233;tico, mas tamb&#233;m pode causar del&#237;rio, depress&#227;o e feitos extrapiramidais. Antagonistas da serotonina, tais como ondansetron, possuem &#243;tima a&#231;&#227;o antiem&#233;tica, por&#233;m s&#227;o muito dispendiosos. As fenotiazinas podem ser eficazes, mas tamb&#233;m possuem efeitos extrapiramidais e anticolin&#233;rgicos. </p>
    <p><bold>Anorexia e caquexia: </bold>A perda do apetite &#233; estressante para o paciente e a fam&#237;lia. Tem origem multifatorial, incluindo produ&#231;&#227;o aumentada de citocinas. O tratamento tem o objetivo de melhorar a causa de base, quando poss&#237;vel. Estimulantes do apetite podem ser &#250;teis. </p>
    <p><bold>Ansiedade e depress&#227;o: </bold>A ansiedade e depress&#227;o ocorrem com freq&#252;&#234;ncia em pacientes terminais, como resultado de dor, dispn&#233;ia ou outras causas. Depress&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; comum e deve ser tratada com ansiol&#237;ticos e antidepressivos, sempre que necess&#225;rios. </p>
    <p><bold>Sofrimento: </bold>Nenhuma discuss&#227;o sobre cuidados paliativos est&#225; completa se n&#227;o abordar o sofrimento. O sofrimento vai al&#233;m da dor f&#237;sica e afeta todos os aspectos da vida pessoal. O sofrimento &#233; sentido por pessoas e n&#227;o por corpos e pode ser aliviado pela simples presen&#231;a do m&#233;dico, demonstrando que est&#225; comprometido com o paciente e que n&#227;o o abandonou. </p>
    <p>Muitos pacientes n&#227;o est&#227;o preparados para aceitar esse curso de tratamento. Em m&#233;dia, os pacientes s&#227;o admitidos nos <italic>hospices</italic> um m&#234;s antes da morte. No estudo SUPPORT, 58% morreram no hospital, 27% em casa e somente 3% faleceram nos <italic>hospices</italic>. Em geral, os pacientes preferem tratamento onde eles t&#234;m a maior chance de sobreviver. Como os <italic>hospices</italic> s&#227;o utilizados nos &#250;ltimos dias de vida, outras op&#231;&#245;es devem estar dispon&#237;veis antes dessa fase terminal. Recentemente, foram propostos alguns algoritmos para o manejo complexo da IC refrat&#225;ria, os quais incluem op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento no domic&#237;lio e <italic>hospices</italic><sup>341</sup>.</p>
    <p>3. Interna&#231;&#227;o domiciliar (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab57"><bold>tabela LVII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>Um programa de interna&#231;&#227;o domiciliar pode ser transit&#243;rio ou em longo prazo. Usualmente, esse tipo de servi&#231;o permite que uma pessoa com incapacidade f&#237;sica se torne mais independente. Esses programas fornecem abordagens multidisciplinares para pacientes com doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica. V&#225;rios estudos sobre a interna&#231;&#227;o domiciliar para pacientes com IC demonstraram redu&#231;&#227;o nas hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es, melhora da classe funcional e redu&#231;&#227;o dos custos. Considerando o n&#250;mero crescente de pacientes idosos com diagn&#243;stico de IC, aumento do n&#250;mero de casos de IC cr&#244;nica e avan&#231;ada, esse programa parece muito adequado para o tratamento de pacientes com IC. Tais programas proporcionam uma variedade de servi&#231;os, tais como terapia inotr&#243;pica venosa, diur&#233;tico intravenoso, oximetria de pulso, oxigenoterapia, monitora&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica, e equipe multidisciplinar. O tratamento vai desde educa&#231;&#227;o, reabilita&#231;&#227;o f&#237;sica do paciente, at&#233; medica&#231;&#227;o venosa<sup>15,342-344</sup>.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab57">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt41.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>IX. Programas de seguimento e tratamento especializado da ICD (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab58"><bold>tabela LVIII</bold></xref>) </p>
    <p>
      <bold>A. Cl&#237;nica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Dentre as medidas gerais a serem aplicadas a pacientes com epis&#243;dios freq&#252;entes de descompensa&#231;&#227;o ou em est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado da s&#237;ndrome, destaca-se o acompanhamento mais pr&#243;ximo em cl&#237;nicas de IC ou em estruturas que funcionem como tal<sup>345-347</sup>. V&#225;rios estudos demonstraram a superioridade e custo-benef&#237;cio de centros especializados no tratamento da IC<sup>348</sup>. Muitos dos estudos s&#227;o observacionais, utilizando uma din&#226;mica antes-depois, e as interven&#231;&#245;es variando de simples seguimento por telefone at&#233; programas mais sofisticados<sup>349</sup>. Embora existam poucos estudos randomizados, os resultados s&#227;o semelhantes<sup>350</sup>. Assim, quando n&#227;o realizada em cl&#237;nica de IC, a efetividade do tratamento cl&#237;nico de pacientes com IC grave, avan&#231;ada, &#233; limitada pela subutiliza&#231;&#227;o de medica&#231;&#245;es, ades&#227;o pobre &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o/dieta e perda da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica dos pacientes, etc. A n&#227;o ades&#227;o pode ser a mais importante limita&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento<sup>351</sup>. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o da cl&#237;nica de IC aumenta a ader&#234;ncia a dieta e medica&#231;&#245;es melhorando a classe funcional e capacidade de exerc&#237;cio<sup>352,353</sup>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab58">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt42.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os programas de cl&#237;nica de IC basicamente consistem de programas de educa&#231;&#227;o intensiva sobre IC e a monitora&#231;&#227;o no seguimento (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab58">tabela LXIII</xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab59">LIX</xref>). Os programas de cl&#237;nica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca podem ser classificados de acordo com a estrutura de atendimento, envolvendo o tipo de tratamento que &#233; oferecido, dos recursos humanos, da composi&#231;&#227;o da equipe multidisciplinar, da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o e educa&#231;&#227;o e das instala&#231;&#245;es oferecidas<sup>354</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab59"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e17.jpg"/></p>
    <p>Os objetivos s&#227;o educa&#231;&#227;o do paciente para garantir ader&#234;ncia &#224; dieta e medica&#231;&#245;es e identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce de sintomas, fatores relacionados com descompensa&#231;&#227;o, ou eventos pass&#237;veis de tratamento/preven&#231;&#227;o fora do hospital (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab60">tabela LX</xref>). Entretanto, ainda n&#227;o est&#225; definido qual seria a &#243;tima interven&#231;&#227;o, que pode ser simples ou complexa, al&#233;m de sofrer influ&#234;ncia da pr&#225;tica m&#233;dica e da popula&#231;&#227;o. O sistema de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m pode ser realizado de v&#225;rias maneiras. Tamb&#233;m se desenvolve estrat&#233;gia para que a ades&#227;o ao tratamento se mantenha consistente, reconhecendo fatores relacionados a esta ades&#227;o em cada paciente. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab60">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt43.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p> O paciente recebe instru&#231;&#245;es para entrar em contato com a equipe diante de determinados sintomas e sinais. Procura-se uma detec&#231;&#227;o precoce de ou preven&#231;&#227;o de fatores relacionados com descompensa&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, destacando-se: hipertens&#227;o arterial, arritmia card&#237;aca/fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica/infarto, valvopatia n&#227;o reconhecida, infec&#231;&#227;o, consumo de &#225;lcool, uso inadequado de l&#237;quidos e sal, uso inadequado de medica&#231;&#245;es, baixa ades&#227;o ao tratamento prescrito, fatores sociais (ex: isolamento social) ou falta de suporte social, fatores comportamentais, embolia pulmonar /perif&#233;rica, doen&#231;a da tire&#243;ide, anemia, doen&#231;a sist&#234;mica, hipovolemia, fator iatrog&#234;nico, excessiva taquicardia ou bradicardia, piora da insufici&#234;ncia mitral, gravidez, intoxica&#231;&#227;o digit&#225;lica, depress&#227;o, e co-morbidades, como hepatopatia, etc. </p>
    <p>Os programas de cl&#237;nica de IC aumentam a utiliza&#231;&#227;o e as doses das medica&#231;&#245;es preconizadas<sup>355,356</sup>. A IC &#233; a causa de interna&#231;&#227;o mais comum para pacientes acima de 65 anos, que tamb&#233;m t&#234;m alto risco de reinterna&#231;&#227;o precoce, sendo de 29-47% de 3 a 6 meses. Estudo prospectivo demonstrou que 53% das readmiss&#245;es precoces s&#227;o poss&#237;veis de preven&#231;&#227;o<sup>357</sup>. O atendimento de pacientes com IC em centros especializados, unidades de IC, pode ser associado a melhor evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, menor hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o e melhor sobrevida.<sup>349,358-360</sup>. Em estudo envolvendo idosos em n&#250;mero limitado e pequeno de pacientes para avalia&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade, j&#225; se observou uma tend&#234;ncia &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade, com sobrevida em 3 meses de 91% para o grupo tratado e de 75% para o grupo controle. Recentemente, estudo prospectivo randomizado avaliando interven&#231;&#245;es em casa seguida de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o por telefone, resultou em diminui&#231;&#227;o das interna&#231;&#245;es combinadas com mortalidade, al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o das hospitaliza&#231;&#245;es<sup>347</sup>. Estudo com interven&#231;&#245;es no domic&#237;lio demonstrou em seguimento m&#233;dio de 4,2 anos que os efeitos s&#227;o sustentados a longo prazo, com redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade, readmiss&#245;es hospitalares n&#227;o planejadas, e conseq&#252;ente diminui&#231;&#227;o dos custos<sup>361</sup>. Em estudo com n&#250;mero limitado de pacientes, demonstrou-se aumento da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo de 24% para 36% e redu&#231;&#227;o do di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico de 65mm para 59mm<sup>362</sup>, bem como do custo do tratamento<sup>363</sup>. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab61">tabela LXI</xref> est&#227;o as recomenda&#231;&#245;es para cl&#237;nica de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <table-wrap id="tab61">
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    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold>
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        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="dcledimar@incor.usp.br">dcledimar@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">I Latin American Guidelines for the assessment and management of decompensated heart failure</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>I Latin American Guidelines for the assessment and management of decompensated heart failure</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Edimar Alcides Bocchi; F&#225;bio Vilas-Boas; Sergio Perrone; Angel G Caama&#241;o; Nadine Clausell; Maria da Consola&#231;&#227;o V Moreira; Jorge Thierer; Hugo Omar Grancelli; Carlos Vicente Serrano Junior; Denilson Albuquerque; Dirceu Almeida; Fernando Bacal; Lu&#237;s Felipe Moreira; Adonay Mendonza; Antonio Maga&#241;a; Arturo Tejeda; Daniel Chafes; Efraim Gomez; Erick Bogantes; Estela Azeka; Evandro Tinoco Mesquita; Francisco Jos&#233; Farias B Reis; Hector Mora; Humberto Vilacorta; Jesus Sanches; Jo&#227;o David de Souza Neto; Jos&#233; Lu&#237;s Vuksovic; Juan Paes Moreno; J&#250;lio Aspe Y Rosas; Lidia Zytynski Moura; Lu&#237;s Antonio de Almeida Campos; Luis Eduardo Rohde; Marcos Parioma Javier; Martin Garrido Gardu&#241;o; M&#250;cio Tavares; Pablo Castro G&#225;lvez; Raul Spinoza; Reynaldo Castro de Miranda, MD; Ricardo Mourilhe Rocha, MD; Roberto Paganini; Rodolfo Castano Guerra; Salvador Rassi; Sofia Lagudis; Solange Bordignon; Solon Navarette; Waldo Fernandes; Antonio Carlos Pereira Barretto; Victor Issa; Jorge Ilha Guimar&#227;es</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Institutions: A project carried out by the Grupo de Estudos de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (GEIC) (Heart Failure Working Group) of the Clinics Department of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology and Guideline Department of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology, in collaboration with the following Latin American Societies of Cardiology: Argentine Federation of Cardiology, Argentine Society of Cardiology, Chilean Society of Cardiology, Costa Rican Association of Cardiology, Colombian Society of Cardiology, Equatorian Society of Cardiology, Guatemalan Association of Cardiology, Peruvian Society of Cardiology, Uruguayan Society of Cardiology, Venezuelan Society of Cardiology, Mexican Society of Cardiology, Mexican Society of Heart Failure and Interamerican Society of Heart Failure</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Correspondence</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Introduction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Reasons for I Latin American Guidelines on Decompensated Heart Failure (DHF)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart failure (HF) is an endemic syndrome all over the world, which can occur as a chronically stable or decompensated disease. According to the I Latin American Guidelines on Decompensated Heart Failure, DHF can be acute (of recent onset), decompensated (with instabilization of a chronic condition), or refractory and persistent. DHF is the leading cause of hospitalizations in developed countries. In Brazil, it is the third general cause of hospitalization and the first cardiovascular cause, with high mortality rate. </p>
      <p>Since the patients generally present a decompensated form of HF before the progressive HF (which is a main cause of deaths), the great challenge in the treatment of DHF is the prevention of death and the improvement of life quality. For this treatment, the cardiologist must use the best available evidence. Nevertheless, as it can be easily noticed in these Guidelines, the available evidence is in most cases classified as grades C or D, and they are insufficient as a basis for better decisions. Thus, in view of limited evidence, the opinions of expert cardiologists in this area play a fundamental role in helping the doctors who treat patients with DHF. Likewise, the participation of cardiologists from all Latin American countries is a unique opportunity to include the expertise of specialists from different geographic locations, with cultural and social standards that are not always similar, which allows for the application of the I Guidelines to the whole region. </p>
      <p>Consequently, the availability of this I Latin American Guidelines on Decompensated Heart Failure, a result of the joint work of most Latin American societies and a critical review of the assessment and treatment of DHF, will assist those who face the challenge of management and treatment of this serious and frequent syndrome.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Participants and project of the I Latin American Guidelines of Decompensated Heart Failure</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The Heart Failure Studies Group [Grupo de Estudos de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (GEIC)], through the Brazilian Society of Cardiology, required that the members of Latin American Societies be specialists in heart failure, either in research or assistance. Some names were suggested, but the final decision was made by each Society. Following a program that included the essential items in DHF, a preliminary text was prepared by GEIC members and distributed to each participant to check for changes. A definitive meeting was held in which, initially, each participant was part of a group that elaborated a chapter or section. Each resulting text was discussed in a joint meeting including all the participants, and was voted respecting their individual privacy. Consequently, a combination of a "consensus opinion" and votes originated the official document presented here. We believe that this design allowed for Guidelines with the most independent conclusions. Few Societies which could not send their representatives in time for the final meeting have also reviewed the document later and agreed with it. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Dr. Edimar Alcides Bocchi </bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Classification of the Recommendation Grades and Evidence Levels</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Recommendation Grades:</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Class I: Evidence and/or general agreement that the procedure is beneficial and effective. </p>
      <p>Class II: Conflicting and/or diverging evidence about the usefulness and efficacy of the procedure or treatment. </p>
      <p> IIa. Evidence and opinions favor the use of the procedure or treatment </p>
      <p> IIb. Evidence and opinions do not appropriately support the use or efficacy of the procedure or treatment. </p>
      <p> Class III. Evidence and/or agreement that the procedure or treatment is not beneficial, and it could be harmful.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Evidence Levels:</bold>
      </p>
      <p> A: Data obtained from various randomized assays or from meta-analysis of randomized clinical assays. </p>
      <p> B: Data obtained from a single randomized clinical assay, or from various non-randomized studies. </p>
      <p> C: Data obtained from studies including a series of cases. </p>
      <p> D: Data obtained from consensual opinions of experts on the subject. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>I. Epidemiological Importance of DHF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart failure (HF) is a disease of high prevalence and incidence throughout the world. About 400,000 new cases are diagnosed in the United States every year<sup>1</sup>. Data from the Framinghan study demonstrate that the incidence of DHF increases progressively in both genders according to age, reaching yearly more than 10 new cases in 1,000 individuals in the 70's and about 25 new cases in 1,000 individuals in the 80's<sup>2</sup>. The interaction between age and onset of DHF was also demonstrated in prevalence studies performed in various European countries<sup>3</sup>. DHF is the most frequent isolated cause of hospitalization in the elderly population, a phenomenon that has been progressively increasing. Hospital discharges with a final diagnosis of HF, for example, were up from 377,000 in 1979 to 999,000 in 2000, an absolute increase of 164%. </p>
      <p>In Brazil, hospital admissions due to HF represent approximately 4% of all hospitalizations and 31% of hospitalizations due to cardiovascular problems in 2002<sup>2</sup>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref> shows the admission data related to HF in public hospitals in Brazil in the last 3 years.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>A. Morbidity and mortality</bold>
      </p>
      <p>After the first hospitalization due to DHF, the rate of readmissions in emergency rooms and hospitals is particularly high, and it may represent the unavoidable progression of the syndrome and/or, possibly, an early hospital discharge. Approximately 60% of North-American patients above 70 years of age are readmitted within 90 days<sup>5</sup>. An international comparison involving two hospital records of patients hospitalized because of HF in Brazil and in the U.S. demonstrate readmission rates within 90 days of 36% and 51%, respectively<sup>6</sup>. </p>
      <p>Various international studies attempted to identify the factors associated with readmission after hospitalization due to HF<sup>7</sup>. Although the results are not consensual, the clinical characteristics predicting the most frequent types of hospital readmissions are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table 2</xref>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>However, in approximately 30-40% of the cases, it is not possible to identify the cause of the clinical decompensation or the factor predisposing to hospitalization<sup>8</sup>. Brazilian data suggest important differences in etiology, in the factors responsible for decompensation, in the treatments and prognosis of patients with HF in different regions in Brazil<sup>9,10</sup>. </p>
      <p>In the U.S., the overall mortality rate due to HF in 2000 was 18.7 per 10,0000 inhabitants, and there was a total of 262,300 deaths. Based on follow-up data in 44 years, the mortality rate in 1 year is close to 20% and it is estimated that, after diagnosis, less than 15% of the patients will be alive in 8-12 years. In Brazil, in-hospital mortality due to HF in SUS hospitals (Brazilian Public Health System) varied between 5.6%-6,0% in the last 3 years (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table 1</xref>). International data show a great variation among different types of institutions in the rates of in-hospital deaths (between 8.5% and 23.1%)<sup>11</sup>, which is possibly due to substantial differences in the clinical characteristics and treatments in each population studied. Some data also demonstrate a time trend in the reduction of in-hospital mortality<sup>12</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>B. Costs and cost-effectiveness</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Most therapeutical interventions in HF (digoxin, use of hydralazine/nitrate, of inhibitors of the angiotensine-converting enzyme and beta-blockers) have shown favorable cost-effectiveness ratios within internationally accepted parameters<sup>13</sup>. In the SOLVD study, for example, treatment with enalapril has saved U$ 717 per treated patient and it cost only U$115 per life-year saved and adjusted to the life quality (QALY - Quality-Adjusted Life Years)<sup>14</sup>. An initial economic analysis of the LIDO study suggests that the use of levosimendan in patients with HF hospitalized with signs of low cardiac output implies a relatively low additional cost per life-year saved when compared with the use of dobutamine<sup>15</sup>. </p>
      <p>Multidisciplinary interventional strategies are efficient in reducing readmissions 90 days after hospital discharge, in addition to significantly lowering the costs when compared with the conventional treatment<sup>16</sup>. Multidisciplinary approaches involving the follow-up of patients with HF in day hospitals also seem to be cost-effective<sup>17</sup>. At last, few studies have assessed the cost-effectiveness ratio of ventricular assist devices or heart transplants. A study published over 15 years ago suggested the heart transplant cost of U$ 44,300.00 per life-year saved<sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>II. Definition of Decompensated Heart Failure (DHF)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Decompensated Heart Failure (DHF) is defined as a clinical syndrome in which a structural or functional heart abnormality leads to the incapacity of the heart to eject and/or accommodate the blood within physiologic pressure values, thus causing functional limitation and requiring immediate therapeutic intervention. This condition can be acute or it can be an exacerbation of chronic conditions, being classified as such in order to facilitate its terminology and to integrate the therapeutic objectives that are specific for each type of clinical presentation<sup>18</sup>. </p>
      <p><bold>A. Acute Heart Failure (without a previous diagnosis) -</bold> corresponds to the clinical situation in which a certain aggression triggers the development of the clinical syndrome of heart failure in patients with no previous signs and symptoms of heart failure. Clinical conditions that exemplify this condition include acute myocardial infarction (with or without mechanical complications) and acute myocarditis. These represent the minority of hospitalization cases due to DHF. </p>
      <p><bold>B. Chronic Decompensated Heart Failure (acute exacerbation of a chronic condition) -</bold> corresponds to the clinical situation in which there is acute or gradual exacerbation of signs and symptoms of heart failure in patients at rest with a previous diagnosis of heart failure who require additional and immediate therapy. The vast majority of patients present signs and symptoms of congestion, which can be more or less clinically evident, but whose severeness is relevant enough to limit their physical activities in an incapacitating way. This clinical presentation represents, by far, the most important cause of hospitalization due to DHF. </p>
      <p><bold>C. Refractory Chronic Heart Failure (chronic low output or/and various degrees of congestion) -</bold> corresponds to the clinical situation in which patients with a previously known diagnosis of heart failure present low output and/or systemic congestion and/or persistent functional limitation refractory to the best possible clinical treatment. </p>
      <p><bold>D. Acute pulmonary edema -</bold> corresponds to the clinical situation in which there is a sudden increase in the pulmonary capillary pressure leading to an increase of fluid in the interstitial and alveolar pulmonary spaces which causes sudden and intense dyspnea at rest. Opposed to what is observed in the exacerbations of chronic heart failure, this situation usually occurs in patients with a preserved or slightly reduced systolic function. It occurs more often with elderly or patients with hypertension or diabetes. </p>
      <p><bold>E. Diastolic dysfunction or Heart Failure with preservation of Ejection Fraction -</bold> corresponds to the clinical situation in which there are signs and symptoms of heart failure due to a disturbance in the ventricular filling due to a marked reduction of ventricular distensibility and ejection fraction preserved at rest. It includes patients with hypertensive or hypertrophic cardiomyopathy with ventricles generally not dilated. The data available indicate that approximately 40% of the heart failure cases show this ventricular function pattern<sup>19</sup>. </p>
      <p>The clear difficulty to define and classify the clinical presentations of decompensated heart failure partially hampers the standardization of the limited therapeutic tools available, contributing to the poor results related to its management and the high rates of morbidity and mortality. The combination of difficult classification or terminology with the heterogeneity of the involved populations as well as the controversies about the therapeutic purposes to be reached (relief of symptons and/or improvement of survival rate) also contribute to the difficulty in managing these patients<sup>5,20</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>III - Etiology and Pathophysiology of DHF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>A. DHF due to systolic ventricular dysfunction </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The most common cause of DHF in the clinical practice is the reduction of myocardial contractility, frequently associated with ischemic cardiomyopathy, idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, hypertensive cardiopathy or chagasic cardiopathy. Other causes of DHF are those in which the heart is subjected to hemodynamic overload (volume or pressure overload), disturbances of heart rate or conditions that might interfere with the ventricular filling. In most forms of DHF, the inadequate tissue perfusion is a consequence of the reduced cardiac output (CO). DHF can also be characterized as a multisystemic syndrome which includes abnormalities of the heart, skeletal muscle, renal and metabolic functions associated with the increased stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system and a complex pattern of neurohumoral and inflammatory changes<sup>14</sup>.</p>
      <p> The pathophysiology of DHF starts with a primary myocardial damage that produces ventricular dysfunction. This ventricular dysfunction triggers adaptive mechanisms associated with the neurohumoral stimulation and generates changes in the shape and mechanical efficiency of the heart (ventricular remodeling) and peripheral circulatory changes, as well as secondary damages due to the increased oxidative stress, inflammation and cellular death (apoptosis). The syndrome of DHF can evolve from a compensated and asymptomatic stage up to more advanced forms that cause DHF. Different determinants contribute to the performance of heart function, and some or many are involved in the development of heart failure decompensation, according to the main damage mechanism and time evolution. </p>
      <p>The hemodynamic disturbances initially triggered in the DHF are associated with systemic neurohumoral changes (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, sympathetic system, vasomotor peptides such as endothelin-1 and nitric oxide) with repercussions at the cardiac tissue level in which the action of these factors leads to the apoptosis of myocytes and changes in the heart structure (extracellular matrix), characterizing the ventricular remodeling. In addition to this, there is recognized inflammatory activity associated with the progression of HF, in which the cytokines play important roles<sup>21</sup>. The vasodepressant proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-alpha, interleukin-6 and interleukin-1 beta) seem to be the most important ones in this process<sup>22</sup>. On the other hand, protective elements (vasodilators and diuretics) such as the natriuretic peptides, bradykinin and some prostacyclins are increased in the HF<sup>23,24</sup>. In cases of decompensation of HF there is evidence of greater activation of some of these systems, as for example, the levels of catecholamines and cytokines increase significantly.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>B. DHF due to Ventricular Diastolic Dysfunction</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cases of heart failure with preservation of the ejection fraction are in this category. In spite of an important gap in studies involving this type of clinical presentation, the epidemiological data suggest that approximately 40% of cases of heart failure are included in this category. Two types of disturbances share the most important pathophysiological mechanisms in diastolic dysfunction: changes in the ventricular relaxation or compliance, although these phenomena might also occur jointly. </p>
      <p><bold>1. Diastolic Ventricular Dysfunction predominantly secondary to impaired relaxation -</bold> Diastolic dysfunction due to a reduction of the diastolic relaxation phase occurs in the presence of ventricular asynchrony, increased afterload, delay in the termination of contraction (disturbance in the recapture of calcium into the sarcoplasmic reticulum) and ischemia, since this is an active process that requires consumption of ATP. This type of alteration is predominant in such cases as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, ventricular hypertrophy as a consequence of aortic stenosis, and hypertensive cardiopathy and myocardial ischemia. </p>
      <p><bold>2. Diastolic Ventricular Dysfunction predominantly secondary to reduced compliance -</bold> Three basic mechanisms contribute to reduce the ventricular compliance and alter the diastolic properties of the ventricules: 1) increase in the filling pressures (volume overload &#150; aortic or mitral insufficiency); 2) increase of myocardial stiffness (infiltrative processes &#150; amyloidosis, endomyocardial fibrosis, or myocardial ischemia); 3) extrinsic compression of the ventricle (pericardial tamponade, constrictive pericarditis). </p>
      <p>Finally, in the context of dilated cardiomiopathy, there is a component of diastolic dysfunction even with an advanced systolic involvement. This is a restrictive pattern with low compliance found i association with large increases of ventricular volumes<sup>25</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>C. Acute Cardiogenic Pulmonary Edema </bold>
      </p>
      <p>In this condition, a sudden increase of the filling pressures due to a reduction of the ventricular compliance or marked hypervolemia leads to the increase of capillary hydrostatic pressure and causes pulmonary edema<sup>26</sup>. Nevertheless, in cases of chronic HF, adaptive mechanisms might be in operation for a longer period and this might allow the chronic accommodation to the increased volumes, preventing acute pulmonary edema. Therefore, cardiomegaly may not be present in the acute pulmonary edema, and there might be a predominance of diastolic involvement with preservation or slight involvement of the ejection fraction. Examples of this type of condition include acute myocardial infarction and hypertensive crisis.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>IV. Clinical and Laboratory Assessment of DHF </bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>A. Primary Assessment of patients with DHF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In the initial clinical approach to the patient with a suspected case of DHF it is necessary that the doctor knows the clinical forms and the natural history of DHF. During the evolution course of the patient with chronic DHF we can observe three characteristic clinical patterns: 1 - chronic phase, during which the patient's symptoms are stable or slowly progressive; 2 - phase of rapid impairment due to acute decompensation or exacerbation, which can occur several times during the natural history of the disease, and frequently requires hospitalization; 3 - terminal or refractory phase, which responds poorly to the drug treatment and causes a markedly low quality of life<sup>27</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Identification of patients with DHF </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The patient with decompensated heart failure generally presents dyspnea and/or signs and symptoms of peripheral hypoperfusion and/or congestion of different importances<sup>28,29</sup>. </p>
      <p>The initial assessment must determine if it is acute heart failure secondary to a recent myocardial damage or if it is chronic decompensated heart failure. This differentiation is important, as it determines a different diagnostic and therapeutic management and implies different prognoses. </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">Tables 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab04-body2">4</xref> describe the main differential characteristics present in patients with acute HF versus decompensated chronic HF and systolic HF versus diastolic HF<sup>30, 31</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Identification of causes and precipitating factors of DHF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The identification of the etiology of DHF is relevant as it can be potentially reversible, mainly in patients with acute HF. The prognosis can also be worse in some etiologies such as chagasic cardiomyopathy. For example: acute coronary syndromes, myocarditis, acute valvular dysfunction, hypertensive emergencies, bradyarrhythmias, tachyarrhythmias and cardiac tamponade. </p>
      <p>In patients with decompensated chronic HF, in addition to the hypertensive, ischemic and valvular etiologies, other cardiomyopathies are also present such as chagasic, idiopatic, hypertrophic, restrictive and alcoholic. In this group, the search for the decompensation factors is essential in the clinical assessment because they can be identified and corrected in most patients, thus preventing new hospitalizations<sup>32</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab05-body2">Table 5</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab05-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt05-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Assessment of volume and peripheral perfusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The definition of the clinical/hemodynamic profile of the patient is systematization used to approach the patients with HF and may be important in the initial treatment, mainly without invasive monitoring procedures available. The patients can be divided into 4 subgroups, depending on the presence of congestion/edema and the quality of peripheral perfusion<sup>29</sup>: a) pulmonary congestion without signs of hypoperfusion (warm and moist skin); b) pulmonary congestion and signs of hypoperfusion (moist and cold skin); c) hypoperfusion without pulmonary congestion (dry and cold skin); d) absence of pulmonary congestion and hypoperfusion (dry and warm skin). The first 3 subgroups are of decompensated patients and the last one is composed of compensated patients. The assessment of the hemodynamic profile in these subgroups can be more accurately established, when indicated, by means of invasive hemodynamic monitoring.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>B. Secondary assessment of patients with DHF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Soon after the initial assessment, the patient undergoes a secondary assessment in order to identify cardiac and laboratory structural changes which may have an impact in the treatment management. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Laboratory assessment and identification of structural abnormalities</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Basic laboratory tests<sup>33,34</sup> such as hemogram, blood glucose, urea, creatinine, electrolytes and urine analysis are simple methods which help in the assessment of the severity of DHF and the presence of comorbidities that may have triggered the decompensation. Serial measurement of markers of myocardial necrosis, in addition to liver enzymes, TSH (in the absence of a defined etiology for HF and in cases where associated thyroid disease is suspected), serology for cardiotropic viruses, TTPa and INR are indicated in selected cases. </p>
      <p>Thoracic teleradiography is a method that aids the identification of cardiomegaly, pulmonary congestion and in the presence of associated diseases, such as pneumonia or aortic dissection, which can be triggering factors or differential diagnosis of DHF<sup>35</sup>. </p>
      <p>The electrocardiogram is useful to identify ischemic cardiopathy, which is one of the main etiologies of DHF, as well as in the assessment of associated arrhythmias, atrioventricular conduction disorders and/or bundle branch blocks and cavity overloads. A normal ECG is uncommon in chronic HF<sup>36</sup>. </p>
      <p>Doppler ecocardiogram is one of the main non-invasive methods in the diagnosis of DHF since it can define the presence of systolic dysfunction, diastolic dysfunction or both, left and/or right ventricular involvement, associated orovalvular lesions, changes of segmental contractility, in addition to cavity dimension and thickness<sup>37</sup>. More recently, tissue Doppler imaging has been used to assess the diastolic function. </p>
      <p>Nuclear cardiology, with myocardial perfusion scintigraphy with thalium or technetium (assessment of ischemia, necrosis and myocardial viability), radioisotopic ventriculography (to assess the left and right systolic and diastolic ventricular functions, as an alternative to echocardiography) and the use of gallium 67 (study of inflammatory activity, as in myocarditis) are helpful techniques in DHF<sup>38</sup>. </p>
      <p>Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) has likewise been used as an auxiliary method in the anatomical and functional assessment in DHF both in its systolic and diastolic forms. </p>
      <p>Among the invasive methods we should emphasize coronary arteriography, which is useful to define the coronary anatomy (ischemic etiology) for a better definition of the therapeutical strategy. The endomyocardial biopsy is important in suspect cases of myocarditis. Hemodynamic monitoring with a Swan-Ganz catheter is indicated in the pharmacologic management of DHF, defining intracavitary pressures which will indicate the best therapeutic strategy to be used<sup>39</sup>. </p>
      <p>The degrees of recommendations and levels of evidence of the use of the initial complementary tests are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab06-body2">Table 6</xref>. More recently, and as a complement to the clinical assessment, the B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) by means of a rapid measurement method (<italic>point of care</italic>) has been used as an important method in the differential diagnosis of dyspnea in the emergency room, in the diagnosis and in the prognostic assessment of HF as well as in the therapy follow-up. BNP is elevated both in cases of systolic and diastolic ventricular dysfunctions, with higher levels in the former one<sup>40,41</sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab07-body2">Table 7</xref>). More recently, pro-BNP has been studied in this context and, although it seems to be equivalent to BNP, there are still no definite data establishing its real role<sup>42</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab06-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt06-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab07-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt07-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Assessment of the evolution pattern and treatment response</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The initial care takes place at the Emergency Unit or at the Heart Failure Unit and the priority should be the acute syndromic treatment, by means of basic and advanced life support measures. The purpose is to maintain an adequate tissue perfusion, a reduction of congestion/edema, and a hemodynamic and respiratory status to prevent the impairment of the already existing conditions, and the occurrence of secondary lesions due to ischemia/hypoxia such as renal failure or ischemia of the Central Nervous System (CNS). Depending on the clinical status, the patient must be hospitalized (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab08-body2">Table 8</xref>). </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab08-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt08-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Following this stage and, often simultaneously with the described above, there is a stage of reassessment and follow-up of the therapeutic response. In this phase, hospitalization is indicated in one of the different units able to provide support to these patients - intermediary unit, intensive care unit, ward/private room, observational unit for HF, until the patient is discharged from the hospital. </p>
      <p>Patients with decompensated chronic HF without using any medication or presenting hypertensive acute edema with normal systolic function respond promptly to oxygen therapy and to simple pharmacological therapy with intravenous diuretics and vasodilators. Consequently, it is possible to forecast for this group a low complexity, low cost and a favorable evolution. Patients with acute HF due to cardiogenic shock from myocardial infarction, valve disease or myocarditis and those with refractory HF require a complex management, associated with high costs and specialized approaches, supported by an infrastructure that assures intensive care with inotropic and/or vasodilator agents, invasive hemodynamic monitoring, assisted circulation devices, hemofiltration/dialysis, ventilatory support, heart surgery and a complete specialized team with high technology, in addition to a lengthy hospitalization. </p>
      <p>Adherence to clinical, hemodynamic and respiratory parameters must be adequate to the patophysiological model of DHF. In any context, the follow-up and assessment of the vital parameters must be performed with the help of non-invasive monitors with a large capacity for records/memory and preferably with the possibility of detecting ventricular arrhythmias, atrial fibrillation and deviations from the standard ST-T segment. The following data must be monitored: daily weight, blood pressure, heart rate and rhythm, respiratory frequency and pattern, pulse oximetry, assessment of the subjective degree of respiratory discomfort, consciousness level and urinary output, by means of which the renal perfusion is indirectly assessed. </p>
      <p>The objectives of drug therapy are to achieve, whenever possible, the end of orthopnea, normal jugular venous pressure, reduction of peripheral and pulmonary edemas (absence of rales and pleural effusion), systolic pressure &gt;80 mmHg and pulse pressure of at least 25%, stable renal function and ability to walk without dizziness or dyspnea. </p>
      <p>Frequent monitoring of the renal function is important because 25% of the patients with DHF have their renal functions impaired during hospitalization. High levels of urea and creatinine, as well as hyponatremia, are associated with worse intra or out-hospital survival. Cardiorenal syndrome in DHF is a factor refractory to treatment and maintenance of pulmonary and systemic congestion. It can sometimes determine the discontinuation of the treatment with ACE-I or antagonists of AT1 receptors and of spironolactone, in case the creatinine levels are maintained above 3 mg%<sup>43,44</sup>. Some patients may present impairment of the renal function due to hypovolemia as a consequence of excessive use of diuretics. </p>
      <p>New noninvasive techniques such as bioimpedance, implantable monitors and measurement of BNP are being tested to assess the importance of monitoring the effects of the therapeutics adopted and its impact on the morbidity-mortality of DHF. </p>
      <p>Recent evidence points to the prognostic importance of measuring troponins, whose increased values are related to higher rates of in-hospital mortality<sup>45</sup>. Troponins are useful to detect a myocardial infarction not diagnosed two weeks before, because their levels remain high even when other markers are normal again. </p>
      <p>Patients with HF and preserved systolic function require a different approach related to the control of hypertension, myocardial ischemia, and heart rate, particularly when atrial fibrillation is present. The reduction of the ventricular filling pressures is necessary for the improvement of the symptoms; however, the excessive use of diuretics and vasodilators can cause arterial hypotension, syncope, fatigue and a negative repercussion in renal function. </p>
      <p>Once the criteria for compensation and clinical stability are reached, the patient may be discharged from the hospital. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab09-body2">Table 9</xref> lists the criteria adopted for hospital discharge of patients with DHF. In terms of hospital discharge, the improvement of the functional class has traditionally been used, and the patient must preferably be in functional class I or II of NYHA during the use of oral medication, and stable weight and arterial blood pressure and creatinine and urea levels as well as the absence of frequent or progressive angina, symptomatic ventricular arrhythmias and/or firing of the implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD). Some very serious patients do not reach these classes and they may be discharged even in functional class III provided they can be free of intravenous medication. Recently, the use of BNP levels has been suggested as a criterion for hospital discharge. Values of BNP &lt;430 pg/ml at the time of hospital discharge have shown to be a good predictive value that is negative for readmission. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab09-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt09-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>At the time of hospital discharge, the patient shall preferably be referred to an HF clinic, since this strategy reduces the rates of hospital readmissions. </p>
      <p>3. Prognostic Assessment (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab10-body2"><bold>Table 10</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>In DHF, the prognosis will depend on the severity of the baseline disease<sup>46</sup>. While in the acute ischemic syndromes these parameters are well defined (Killip-Kimball classification, Forrester classification, clinical, electrocardiographic and laboratory data, left ventricular function and presence of ventricular arrhythmias, etc.), they are not yet defined in other etiologies. In decompensated chronic heart failure there are numberless prognostic factors described, emphasizing clinical, hemodynamic, neurohumoral and inflammatory markers. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab10-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt10-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>V. General Treatment </bold>
      </p>
      <p>A. General Measures (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab11-body2"><bold>Table 11</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p>1. Physical Activity: Patients with DHF must be encouraged to practice neither routine physical activities nor complete rest; the physical activity must be customized according to the patient's diagnosis and clinical status. During the episodes of acute decompensation, the patients must remain at rest according to their limitations. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab11-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt11-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>2. Oxygen: Initially, the routine use of supplementary oxygen therapy is recommended with the purpose of maintaining an adequate O<sub>2</sub> saturation (<underline>&gt;</underline> 90%). In the setting of pulmonary congestion, CPAP is recommended, as it is a non-invasive and effective measure to reach the desired O<sub>2</sub> saturation. </p>
      <p>3. Water and salt restriction: In patients in a congestive status, the liquid intake must be restricted according to the body surface, attempting to reach an initially negative water balance until a normovolemic status is attained. The amount of the maximum restriction can be up to 600-700 ml/m<sup>2</sup> body surface/day. The maximum sodium ingestion can be 2-3 g/day and this can be modified according to serum sodium and tolerance to a low sodium diet. </p>
      <p>4. Nutrition: The patient must have a protein-calorie intake that meets his/her needs and that is adequate to his comorbidities. The routine use of superalimentation or dietary supplements is not indicated. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>B. General Pharmacological Treatment </bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Diuretics (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab12-body2"><bold>Table 12</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p>Intravenous diuretics are indicated to all patients with pulmonary and/or systemic congestion, whose severity results in hospitalization, since the reduced intestinal perfusion, reduced intestinal motility and edema of the intestinal loops all reduce the oral absorption of the drug. This defect is reversible after control of the edema with intravenous therapy and it further allows the use of oral administration<sup>47</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab12-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt12-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Treatment must be performed with loop diuretics and the dose must be individualized, in order to reduce the patient's congestive status and at the same time carefully avoiding hypovolemia. Diuretics, especially those of the loop type, can alter the hydroelectrolytic status, which must be monitored. After the congestive status is resolved, the maintenance treatment by oral administration is initiated, in order to prevent the recurrence of liquid accumulation<sup>48-51</sup>. </p>
      <p>Some patients develop resistance to diuretics, which is characterized by absence of an adequate response to the usual doses of the drug. The treatment of diuretic resistance starts with the increase of the serum level and, consequently, of the rate of urinary excretion of the drug, and increasing the dose of the diuretic up to its maximum effective dose, and/or addition of a diuretic with a different site of action. High doses must be administered slowly in 30-60 minutes in order to reduce the risk of ototoxicity. The initial bolus administered intravenously to a patient with chronic use of diuretics must be 50% of the previous total oral dose. Afterwards, a continuous infusion of furosemide can be started in a dose of 20 mg/h. If diuresis is not maintained, a second bolus is administered and followed by an infusion of 40 mg/h. The risk of further increasing the infusion must be weighed against the other options such as hemofiltration or ultrafiltration procedures. In such cases, the continuous infusion, when compared with the intermittent bolus administration, has been shown to be as effective and potentially safer in terms of adverse effects<sup>52</sup>. For furosemide, the maximum effective intravenous daily dose is 80-120 mg. If concomitant renal failure is present, the dose can be 160-240 mg and in the presence of serious acute renal failure the dose can be up to 500 mg.</p>
      <p>2. Aldosterone Antagonists (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab12-body2"><bold>Table 12</bold></xref>)  </p>
      <p>Spironolactone must be used in association with the standard treatment of DHF, with a recommended mean dose of 25 mg per day; the serum levels of potassium and creatinine must also be monitored. With serum levels of potassium between 5.0 and 5.5 mEq/L the dose should be reduced, as well as other medications that might cause hyperkalemia. Potassium levels above 5.5 mEq/L require suspension of the drug<sup>53,54</sup>. This drug is not recommended for patients with serum creatinine above 2.5mg/dL. </p>
      <p>Eplerenone is an antagonist of aldosterone which has shown to be effective in the treatment of patients with post-infarction heart failure<sup>55</sup>. Although it has not been studied yet in cases of DHF, this drug could be used in patients who develop gynecomastia due to spironolactone.</p>
      <p>3. Intravenous Peripheral Vasodilators (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab13-body2"><bold>Tables 13</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab14-body2"><bold>14</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Patients with DHF frequently need pharmacological support with vasoactive drugs in an attempt to improve their heart performance, reduce the filling pressures and systemic and pulmonary vascular resistance, facilitate diuresis and promote clinical stability. Vasodilator drugs for intravenous use in heart failure available in Latin America are sodium nitroprusside, nitroglycerin and prostacyclin. Nesiritide is still not marketed in this region. These drugs are preferably used in situations of high ventricular filling pressures, significant increases of pulmonary and systemic vascular resistance, in addition to acute volume overload secondary to regurgitant valvular lesions (mitral and aortic insufficiency)<sup>56</sup>. They can increase the cardiac output and diuresis as a consequence of the vasodilator effect. To use them isolatedly it is necessary that the systemic arterial pressure is adequate and ideally <underline>&gt;</underline> 85 mm Hg. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab13-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt13-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab14-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt14-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p><bold>a) Nitroglycerin:</bold> It is a direct vasodilator that acts by means of the increase of intracellular GMPc. In low doses, it has a predominantly venodilator effect and its arterial vasodilator effect is observed with higher doses. It is helpful in the treatment of heart failure, both by reducing pulmonary congestion and also by increasing coronary blood flow. Like other nitrates, it can produce reflex tachycardia, headache and hypotension. Its continuous use is not recommended due to pharmacological tolerance. In emergency situations, it is very practical because of its immediate action onset and end, allowing for more precise dose adjustments according to the patient's hemodynamic status. The initial dose is 0,5&#181; g/Kg/min, and it can be increased every 5 minutes until the control of the symptoms and the limitating side effects is attained.<sup>57</sup></p>
      <p>Its use is particularly helpful in cases of myocardial ischemia without hypotension. Nitroglycerin use is not recommended for patients with right ventricular dysfunction. </p>
      <p><bold>b) Sodium Nitroprusside:</bold> It is a powerful arterial and venous vasodilator, extremely important to manage heart failure in the presence of arterial hypertension and/or major regurgitation (mitral or aortic) by reducing the afterload that it promotes. It improves the left ventricular performance, and it also has a pulmonary artery vasodilator effect which reduces the right ventricular afterload. As it is rapidly metabolized into cyanide, which is further transformed by the liver into thiocyanate, it must be used with caution in patients with renal and/or liver dysfunctions. Its extended use may require the monitoring of the serum levels of thiocyanate (toxic level &gt;10 ng/mL). The initial dose is 0.2&#181; g/Kg/minute, titrated every 5 minutes until hemodynamic improvement. Since it requires continuous monitoring of the arterial pressure, its use is almost always restricted to the emergency room or to the ICU.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4. Inotropic Agents </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Inotropic therapy in patients with low cardiac output may be necessary to improve the tissue perfusion<sup>58,59</sup>. Its hemodynamic action and indication with levels of evidence are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab15-body2">Tables 15</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab16-body2">16</xref>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab15-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt15-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab16-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt16-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The inotropic agents are divided into 3 categories: beta-adrenergic agonists, phosphodiesterase III-inhibitors and calcium sensitizers. </p>
      <p><bold>a) Agents that stimulate beta-adrenergic receptors</bold> (dopamine, dobutamine, norepinephrine, isoproterenol, epinephrine). Beta-adrenergic agonists stimulate the beta receptor in the heart to increase the levels of the second messenger cyclic AMP (cAMP), thus generating the signal for increasing the intracellular calcium and producing a positive inotropic effect. Dopamine and norepinephrine must be used if serious hypotension is present. Dobutamine is indicated in cases of low cardiac output and tissue hypoperfusion, and it can be associated with dopamine or norepinephrine. There are various adverse effects related to the increased intracellular influx of calcium produced by the beta-adrenergic stimulation: increased energy consumption, myocardial ischemia, cardiac arrhythmias, activation of intracellular proteases, endonucleases and phospholipases, which are part of the process of cellular death and necrosis<sup>60,61</sup>. Additionally, drugs that increase the levels of cAMP lead to a decreased sensitivity to calcium by means of phosphorylation of troponin-I. These actions can result in adverse clinical effects<sup>62-65</sup>. </p>
      <p><bold>b) Phosphodiesterase Inhibitors:</bold> Phosphodiesterase inhibitors act by inhibiting the degradation of cAMP, thus increasing the availability and concentration of calcium in the cells, as well as inotropism<sup>66</sup>. They also have a peripheral vasodilator effect by means of their action on the cGMP and the production of nitric oxide. They can be used with or without a loading dose, with a higher occurrence of hypotension with this dosage. Inodilator agents must be used with caution in patients with serious hypotension. Recent studies have demonstrated that the use of milrinone in patients with DHF, but without low cardiac output, increases the incidence of atrial fibrillation and hypotension<sup>66</sup>. </p>
      <p>With the increasing number of patients with DHF using beta-blockers, the therapy with phosphodiesterase inhibitors can be more attractive, as it does not compete with beta-adrenergic receptors. However, data for such recommendation are still insufficient in this specific situation<sup>67</sup>. </p>
      <p><bold>c) Calcium Sensitizers:</bold> These drugs compose a new therapeutic class for the treatment of DHF, represented by pimobendan and levosimendan; only the latter is available in Latin America. This agent performs its inotropic action by increasing the sensitivity of troponina-C to calcium already available in the cytoplasm with neither any additional calcium overload nor increased oxygen consumption<sup>68,69</sup>. Levosimendan increases myocardial contractility and hemodynamics in a level comparable with the one observed with beta-agonists and phosphodiesterase inhibitors and it has a vasodilating action resulting from the activation of ATP-dependent potassium channels<sup>70-72</sup>. In randomized clinical trials, it was associated with lower mortality both in short and long-term follow-ups<sup>73,74</sup>. In the presence of a beta-blocker, the hemodynamic effects of levosimendan are potentialized when compared with dobutamine.</p>
      <p>5. Digitalis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Table 17</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>No major study has been performed about the effect of digitalis on DHF. In patients with atrial fibrillation (AF) and high ventricular response, the use of this agent reduces HR and can contribute to clinical improvement.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab17-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt17-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>6. Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors (ACE-I) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Tables 17</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab18-body2"><bold>18</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-I) reduce the pulmonary capillary pressure, leading to a decrease in the preload and systemic arterial pressure, thus reducing the afterload<sup>75</sup>. In the short run, these effects are desirable and can accelerate the compensation and improvement process of the symptoms. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab18-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt18-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Studies in patients with CHF functional classes III and IV demonstrate that ACE-I have a strong impact in the life quality and long-term survival<sup>76,77</sup>, which allows us to conclude that these drugs must not be suspended in the decompensated phase, except in cases of hyperkalemia, marked impairment of renal function or major and refractory hypotension. </p>
      <p>The initial dose must be low (especially if the patient needs to be hospitalized, if there is hypotension or if impairment of renal function is present [creatinine =2.5 mg%]) and it must be gradually titrated until the ideal dose is reached. If the patient is already using the drug and its administration has been interrupted, the drug should be re-introduced in the same way. The ideal dose is the same as for patients with chronic CHF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2">Table 17</xref>). In patients using intravenous inotropic agents and vasodilators, it is recommended that the ACE-I be introduced before the withdrawal of those drugs.</p>
      <p>7. Angiotensin-II Receptor Antagonists (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Table 17</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>This drug class has not been tested in the treatment of DHF. Due to its long-term benefits on mortality, the maintenance of the same dose previously used is recommended, except if hyperkalemia, marked impairment of renal function, and major and refractory hypotension are present. The indication is for patients who do not tolerate ACE-I. </p>
      <p> 8. Heparins (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Table 17</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Low molecular weight heparins or unfractionated heparins should be used in immobilized patients in order to prevent deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism, with the following subcutaneous doses: unfractionated heparin (5,000 IU twice a day), nadroparine (0.3 mL once a day), enoxaparin (40 mg once a day) and dalteparin (200 IU/kg once a day).</p>
      <p>9. Beta-blockers (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Table 17</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>In patients with chronic use of beta-blockers it is advisable not to suspend the drug even for those who need inotropic drugs, except in cases of marked hypotension, bradyarrhythmia or other serious side effects. The risk of rebound effect is undesirable, especially in cases of myocardial ischemia. Additionally, there is new evidence that patients who use beta-blockers benefit its maintenance<sup>78</sup>, with a potential benefit of these drugs in preventing in-hospital sudden death. </p>
      <p>In class IV CHF patients (NYHA), even in those treated with intravenous inotropic agents up to 2 days before, the careful introduction and titration of the beta-blocker dose can be well tolerated<sup>79,80</sup>.</p>
      <p>C. Drugs for selected patients (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Table 17</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Hydralazine and nitrates</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are no studies with this association in which class IV or decompensated patients have been specifically included. Nevertheless, the possibility of a similar effect between enalapril and the association of dinitrate and hydralazine is an attractive one, especially in the patient with an ischemic etiology. The use of this association is justified because it has been demonstrated that hydralazine prevents the development of tolerance to nitrates. However, the dosing regimen of this association is more complex<sup>81</sup>, and there is no evidence of benefits when such drugs are used isolatedly<sup>82-86</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Amiodarone</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The oral use of low doses of this drug is well tolerated; however, the intravenous use of higher doses requires closer observation, especially in DHF due to the risk of hypotension. Amiodarone is indicated in DHF for the control of ventricular response in patients with AF, chemical cardioversion of AF and treatment of frequent and/or complex ventricular arrhythmias<sup>87,88</sup>. </p>
      <p>A reduction in hospitalization time was noticed, mainly in functional class IV, which showed an improvement<sup>89,90</sup>. In patients with HR &gt;90 bpm the use of amiodarone may be beneficial<sup>90</sup>, probably because of the antiadrenergic effect. More recently, small case series have demonstrated the benefits of amiodarone in patients with heart failure who did not tolerate beta-blockers<sup>91</sup>. </p>
      <p>D. Drugs or procedures under investigation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Table 17</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Nesiritide</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Recently approved in the U.S.A., it is a recombinant human B-type natriuretic peptide with natriuretic effect, partly due to the inhibition of aldosterone and vasodilation. Nevertheless, it is still unavailable in Latin America. The studies have shown a greater reduction in pulmonary capillary pressure when compared to nitroglycerin<sup>92-95</sup>, with no increase of baseline heart rate and with no proarrhythmic effect<sup>94</sup>. A non-blind study suggested that nesiritide can reduce costs and mortality when compared with dobutamine<sup>96</sup>. </p>
      <p>A recent metanalysis raised doubts about the drug safety in relation to its effects on short-term mortality<sup>97</sup>, but more delineated studies are necessary to assess the mortality, even though the studies suggest that nesiritide is helpful in dealing with DHF patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Vasopressin Antagonists</bold>
      </p>
      <p>These drugs block V1, V2 or both receptors. Several drugs are being tested and they are showing their usefulness to control patients in advanced stages of the disease, when vasopressin is especially high. Vasopressin antagonists are indicated in patients with edema, low serum sodium, a condition in which the conventional treatment has shown little efficacy<sup>98-100</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Cytokine Antagonists </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The attempt to counteract the tumor necrosis factor alfa with the use of etanercept and other cytokine antagonists did not yield effective results<sup>101,102</sup>. It has been suggested that pentoxifylline and thalidomide can be useful to treat HF. Preliminary studies have demonstrated that pentoxifylline and thalidomide reverse ventricular remodeling, and one mechanism of this action is mediated by reducing the levels of tumor necrosis factor alfa<sup>103,104</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4. Growth Hormone (GH)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There is evidence of resistance to GH action in HF. Preliminary results of the administration of GH in cachectic patients seem to determine some clinical improvement and optimization of the treatment<sup>105</sup>; however, randomized studies are necessary to assess its real effect<sup>106,107</sup>. It must be used with caution in patients at risk for cancer or with arrhythmias.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>5. Use of bone marrow progenitor cells</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Heart regeneration by means of progenitor cells obtained from the bone marrow through aspiration or from the peripheral blood after mobilization, or simply with mobilization, has been investigated in patients with refractory heart failure caused by chagasic, ischemic and dilated cardiomyopathy. The cells obtained can be injected by intracoronary, transendocardic or transepicardic routes, by the coronary venous sinus or during surgery. Preliminary results of noncontrolled studies have demonstrated some benefits in DHF<sup>108-111</sup>.</p>
      <p>E. Drugs of nonconfirmed efficacy (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab17-body2"><bold>Table 17</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Vasopeptidase Inhibitors (INEP)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Ecodatril, candoxatril and omapatrilate are drugs which block the enzyme responsible for degradation of the natriuretic peptides and, theoretically, could offer similar benefits to those with the administration of neseritide in DHF. There are no studies about DHF with these drugs and, in compensated CHF there are no evidences of possible benefits yet<sup>112</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Endothelin Antagonists</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Although endotheling antagonists such as bosentan, sitaxsentan, darusentan, tezosentan and enrasentan have a beneficial hemodynamic effect, their use in humans has not shown any benefits<sup>92,113</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Prostacyclin</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The results with the use of prostacyclin (epoprostenol) for the treatment of HF have shown an impairment of the survival and the study was cut short<sup>112,114</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>VI. Assessment and treatment of special populations </bold>
      </p>
      <p>A. Patients with confirmed or suspected Coronary Heart Disease (CHD) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab19-body2"><bold>Table 19</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab20-body2"><bold>20</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p>The definition of DHF etiology results in significant prognostic and therapeutical implications with an emphasis on ischemia. It has been demonstrated that the etiology of heart failure can be considered a major determinant of long-term survival. Thus, patients with an ischemic etiology in general present worse prognoses when compared with non-ischemic patients<sup>1,2,3,114-116</sup>. It is not known if the relationship between etiology and evolution can be applied in the context of the decompensated disease; however, unpublished data from the study called OPTIME CHF<sup>4,66</sup> suggest that patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy have a worse short-term prognosis when compared with patients with another etiology. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab19-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt19-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab20-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt20-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>It is also believed that CHD accounts for two thirds of the patients with heart failure due to left ventricular systolic dysfunction<sup>5,17</sup>. Thus, it seems to be useful to define the presence, the anatomical characteristics and the functional significance of CHD in selected cases that present such syndrome. Considering that, for most patients with acute ventricular failure, ischemia is the major cause of reduced myocardial contractile reserve and that, in many patients this process represents the hibernation or stunning (potentially reversible conditions) just as the treatment of ischemia, the rapid control of the ischemic event must be the treatment target. </p>
      <p>The initial clinical and laboratory evaluation of ischemia in patients with decompensated heart failure includes the access of the functional and hydric status, early biochemical and hematological tests, in addition to the electrocardiogram and thoracic teleradiography. </p>
      <p>Early echocardiographic assessment is important to appraise the regional ventricular function and to identify any mechanical complication, such as serious valve damage, or septum or free wall tears, as the causes of the acute dysfunction. The presence of one of these complications requires immediate surgical repair after clinical stabilization. </p>
      <p>Patients with CHD and ischemia - It is well established that the coronary artery bypass graft improves the evolution of patients with heart failure and ischemia. Since the revascularization is recommended in individuals with ischemic thoracic pain, in spite of the degree of ischemia or viability, a small role could be attributed to non-invasive tests in these patients. Coronary angiography should be directly performed in patients with angina and ventricular dysfunction. </p>
      <p>Patients with CHD without ischemia -It is unclear if myocardial revascularization can improve the symptoms and survival in patients with heart failure who do not have myocardial ischemia. However, revascularization is recommended in patients with significant stenosis of the left coronary branch and in those with large non-infarcted but low perfusion areas presenting a hypocontractile myocardium in noninvasive tests. </p>
      <p>Patients with undefined thoracic pain -Over one third of the patients with non-ischemic cardiomyopathy complain of thoracic pain. Coronary angiography is generally recommended since revascularization has a positive effect in ischemic pain. Nevertheless, noninvasive tests are common before coronary angiography in this population since heterogeneous nuclear images and abnormal ventricular motility patterns are frequent in cases of non-ischemic cardiomyopathy. </p>
      <p>Repetitive invasive and noninvasive tests are not indicated for patients in which CHD was excluded as a cause of left ventricular dysfunction. </p>
      <p>In the case of DHF, myocardial ischemia may play an important role as a decompensating agent. Patients with demonstrated ischemia require appropriate anti-ischemic therapy including aspirin, heparin, glycoprotein IIb/IIIa inhibitors, as well as strategies of myocardial revascularization concurrently with the management of decompensation. New therapies are bein studied<sup>117,118</sup> for the management of DHF in the setting of myocardial ischemia. </p>
      <p>Patients with ST segment elevation myocardial infarction must undergo prompt primary percutaneous coronary intervention. Another option if percutaneous intervention is not available, is the thrombolytic therapy. In cases of non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction, maximum anti-ischemic therapy must be initiated, followed by risk stratification and percutaneous coronary intervention, if possible. The placement of an intra-aortic balloon as a method of immediate reduction of the ischemic phenomenon and as a device to improve the cardiovascular performance is highly effective in the treatment of heart failure secondary to refractory myocardial ischemia. </p>
      <p>It is recommended that, after initial stabilization, the patients who evolve with heart failure during an ischemic event be submitted to immediate coronary angiography, followed by complete revascularization due to the serious combination of both syndromes. For patients with DHF who do not show signs of ischemia, an early test to assess both viability and ischemia is recommended (either scintigraphy or stress echo test with dobutamine), considering the possibility of angiography. </p>
      <p>After stabilization, drug therapy must be introduced in low doses and titrated up to maximum doses in order to avoid hypotension and vasodilation. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACE-I) are currently the only class of agents with established benefits in this setting<sup>119, 120</sup>. These agents can be substituted by angiotensin receptor antagonists if side effects occur. Beta-blockers, which are extremely beneficial in the long-term treatment of HF, should be administered to patients with DHF only when the clinical condition is fully compensated. Calcium channel blockers, which also present negative inotropic effects, must be avoided. </p>
      <p>B. Cardiogenic Shock after Acute Myocardial Infarction (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab21-body2"><bold>Table 21</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab22-body2"><bold>22</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Diagnosis</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiogenic shock is characterized by serious arterial hypotension (systolic pressure &lt;90 mmHg or 30% below baseline levels) for a minimum period of 30 minutes, showing signs of tissue hypoperfusion and organic dysfunction (tachycardia, paleness, cold extremities, mental confusion, oliguria and metabolic acidosis), of cardiac etiology (acute myocardial infarction, cardiomyopathy, valvular heart disease, arrhythmias). In this setting, there are evidences of volume overload or, if not, the shock is not reverted by volume restoration<sup>121</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab21-body2">
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      <table-wrap id="tab22-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt22-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>In spite of developments in the treatment of acute myocardial infarction, this complication is still responsible for about 60% of the mortality in hospitalized patients<sup>122</sup>. Shock mechanisms include left ventricular insufficiency (78% of cases), acute mitral insufficiency (7%), interventricular septum rupture (4%), isolated right ventricular insufficiency (2.8%) and myocardial rupture (2.7%).</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Clinical and Laboratory Evaluation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Laboratory evaluation allows the appraisal of the shock repercussion in various organs, as well as the identification of comorbidities. The hemogram is important to evaluate anemia, polycythemia and infections. Renal dysfunctions (such as prerenal failure and acute tubular necrosis) and disorders of the hydro-electrolytic balance have an influence on the levels of urea, creatinine, sodium, potassium and urinary sediment. Blood glucose levels can change either by diabetes or by the patient's critical condition. Coagulogram can reflect liver dysfunction in addition to being necessary before the performance of some invasive procedures. The increase in the levels of arterial or central venous lactate is due to tissue hypoperfusion and anaerobic metabolism, and its serial evaluation has evolutionary value. Gasometry (both arterial and venous) is important in initial assessment and in the follow-up. Metabolic acidosis, generally of lactic type, reduces oxygen affinity to hemoglobin, further decreases myocardial function and favors the occurrence of arrhythmias. Oxygen and carbon dioxide partial pressures reflect the patient's respiratory status, and are helpful to indicate ventilatory support. Oxygen saturation in mixed venous blood reflects its extraction by the tissues. Dosing of liver enzymes, total proteins and protein fractions, calcium, phosphorus and magnesium can also be useful. Dosing of myocardial necrosis markers (CKMB, troponins T and I, myoglobin) is indicated in suspected cases of acute coronary syndrome or myocarditis. Electrocardiogram helps in the etiologic diagnosis of cardiogenic shock. Thorax X-rays are used in the assessment of cardiothoracic index, as well as pulmonary abnormalities due to congestion, infection or thromboembolism. Transthoracic echocardiogram is a fundamental test in the assessment of cardiogenic shock due to acute myocardial infarction and it allows for the diagnosis of abnormalities in segmental and global contractility (hypokinesias, akinesias, dyskinesias), mechanical complications (mitral insufficiency, rupture of the interventricular septum or the free wall, pulmonary thromboembolism). Transesophageal echocardiography is indicated in cases of unfavorable acoustic window and when a mechanical complication is suspected.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Monitoring</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Monitoring of the patient with cardiogenic shock is essential for the evolutionary assessment of the disease and the treatment. Fundamental and routinely monitored variables include: heart rhythm and rate, arterial blood pressure (noninvasive), respiratory rate, pulse oximetry, temperature and urinary output. </p>
      <p>Arterial blood pressure should be measured by invasive means (arterial catheterization) in the following situations: serious arterial hypotension (systolic pressure &lt; 80 mmHg) and/or cardiogenic shock, use of vasopressor agents (class I), use of sodium nitroprusside or other potent vasodilators (class IIa). </p>
      <p>Pulmonary artery catheterization is useful to assess the hemodynamic status and to guide the treatment of the patient with cardiogenic shock more precisely than with the clinical exam<sup>123-126</sup>. Its indications in the acute myocardial infarction are<sup>127</sup> cardiogenic shock, suspected mechanical complications due to the infarction such as rupture of the papillary muscle, rupture of interventricular septum or pericardial tamponade, nonresponsive arterial hypertension, administration of volume in the absence of pulmonary congestion, such as in the right ventricular infarction. </p>
      <p>Limitations to the pulmonary artery catheterization include the interobserver interpretation variability in the analysis of the tracings<sup>128</sup> with consequent treatment inadequacy, as well as the occurrence of potentially fatal complications.<sup>129</sup></p>
      <p>
        <bold>4. Treatment </bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>4.1. Ventilatory Support - </bold>The purposes of ventilatory support in cardiogenic shock following acute myocardial infarction are to assure the patency of airways, provide adequate oxygenation and reduce respiratory work. The first step is to provide oxygen by means of a catheter or Venturi mask in increasing concentrations, with the objective of maintaining percutaneous saturation above 90%. The noninvasive mechanical ventilation (CPAP or BiPAP) is the next step because, in addition to improving the oxygenation, it reduces the pulmonary shunt and it has beneficial hemodynamic effects (reduction in preload and afterload, increase in cardiac output). These ventilatory aspects may reduce the need of invasive mechanical ventilation<sup>130</sup>. The invasive mechanical ventilation must be performed when the noninvasive mechanical ventilation fails or in cases of serious hemodynamic instability, complex arrhythmias, current myocardial ischemia, reduction in the consciousness level and need for sedation. </p>
      <p><bold>4.2. Pharmacological Support - </bold>It is essential to assess the volemic status and to promptly correct the existing hypovolemia by means of crystalloids, colloids or hypertonic solution. Electrolyte abnormalities must be corrected; cardiac arrhythmias require special attention because they can precipitate or worsen the shock. Acute atrial fibrillation associated with ischemia or hemodynamic repercussion should be treated with electric cardioversion, while less critical conditions may be treated with drugs that have no significant negative inotropic effect (digitalis, amiodarone). Sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT) or ventricular fibrillation must be treated with electric cardioversion (start with 100J if monomorphic VT and 200J if polymorphic VT or VF; if necessary, apply a second shock between 200 and 300J, and if necessary, a third shock of 360J is applied), followed by the maintenance drug (lidocaine, amiodarone). With reference to the positive inotropic drugs, vasopressors and vasodilators, the recommendations are the same as those previously discussed. Platelet antiaggregating agents must be routinely administered to patients with cardiogenic shock due to acute myocardial infarction (aspirin, or in case of allergy or intolerance, clopidogrel or ticlopidine). </p>
      <p><bold>4.3. Myocardial Reperfusion Therapy -</bold> In spite of the reduced efficacy, thrombolysis can be considered for patients with cardiogenic shock due to acute myocardial infarction, if angioplasty or surgery is unavailable, respecting its indications and contraindications and, if possible, associated with vasoactive drugs and intra-aortic ballon. Data from the literature demonstrate that the mortality with isolated use of thrombolytic agents was 63% compared with 47% when used in association with intra-aortic ballon<sup>131</sup>. Percutaneous coronary angioplasty also demonstrated a reduction of mortality when compared with clinical treatment<sup>132</sup>. Although this procedure is indicated, at first, for the treatment of the artery related to the event, the patients with multiarterial involvement who present cardiogenic shock may benefit from the approach to all proximal lesions. </p>
      <p><bold>4.4. Surgical Treatment -</bold> Myocardial revascularization surgery is indicated when the coronary anatomy is not favorable to the percutaneous intervention, in patients with multiarterial involvement initially treated with emergency angioplasty or in cases of mechanical complications of acute myocardial infarction. There is evidence suggesting that early myocardial revascularization (within 6 hours), either by angioplasty or surgical revascularization, can reduce mortality in 6 months<sup>133,134</sup>. </p>
      <p><bold>4.5. Mechanical Support - </bold>The intra-aortic balloon, by means of the mechanism of counterpulsation, reduces the left ventricule afterload, improves coronary perfusion during diastole, increases cardiac output up to 30%<sup>133</sup>, reduces mortality by 32% when used isolatedly and by 39% when associated with measures for restoration of myocardial perfusion<sup>134</sup>. Ventricular assist devices used temporarily can replace the organ function, and the most currently used ones are Roller, BioPump, Sarns, BVS 5000, Thoratec, HeartMate, Novacor, and LionHeart.</p>
      <p>C. Acute or Decompensated Chronic Heart Failure in Patients who underwent Cardiac and Noncardiac Surgeries (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab23-body2"><bold>Table 23</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Noncardiac Surgeries</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular complications are the most common cause of death in patients who undergo surgical procedures<sup>135,136</sup>, in whom DHF and recent acute myocardial infarction are the two most important predictors of perioperative risk<sup>137,138</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab23-body2">
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      <p>DHF can occur during the perioperative period in two situations: patients with DHF who require emergency surgical procedures, and patients with chronic and stable HF who develop decompensation during or after the surgery. Perioperative mortality in heart failure is related to the functional class<sup>139</sup> and with the presence of pulmonary congestion<sup>140</sup>, especially when a third heart sound occurs<sup>2</sup>. The adverse events during the perioperative period are related to the condition of the patient at the time of surgery, more than to the intensity of cardiopathy<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>The best recommendation to patients with acute or decompensated chronic HF who are candidates to surgery is to postpone the procedure until the decompensation is resolved<sup>141</sup>. Only emergency surgeries must be performed in patients with DHF. For those patients whose surgery cannot be postponed, the perioperative evaluation must be fast, simple and effective, and it must be focused on vital signs, evaluation of the volemic and hemodynamic status, and the analysis of simple tests such as electrocardiogram and thoracic radiography. Only essential interventions should be recommended before the emergency surgical procedure; the more detailed analyses should be performed in the postoperative period. </p>
      <p><bold>Laboratory Evaluation:</bold> It is recommended that patients with DHF during or after noncardiac surgeries be evaluated for the levels of urea and creatinine, sodium and potassium abnormalities, levels of hemoglobin and hematocrit, CKMB and troponin when acute coronary syndrome is suspected. </p>
      <p><bold>Electrocardiogram:</bold> There are no studies that have evaluated the 12-lead electrocardiogram in the preoperative assessment of patients with DHF. In asymptomatic patients, the finding o "q" waves was correlated with adverse events, in addition to being related to the left ventricular ejection fraction<sup>142,143</sup>. The electrocardiogram is recommended because it is a simple, fast, and low cost exam. Special attention must be paid to the occurrence of ischemia, blocks, ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias without a control of the ventricular response. </p>
      <p><bold>Echocardiogram:</bold> Studies demonstrate a correlation between perioperative events and the finding of left ventricular ejection fraction &lt;35%. Nevertheless, there is no information that indicates the benefit of the routine exam of perioperative echocardiogram in patients with HF already documented. </p>
      <p>The transthoracic echocardiogram is recommended in patients without a previously known echocardiogram, when a mechanical cause is suspected as the precipitating or contributory factor in HF (following acute myocardial infarction, cardiac tamponade, valvular insufficiency, pulmonary embolism), or in HF decompensation following noncardiac surgeries. The echocardiogram can be useful to detect new areas of low contractility and valvular dysfunctions, and it is a comparative method of the left ventricular function, diagnostic in the cardiac tamponade and evaluator of the right ventricular function in suspected cases of pulmonary embolism. </p>
      <p>Few studies have assessed the usefulness of transoperative transesophageal echocardiography in noncardiac surgeries in patients with decompensated HF. Some studies suggest that this procedure might be able to detect the presence of ischemia<sup>144</sup>. There is no evidence to recommend the use of transesophageal echocardiography in noncardiac surgeries. </p>
      <p><bold>Invasive Hemodynamic Monitoring:</bold> Monitoring with pulmonary artery catheter (PAC) intends to obtain optimal adjustments in perfusion and tissue oxygenation, and it has been proposed for patients in different clinical settings with conflicting results<sup>145-148</sup>. The use of PAC was related to the high frequency of complications and high costs<sup>128</sup>, and its interpretation has high variability among physicians<sup>149</sup>. </p>
      <p>Different prospective studies have evaluated the efficacy of invasive monitoring of the pulmonary artery in high risk surgical patients<sup>150-152</sup>. There were no differences among the patients who received therapy guided by parameters offered by the pulmonary artery catheter and the patients with a clinical follow-up. A recent metanalysis studied trauma patients with high surgical risk who underwent elective surgery and presented septic shock, and it suggested some improvement in the mortality rate for patients who had hemodynamic optimization<sup>153</sup>. </p>
      <p>However, there are no prospective studies about the value of PAC in patients with DHF who underwent noncardiac surgeries. Considering the seriousness of these patients and until more precise information is available, it is recommended that their perioperative care be carried out in an intensive care unit with hemodynamic and tissue oxygenation adjustments guided by invasive hemodynamic monitoring. </p>
      <p><bold>Perioperative Management:</bold> Beta-blockers reduce mortality in patients with risk for ischemic heart disease when administered during the preoperative period<sup>154,155</sup>. The use of carvedilol has recently been described during the preoperative period in patients with class III and IV heart failure (NYHA) who underwent heart surgery<sup>156</sup>. No studies have evaluated the introduction of beta-blockers in patients with heart failure who underwent noncardiac surgeries. Beta-blockers must be introduced prior to elective surgeries in patients with DHF and maintained during all the perioperative period, especially in individuals with ischemic cardiomyopathy. Nevertheless, there is no data to justify the recommendation to start this medication in patients who were not previously using it and who have DHF before undergoing emergency surgeries. </p>
      <p>The patients must also be maintained as close as possible to an euvolemic status since pulmonary congestion is associated with more frequent events. Pulmonary congestion is more commonly caused by excessive administration of fluids during surgery and, it generally occurs 24-48 hours after the surgery, when the patient is weaned from mechanical ventilation with positive pressure and there is mobilization of accumulated fluids in the extravascular space. The use of diuretics, however, must be cautious since the depletion of the intravascular volume may precipitate the occurrence of hypotension during anesthesia. </p>
      <p>Intravenous inotropic agents are recommended in the presence of tissue hypoperfusion (oliguria, acidosis, increased lactate, reduced consciousness level or hypotension). Inotropic agents have been related with increased mortality in patients with heart failure, and therefore should not be used as a prophylactic treatment in the preoperative period. </p>
      <p>The use of a contrapulsation intra-aortic balloon (IAB) has been suggested in patients following acute myocardial infarction undergoing emergency surgery<sup>157,158</sup>. Nevertheless, there are no randomized studies that have evaluated its use in patients with DHF undergoing emergency surgery. The use of IAB should be considered only in individuals who maintain hypotension or tissue hypoperfusion, in spite of the use of inotropic agents.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Cardiac Surgeries</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Ventricular dysfunction, both left and right, is a risk factor for patients undergoing cardiac surgeries. Like noncardiac surgeries, the cardiac surgeries must be postponed in patients with DHF. In cases of emergency surgery, it is important to seek the best possible compensation still in the preoperative period. </p>
      <p>A recent retrospective study with 1,586 patients suggested a beneficial effect of beta-blockers in patients with normal ventricular function undergoing myocardial revascularization surgeries<sup>159</sup>. Another recent study suggested the administration of beta-blockers prior to cardiac surgeries in order to reduce the perioperative risk in patients with ventricular dysfunction due to ischemic or valvular cardiomyopathy. Beta-blockers must be introduced before elective surgeries in patients with DHF already stabilized and must be maintained during all the perioperative period, especially in patients with ischemic cardiomyopathy. Nevertheless, there is no data that recommends starting these medications in patients who were not previously receiving them and who have DHF prior to an emergency surgery. </p>
      <p>Patients with DHF who will undergo heart surgery must be monitored with a pulmonary artery catheter<sup>160,161</sup>. Some authors have suggested the routine use of transesophageal echocardiography in heart surgery<sup>162</sup>; nevertheless, there is no data recommending the routine use of intraoperative transesophageal echocardiography in patients with HF. </p>
      <p>The use of inotropic agents is indicated in patients with hypotension or signs of tissue hypoperfusion. Different studies compared the effects of inotropic agents in patients who underwent heart surgeries<sup>163,164</sup>, but there is no evidence that corroborates with specific recommendations for any of them. The use of phosphodiesterase inhibitors as well as nitroglycerin has been suggested for patients with pulmonary hypertension due to their pulmonary vasodilator effect. If hypotension is present, vasopressor drugs such as norepinephrine, epinephrine and/or dopamine should be used. </p>
      <p>In patients with serious heart failure and signs of tissue hypoperfusion, in spite of the use of intravenous inotropic agents, mechanical circulatory support must be considered as a support therapy until myocardial recovery (e. g., in myocardial depression associated with extracorporeal circulation) or until heart transplantation. IAB has been recommended for patients with obstruction of left coronary branch<sup>165</sup> in mitral insufficiency in a condition of postoperative low output<sup>166</sup>. In patients whose signs of left ventricular dysfunction and tissue hypoperfusion are intense since the beginning, or in where the IAB failed to restore tissue perfusion, the implant of artificial ventricular support must be considered<sup>167,168</sup>. </p>
      <p>D. Stunned and Hibernating Myocardium (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab24-body2"><bold>Table 24</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Definition</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In ischemic cardiomyopathy, the abnormalities of the myocardial contractility are due to both tissue fibrosis and viable cells dysfunction in variable combinations. The viable myocardium presents potentially reversible mechanical dysfunction and it can be classified as stunned and hibernating. While the hypocontractility of the stunned myocardium remains in spite of the reperfusion already attained, in the hibernating myocardium it represents an adaptation to the chronic low flow. Several studies have demonstrated the potential improvement of function by means of myocardial revascularization in patients with preoperative identification of viable segments<sup>169-175</sup>. Thus, in patients with ischemic HF, the assessment of myocardial viability is important to verify the partial or total reversibility of ventricular dysfunction with surgical treatment. It must be emphasized, however, that these studies were performed in stable patients. To this day, there are no data in the literature about the assessment of myocardial viability in patients with DHF. Viability tests must be performed after stabilization of the clinical status.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab24-body2">
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      <p>
        <bold>2. Methods of Myocardial Viability Evaluation </bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>2.1. Stress Echocardiography with dobutamine</bold><sup>176,177</sup>. The viable myocardium has its own preserved contractile reserve (responsiveness to inotropic agents). Dysfunctional segments &#150; markedly hypokinetic, akinetic or dyskinetic &#150; typically present a biphasic response to dobutamine, with improved contractility with low doses and impairment with dose increments. Sensitivity ranges between 75-80%, while specificity ranges between 80-85%. This method has a high positive (85%) and negative (93%) predictive value, but it requires a skilled evaluator and an adequate thoracic window. </p>
      <p><bold>2.2. Scintigraphy with <sup>201</sup>thalium</bold><sup>178,179</sup>. While the initial uptake of this tracer depends primarily on perfusion, late uptake (&gt;24 hours) is a result of the integrity of the cell membrane in the hibernating myocardium. The sensitivity is high (85-90%), but its relatively low specificity (65-70%) can overestimate the potential for regional recovery. The positive and negative predictive values are 33% and 94%, respectively. </p>
      <p><bold>2.3. Positron emission tomography (PET)</bold><sup>180,181</sup>. The F-18 FDG tracer is a glucose analogue absorbed by metabolically active cells. The presence of viability is demonstrated when there is disparity between flow and metabolism. It also has a specificity lower (70-75%) than stress echocardiography with dobutamine. Considered a gold standard in the assessment of myocardial viability, this method is limited by its high cost and restricted availability. </p>
      <p><bold>2.4. Magnetic Resonance Imaging</bold><sup>182,183</sup>. It can be associated with stress echocardiography with dobutamine to assess the contractile reserve. Sensitivity and specificity are 81% and 95%, respectively. It has a high spatial resolution, allowing for the discrimation between areas of transmural and non-transmural abnormalities. </p>
      <p>The relationship between viability, increased contractility, improvements of the clinical condition and prognosis needs to be demonstrated in randomized prospective studies.</p>
      <p>E. Diastolic Dysfunction (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab25-body2"><bold>Table 25</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Approximately 50% of the patients with HF present with no or minimum involvement of the systolic function and they are, by exclusion, diagnosed as having diastolic HF<sup>184-187</sup>. Diastolic heart failure is the one related to the increases in the diastolic filling in part of or in the whole heart. Different conditions can lead to diastolic dysfunction. This current analysis focuses on the myocardial causes<sup>188,189</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab25-body2">
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      <p><bold>1. Diagnosis:</bold> In spite of the lack of clinical and electrocardiographic criteria, the presentation of HF in a patient with preserved systolic function probably represents diastolic failure. The inclusion of the B-type natriuretic peptide measurement can increase the diagnostic accuracy<sup>190</sup>. It is crucial to pay close attention to some general principles in the treatment of diastolic failure: reduction of volume overload, control of the arterial blood pressure and relief of the myocardial ischemia. Drugs that block the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system are particularly attractive based on pathophysiologic studies. </p>
      <p><bold>2. General Treatment</bold>: Drug therapy in general involves the use of diuretics and negative inotropic agents. Calcium channel blockers and beta-blockers have shown benefits to enhance physical capacity and, in small studies and subgroup analyses, to reduce mortality<sup>188</sup>. In the study conducted by the <italic>Digoxin Investigators Group</italic><sup>191</sup><italic>,</italic> digoxin showed an impact on the reduction of hospitalization rates in patients with and without systolic dysfunction (it is believed the mechanism involved is the control of ventricular rate). For patients with atrial fibrillation, the restoration of sinus rhythm and organized atrial contraction may improve diastolic filling<sup>192</sup>. </p>
      <p>Clinical and experimental studies revealed that blockade of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system may improve the diastolic performance in view of the deleterious role of angiotensina II in the ventricular relaxation<sup>14,193, 194</sup>. Short-term treatment with losartan seems to be associated with an improvement in exercise tolerance, which might be due to afterload reduction<sup>195</sup>. In addition to that, inducers of hypertrophy regression seem to be beneficial in cases where the left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) is the main element of diastolic dysfunction. </p>
      <p>The study <italic>Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction in Arterial Hypertension</italic> (LIFE)<sup>23,196 </sup>demonstrated, in patients with hypertension associated with LVH (diagnosed with ECG), a reduction of the cardiovascular complications when compared with atenolol. It is possible that losartan has a beneficial action in the reduction of myocardial fibrosis and reduction of wall stiffness<sup>24,197</sup>. Currently, various multicentric, randomized, placebo-controlled studies are being conducted, aiming at assessing the role of the angiotensin conversion inhibitors, antagonists of angiotensin receptor and beta-blockers in patients with diastolic heart failure<sup>25,188</sup>. Candersartan may reduce hospitalization due to heart failure in patients with diastolic heart failure<sup>198</sup>. </p>
      <p><bold>3. Treatment under investigation</bold>: Aldosterone seems to be important in the development of fibrosis, both in systolic HF remodeling and in the development of LVH. In the study <italic>Randomized Aldactone (spironolactone) Evaluation Study for Congestive Heart Failure</italic> (RALES)<sup>199</sup>, directed to systolic dysfunction, placebo group patients with the highest serum values of collagen degradation markers had the poorest performance, but they were the ones who best responded to spironolactone. It is unknown whether this benefit could be observed in patients with diastolic dysfunction. </p>
      <p><bold>4. Comorbidities</bold>: Arterial hypertension is the largest risk factor for the development of CHF. Therefore, strict control of arterial blood pressure is essential in these patients. Occasionally, diastolic heart failure may require a complete investigation for coronary ischemia. Ischemic episodes can lead to diastolic dysfunction through changes in the ventricular relaxation, which can result in pulmonary congestion. Drug therapy and myocardial revascularization (percutaneous or surgical) reduce the symptoms and can prolong the survival of patients with CHD, who must be treated according to the current guidelines<sup>200</sup>.</p>
      <p>F. Acute Pulmonary Edema (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab26-body2"><bold>Table 26</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Patients with acute pulmonary edema (APE) tend to be older, have higher blood pressure and preserved left ventricular ejection fraction<sup>24,28,17,124</sup>. APE episodes are frequently associated with ischemia (transmural or subendocardial) and/or poor dietary and/or blood pressure control. This group is generally poorly represented in clinical assays, which leads to a limited applicability of the information contained in them. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab26-body2">
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      <p>Improvement in oxygenation can usually be attained with the patient sitting, and with the administration of oxygen through high flow masks. It has been recently proposed that the use of noninvasive ventilation (NIV) with positive pressure can improve the oxygen exchange<sup>201</sup>. </p>
      <p>Two prospective, randomized studies were performed with this purpose. In the first one<sup>202</sup>, NIV was compared with the use of high doses of nitrates. The study was interrupted early because of the excessive number of adverse events and reduced efficacy in the NIV arm. On the other hand, a better control of pulmonary edema has been demonstrated<sup>203</sup> with NIV, when compared with conservative treatment. Therefore, its use must be considered as an alternative strategy reserved for patients who did not respond to the conventional supply of oxygen and drug treatment. </p>
      <p>Furosemide and morphine have long been considered as the standard treatment of APE. A recent study<sup>204</sup> randomized patients to receive low doses of nitrates and a <italic>bolus </italic>of 80 mg furosemide or 40 mg furosemide and high doses of nitrate administered in repeated intravenous (IV) <italic>boluses</italic> of 3 mg isosorbide dinitrate. The study showed that high doses of intravenous (IV) nitrate are clearly superior to furosemide in the treatment of APE. </p>
      <p>Recent studies<sup>124,205-207</sup> showed that the most important predictor of immediate therapeutic success (measured as oxygen saturation &gt;95% in 60 min) was the capacity to reduce arterial blood pressure by 15-30% in 15-30 min. This represents a decrease of systemic vascular resistance, which confirms the importance of rapid arterial dilation as a primary objective in the treatment of APE. </p>
      <p>However, in patients with acute heart failure with reduced myocardial reserve, the inappropriate vasodilation may cause an important drop in arterial blood pressure, which can result in hemodynamic instability, ischemia, renal failure and shock. Therefore, it is essential to pay close attention to arterial blood pressure monitoring. Medication doses should be reduced if systolic pressure is lower than 90-100 mm Hg and they must be discontinued if there is a new drop in arterial blood pressure. In the first 24 hours, the vasodilator dose must be progressively reduced in order to prevent recurrent episodes of inappropriate vasoconstriction. </p>
      <p>The drug selected for use to prevent new episodes of decompensation, after initial stabilization in patients hospitalized because of acute heart failure is not well defined yet. Nitrates have never been assessed in prospective, randomized studies. Two classes of vasodilators were recently developed for the treatment of acute heart failure; fast-acting endothelin antagonists are in phase II investigation. Larger studies are necessary to verify its exact role in acute heart failure. The second class of vasodilators is composed of natriuretic peptides. The first drug investigated in a clinical trial was niseritide<sup>93</sup>. The drug was effective to improve the subjective score of dyspnea, as well as to induce significant vasodilation, having been recently approved by the FDA for the treatment of acute HF. Another group of drugs used in the first days after the initial stabilization is composed of diuretics. Although with a proven benefit in clinical practice, its excessive use can be harmful<sup>205,206</sup>. A recent study compared low doses of dopamine with high doses of intravenous furosemide in patients with an episode of refractory decompensation<sup>207</sup>. The study was discontinued due to significant adverse events in the furosemide arm. Therefore, the dose of furosemide administered to patients with DHF must be titrated with the purpose of reducing the symptoms and congestion, without triggering adverse effects.</p>
      <p>G. Peripartum Cardiomyopathy (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab27-body2"><bold>Table 27</bold></xref>)  </p>
      <p>Peripartum cardiomyopathy (PP-CMP) is a serious, rare disease, with a mortality rate around 18-56%, of unknown etiology, and its occurrence is related to the gestational-puerperal cycle<sup>209,210</sup>. It occurs in women without any previous cardiomyopathy, from the last quarter of gestation until 6 months after delivery. The incidence is estimated to be 1/1,435 to 1/15,000 deliveries, which would affect 1,000-1,300 women every year in the U.S.A. Risk factors include multiparity, twin pregnancy, advanced age, preeclampsia, gestational hypertension and black ethnicity. Its diagnosis requires the exclusion of other causes of cardiomyopathy and it is confirmed by echocardiogram showing signs of systolic ventricular dysfunction. Endomyocardial biopsy may be indicated if the patient is refractory to treatment, and it may show myocarditis.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab27-body2">
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      <p>H. Myocarditis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab28-body2"><bold>Table 28</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Myocarditis is defined as an inflammation in the cardiac muscle, frequently caused by an infectious agent which usually affects the myocytes, interstitium, vascular elements and the pericardium. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab28-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt28-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Myocardial aggression basically occurs through three mechanisms: 1) immune-mediated lesion, which is probably the main mechanism<sup>211</sup>; 2) direct action on the myocardium; 3) production of a myocardial toxin (e.g., diphtheria). </p>
      <p>Diagnostic suspicion is raised in the presence of an acute HF, after an infection, or a short-term clinical condition. The clinical manifestation of a myocarditis varies from an oligoasymptomatic condition to deadly HF. Among the findings, one of the main characteristic ones is tachycardia disproportional to the elevation of temperature, almost always accompanied by a third heart sound, mitral regurgitation murmur and arrhythmias. The main agents associated with myocarditis are viruses (adenovirus, arbovirus, coxsackievirus, cytomegalovirus, echovirus, hepatitis virus, human immunodeficiency virus, influenza, poliomyelitis and <italic>Mycoplasma pneumoniae); </italic>rickettsial diseases (endemic typhus and Q fever); bacterial infections (<italic>Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, Pneumococcus, Haemophilus</italic> and diphteria); parasitic infections (cysticercosis, toxoplasmosis, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis) and fungal infections (aspergillosis, actinomycosis, blastomycosis and candidiasis). </p>
      <p>Late consequences of myocarditis can be related to the activation of cellular and humoral autoimmunity. Therefore, some authors believe that immune suppression may be beneficial in selected cases. Immune suppression has an important role in the treatment of patients with cardiac dysfunction due to autoimmune diseases, such as scleroderma, lupus erythematosus, polymyositis or sarcoidosis. Intravenous use of immunoglobulin, however, did not demonstrate a beneficial effect in immunosuppression<sup>212-214</sup>.</p>
      <p>I. After heart transplant (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab29-body2"><bold>Table 29</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab30-body2"><bold>30</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab31-body2"><bold>31</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>HF syndrome in the heart transplant postoperative period can be a consequence of several clinical conditions, and it can emerge both in the immediate postoperative period and during the late follow-up. It is important to consider the electrophysiologic and hemodynamic changes due to the cardiac denervation, as well as the effects of pulmonary hypertension of the receptor on the functional performance of the graft<sup>215</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab29-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt29-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab30-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt30-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab31-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt31-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Left ventricular dysfunction in the immediate postoperative period with DHF is generally serious and can be related to: </p>
      <p>1. poor myocardial preservation correlated with cardioplegic solution, cardiac contusions, use of high doses of catecholamines, ischemia time and use of inadequate preservation solutions, inappropriate care of donors or poor quality of donors; </p>
      <p>2. bradyarrhythmias, whose main causes are acute cellular and humoral rejection, influence of the suture line, surgical manipulation close to the sinus node, graft ischemia, influence of drugs used in the preoperative period (beta-blockers and amiodarone). </p>
      <p>3. acute rejection, a frequent cause of left ventricular and/or biventricular dysfunction in the postoperative period of heart transplant, mainly when the humoral component is present. Humoral rejection is serious, has a high mortality rate and is characterized by vasculitis, edema, necrosis and capillary deposits of immune complexes and complements<sup>216</sup>. </p>
      <p>Right ventricular dysfunction accounts for about 50% of cardiac complications of the postoperative period and 19% of total early deaths. The main cause of inadaptation of the right ventricle is pulmonary hypertension and poor preservation of the graft<sup>217,218</sup>. Further on, HF can be caused by graft vascular disease, rejection and tricuspid insufficiency. Graft vascular disease is the main late complication after heart transplant. The occurrence of acute HF is a consequence of acute myocardial infarction, usually asymptomatic, since the patients are denerved.</p>
      <p>J. Valve Diseases (<xref ref-type="table" rid="en_a01tab32-body2"><bold>Table 32</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <table-wrap id="en_a01tab32-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt32-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>The presence of HF means a more advanced natural history and it implies a possible surgical correction. </p>
      <p>Pharmacological management of HF in valve diseases has the purpose of adjusting the hemodynamic condition by means of optimization of preload and afterload, in addition to actions on the myocardial contractility, heart rate and correction of occasional decompensation factors<sup>219</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Mitral Stenosis (MS)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Symptoms of HF in MS are related to the reduction of valve area, increased heart rate and elevation of pulmonary pressure.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Mitral Insufficiency (MI)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Surgical correction<sup>220</sup> is determined by the presence of HF symptoms with normal ventricular function or in asymptomatic patients with some damage of ventricular function or in patients with acute symptomatic MI (mitral insufficiency). The treatment of mitral regurgitation is introduced for relief of the symptoms until the surgical treatment and to prevent complications. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Aortic Stenosis (AS)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The clinical treatment of HF in AS does not alter the natural history and the need of surgery. The basis for the treatment is the control of precipitating factors of HF while surgical correction is awaited.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4. Aortic Insufficiency (AI) </bold>
      </p>
      <p>In acute aortic insufficiency, there is no time for ventricular adaptation and a sudden increase in left ventricular diastolic pressure occurs, followed by pulmonary edema and sometimes shock.</p>
      <p>L. Decompensated Chagasic Cardiopathy (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab33-body2"><bold>Table 33</bold></xref>)  </p>
      <p>Chagasic cardiopathy can occur in its chronic phase as an HF syndrome with arrhythmias and thromboembolim<sup>221</sup>. Such presentations can occur isolatedly or in association; the concurrence of HF and arrhythmias is more frequent<sup>2</sup>. Although rare, chagasic cardiomyopathy in its acute phase can also occur more frequently as HF syndrome. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab33-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt33-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Chronic HF usually evolves, appearing around 20 years of age or over, after acute infection. Its most frequent presentation is a biventricular heart failure, with predominance of symptoms related to a larger compromise of the right ventricle. The diagnosis of chagasic cardiomyopathy is based on epidemiologic data, direct demonstration of antibodies against <italic>Trypanosoma cruzi</italic> antigens or serologic tests (indirect immunofluorescence test, indirect hemoagglutination, complement fixation and immunoenzymatic test). The diagnosis is suggested by the presence of total right bundle branch block and anterosuperior left bundle branch bock in the ECG, the presence of an apical left ventricular aneurysm in echocardiogram, with or without a thrombus, and posterobasal akinesia. Patients with HF due to chagasic cardiomyopathy usually have a worse prognosis than other etiologies, a high prevalence of myocarditis, and conduction system disturbances or bradyarrhythmias. </p>
      <p>The treatment of DHF secondary to Chagas disease normally follows the same treatment for other etiologies. However, due to its particularities, it is possible that patients with DHF and Chagas disease do not have the same therapeutic response. To this date, there is no literary evidence regarding the efficacy and safety of the use of beta-blockers in chagasic cardiopathy. This disease occurs with a high prevalence of advanced atrioventricular blocks and bradyarrhythmias that can get worse with the use of beta-blockers. If its use is decided, after compensation or in persistent DHF, the management must be extra cautious. The use of benzonidazol in the reactivation of the disease or in the acute phase should be mentioned. Heart transplant for the treatment of heart failure seems to have better results than other etiologies<sup>222</sup>.</p>
      <p>M. HF in fetuses, infants and children (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab34-body2"><bold>Tables 34</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab35-body2"><bold>35</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>The most frequent cause of HF in infants and children are the congenital cardiac defects, with an annual incidence of 0,1-0,2% of newborns<sup>223</sup>. The main causes of HF are<sup>224</sup>: (1) congenital defects (due to left to right blood deviation; obstructive lesions of the systemic flow, such as left heart hypoplasia, aortic arch interruption and aortic coarctation; extracardiac arteriovenous fistulae leading to enlargement of the right chambers; anomalous origin of left coronary artery; (2) cardiac tamponade; (3) ventricular dysfunction caused by acute myocarditis, acute presentation of congenital or acquired cardiomyopathies (inborn errors of metabolism, muscular dystrophies, infection, drugs, toxins, Kawasaki disease), mitochondriopathies, nutritional and idiopathic deficiencies, rheumatic fever<sup>225</sup>; (4) arrhythmias; (5) heart failure in fetus; (6) myocardial dysfunction after correction of cardiac defects (in immediate postoperative period after extracorporeal circulation or during late phase); (7) after orthotopic heart transplantation (primary failure of the graft, pulmonary hypertension, cellular rejection, humoral rejection, posttransplant coronary heart disease) and (8) Eisenmenger syndrome. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab34-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt34-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab35-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt35-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The most common clinical manifestations of DHF in infants are tachypnea, tachycardia, and reduced food intake. Other signs include hepatomegalia and gallop rhythm during physical exam. The presence of intercostal retractions, sudoresis and paleness may indicate imminent circulatory collapse. Pulses and arterial blood pressure must be assessed in the four limbs. Cardiomegaly and pulmonary edema can be visualized in a thoracic teleradiography. Older children may exhibit tachycardia and tachypnea; however, the most typical manifestation is fatigue and exercise intolerance. Lack of appetite, slow growth and development impairment are also frequent in the clinical history. Venous distension and peripheral edema can also be seen. Adolescents present adult-like symptoms. The <italic>New York Heart Association</italic><sup>226</sup> modified classification is used for children and the Ross scale is used for infants<sup>227</sup>. </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tab34-body2">Table 34</xref> illustrates the diagnostic evaluation<sup>228</sup>. </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tab35-body2">Table 35</xref> shows the main recommendations<sup>229</sup> for the treatment of congenital cardiac defects<sup>230</sup>, cardiomyopathies<sup>231</sup>, myocarditis<sup>232</sup>, low output after correction of congenital defects<sup>233</sup>, heart transplant<sup>234</sup>, Eisenmenger syndrome, arrhythmias and fetal cardiopathies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>VII. Surgical Treatment and Mechanical Strategies in the treatment of DHF</bold>
      </p>
      <p>DHF can result from complications originating from various cardiac conditions which can be surgically treated, or by invasive means with the use of catheters. The most frequent causes are acute coronary failure, bradyarrhythmias, tachyarrhythmias and acute decompensation of cardiac valvulopathies or advanced cardiomyopathies are the most frequent causes. Because of its high mortality, surgical therapy must always be considered as a complement to clinical therapy when the latter does not show a favorable response. However, any therapeutic intervention must be based on the immediate diagnosis to evaluate the type and severeness of the problem, as well as the factors involved in its prognosis. The surgical options for treatment include myocardial revascularization, correction of the mechanical complications of myocardial infarction, valve reconstruction or replacement, heart transplant, procedures in the pericardium, pacemaker or automatic defibrillator implantation, as well as the temporary use of mechanical devices for circulatory support.</p>
      <p>A. Surgical Procedures (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab36-body2"><bold>Tables 36</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab37-body2"><bold>37</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab38-body2"><bold>38</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>DHF due to myocardial infarction or its complications frequently evolves with cardiogenic shock and pulmonary edema. In cases of uncomplicated acute myocardial infarction, clinical measures and/or percutaneous coronary revascularization are the first line procedures. The indication for myocardial revascularization surgery is reserved for patients who evolve with cardiogenic shock and evidence of ischemia, and for those who present unfavorable anatomy for percutaneous angioplasty. Likewise, other patients included are those who have undergone this procedure without success, as long as they have coronary arteries with a distal portion favorable to the surgical approach<sup>235-237</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab36-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt36-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab37-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt37-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab38-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt38-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Surgical treatment is always considered in complications of the acute myocardial infarction evolving with hemodynamic instability, such as interventricular communication<sup>238</sup> and mitral insufficiency due to rupture or dysfunction of the papillary muscle<sup>239</sup>. Under these conditions, surgery must be performed urgently, and it is important to have the best possible stabilization during the preparation, including the support from an IAB (intraaortic balloon). </p>
      <p>Ischemic cardiopathy can also be accompanied by clinical signs of chronic HF which may require surgical therapy during the decompensation phases, either associated with left ventricular aneurism or not. </p>
      <p>Valvulopathies that evolve with signs of DHF are generally caused by large and acute lesions. These situations include acute aortic regurgitation (typically associated with aortic dissection), mitral insufficiency caused by rupture of the leaflets or components of the subvalvular system, and valve insufficiencies caused by infectious endocarditis. Valvular stenosis can also be responsible for signs of cardiac decompensation in the final phases of chronic evolution of the problem. Valvulopathies can lead to cardiogenic shock and pulmonary edema generally due to changes in the circulatory mechanics, therefore surgical treatment must be indicated as long as there is no irreversible involvement of the ventricular function<sup>240</sup>. Ideally, in all these situations, the clinical condition must be stabilized before the surgical procedure, including the placement of an IAB when it is not contraindicated. </p>
      <p>The main option of surgical treatment in patients with myocardial diseases evolving with DHF is the heart transplant (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab39-body2">Table 39</xref>)<sup>241</sup>. Alternative procedures have been investigated, but nowadays only the correction of functional mitral insufficiency has also been indicated in the treatment of ischemic or idiopathic cardiomyopathies<sup>242</sup>. Heart transplantation can also be considered in patients with hemodynamic instability refractory to drug treatment during the postoperative period of cardiac surgery or after acute myocardial infarction, as long as there are no other surgical treatment alternatives. On the other hand, the need to wait for the organ occasionally leads to the use of mechanical circulatory assist devices as a bridge to transplant. Finally, the specific contraindications to transplant must always be considered when discussing its indication. Palliative procedures can be indicated in certain cases (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab40-body2">Table 40</xref>).</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab39-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt39-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab40-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt40-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>B. Surgical Procedures for arrhythmias and conduction blocks </bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Catheter ablation for the treatment of cardiac tachyarrhythmias (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab41-body2"><bold>Table 41</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p>In a specific group of patients with tachyarrhythmias, ventricular dysfunction can occur with the subsequent development of DHF, in the absence of another detectable cause. This reversible dysfunction, caused by chronic arrhythmias, is called tachycardiomyopathy. Any supraventricular tachyarrhythmia occurring for a long period, with increased heart rate and/or irregular heart rhythm, or an unrelenting ventricular tachycardia can lead to tachycardiomyopathy. In other patients, tachyarrhythmia can aggravate an already installed cardiomyopathy. In both cases, the tachyarrhythmia can be diagnosed and/or become symptomatic in the presence of DHF<sup>243-245</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab41-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt41-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Catheter ablation by means of radiofrequency energy is indicated then, and it is employed with good results (90-99% success) in patients with accessory pathways, AV nodal reentrant tachycardia, atrial tachycardia and atrial flutter<sup>246</sup>. AF is present in 15-30% of patients with HF. Although the introduction of beta-blockers has eased the control of the ventricular response, in some refractory cases this control can be obtained through the ablation of the atrioventricular junction together with the insertion of a definitive pacemaker<sup>247-249</sup>. </p>
      <p>Unrelenting ventricular tachycardia can be a result of proarrhythmia and affect mainly those patients with structural cardiopathy, such as chagasic or ischemic etiology with serious involvement of the ventricular function. It can also be present in patients with advanced HF and candidates to heart transplant. On rare occasions, patients without baseline structural cardiopathy can show gradual impairment of ventricular function when chronically affected by idiopathic unrelenting ventricular tachycardia. Catheter ablation should be considered in these cases, with a success rate around 85%. Upon restoration of sinus rhythm, a gradual and progressive improvement in ventricular function is expected. The insertion of an implantable cardioverter defibrillator is contraindicated in unrelenting ventricular tachycardia.</p>
      <p>2. Artificial Cardiac Stimulation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab42-body2"><bold>Tables 42</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab43-body2"><bold>43</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Important bradyarrhythmias may eventually lead to DHF, and total AV block is the abnormality found in most of these patients. As long as it is not a consequence of reversible factors such as drugs, hydro-electrolytic and/or metabolic disturbances, the insertion of a definitive pacemaker is indicated. In cases of spontaneous recovery of AV conduction, such as following acute myocardial infarction, if there is any doubt regarding the level of the block and the risk of progression to total AV block, the electrophysiologic study is indicated. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab42-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt42-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab43-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt43-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Recent multicentric, prospective and randomized assays in patients with HF with predominance of FC III and increased QRS complex have demonstrated that the biventricular stimulation can improve the ventricular function and life quality. </p>
      <p>Rehospitalizationas due to HF were also significantly reduced. However, about 20-30% of patients may not show any clinical improvement, which must be taken into consideration because of the cost of this treatment<sup>250,251</sup>. Some studies suggest that the benefit might be small in ischemic cardiomyopathy<sup>252,253</sup>. In all studies, patients were also included only after optimization of the clinical treatment for HF and with the same drug dosages for at least 30 days. Therefore, there are no specific studies about the use of this therapy in patients with DHF.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>C. Mechanical Circulatory Support</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Mechanical circulatory support means any temporary auxiliary measure to maintain circulatory conditions essential to the body. Mechanical devices for circulatory support have been employed to favor the myocardial recovery and as a bridge to a corrective surgical procedure or heart transplant. These devices include intraaortic balloon (IAB), continuous flow pumps, paracorporeal or implantable artificial ventricles, and the total artificial heart. </p>
      <p>Intraaortic Balloon (IAB) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab44-body2"><bold>Table 44</bold></xref>): IAB is able to increase the primary cardiac output by 10-30%, to reduce the peripheral vascular resistance (afterload) and globally improve the perfusion. Its use is well established in the literature<sup>254-257</sup>, and it should be indicated for the treatment of cardiogenic shock of difficult reversion with pharmaceutical therapy. Specific contraindications to the use of IAB include only the aortic valve insufficiency and the involvements of the thoracic aorta. In diseases of the abdominal aorta and its branches, the insertion can be done through the subclavian artery or through the ascending aorta when the thorax is open. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab44-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt44-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Mechanical Circulatory Assist Devices (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab45-body2"><bold>Table 45</bold></xref>): Continuous flow pumps work by pumping the blood in a single direction, without the need of interposed valves. These pumps are inserted in parallel with left or right circulation through canules externalized in the thorax. Its use is restricted to an average of one week, in view of the continuous flow limitations and the little mobility provided to the patient. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab45-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt45-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Artificial ventricles are devices composed of one valve chamber with a diaphragm that moves and ejects the blood out of the pumping area and aspirates it back when returning to the initial position. Paracorporeal ventricles with pneumatic activation can be inserted in parallel with the left or right circulation by means of canules sutured on the cardiac structures and externalized in the abdominal area. In spite of being external, they provide a relative mobility to the patient, and they are able to maintain the circulation for several months. Implantable ventricles electromechanically activated are used only to assist the left circulation; they are sutured directly onto the cardiac structures and the only externalized part is the power cord. They can be used for over one year. The total artificial heart is implanted as a replacement to the patient's heart. There are several kinds of activation, and the most common is the pneumatic type. </p>
      <p>The indication and selection of total circulatory assist devices are invariably influenced by their availability and the experience of the surgical team. The situations justifying the use of such devices are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab45-body2">Table 45</xref><sup>258-261</sup>. </p>
      <p>Regarding the use of these devices, several factors are related to the poor postoperative prognosis and must be considered as contraindications: age &gt;65 years, episode of pulmonary embolism in the previous month, prolonged oral intubation (&gt; 48 hours), episode of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in the previous 24 hours; acute neurological sequela, acute or chronic renal failure with creatinine &gt;2.5 mg/dl and/or urea &gt;100 mg/dl, liver dysfunction with total bilirubins &gt;3 mg/dl and active infectious condition. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>VIII. Treating patients with special conditions and comorbidities </bold>
      </p>
      <p>A. Pulmonary Thromboembolism (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab46-body2"><bold>Tables 46</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab47-body2"><bold>47</bold></xref>)</p>
      <p>Patients with HF have an increased risk of pulmonary thromboembolism (PTE), which constitutes a relatively frequent cause of decompensation. The predisposing conditions are: low cardiac output through dilated chambers, ventricular hypocontractility, abnormalities in the segmental kinetics, endocardial surface modified after myocardial infarction or inflammatory or infiltrative cardiomyopathies, hypercoagulability and the presence of AF<sup>262,263</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab46-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt46-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab47-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt47-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Right ventricular dysfunction is present in 50% of cases and it constitutes a marker of poor prognosis, especially in patients with hemodynamic instability. Contrary to patients without previous HF, small emboli can cause large hemodynamic repercussion in the presence of HF. About 90% of patients in shock had a previous cardiopulmonary disease, while 56% of patients with previous cardiopulmonary disease were in shock, compared with 2% of patients without this condition<sup>264</sup>. Massive obstruction =50% is uncommon in this population which suggests that patients with previous cardiopulmonary disease affected by massive PTE frequently do not survive to be included in the clinical assays. </p>
      <p>The exact incidence and prevalence of PTE related to HF is still controversial, and the data diverge among clinical studies and studies from autopsies<sup>76,265-269</sup>. In VHeF-T and SOLVD studies, the proportion of PTE was similar to systemic events (10-20%), but different from that of stroke (60-80%)<sup>270</sup>. </p>
      <p>The diagnosis of PTE in patients with HF must always be assessed by searching the presence of hemoptysis, thoracic pain or persistent cough. Risk factors associated with these events such as AF, previous embolic phenomenon or image diagnosis of an intracavitary thrombus must be valued. Standard signs and symptoms used to estimate the seriousness of the embolic event in patients with subjacent cardiopulmonary disease may not be reliable indicators. The presence of cardiogenic shock (systolic AP =90 mmHg) is associated with a 3-7 fold increase in mortality, with most deaths occurring during the first hour of onset. A fast integration of history and suggestive physical exam coupled with laboratory tests is necessary, and subsequently, the establishment of a diagnostic and therapeutic strategy in a short time. All patients must undergo a thoracic teleradiography to exclude other morbidities that may simulate PTE. Echodopplercardiography is a very useful exam since it can be performed at bedside, it is not invasive, and it allows for the differentiation of the cause of shock and recognition of the characteristics of PTE. A ventilation-perfusion pulmonary scintigraphy in critically ill patients may be difficult to be performed. Helical computerized tomography has been used to gradually replace the pulmonary angiography for confirmation of the diagnosis; it can substitute the transthoracic and transesophageal echocardiograms. Pulmonary angiography is considered the golden standard to confirm the diagnosis, despite being invasive, costly, requiring skilled professionals, and not always available. The levels of D-dimer are increased in an acute thromboembolic event, but they are not enough to confirm the diagnosis of PTE; however, a negative test can exclude the diagnosis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab46-body2">Table 46</xref>). </p>
      <p>In the early phase of evaluation, the patients require aggressive stabilization and therapy<sup>271,272 </sup>(<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab47-body2">Table 47</xref>). Hypoxemia (refractory) not reverted with high concentrations of oxygen requires mechanical ventilatory assistance; arterial hypotension that does not reverse with volume administration requires inotropic therapy. Thrombolytic therapy has been considered the choice option in patients with hemodynamic instability, with or without right ventricular dysfunction; embolectomy is reserved for those cases in which thrombolysis is contraindicated. Other potential indications of thrombolytic agents are right ventricular dysfunction, serious hypoxemia, respiratory insufficiency and massive ileofemoral thrombosis. Fractionated or unfractionated heparin is reserved for cases without hemodynamic instability.</p>
      <p>B. Anemia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab48-body2"><bold>Table 48</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Although anemia (and its correction) is a well known comorbidity in several clinical conditions including myocardial ischemia, only recently its role in HF has been recognized as a prognostic factor independent of morbidity and mortality, but its pathophysiology is not well established yet. Several mechanisms determine its occurrence: (1) iron deficiency due to low ingestion, poor absorption or chronic loss, especially in ischemic cardiomyopathies with the use of platelet antiaggregation agents which lead to digestive losses due to bleeding; (2) associated comorbidities such as diabetes, arterial hypertension and chronic renal failure; (3) urinary losses of erythropoietin and transferrin; (4) use of ACE inhibitors<sup>273</sup>; (5) increased cytokine activity, causing bone marrow depression<sup>274</sup>; and (6) hemodilution. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab48-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt48-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Approximately 50% of patients with HF are anemic (Hb &lt;12 g/dl and/or Ht &lt;37%). Anemia prevalence and seriousness increase with functional class (FC) of HF (NYHA), with studies pointing to a percentage of anemic patients of 52.6% in FC III and 79.1% in FC IV<sup>275,276</sup>, being more common among the elderly, women, hypertensive patients and in the presence of associated renal disease<sup>277-279</sup>. Anemia and chronic renal failure are independent prognostic factors for mortality in patients with HF and they are associated with impairment of the symptoms and reduction of functional capacity<sup>280-282</sup>. </p>
      <p>Serious and acute anemia is usually well tolerated in normal hearts at rest, but the presence of coronary heart disease impairs the myocardial ability to adapt to these conditions, since anemia can predispose the myocardium to ischemia, repetitive stunning, apoptosis and necrosis, contributing to the progression of ventricular dilation and HF<sup>283,284</sup>. </p>
      <p>Cardiorenal syndrome is a vicious circle that occurs in HF, caused by low flow, leading to renal failure and subsequent reduction in the production of erythropoietin, which causes anemia. Ventricular dysfunction and anemia lead to exacerbation of myocardial and peripheral hypoxia, increase in venous return, increase of cardiac work and left ventricular hypertrophy. Hypoxia still causes the activation of neurohormones and cytokines which, by themselves, exacerbate the anemia and aggravate the vicious circle. Anemia impairs the HF, which worsens the renal failure and reduces even more the production of erythropoietin. </p>
      <p>Evidence is still scarce about blood transfusions for the treatment of DHF in anemic patients. Most Guidelines recommend blood transfusions for patients who are not critically ill only when hemoglobin levels are below 7-8 g/dl. However, high risk patients who may benefit from blood transfusions should be individualized and screened, such as the elderly, coronary heart disease patients and patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) whose hemoglobin levels should be maintained around 10 g/dl<sup>285,286</sup>. Erythropoietin is a glycoprotein growth factor produced by the kidneys to adjust the production of red blood cells. It was originally successfully used in anemic patients with chronic renal failure (CRF) during dialysis or predialysis. In a retrospective study with 26 patients with serious HF and anemia (Hb&lt;12 g%) considered resistant to optimized clinical treatment, the use of subcutaneous erythropoietin and intravenous iron raised the levels of Hb from 10.16 &#177; 0.95 to 12.10 &#177; 1.21g/dl, after a period of 7.2&#177;5.5 months with subsequent improvement in heart function, ventricular ejection fraction from 27.7&#177;4.8 to 35.4 &#177;7.6, and a reduction of hospital stays of 91.9%<sup>287</sup>.</p>
      <p>C. Chronic renal failure (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab49-body2"><bold>Table 49</bold></xref>, <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab50-body2"><bold>50</bold></xref>, and <xref ref-type="fn" rid="tab51-body2"><bold>51</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases (CVD) are the ones that most contribute to morbidity and mortality in uremic patients. Mortality due to CVD is increased by 10-20 times; the prevalence of HF is 12-36 times higher in patients undergoing renal replacement therapy than in the general population, and it is responsible for up to 50% of deaths in the final stage of the disease. The etiology of HF in CRF is multifactorial: uremia, increased levels of calcium, phosphate, diabetes, systemic arterial hypertension (SAH) and coronary heart disease. The myocardial abnormalities observed include left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), degenerative arterial lesions involving coronary arteries and, less frequently, calcified pericarditis and valve diseases<sup>288</sup>. Although this population is excluded from large studies on primary and secondary, even in the advanced stages of the disease, specific treatments for SAH, anemia, hyperparathyroidism and dyslipidemia have been beneficial<sup>289,290</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab49-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt49-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab50-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt50-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <fn id="tab51-body2">
          <p>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Correction of anemia in HF and CRF:</bold> Some data indicate that the correction of anemia with Hb &lt;10g/dl with a consequent improvement of HF is frequently associated with slowness or stabilization of the progression of CRF<sup>291</sup>, even in patients with diabetes<sup>292</sup>, improving life quality and exercise capacity, with no impact on mortality<sup>293</sup>. </p>
      <p>Anemia is considered an independent risk factor for left ventricular dysfunction, risk of hospitalizations for HF, and recurrent decompensations and mortality in patients with CRF undergoing dialysis<sup>294</sup>. The following measures are important: (1) intensification of dialysis with ultrafiltration sessions if necessary in order to restore ideal volemia, improve urea levels and electrolyte disorders; (2) implement the treatment for associated SAH, an important predisposing factor for HF decompensation; (3) treatment of myocardial ischemia when present; (4) use of ACE inhibitors or angiotensin II inhibitor is indicated in patients undergoing dialysis regardless of the creatinine levels; (5) digitalis must be used with caution and the serum levels must be frequently monitored; (6) the use of ACE-I is contraindicated in patients with serum creatinine <underline>&gt;</underline> 2.5 mg/dL and/or serum potassium <underline>&gt;</underline> 5.5 mEq/L who are not receiving dialysis, and it can be replaced by the association of hydralazine and nitrate.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>D. Aggravated Renal Failure </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Most patients with chronic HF of enough severity to result in hospitalization have renal function abnormalities. Renal dysfunction can be secondary to low renal perfusion, intrinsic renal disease or due to the drugs used in the treatment of HF, and it can be impaired during the acute decompensation of HF and its therapy. The cause of renal failure in the context of DHF seems to be associated with a complex cardiorenal interaction which is beyond the reduced cardiac output alone<sup>295</sup>. </p>
      <p>Associated diseases such as atherosclerosis, SAH, diabetes mellitus and amyloidosis can cause intrinsic renal disease. Several other factors can contribute to renal hypoperfusion: decreased cardiac output, decreased renal blood flow, increased pressure in renal veins caused by elevated right atrial pressure and tricuspid regurgitation<sup>296,297</sup>. The increase of vasoconstrictive substances in the circulation - norepinephrine, endothelin and angiotensina &#150; is a contributing factor to renal dysfunction. Additionally, the altered release and/or sensitivity of endogenous vasodilators such as natriuretic peptides and nitric oxide can affect the renal function<sup>298-230</sup>. </p>
      <p>In addition to the hemodynamic changes, the therapy for HF can directly influence renal function. Renal function can be impaired by the treatment with diuretics or ACE-I, although these changes are usually transient and reversible. Persistent or progressive renal dysfunction is associated with deterioration of the baseline renal disease and a reserved prognosis. In spite of these potential adverse interactions, most patients with HF tolerate mild to moderate renal dysfunction without the need to suspend their medications. However, if serum creatinine is &gt;3mg/dL, the presence of renal failure can limit the treatment efficacy and predispose to drug intoxication caused by the medications prescribed for HF treatment. Patients with creatinine levels &gt;5mg/dL generally require dialysis or hemofiltration to control water retention, to reduce uremia/hyperkalemia risk, and to permit the use of medications necessary for the appropriate treatment of HF<sup>301,302</sup>. </p>
      <p>Renal changes may have an impact on HF therapy. Renal dysfunction can result in suspension of diuretics and ACE-I before the optimum treatment is reached, reducing the filling pressures to levels considered ideal, and with subsequent maintenance of the congestive symptoms. ACE-I are beneficial even in patients with moderately high levels of creatinine<sup>303</sup>. A common practice is to use the levels of urea and creatinine as indexes of global perfusion during progressive diuresis. Mild changes in urea and creatinine levels can be misinterpreted as a decreased cardiac output due to excessive diuresis, which may lead to a reduction in the therapy intensity in spite of elevated filling pressures. There is evidence that slight increases in urea and creatinine levels rarely indicate a reduction of cardiac output, but they usually reflect other cardiorenal factors. Patients receiving optimal therapy frequently have elevations of 10-20% in urea and creatinine<sup>304</sup>. To this date, there are no recommendations in the Guidelines regarding the baseline levels of creatinine, estimated creatinine glomerular filtration or limits of acceptable increases during the therapy. However, patients with renal failure defined as an increase <underline>&gt;</underline>25% in creatinine levels and reaching levels <underline>&gt;</underline>2.5mg/dL require careful management. There are few options available to relieve the congestive symptoms in patients who develop progressive renal dysfunction during HF therapy. Ultrafiltration or hemodialysis can be recommended to improve the patient's life quality and comfort.</p>
      <p>E. Sleep apnea in Heart Failure (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab52-body2"><bold>Tables 52</bold></xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab53-body2"><bold>53</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Obstructive apnea and central apnea or Cheyne-Stokes respiration are common in HF and the pathophysiology in these two conditions is closely related. The conventional approach to assessment and management of HF needs to be modified in view of increasing evidences that the sleep related respiratory disorders increase the risk of complications and accelerate the progression of HF, being independent risk factors for mortality in HF<sup>305</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab52-body2">
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      <table-wrap id="tab53-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt52-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Obstructive Sleep Apnea </bold>
      </p>
      <p>During sleep, in the phase of absence of rapid eye movement (about 85% of total sleep time), a reduction of sympathetic activity, metabolic rates, heart rate, arterial blood pressure and cardiac output is noticed<sup>306,307</sup>. Obstructive sleep apnea is caused by the pharyngeal collapse during sleep, which occurs mainly in obese individuals who are sleepy during the day and with nasalized voice<sup>308</sup>. The recurrence of obstructive apnea during sleep causes periods of hypoxia and hypercapnia with an exaggerated elevation of the negative intrathoracic pressure (leading to an increase of afterload and reduction of preload and, consequently, reduction of cardiac output) with intense release of sympathetic activity, inhibition of vagal activity, elevation of inflammatory mediators, elevation of oxidative stress and subsequent elevation of arterial blood pressure and pulmonary artery pressure, as well as increase of heart rate<sup>309-311</sup>. These changes can predispose to arrhythmias, ischemia, apoptosis, adverse remodeling and progression of DHF. </p>
      <p>For the definitive diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea it is necessary to use the technique called polysomnography which has the inconvenience of being an expensive test and therefore not generally used in patients with HF. The general therapeutics in these patients include weight loss, abstinence of alcohol and sedatives which predispose to pharyngeal collapse during sleep and use of continuous positive airway pressure, either nasal or oral, whenever indicated. It is also necessary to treat systemic arterial hypertension and the plurimetabolic syndrome. There is no evidence that the drugs used in the treatment of DHF have any impact on the severeness of obstructive sleep apnea. No randomized assay about HF has analyzed the impact of sleep apnea on the cardiovascular endpoints. However, acute resolution of obstructive sleep apnea with the use of CPAP in patients with HF prevents the recurrence of hypoxia, can increase left ventricular ejection fraction, can reduce ventricular diameters, arterial blood pressure, nocturnal heart rate and sensitivity of arterial baroreflex.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Central Sleep Apnea or Cheyne-Stokes Respiration (CSR)</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cheyne-Stokes Respiration (CSR) is a pattern characterized by increasing ventilatory frequency followed by hypoventilation until apnea. It is found in patients with Central Nervous System dysfunction, in individuals climbing to high altitudes, patients with HF and it is associated with a poor prognosis. Although it has long been described, its physiopathogenic mechanism has only recently been better understood. There seems to be an inadaptation and slowness to detect blood signs related to the concentrations of PaO<sub>2</sub> and PaCO<sub>2</sub> in the pulmonary receptors and carotid bodies due to the low cardiac output present in HF<sup>312</sup>. </p>
      <p> The specific treatment for CSR has been consolidated in the last decade<sup>313</sup>. Nasal oxygen supplementation reduces the episodes of apnea, reduces urinary catecholamines, improves the respiratory capacity and functional class of HF<sup>314</sup>. However, no clinical assays have analyzed the impact on mortality. Considering that CSR is a manifestation of advanced HF, the first consideration would be to optimize the treatment of HF. An aggressive treatment with diuretics to lower the filling pressures, administration of ACE-I and beta-blockers can reduce the severeness of the sleep central apnea; however, metabolic alkalosis can result from the excessive use of diuretics and predispose to Cheyne-Stokes Respiration. If Cheyne-Stokes Respiration persists in spite of optimization of the DHF treatment, other interventions should be considered: (1) nocturnal oxygen therapy can eliminate apnea associated with hypoxia, relieve the pattern of Cheyne-Stokes Respiration, reduce the nocturnal levels of norepinephrine and improve V<sub>O2</sub> max; (2) CPAP was tested in randomized clinical trials in patients with HF, confirming that it reduces both cardiac preload and afterload, reduces the sympathetic activity, improves the ejection fraction, mitral regurgitation and life quality. </p>
      <p>F. Thyroid Dysfunction (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab54-body2"><bold>Table 54</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Low T<sub>3</sub> Syndrome</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Thyroid diseases are comorbidities that can be associated with the HF syndrome<sup>315</sup>. More than 80% of the biologically active hormone triiodothyronine (T<sub>3</sub>) is derived from the peripheral conversion of the prohormone thyroxine (T<sub>4</sub>), which is secreted by the thyroid gland. At least 30% of patients with HF have low concentrations of free circulating T<sub>3</sub> and elevations of the levels of reverse T<sub>3</sub> (rT<sub>3</sub>), without a compensating increase of TSH concentration. These changes are proportional to the functional class of the HF, being correlated with the seriousness of the disease.<sup>316</sup> In HF there is a reduction of the peripheral conversion of T<sub>4</sub> into T<sub>3</sub> which results in the low T<sub>3</sub> syndrome or the sick euthyroid that is described in the DHF<sup>317-320</sup>. The functional integrity of this hormonal axis is not completely explained, although an attenuation of the response of TSH to TRH has been described. In patients with advanced HF, a low T<sub>3</sub>/rT<sub>3</sub> ratio is associated with serious ventricular dysfunction and it is a predictor of a poor prognosis in the short term. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab54-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt53-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Initial attempts to improve the cardiac function with thyroid hormone administered to patients with serious HF have been promising<sup>321,322</sup>. These observations suggest that the reduction of T<sub>3</sub> levels in non-thyroid diseases adversely affects the cardiac function and patients benefit from the hormone replacement, similarly to what occurs in hypothyroidism. The inability of patients with non-thyroid diseases to convert T<sub>4</sub> into T<sub>3</sub>, maybe due to an increase of interleukin-6 and a reduction in the activity of hepatic type I deiodinase suggests that the hormone replacement must be performed with T<sub>3</sub> in doses that can bring the serum levels to normal. Although small studies have suggested that the intravenous administration of T<sub>3</sub> is beneficial in patients with advanced HF, additional studies are necessary to establish the specific recommendations for the treatment.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>2. Hyperthyroidism</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Patients with hyperthyroidism can occasionally present stress dyspnea or signs and symptoms of HF. Patients with chronic and serious hyperthyroidism may occasionally present serious deficit of cardiac contractility, low cardiac output, signs and symptoms of HF, third heart sound and pulmonary congestion. This complex condition generally occurs due to persistent tachycardia or AF. The early detection and appropriate management of cardiac manifestations is crucially important in patients &gt;50 years old since cardiac complications are the main cause of death after the treatment of hyperthyroidism. The initial treatment should include beta-adrenergic antagonists, such as propranolol or atenolol, to reduce the heart rate to normal levels. After that, the definitive therapy with Iodine-131 isolatedly or in combination with an antithyroid drug must be initiated.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>3. Hypothyroidism</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As opposed to hyperthyroidism, low concentrations of thyroid hormones are associated with decreases of cardiac output, heart rate, systolic volume, and myocardial contractility, as well as increases in the systemic vascular resistance. The cardiac manifestations include bradycardia, pericardial effusion and HF. However, HF is rare because the cardiac output is usually enough to supply the peripheral demands of oxygen. Thyroxin therapy reverses all the cardiovascular manifestations.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>4. Amiodarone-induced Thyroid Disease</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Chronic treatment with amiodarone (a drug commonly used in patients with HF to treat ventricular and supraventricular arrhythmias) is another factor responsible for thyroid dysfunction. Its high iodine content can cause thyroid dysfunction in patients with preexistent thyroid disease or destructive thyroiditis in patients with a previously normal thyroid gland. The combined incidence of hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism in patients using amiodarone is around 14-18%. Chronic treatment with amiodarone in euthyroid patients with no evidence of a baseline thyroid disease results in increases of the T4 concentrations and normal T3. </p>
      <p><bold>Hyperthyroidism:</bold> Two types of hyperthyroidism can be induced: </p>
      <p>1. Type I hyperthyroidism: each 200mg amiodarone tablet contains 70mg iodine, which is enough to induce hyperthyroidism in patients with nodular goiter or remittent Graves disease. This does not necessarily constitute an indication to discontinue amiodarone because many patients can be managed with concurrent antithyroid medication. However, this type of hyperthyroidism can be very difficult to treat. </p>
      <p>2. Type II hyperthyroidism, which is caused by a thyroiditis due to the use of amiodarone without preexistent thyroid disease. Most cases present spontaneous resolution after suspension of amiodarone. The differential diagnosis between the two types can be difficult. </p>
      <p><bold>Hypothyroidism:</bold> Amiodarone can cause hypothyroidism in patients with preexistent Hashimoto's thyroiditis. However, the increase in serum levels of TSH before or during the treatment is not a contraindication to the use of amiodarone since the thyroid insufficiency can be adequately treated with thyroxin.</p>
      <p>G. Cardiac Cachexia (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab55-body2"><bold>Table 55</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>Cachexia is an important complication associated with a bad prognosis, occurring in chronic diseases, such as HF, but its definition is controversial. Some authors define malnutrition as the body fat content &lt;22% in women and &lt;15% in men; others, more simplistically, define it as dry weight loss &gt;7.5% in a 6-month period (excluding other clinical conditions that may lead to cachexia)<sup>323-325</sup>. Weight loss &gt;15% can be classified as serious while weight loss between 7.5-15% is classified as initial or moderate. Since HF prevalence and survival have been increasing, cardiac cachexia affects these patients and cause more morbidity with mortality rates of 50% in a 18-month follow-up<sup>326</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab55-body2">
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      <p>The main factors involved in the etiology of cardiac cachexia seem to be related to nutritional deficiency, intestinal malabsorption, metabolic dysfunction, right ventricular dysfunction, increased serum catecholamines, neurohumoral activation, immune mechanisms, increased catabolism and tumoral necrosis factor (TNF)<sup>327-329</sup>. Other cytokines such as interleukine-1 and -6, g-interferon and growth factor beta also increase in the cachectic stage of patients with HF<sup>330</sup>. The main hypotheses for the elevation of TNF are the production of this factor in the myocardium and also the bacterial translation in the intestine with endotoxinemia<sup>331</sup>. </p>
      <p>The therapeutics for patients with cardiac cachexia has the purpose of increasing skeletal muscle tissue and, consequently, the improvement of physical capacity. ACE-I and beta-blockers, in addition to reducing mortality, also reduce weight loss in HF<sup>332</sup>. The patient must be advised to have an appropriate nutritional support. Cases of serious anorexia and subsequent marked malnutrition may require nasoenteral nutrition.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>H. Terminal Heart Failure </bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>1. Definition</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Approximately 10% of patients with HF have the advanced form of the disease. The terminology of chronic HF in its advanced stages is not very accurate, and the terms "advanced, serious, refractory and terminal" are indiscriminately used as synonyms. The term terminal HF was created in the last decade and it reflects a bad prognosis. The introduction of new treatments in clinical practice requires a continuous assessment of the evidences and, if possible, with well defined criteria<sup>333</sup>. </p>
      <p>There is no simple definition for the complex syndrome of advanced HF<sup>334</sup>. As a matter of fact, the functional classification of HF (NYHA) commonly used to describe the clinical status of the patient is also imprecise. The functional class is a temporal evaluation of the patient but the clinical status may fluctuate so much that a single evaluation is not a safe basis for classification. By definition, a patient in Class IV is symptomatic at rest. However, after intensive treatment, this patient can migrate to Class III, but probably remains with advanced HF. A complex definition was developed, encompassing signs and symptoms, functional capacity, duration of symptoms, left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) and other criteria such as catecholamines and hyponatremia was developed. Patients who meet all these criteria have a strong negative impact on survival. However, even this classification system is not applicable to all patients. Some patients may have reversible ventricular dysfunction and others may experience a major improvement with optimized clinical treatment. Thus, a definition for this complex syndrome would include patients who, in spite of the optimized clinical treatment, remain mostly symptomatic with evidence of disease progression and high mortality rates within one year. Several clinical trials have shown that the survival of patients who reach Class IV is dramatically reduced even with the treatment strategy modulating the neurohumoral system<sup>76,112,335,336</sup>. </p>
      <p>If a reversible condition is not present or if heart transplant is not a feasible option, by definition it becomes a terminal disease. Obviously, the treatment with ACE-I, beta-blockers and spironolactone can reduce morbidity and mortality even in this group of patients. However, even with optimized treatment, some patients with serious HF continue to present a deterioration of their clinical condition and evolve extremely symptomatic. Nowadays, there are few options available for this increasing number of patients with terminal HF who are refractory to clinical treatment<sup>337,338</sup>. Although the patients with the most serious form of the disease represent a smaller proportion, they account for a larger number of hospitalizations and, consequently, a great economic overload.</p>
      <p>2. Palliative Measures and final stage evolution management (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab56-body2"><bold>Table 56</bold></xref>)  </p>
      <p>Palliative care is used in patients whose disease does not respond to curative treatment, and the objective is centered on their life quality and of their families. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab56-body2">
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      <p>The planning of medical care for the patient with terminal HF involves several problems because there is no defined model for this group. Traditionally, hospice care was offered to patients with terminal cancer and, only recently, these treatments have been extended to other chronic diseases including terminal HF. HF can be included in the hospice programs since the patients present marked dyspnea and may require frequent administration of intravenous diuretics and, in some cases, intravenous inotropic agents, anxiolytics and narcotics to relieve their suffering. </p>
      <p>Traditionally, the indication for hospice care requires a forecast of death within 6 months, which is a difficult operational policy to be applied, mainly in patients with HF. An estimated survival prognosis of about 6 months, patient and family agreement on not accepting more aggressive treatment measures are criteria for inclusion in the program. These terminal care modalities exclude the treatments that cure the baseline disease or treat the underlying pathophysiology. As opposed to cancer, a predictive model for death in patients with HF can be very difficult and complex. Death can occur from other unexpected causes such as stroke, myocardial infarction, arrhythmias or infection. Other patients can survive more than 6 months. Many of them become increasingly refractory to the escalating doses of medications and they die due to hemodynamic deterioration. The inability to accurately predict life expectancy leads to an extended hope of survival and the patient undergoes the painful transition from seriously sick to extremely sick. </p>
      <p>The largest trial performed regarding this issue was SUPPORT<sup>339</sup>, in which patients with HF were analyzed along with their preferences, prognosis, treatments and outcomes. In this study, only 23% of patients with class IV heart failure refused resuscitation. More than 50% of patients demonstrated their wish for comfort and relief from their symptoms such as pain or dyspnea in the last days of their lives. More than 60% had serious dyspnea 3 days before dying. About 40% received at least 1-3 types of life support treatment &#150; feeding tubes, mechanical ventilation and cardiopulmonary resuscitation. In spite of the patients' wished and preferences, many of them received aggressive treatment. </p>
      <p>Palliative care can be offered by a multidisciplinary team, at home or in the hospital (with the hospice programs), including intravenous diuretics, in some cases intravenous inotropic agents (in some cases), morphine, oxygen supplement, with or without hospitalization. The World Health Organization added further objectives to palliative care<sup>340</sup>: (1) reaffirmation of life and consideration of death as a natural process; (2) no acceleration or postponement of death; (3) providing relief from pain and relief from other painful symptoms; (4) integrating the psychological and spiritual aspects of treatment; (5) providing support in helping patients to remain active until death; (6) helping the family cope with the patient's pain and disease. </p>
      <p>The main symptoms common to terminal patients can be managed at those places, at home or in hospitals. </p>
      <p><bold>Dyspnea:</bold> More than 50% of patients with terminal disease suffer from serious dyspnea. The treatment of this symptom includes treating the baseline disease. Opiates are very helpful; they relieve coughing, anxiety, pain, exhaustion and reduce the physical and psychological stress. Oxygen therapy can be useful even in cases without hypoxemia. </p>
      <p><bold>Nausea and vomiting:</bold> Peptic ulcer and constipation must be treated. Histamine blockers can exacerbate delirium; therefore, antacids are preferred. Metoclopramide is an excellent antiemetic, but it can also cause delirium, depression and extrapiramidal effects. Serotonin antagonists such as ondansetron have an excellent antiemetic action although they are very expensive. Phenotiazines can be efficient, but they also have extrapiramidal and anticholinergic effects. </p>
      <p><bold>Anorexia and cachexia:</bold> The loss of appetite is stressful for the patient and his/her family. It has a multifactorial origin, including the increased production of cytokines. The treatment intends to improve the baseline cause whenever possible. Appetite stimulants can be useful. </p>
      <p><bold>Anxiety and depression:</bold> Anxiety and depression frequently occur in terminal patients as a result of pain, dyspnea or other causes. Clinical depression is common and must be treated with anxiolytics and antidepressants whenever necessary. </p>
      <p><bold>Suffering:</bold> No discussion about palliative measures is complete without including the patient's suffering. Suffering goes beyond physical pain and affects all the aspects of personal life. Suffering is felt by people and not by bodies, and it can be alleviated merely by the doctor's presence showing that he is committed with the patient and has not abandoned him. </p>
      <p>Many patients are not prepared to accept this course of treatment. On average, patients are admitted to hospices about a month before dying. In the SUPPORT study, 58% of patients died at the hospital, 27% at home and only 3% died in hospices. In general, patients prefer a treatment in which they have a higher chance of survival. Hospices are used in the last days of life, therefore other options should be available before this terminal stage. Some algorithms have recently been proposed for the complex management of refractory HF, which include treatment options at home and in hospices<sup>341</sup>.</p>
      <p>3. Home hospitalization (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab57-body2"><bold>Table 57</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>A program of home hospitalization can be transient or long-term. This type of service usually allows a physically disabled person to become more independent, providing multidisciplinary approaches to patients with chronic diseases. Several studies about home hospitalization for patients with HF show a reduction in hospitalizations, improvement in functional class and cost reductions. Considering the increasing number of elderly patients diagnosed with HF, and increased numbers of cases of chronic and advanced HF, this program seems to be very appropriate to treat patients with HF. These programs offer a variety of services such as intravenous inotropic therapy, intravenous diuretics, pulse oximetry, oxygen therapy, electrocardiographic monitoring and a multidisciplinary team. The treatment ranges from patient education and physical rehabilitation to intravenous medications<sup>15,342-344</sup>.</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab57-body2">
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      <p>IX. Follow-up programs and specialized treatment of DHF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab58-body2"><bold>Table 58</bold></xref>) </p>
      <p>
        <bold>A. Heart Failure Clinics</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Among the general measures to be applied in patients with frequent episodes of decompensation or in advanced stages of the syndrome, we emphasize the patient's closer follow-up in HF clinics or in facilities functioning as such<sup>345-347</sup>. Several studies demonstrate the superiority and cost-benefit of specialized centers for the treatment of HF<sup>348</sup>. Many of these are observational studies, using a before-after dynamics; the interventions vary from simple follow-up by phone to more sophisticated programs<sup>349</sup>. In the few existing randomized studies, the results are similar<sup>350</sup>. Therefore, when it is not performed in an HF clinic, the efficiency of the clinical treatment of patients with serious and advanced HF is limited by the underuse of medications, poor adherence to medicaton/diet and loss of a systematic monitoring of patients, etc. Nonadherence may be the most important limitation to treatment<sup>351</sup>. The use of an HF clinic increases the adherence to diet and medications with consequent improvement of functional class and exercise capacity<sup>352,353</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab58-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt57-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The programs of an HF clinic basically consist of intensive educational programs of HF and monitoring of the follow-up (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab58-body2">Tables 58</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab59-body2">59</xref>). The programs of HF clinics can be classified according to their service structure, and it involves the type of treatment, human resources, multidisciplinary team, monitoring, education and facilities offered<sup>354</sup>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab59-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt58-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The objectives are patient education to assure adherence to the diet and medication, and early identification of symptoms, factors related to decompensation, or events that are treatable/preventable outside the hospital (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab60-body2">Table 60</xref>). However, the optimal intervention is not defined yet, and it can be simple or complex, in addition to being influenced by the clinical practice and the population. The monitoring system can also be performed in several ways. Strategies for increasing consistent adherence to treatment are also developed, by acknowledging individual factors related to adherence. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab60-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt59-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The patient is advised to contact the team when certain signs and symptoms occur. The objective is early detection or prevention of factors related to cardiac decompensation, emphasizing arterial hypertension, cardiac arrhythmias/atrial fibrillation, myocardial ischemia/infarction, unrecognized valve disease, infection, alcohol consumption, inadequate fluid and salt intake, inadequate use of medications, low adherence to the treatment prescribed, social factors, such as social isolation, or lack of social support, behavioral factors, pulmonary/peripheral embolism, thyroid disease, anemia, systemic disease, hypovolemia, iatrogenic factor, excessive tachycardia or bradycardia, impairment of mitral insufficiency, pregnancy, digitalis intoxication, depression and comorbidities such as hepatopathy, etc. </p>
      <p>The programs of HF clinics increase the use and doses of recommended medications<sup>355,356</sup>. HF is the most common cause of hospitalization in patients &gt;65 years, who also have a high risk of early rehospitalization (29-47% in 3 to 6 months). A prospective study showed that 53% of early readmissions could possibly be prevented<sup>357</sup>. The management of HF patients in specialized centers or HF units can be associated with better clinical progress, lower hospitalization rates and better survival<sup>349,358-360</sup>. </p>
      <p>In a study involving a limited number of elderly patients to evaluate mortality there was a trend towards mortality reduction, with a 3-month survival rate of 91% in the treated group and 75% in the control group, respectively. A recent prospective, randomized study evaluating domiciliary interventions followed by telephone monitoring resulted in reduction of hospitalizations combined with mortality in addition to decreased number of hospitalizations<sup>347</sup>. A recent study with domiciliary interventions demonstrated in an average follow-up of 4.2 years that the effects are sustained in the long term, reducing mortality, unplanned hospital readmissions and consequent cost reductions<sup>361</sup>. A recent study with a limited number of patients demonstrated an increase in the left ventricular ejection fraction from 24% to 36% and a reduction in the diastolic diameter from 65mm to 59mm<sup>362</sup>, as well as in the treatment cost<sup>363</sup>. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab61-body2">Table 61</xref> shows the recommendations for the Heart Failure clinic. V</p>
      <table-wrap id="tab61-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-suppl3-0001-00001-gt60-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Correspondence to</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Dr Edimar Alcides Bocchi</p>
          <p> Rua Oscar Freire, 2077 apto 161 </p>
          <p> S&#227;o Paulo, Brasil </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p><bold>1. Disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular diast&#243;lica predominantemente secund&#225;ria a dist&#250;rbios do relaxamento &#150;</bold> Disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica por diminui&#231;&#227;o da fase de relaxamento diast&#243;lico ocorre quando h&#225; assincronia ventricular, aumento de p&#243;s-carga, atraso do processo de t&#233;rmino da contra&#231;&#227;o (dist&#250;rbios de recapta&#231;&#227;o de c&#225;lcio para o ret&#237;culo sarcoplasm&#225;tico) e isquemia, j&#225; que este &#233; um processo ativo que requer gasto de ATP. Exemplos em que este tipo de altera&#231;&#227;o &#233; predominante s&#227;o cardiopatia hipertr&#243;fica, hipertrofia ventricular conseq&#252;ente &#224; estenose a&#243;rtica e &#224; cardiopatia hipertensiva e isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. </p>
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  </sub-article>
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