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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">zXgMRFBmrFTNHFPGCRJs73F</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00014</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2005001700014</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(05)08500414</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2005001700014</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial: t&#233;cnicas e resultados</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Scanavacca</surname>
            <given-names>Mauricio Ibrahim</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sosa</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">FMUSP</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>85</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>295</fpage>
      <lpage>301</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>07</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold> ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. T&#233;cnicas e resultados</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Mauricio Ibrahim Scanavacca; Eduardo Sosa</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas - FMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end"> Correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>INTRODU&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) sofreu importantes avan&#231;os nos &#250;ltimos anos. As tentativas iniciais de reproduzir a cirurgia do labirinto com cateteres, embora pouco eficazes, levaram &#224; observa&#231;&#227;o de que focos ect&#243;picos com origem freq&#252;ente nas veias pulmonares deflagravam a FA parox&#237;stica e deram origem &#224;s t&#233;cnicas de abla&#231;&#227;o focal e, posteriormente, de isolamento das veias pulmonares. As limita&#231;&#245;es encontradas em pacientes com FA persistente e permanente estimularam a elabora&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas mais efetivas que modificassem o substrato de manuten&#231;&#227;o da FA. Assim, a estrat&#233;gia de reprodu&#231;&#227;o da cirurgia do labirinto por cateter foi retomada, agora realizada com sistema de mapeamento computadorizado com reconstru&#231;&#227;o tridimensional das c&#226;maras atriais e a abla&#231;&#227;o com equipamentos de RF capazes de produzir les&#245;es mais profundas e transmurais. Les&#245;es mais extensas nos antros das VPs provocam mudan&#231;a no substrato de manuten&#231;&#227;o da FA e denerva&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica do &#225;trio esquerdo, com resultados aparentemente mais satisfat&#243;rios no controle da FA. Esses achados t&#234;m estimulado a elabora&#231;&#227;o de novas t&#233;cnicas no sentido de identificar &#225;reas mais especificas respons&#225;veis pela deflagra&#231;&#227;o e manuten&#231;&#227;o da FA. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos distintos por investigadores diferentes para a realiza&#231;&#227;o dessas estrat&#233;gias &#233; motivo de confus&#227;o para os m&#233;dicos n&#227;o familiarizados com a evolu&#231;&#227;o das interven&#231;&#245;es no tratamento da FA. Portanto, o objetivo desta atualiza&#231;&#227;o &#233; revisar as principais t&#233;cnicas utilizadas, os resultados esperados e riscos envolvidos. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>ASPECTOS T&#201;CNICOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofreq&#252;&#234;ncia</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Atualmente, a RF &#233; a forma de energia mais utilizada para a abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter da FA pela seguran&#231;a e efetividade de sua aplica&#231;&#227;o<sup>1</sup>. Consiste em uma corrente alternada liberada em ciclos de alta freq&#252;&#234;ncia pelo eletrodo distal do cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o que se propaga em dire&#231;&#227;o a um eletrodo indiferente de grande superf&#237;cie em contato com a pele do ombro ou dorso. A dura&#231;&#227;o da aplica&#231;&#227;o varia de 15 a 60s e a pot&#234;ncia dos pulsos de RF &#233; controlada pela temperatura atingida na ponta do cateter e pela imped&#226;ncia do sistema. A grande densidade de corrente junto &#224; superf&#237;cie do eletrodo ativo provoca aumento de temperatura e les&#227;o tecidual com profundidade e extens&#227;o proporcionais &#224; pot&#234;ncia e superf&#237;cie do eletrodo utilizado (4 a 8mm). Dependendo das caracter&#237;sticas do eletrodo distal do cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o e a extens&#227;o e profundidade do tecido a ser cauterizado, a temperatura m&#225;xima na interface eletrodo-tecido &#233; limitada entre 45 e 60&#186;C e a energia (pot&#234;ncia) m&#225;xima liberada entre 20 e 60 Watts. Os cateteres com eletrodo distal de 4mm de extens&#227;o s&#227;o capazes de criar, em m&#233;dia, les&#245;es de 4 a 6mm de di&#226;metro e 2 a 3mm de profundidade<sup>2</sup>. Eletrodos maiores ou com sistema de irriga&#231;&#227;o para resfriar o eletrodo ativo permitem uma maior pot&#234;ncia de aplica&#231;&#227;o e produzem les&#245;es mais profundas<sup>3,4</sup>. Pulsos de RF aplicados no interior dos &#243;stios das VPs apresentam caracter&#237;sticas distintas daqueles aplicados no tecido atrial. O fluxo das VPs resfria a ponta do eletrodo e para atingir a temperatura pr&#233;-determinada o sistema eleva automaticamente a pot&#234;ncia de aplica&#231;&#227;o aumentando a les&#227;o endovascular e o risco de estenose do vaso. Por isto evitam-se aplica&#231;&#245;es no interior das VPs e, quando necess&#225;rias, devem ser em n&#250;mero reduzido e realizadas com temperatura entre 45-50&#186;C e pot&#234;ncia m&#225;xima entre 20 e 30W. Ao contr&#225;rio, as aplica&#231;&#245;es de RF na parede atrial n&#227;o sofrem resfriamento significativo e apresentam eleva&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida de temperatura com pot&#234;ncia de pequena magnitude que limita a extens&#227;o e profundidade da les&#227;o. Assim, nos procedimentos em que se pretende realizar les&#245;es atriais transmurais, s&#227;o necess&#225;rios cateteres com eletrodo distal maior (8 mm) ou com irriga&#231;&#227;o de soro pelo interior do eletrodo distal que permitam a eleva&#231;&#227;o da pot&#234;ncia para realizar les&#245;es mais profundas. </p>
    <p>A les&#227;o aguda da aplica&#231;&#227;o de RF consiste em uma zona central de necrose de coagula&#231;&#227;o, circundada por uma zona discreta de inflama&#231;&#227;o<sup>5</sup>. Les&#245;es cr&#244;nicas s&#227;o caracterizadas por cicatrizes homog&#234;neas com bordas bem definidas. O contato est&#225;vel do eletrodo com o tecido-alvo &#233; essencial para a forma&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es definitivas. Posicionamento inst&#225;vel do cateter e aplica&#231;&#245;es com pot&#234;ncia insuficiente s&#227;o as principais causas de recorr&#234;ncia ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o com sucesso inicial. </p>
    <p>A seguran&#231;a da aplica&#231;&#227;o &#233; obtida pela monitoriza&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua da temperatura, pot&#234;ncia e imped&#226;ncia do sistema durante a aplica&#231;&#227;o de RF, com o objetivo de evitar a forma&#231;&#227;o de co&#225;gulos e perfura&#231;&#227;o da parede mioc&#225;rdica. Os geradores de RF atuais interrompem a aplica&#231;&#227;o automaticamente quando h&#225; aumento da resist&#234;ncia &#224; passagem da corrente (imped&#226;ncia) maior que o esperado, indica&#231;&#227;o de eleva&#231;&#227;o excessiva de temperatura com in&#237;cio de forma&#231;&#227;o de fibrina na superf&#237;cie do eletrodo. </p>
    <p>A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da forma&#231;&#227;o de microbolhas pela ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca tem sido sugerida como um bom m&#233;todo para ajustar a pot&#234;ncia da aplica&#231;&#227;o durante abla&#231;&#227;o com RF. A pot&#234;ncia excessiva do tecido reflete-se no aumento e n&#250;mero das microbolhas formadas ao redor do cateter, indica&#231;&#227;o para interrup&#231;&#227;o da aplica&#231;&#227;o e reajuste da energia<sup>6</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Sistemas de mapeamento e navega&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O mapeamento eletrofisiol&#243;gico dos &#225;trios tem sido realizado tradicionalmente pelo registro simult&#226;neo de eletrogramas bipolares obtidos por cateteres-eletrodos multipolares introduzidos pelas veias femorais e posicionados em regi&#245;es pr&#233;-estabelecidas de ambos os &#225;trios. As caracter&#237;sticas dos eletrogramas obtidos, a seq&#252;&#234;ncia da ativa&#231;&#227;o atrial em ritmo sinusal e em taquiarritmia &#233; relacionada com a posi&#231;&#227;o espacial dos cateteres-eletrodos. A an&#225;lise dos dados permite a elabora&#231;&#227;o mental de um mapa de ativa&#231;&#227;o atrial, a sua correla&#231;&#227;o com as estruturas anat&#244;micas atriais e as caracter&#237;sticas funcionais do tecido atrial avaliado. O posicionamento dos cateteres para mapeamento e a navega&#231;&#227;o do cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o pelos &#225;trios s&#227;o realizados sob fluoroscopia em diversos &#226;ngulos (PA, OAD e OAE). O mapeamento eletrofisiol&#243;gico tradicional tem sido utilizado nas estrat&#233;gias de mapeamento e abla&#231;&#227;o da FA focal e no isolamento dos &#243;stios das veias pulmonares<sup>7-10</sup>. </p>
    <p>O mapeamento eletro-anat&#244;mico &#233; um novo sistema computadorizado de mapeamento eletrofisiol&#243;gico que integra as caracter&#237;sticas dos eletrogramas obtidos por um &#250;nico cateter em pontos distintos do &#225;trio esquerdo, com a imagem virtual e tridimensional criada ao toque do cateter com a parede desta c&#226;mara<sup>11</sup>. As caracter&#237;sticas el&#233;tricas locais e de tempo de ativa&#231;&#227;o atrial s&#227;o transformadas em cores e podem ser visualizadas em imagens est&#225;ticas ou em movimento. Assim, as caracter&#237;sticas funcionais do tecido atrial e as imagens da propaga&#231;&#227;o da atividade el&#233;trica atrial podem ser reproduzidas e visualizadas por toda equipe. O posicionamento do cateter &#233; realizado sob fluoroscopia, mas a navega&#231;&#227;o do cateter explorador pelo interior da c&#226;mara durante o mapeamento e abla&#231;&#227;o &#233; baseada na imagem virtual tridimensional criada pelo sistema, minimizando o uso de Raio X. O sistema <italic>Carto</italic> &#233; o equipamento mais utilizado, popularizado pelos trabalhos de Pappone e cols.<sup>10-13</sup>, que o utilizam nas estrat&#233;gias de abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial dos &#243;stios das veias pulmonares e para realiza&#231;&#227;o de linhas de bloqueio na t&#233;cnica de Maze por cateter. Outros sistemas para mapeamento eletro-anat&#244;mico com caracter&#237;sticas t&#233;cnicas distintas, mas com objetivos similares tamb&#233;m t&#234;m sido utilizados (<italic>Nav X, RPM e EnSite</italic>), assim como o sistema de navega&#231;&#227;o virtual sem a necessidade de fluoroscopia (<italic>Localisa</italic>). O aspecto t&#233;cnico mais interessante dessas novas tecnologias &#233; a integra&#231;&#227;o das imagens de resson&#226;ncia nuclear magn&#233;tica ou de tomografia do &#225;trio esquerdo com os sistemas de mapeamento eletro-anat&#244;mico, o que permite que a atividade el&#233;trica obtida durante o mapeamento seja incorporada &#224; anatomia real do paciente (<italic>Carto Merge</italic>). </p>
    <p>A ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca &#233; um acess&#243;rio tecnol&#243;gico que tem se revelado &#250;til na abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter da FA. Seu uso foi popularizado pelo grupo da Cleveland Clinic<sup>6,14</sup>, que destaca a sua utilidade para a realiza&#231;&#227;o mais segura das pun&#231;&#245;es transeptais, posicionamento adequado dos cateteres circulares nos &#243;stios das VPs, reconhecimento precoce na forma&#231;&#227;o de co&#225;gulos no &#225;trio esquerdo e na monitoriza&#231;&#227;o e ajuste da pot&#234;ncia de aplica&#231;&#227;o da RF. As imagens s&#227;o obtidas por um transdutor introduzido pela veia femoral esquerda e posicionado no &#225;trio direito. Utilizando esse sistema os autores consideram ter obtido melhor taxa de sucesso com menor risco de complica&#231;&#245;es. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estrat&#233;gias de abla&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Elimina&#231;&#227;o dos focos deflagradores da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial </p>
    <p><italic>Abla&#231;&#227;o Focal </italic>- A abla&#231;&#227;o focal da FA foi a primeira t&#233;cnica de abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter que se revelou eficaz, elaborada por Haissaguere e cols. no <italic>H&#244;pital Cardiolologique du Haut-L&#233;v&#234;que</italic>, em Pessac, na Fran&#231;a<sup>7,8</sup>. Destina-se a um grupo restrito de pacientes nos quais mecanismos focais respons&#225;veis pela deflagra&#231;&#227;o dos epis&#243;dios de FA podem ser claramente localizados. Os casos t&#237;picos s&#227;o os pacientes com extra-s&#237;stoles atriais freq&#252;entes e taquicardiais atriais repetitivas com origem nas veias pulmonares (90%), nos vasos tor&#225;cicos (5%) (veia cava superior (VCS), VCS esquerda, ligamento de Marshall), na C<italic>rista Terminalis</italic> (5%) ou no seio coron&#225;rio (2%), que uma vez identificadas e eliminadas deixam de induzir a FA<sup>10</sup>. </p>
    <p>A maior limita&#231;&#227;o desta t&#233;cnica &#233; a aus&#234;ncia ou ocorr&#234;ncia esparsa de focos ect&#243;picos durante o procedimento, que limitam sua localiza&#231;&#227;o precisa. Assim, foram desenvolvidas t&#233;cnicas para indu&#231;&#227;o dos focos ect&#243;picos, como a realiza&#231;&#227;o de manobra vagal, infus&#227;o de adenosina, isoproterenol e indu&#231;&#227;o da FA com estimula&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida seguida de CVE. Entretanto, a taxa de recorr&#234;ncia foi alta pela recorr&#234;ncia de focos de outra origem n&#227;o reproduzidos no procedimento inicial, e a tend&#234;ncia atual nos pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial aparentemente focal &#233; realizar o isolamento el&#233;trico das quatro veias pulmonares. A complica&#231;&#227;o mais importante na abla&#231;&#227;o de focos ect&#243;picos no interior das VPs foi a indu&#231;&#227;o de estenose das VPs e eventualmente sua oclus&#227;o, levando a hipertens&#227;o pulmonar<sup>15</sup>. Algum grau de estenose foi observado em at&#233; 40% das veias avaliadas nas s&#233;ries iniciais com risco de estenose grave &gt;70% em 3-5% das veias abordadas<sup>16</sup>. Esses achados motivaram a modifica&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>ISOLAMENTO DAS VEIAS PULMONARES</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Abla&#231;&#227;o segmentar dos &#243;stios das veias pulmonares</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em parte pelas limita&#231;&#245;es encontradas na localiza&#231;&#227;o dos focos ect&#243;picos, em parte pelo risco de estenose das VPs, duas t&#233;cnicas foram desenvolvidas com objetivo de isolar empiricamente os &#243;stios de todas as VPs. A t&#233;cnica originalmente denominada isolamento segmentar das VPS, elaborada por Haissaguerre e cols.<sup>17</sup>, visa identificar as bandas musculares de tecido atrial que penetram no interior das VPS e realizar a abla&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica dos quadrantes dos &#243;stios das VPS onde estas se localizam, evitando a abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial no seu interior, o que apresenta alto risco de estenose. Para isso, utiliza-se um cateter circular introduzido no interior de cada uma das VPS para localiza&#231;&#227;o das conex&#245;es &#225;trio-venosas. A abla&#231;&#227;o &#233; realizada com cateter de 4mm e os pulsos de RF de baixa energia (50&#186;C e 30W) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. A1</xref>). A aplica&#231;&#227;o desta t&#233;cnica obteve um controle cl&#237;nico de 70% dos pacientes, com baixo risco de estenose das VPs. Entretanto, a religa&#231;&#227;o das VPs isoladas &#233; um problema, justificando uma nova interven&#231;&#227;o em 20% a 50% dos pacientes ou a manuten&#231;&#227;o de drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas em aproximadamente metade dos casos<sup>17-19</sup>. </p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-04-0295-00014-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Evolu&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Em revis&#227;o recente, Hocini e cols.<sup>20</sup> apresentam as modifica&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas promovidas pelo grupo no isolamento das VPs. A abla&#231;&#227;o agora &#233; realizada com cateter com eletrodo distal irrigado (4 mm), as les&#245;es s&#227;o realizadas aproximadamente 1 cm fora dos &#243;stios das VPs e as les&#245;es s&#227;o circunferenciais em grande parte das veias isoladas (quase 100%). Adicionalmente, as regi&#245;es do antrum das VPs com eletrogramas com dois ou mais componentes tamb&#233;m s&#227;o ablacionadas. A avalia&#231;&#227;o de 368 pacientes consecutivos submetidos a essa t&#233;cnica mostrou que 69% deles permaneceram sem recorr&#234;ncia e sem drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas em seguimento m&#233;dio de 10&#177;5 meses. Nos pacientes com FA persistente ou permanente, o grupo sugere que duas linhas de bloqueio sejam realizadas no &#225;trio esquerdo, al&#233;m do isolamento das VPs. Uma delas ligando a veia pulmonar inferior esquerda ao anel mitral e a outra ligando as duas veias pulmonares superiores (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. A2</xref>). Estudo comparativo sugere tamb&#233;m sua utilidade nos pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica quando a FA sustentada &#233; induzida ap&#243;s o isolamento das VPs<sup>21</sup>. Aplicando-se essa estrat&#233;gia, 87% dos pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica e 70% dos pacientes com FA persistente ficaram livres de taquiarritmias atriais sem drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas, em seguimento m&#233;dio de um ano. Em avalia&#231;&#227;o de 2.000 pacientes submetidos a abla&#231;&#227;o de FA em suas v&#225;rias fases, esses autores observaram que apenas quatro pacientes apresentaram estenose de VP grave (&gt;70%) e outros cinco, paralisia do nervo fr&#234;nico direito, dos quais quatro obtiveram recupera&#231;&#227;o completa<sup>20</sup>. Hemoperic&#225;rdio tamb&#233;m foi observado em 2% dos pacientes submetidos &#224;s t&#233;cnicas de isolamento das VPs e em 4% nos pacientes submetidos a les&#245;es lineares<sup>22</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial dos &#243;stios das veias pulmonares </bold>
    </p>
    <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial das veias pulmonares foi desenvolvida por Pappone e cols. no Hospital San Rafale de Mil&#227;o, na It&#225;lia<sup>12</sup>. A estrat&#233;gia inicial foi isolar individualmente os &#243;stios das VPs com aplica&#231;&#245;es circunferenciais de RF realizadas pelo menos 5mm fora dos &#243;stios das veias para evitar sua estenose (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. B1</xref>). Para realizar esta t&#233;cnica utilizaram o sistema de mapeamento eletro-anat&#244;mico que reconstr&#243;i tridimensionalmente o &#225;trio esquerdo e a disposi&#231;&#227;o espacial das VPs, al&#233;m de permitir a documenta&#231;&#227;o da atividade el&#233;trica nessas estruturas. Para abla&#231;&#227;o utilizaram inicialmente cateteres com ponta de 4mm, pot&#234;ncia m&#225;xima de 50W e temperatura de at&#233; 60&#186;C. Relataram controle da FA em 80% dos pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica sem observa&#231;&#227;o de estenose de VPs em seguimento m&#233;dio de um ano. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Evolu&#231;&#227;o da t&#233;cnica</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Tentando melhorar os resultados, principalmente em pacientes com FA persistente e com cardiopatias associadas, esses mesmos autores aumentaram a &#225;rea de isolamento do tecido periostial, expandindo as linhas de isolamento ao redor das VPs e isolando-as duas a duas<sup>13</sup>. Adicionaram uma linha de bloqueio posterior ligando as duas &#225;reas isoladas e outra das VPs esquerdas ao anel da valva mitral &#224; semelhan&#231;a das t&#233;cnicas cir&#250;rgicas (Maze por cateter) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. B2</xref>). A abla&#231;&#227;o do istmo cavo-tricusp&#237;deo tamb&#233;m passou a ser realizada de forma sistem&#225;tica. Para esse fim, utilizaram cateteres com eletrodo distal de 8mm e pot&#234;ncia de aplica&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; 100W para produzir les&#245;es atriais transmurais. Oral e cols.<sup>23</sup> compararam em estudo prospectivo e randomizado a t&#233;cnica de isolamento segmentar das VPs com esta &#250;ltima t&#233;cnica de abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial. Observaram que aproximadamente 100% dos pacientes com isolamento guiado pelo cateter circular apresentavam isolamento el&#233;trico em compara&#231;&#227;o com 60% dos pacientes submetidos a abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial guiado pelo sistema eletro-anat&#244;mico. Apesar disso, 67% dos pacientes do primeiro grupo e 88% do segundo n&#227;o apresentaram recorr&#234;ncia de FA, sem drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas, em seguimento de seis meses. Durante a abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial dos antros das VPs Pappone e cols. observaram que 30% dos pacientes apresentaram rea&#231;&#227;o vagal, sugestiva de estimula&#231;&#227;o dos g&#226;nglios auton&#244;micos do &#225;trio esquerdo, que desapareceram com a continuidade da abla&#231;&#227;o. O seguimento cl&#237;nico desses pacientes mostrou que 99% deles permaneceram sem recorr&#234;ncia de FA, sem uso de antiarr&#237;tmicos<sup>13</sup>. Estes dados sugerem que a abla&#231;&#227;o mesmo que parcial de g&#226;nglios e fibras do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo do &#225;trio esquerdo &#233; importante no controle das crises de FA. </p>
    <p>Embora mais efetiva, a abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial extra-ostial das VPs apresentou uma grave limita&#231;&#227;o que &#233; a aplica&#231;&#227;o de pulsos de RF de alta energia em uma regi&#227;o intimamente relacionada com o es&#244;fago. Com isso, recentemente, surgiram os primeiros casos de forma&#231;&#227;o de f&#237;stula entre o &#225;trio esquerdo e o es&#244;fago, complica&#231;&#227;o grave e potencialmente fatal<sup>24,25</sup>. Em comunica&#231;&#227;o pessoal recente, Carlo Pappone relatou nova modifica&#231;&#227;o t&#233;cnica ap&#243;s esta complica&#231;&#227;o. O cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o com eletrodo distal de 8mm foi substitu&#237;do por cateter irrigado com ponta de 3,5mm. Foi mantida a mesma estrat&#233;gia da abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial ampliada, exceto pelo deslocamento da linha posterior para o teto do &#225;trio esquerdo para evitar a parede posterior em contato com o es&#244;fago. </p>
    <p>Em revis&#227;o de 3.980 pacientes, esses autores relatam as seguintes complica&#231;&#245;es: hemoperic&#225;rdio: 0,2%; acidente vascular cerebral: 0,23%; f&#237;stula &#225;trio-esof&#225;gica: 0,03%; estenose de VPs: 0% e taquicardias atriais incisionais: 6%<sup>26</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Abla&#231;&#227;o circular do antrum das veias pulmonares guiada pelo ecocardiograma intracard&#237;aco</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o circular do antrum dos &#243;stios das VPs foi desenvolvida por Natale e cols. na <italic>Cleveland Clinic</italic>, Ohio, nos EUA, ap&#243;s tentarem v&#225;rias estrat&#233;gias com diferentes equipamentos e tecnologia para abla&#231;&#227;o da FA<sup>27</sup>. O procedimento baseia-se em que o isolamento el&#233;trico das VPs &#233; essencial no tratamento da FA, mas as fibras que penetram nas VPs e originam-se na parede posterior do &#225;trio esquerdo s&#227;o tamb&#233;m potencialmente focos deflagradores ou mantenedores da FA e devem, portanto, ser ablacionadas. Nesta t&#233;cnica, o isolamento el&#233;trico das VPs &#233; um passo essencial, guiado pelo cateter circular. A abla&#231;&#227;o &#233; realizada com cateter com ponta distal de 8mm, mas a pot&#234;ncia da aplica&#231;&#227;o &#233; ajustada conforme a forma&#231;&#227;o de microbolhas, visualizadas pelo eco intracard&#237;aco. Ap&#243;s o isolamento de cada VP, o cateter circular &#233; deslocado circunferencialmente ao redor dos &#243;stios das VPs afastando-se progressivamente dele e os potenciais atriais identificados s&#227;o ablacionados. Assim, a les&#227;o atrial &#233; estendida dos &#243;stios das VPs para a por&#231;&#227;o posterior, superior e inferior de todas as veias e tamb&#233;m para a anterior (septo) das VPs direitas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. C</xref>). N&#227;o se realizam linhas de bloqueio, mas sistematicamente isola-se a veia cava superior. Com essa t&#233;cnica, obt&#233;m-se 80% de sucesso ap&#243;s o primeiro procedimento, sem drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas, segundo avalia&#231;&#227;o realizada ap&#243;s dois meses da interven&#231;&#227;o. Esses autores est&#227;o entre os primeiros a lan&#231;ar o conceito de <italic>blank period</italic>, no qual a ocorr&#234;ncia de FA precoce n&#227;o significa necessariamente insucesso tardio do procedimento. A repeti&#231;&#227;o do procedimento, quando necess&#225;ria &#233; realizada ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo com taxa de sucesso acima de 90%. A taxa de sucesso &#233; maior em pacientes jovens com FA parox&#237;stica, menor em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular (73%), cirurgia card&#237;aca pr&#233;via (73%) e pior naqueles com &#225;reas de cicatrizes no &#225;trio esquerdo (&lt;50%). Nos &#250;ltimos 400 pacientes submetidos pela equipe a esses procedimentos, observaram-se estenose de VPs moderada em 0,25% dos pacientes, acidente emb&#243;lico cerebral em 0,8% e tamponamento card&#237;aco em 0,5%. F&#237;stula &#225;trio-esof&#225;gica n&#227;o foi observada<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>No InCor, 420 pacientes foram submetidos a abla&#231;&#227;o de FA no per&#237;odo de 1998-2004. Tr&#234;s fases distintas podem ser destacadas nesse per&#237;odo: 1- fase da abla&#231;&#227;o focal (1998-2000), envolvendo apenas pacientes com cora&#231;&#227;o estruturalmente normal e FA parox&#237;stica; 2- fase do isolamento ostial das VPs, guiado pelo cateter circular de 15mm e cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o de 4mm, com pot&#234;ncia m&#225;xima de 30J e temperatura de 50&#186;C (2000-2002), envolvendo pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica (90%) e persistente (10%) com cora&#231;&#227;o estruturalmente normal; 3- fase do isolamento extra-ostial das VPs guiado pelo cateter circular de 20 ou 25mm e cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o de 8mm com energia m&#225;xima de 60W e 55&#186;C (2002-2204), em pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica (70%), persistente (20%) e permanente (10%), envolvendo pacientes com cardiopatia estrutural (30%) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02a">fig. 2 A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02a">B</xref>). Na fase focal apenas 40% dos pacientes ficaram sem recorr&#234;ncia (50% com AA), na fase ostial 71% ficaram sem recorr&#234;ncia (50% com AA), na fase extra-ostial 75% ficaram sem recorr&#234;ncia (25% com AA) ap&#243;s um &#250;nico procedimento e em per&#237;odo m&#233;dio de acompanhamento de um ano. As complica&#231;&#245;es mais importantes observadas nesses per&#237;odos foram: 4 estenoses de VPs compreendendo as fases 1 e 2 (uma delas sintom&#225;tica, necessitando angioplastia); tr&#234;s acidentes emb&#243;licos sist&#234;micos (um para o ba&#231;o na fase 1, um coronariano (angioplastia) na fase 2 e um acidente isqu&#234;mico cerebral transit&#243;rio na fase 3); dois pacientes apresentaram paralisia do diafragma direito na fase 2, com recupera&#231;&#227;o completa no seguimento; oito pacientes apresentaram hemoperic&#225;rdio, resolvido por drenagem percut&#226;nea, ao longo dos tr&#234;s per&#237;odos. A complica&#231;&#227;o mais grave e que resultou em morte do paciente foi a ocorr&#234;ncia de f&#237;stula &#225;trio-esof&#225;gica na fase tr&#234;s, quando esta complica&#231;&#227;o ainda n&#227;o tinha sido relatada nos procedimentos percut&#226;neos (dezembro de 2003). Ap&#243;s esta ocorr&#234;ncia algumas modifica&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas foram introduzidas, como o monitoramento da posi&#231;&#227;o do es&#244;fago, durante a interven&#231;&#227;o, por esofagograma ou pela introdu&#231;&#227;o de uma sonda oro-g&#225;strica com contraste. Quando a &#225;rea a ser ablacionada apresentava proximidade com o es&#244;fago a intensidade da aplica&#231;&#227;o era reduzida para pot&#234;ncia m&#225;xima entre 20W e 30W. Mais recentemente, utilizamos um term&#244;metro esof&#225;gico para monitorar a temperatura do es&#244;fago, que &#233; manipulado para manter a maior proximidade poss&#237;vel com o cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o durante a aplica&#231;&#227;o de RF. A eleva&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida da temperatura esofagiana ao in&#237;cio da aplica&#231;&#227;o ou temperatura local de 38&#186;C s&#227;o utilizadas empiricamente com o crit&#233;rio de interrup&#231;&#227;o de aplica&#231;&#227;o nesse local. Com essas medidas nenhum outro caso de f&#237;stula ocorreu no ano de 2004. </p>
    <fig id="fig02a">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-04-0295-00014-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>NOVAS ESTRAT&#201;GIAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um aspecto interessante na an&#225;lise dos resultados da t&#233;cnica de abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial dos &#243;stios das VPs descrita por Pappone foi a observa&#231;&#227;o de menor recorr&#234;ncia do que a verificada no isolamento ostial, apesar de obten&#231;&#227;o de uma taxa menor de isolamento das VPs. A hip&#243;tese levantada &#233; que boa parte do substrato de manuten&#231;&#227;o da FA ficaria no antrum das VPS, relacionado com o arranjo das fibras atriais nesse local ou pela inerva&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m distribu&#237;da nessas regi&#245;es. A abla&#231;&#227;o extensa desses locais modificaria os mecanismos de manuten&#231;&#227;o da FA. Com isso, tr&#234;s novas t&#233;cnicas v&#234;m sendo sugeridas: a primeira visa a abla&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas de baixa amplitude e fragmentados observados durante a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, considerados como marcadores de &#225;reas dos rotores que mant&#234;m a FA<sup>28</sup>. A segunda visa a identifica&#231;&#227;o de &#225;reas de manuten&#231;&#227;o da FA em ritmo sinusal, baseados na an&#225;lise espectral dos eletrogramas atriais pela an&#225;lise transformada de Fourrier; os eletrogramas polif&#225;sicos, considerados como poss&#237;veis marcadores da entrada das fibras nervosas do SNA no tecido atrial, s&#227;o os alvos da interven&#231;&#227;o<sup>29</sup>. A terceira &#233; o reconhecimento da localiza&#231;&#227;o dos g&#226;nglios auton&#244;micos do cora&#231;&#227;o por estimula&#231;&#227;o neurofisiol&#243;gica e sua abla&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica<sup>30</sup>. Nestas t&#233;cnicas ganhou import&#226;ncia a abla&#231;&#227;o de fibras atriais localizadas no septo interatrial e no teto do &#225;trio esquerdo; o isolamento das VPs n&#227;o seria essencial para o sucesso destes procedimentos. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>REPRODUTIBILIDADE DOS RESULTADOS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Como vimos, embora os grupos de Haissaguerre, Pappone e Natale, que juntos re&#250;nem pelo menos 8.000 pacientes submetidos a abla&#231;&#227;o de FA, tivessem iniciado estrat&#233;gias aparentemente diferentes, com o decorrer do tempo todos passaram a fazer a interven&#231;&#227;o central de modo muito parecido (abla&#231;&#227;o dos antros das VPs, embora com sistemas de mapeamento e navega&#231;&#227;o diferentes) e hoje realizam esses procedimentos com pequenas varia&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas individuais. Apesar de os resultados cl&#237;nicos publicados por esses autores serem muito satisfat&#243;rios e com riscos aceit&#225;veis, um aspecto importante para a ampla utiliza&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; sua reprodutividade em ambientes distintos. Nesse aspecto, um levantamento mundial do estado atual da abla&#231;&#227;o da FA torna-se importante. Cappato e cols.<sup>31</sup> obtiveram informa&#231;&#227;o de 90 centros distribu&#237;dos pela Europa, EUA, &#193;sia e Am&#233;rica do Sul envolvendo cerca de 8.745 pacientes submetidos a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA no per&#237;odos de 1995 a 2002, com seguimento m&#233;dio de 11,6 &#177; 7 meses. Vale salientar que a maior parte desses resultados reflete o uso da estrat&#233;gia de isolamento das VPs, guiada pelo cateter circular em dois ter&#231;os deles. A taxa de controle foi maior nos grupos com maior experi&#234;ncia e a m&#233;dia total foi de 50% de controle da FA na aus&#234;ncia de drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas e de 73% com associa&#231;&#227;o do tratamento cl&#237;nico. Estes dados coincidem com os resultados do nosso grupo ao utilizar a t&#233;cnica de isolamento emp&#237;rico das VPs, cujos dados foram inclu&#237;dos neste levantamento. Foram relatadas 512 complica&#231;&#245;es (6%) e quatro mortes (0,05%). As mortes foram provocas por acidente vascular cerebral maci&#231;o em dois pacientes, hemot&#243;rax em um paciente e causa desconhecida em outro. As principais complica&#231;&#245;es observadas foram: estenose das VPs: 1,63%, tamponamento card&#237;aco: 1,22%; acidente vascular cerebral: 0,94%; pseudo-aneurisma de art&#233;ria femoral: 0,53%; f&#237;stula art&#233;rio-venosa: 0,42%; hemot&#243;rax: 0,16% e paralisia diafragm&#225;tica: 0,11%. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>INDICA&#199;&#213;ES</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia recomenda sua realiza&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica, sintom&#225;tica e de dif&#237;cil controle farmacol&#243;gico, com &#225;trio esquerdo normal e na aus&#234;ncia de condi&#231;&#245;es metab&#243;licas potencialmente correlacionadas &#224; arritmia (Recomenda&#231;&#227;o B2, N&#237;vel 3); e nos pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica e freq&#252;ente, de dif&#237;cil controle farmacol&#243;gico, com cardiopatia estrutural (Recomenda&#231;&#227;o B2, N&#237;vel 4)<sup> 32</sup>. </p>
    <p>No <italic>H&#244;pital Cardiologique Haut-L&#233;v&#234;que</italic> em Pessac, na Fran&#231;a s&#227;o candidatos para abla&#231;&#227;o os pacientes com FA sintom&#225;tica, com epis&#243;dios freq&#252;entes por mais de um m&#234;s, resistentes a dois ou mais f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos (classe I e III). Nenhum crit&#233;rio espec&#237;fico &#233; utilizado. Os pacientes n&#227;o s&#227;o exclu&#237;dos baseados no tempo de FA, se parox&#237;stica, persistente ou permanente, presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a estrutural, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, tamanho do &#225;trio esquerdo, embolia cerebral pr&#233;via ou idade<sup>20</sup>. </p>
    <p>No Hospital S&#227;o Rafael, em Mil&#227;o, na It&#225;lia, s&#227;o considerados para abla&#231;&#227;o os pacientes com pelo menos um epis&#243;dio mensal de FA persistente e sintom&#225;tica, com pelo menos um epis&#243;dio de FA parox&#237;stica por semana, ou com FA permanente, tendo usado pelo menos uma droga antiarr&#237;tmica sem sucesso. S&#227;o crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o: pacientes com ICC classe funcional IV, idade acima de 80 anos, contra-indica&#231;&#227;o para uso de anticoagulantes, presen&#231;a de trombo atrial, di&#226;metro do &#225;trio esquerdo &gt;65mm ao eco, expectativa de vida menor que um ano e disfun&#231;&#227;o tireodiana<sup>26</sup>. </p>
    <p>Na <italic>Cleveland Clinic</italic> s&#227;o candidatos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o de FA apenas os pacientes sintom&#225;ticos que n&#227;o responderam a pelo menos uma droga antiarr&#237;tmica, n&#227;o importando se apresentem FA parox&#237;stica, persistente ou permanente, sem limita&#231;&#227;o de idade, dimens&#227;o do &#225;trio esquerdo ou fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. S&#227;o exclu&#237;dos os pacientes que apresentem trombo no &#225;trio esquerdo ao eco transesof&#225;gico, mas n&#227;o a presen&#231;a de contraste espont&#226;neo<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>No InCor, as indica&#231;&#245;es para abla&#231;&#227;o da FA v&#234;m se modificando com a experi&#234;ncia obtida pelo grupo no decorrer dos &#250;ltimos anos. Atualmente s&#227;o candidatos os pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica ou persistente, sintom&#225;tica, com evolu&#231;&#227;o de pelo menos 6 meses, refrat&#225;ria a pelo menos duas drogas antiarr&#237;tmicas, tendo sido afastadas condi&#231;&#245;es potencialmente deflagradoras como hipertireoidismo e consumo excessivo de &#225;lcool. Evita-se a indica&#231;&#227;o para pacientes com limita&#231;&#245;es para uso de anticoagulante oral. A condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica geral do paciente &#233; um fator determinante na indica&#231;&#227;o, mas n&#227;o especificamente a idade, presen&#231;a de cardiopatia, tamanho do &#225;trio esquerdo, disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou acidente vascular cerebral pr&#233;vio. Pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica e fatores de risco para tromboembolismo, assim como os pacientes com FA persistente, s&#227;o submetidos a anticoagula&#231;&#227;o por pelo menos 4 semanas mantendo o RNI entre 2 e 3. Todos os pacientes s&#227;o submetidos ao ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico antes do procedimento e s&#227;o exclu&#237;dos os pacientes com suspeita ou presen&#231;a de trombo atrial. Estes s&#227;o mantidos em anticoagula&#231;&#227;o oral por 4-6 semanas e repete-se o eco transesof&#225;gico antes da interven&#231;&#227;o. A abla&#231;&#227;o de FA permanente tem sido considerada para pacientes jovens com &#225;trio esquerdo &lt;55mm, principalmente quando a resposta ventricular &#233; mal controlada ou h&#225; progressiva dilata&#231;&#227;o e/ou redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>CONCLUS&#213;ES</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o com RF da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial visa, fundamentalmente, melhorar a qualidade de vida dos pacientes. As v&#225;rias t&#233;cnicas de abla&#231;&#227;o de FA em uso t&#234;m como objetivo prim&#225;rio o tratamento curativo do paciente; entretanto, em algumas situa&#231;&#245;es apenas um controle parcial &#233; atingido. Nestes casos, a associa&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos antiarr&#237;tmicos permite uma condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica bastante satisfat&#243;ria para a maioria dos pacientes. A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter da FA &#233; um procedimento seguro quando realizado dentro dos padr&#245;es recomendados. As suas complica&#231;&#245;es variam conforme a t&#233;cnica aplicada e a experi&#234;ncia do grupo de interven&#231;&#227;o. Os benef&#237;cios de sua realiza&#231;&#227;o dependem das caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes. </p>
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    </p>
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    <p>23. Oral H, Scharf C, Chugh A et al. Catheter ablation for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation: segmental pulmonary vein ostial ablation versus left atrial ablation. Circulation 2003;108(19): 2355-60. </p>
    <p>24. Pappone C, Oral H, Santinelli V. Atrio-esophageal fistula as a complication of percutaneous transcatheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2004;109(22):2724-6. </p>
    <p>25. Scanavacca MI, D'avila A, Parga J, Sosa E. Left atrial-esophageal fistula following radiofrequency catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2004;15(8):960-2. </p>
    <p>26. Pappone C, Santinelli V. The who, What, Why, and How To Guide for Circumferential Pulmonary Vein Ablation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 2004;1226-30. </p>
    <p>27. Marrouche NF, Dresing T, Cole C et al. Circular mapping and ablation of the pulmonary vein for treatment of atrial fibrillation: impact of different catheter technologies. J Am Coll Cardiol 2002;40(3):464-74. </p>
    <p>28. Nademanee K, McKenzie J, Kosar E et al. A new approach for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: mapping of the electrophysiologic substrate. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004 Jun 2;43(11):2044-53. </p>
    <p>29. Pach&#243;n M JC, Pach&#243;n M EI, Pach&#243;n M JC. A new treatment for atrial fibrillation based on spectral analysis to guide the catheter RF-ablation. Europace 2004;6(6):590-601. </p>
    <p>30. Nakagawa JA, Scherlag BJ, Wu R et al. Addition of selective ablation of autonomic ganglia to pulmonary vein antrum isolation for treatment of paroxysmal and persistent atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2004;110:17(III-543) 2531. </p>
    <p>31. Cappato R, Calkins H, Chen SA et al. Worldwide survey on the methods, efficacy, and safety of catheter ablation for human atrial fibrillation. Circulation 2005;111:1100-5. </p>
    <p>32. Diretrizes para avalia&#231;&#227;o e tratamento de pacientes com arritmias card&#237;acas. DAEC-SBC. Arq Bras Cardiol 2002;79:1-50. </p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Correspond&#234;ncia</p>
        <p>Mauricio Ibrahim Scanavacca </p>
        <p> InCor </p>
        <p> Av. Dr En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 </p>
        <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="mauricio.scanavacca@incor.usp.br">mauricio.scanavacca@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido para publica&#231;&#227;o em 02/05/05 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 02/05/05 </p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation: techniques and results</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. Techniques and results</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mauricio Scanavacca; Eduardo Sosa </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas - FMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Mailing address</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>INTRODUCTION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Over the last years, major advances have been made in catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation (AF). Early attempts to reproduce the catheter maze procedure, although barely effective, led to the observation that ectopic foci often originating in the pulmonary veins triggered paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. This, in turn, has heralded the development of focal ablation and, later on, pulmonary vein isolation techniques. Limitations found in patients with persistent and permanent atrial fibrillation led to the development of more effective techniques to modify the substrate for AF maintenance. Thus, the strategy of reproducing catheter maze surgery was resumed, and now this procedure is performed using a computerized mapping system that provides three-dimensional reconstruction of atrial chambers and ablation with radiofrequency (RF) equipment capable of producing deeper and transmural lesions. Larger lesions at the pulmonary vein antra cause changes in the substrate for AF maintenance, as well as autonomic denervation of the left atrium, and seem to result in better control of atrial fibrillation. These findings have been stimulating the development of new techniques to identify more specific areas associated to the initiation and maintenance of atrial fibrillation. The use of different methods by different investigators has been confusing for physicians who are not familiar with the new techniques to treat atrial fibrillation. The purpose of this update, therefore, is to review the key techniques used today, as well as the expected results and involved risks. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>TECHNICAL ASPECTS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Radiofrequency ablation</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Radiofrequency (RF) is the most common form of energy currently used for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation, due to its safety and efficacy<sup>1</sup>. It consists of alternating current that is delivered in high frequency cycles by the distal electrode of the ablation catheter and that propagates to an indifferent electrode of large surface area applied to the skin of the patient's shoulder or back. Radiofrequency energy is delivered for 15 to 60 seconds, and the power of RF pulses is controlled by the catheter tip temperature and system impedance. The high current density at the active electrode surface causes an increase in temperature and produces a tissue lesion with depth and size proportional to the power and surface area of the electrode (4 to 8 mm). Depending on the characteristics of the distal electrode of the ablation catheter and also on the size and depth of the tissue to be ablated, the maximal temperature at the electrode-tissue interface is limited to between 45 and 60 &#186;C, and the maximal energy (power) delivered is set between 20 and 60 watts. Catheters with a 4-mm distal electrode may create, on average, lesions from 4 to 6 mm in diameter and 2 to 3 mm in depth<sup>2</sup>. Larger electrodes or irrigation systems to cool the active electrode allow higher power to be delivered and produce deeper lesions<sup>3,4</sup>. The characteristics of RF pulses applied inside the pulmonary veins (PVs) ostia differ from those applied at the atrial tissue. Pulmonary vein blood flow cools the electrode tip, and to reach the predetermined temperature the system automatically raises the energy delivered, thus increasing both the endovascular lesion and the risk of stenosis. Therefore, applications inside the pulmonary veins are avoided and, whenever necessary, should be reduced in number and applied at temperatures between 45 and 50 &#186;C and maximal energy between 20 and 30 W. Conversely, RF applications at the atrial wall are not significantly cooled and show rapid rise in temperature at low energy input, limiting both the size and depth of lesion. Accordingly, when transmural atrial lesions are intended, catheters with a larger (8 mm) or internally saline-irritated distal electrode that allows greater RF energy input are necessary to create deeper lesions. </p>
      <p>The acute lesion produced by RF application consists of a central zone of coagulation necrosis surrounded by a mild zone of inflammation<sup>5</sup>. Chronic lesions are characterized by homogeneous scars with well-defined borders. Stable electrode contact with target tissue is essential to produce definitive lesions. Unstable catheter positioning and insufficient energy power are the primary causes of recurrence after initially successful ablation procedures. </p>
      <p> The continuous monitoring of temperature, power, and system impedance to prevent clot formation and myocardial wall perforation during RF delivery ensures safe procedure. Radiofrequency generators currently available automatically stop energy delivery if resistance to the current flow (impedance) increases more than expected, thereby indicating excessive elevation of temperature and fibrin build-up on the electrode surface. Intracardiac echocardiography monitoring of microbubbles formation is considered a good method to adjust energy power during RF ablation. Excess power reflects in an increased number of microbubbles around the catheter, which constitutes an indication to stop application and readjust RF power<sup>6</sup>. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Mapping and navigation systems</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Electrophysiological mapping of the atrium has been traditionally performed using the simultaneous recording of bipolar electrograms obtained by multipolar electrode catheters advanced through the femoral veins to preestablished areas of both atria. The characteristics of the electrograms obtained and the atrial activation sequence in sinus rhythm and tachyarrhythmia are related to the spatial location of the electrode catheters. Data analysis enables the mental picturing of an atrial activation map, its correlation with atrial anatomic structures and functional characteristics of the atrial tissue assessed. Positioning of mapping catheters and navigation of the ablation catheter through the atria are performed under fluoroscopy in several angles (PA, RAO, LAO). Conventional electrophysiological mapping techniques have been used for mapping and ablation of focal atrial fibrillation, in addition to isolation of pulmonary veins ostia<sup>7-10</sup>. </p>
      <p>Electroanatomic mapping is a new computerized system for electrophysiological mapping that integrates the characteristics of electrograms obtained by a single catheter in different sites of the left atrium with the real-time, three-dimentional image created when the catheter touches the wall of this chamber<sup>11</sup>. Local electrical patterns and atrial activation time are transformed into colors and visualized on static or dynamic images. Therefore, the functional characteristics of the atrial tissue and propagation of atrial electrical activity can be reproduced and visualized by the whole team. Catheter placement is accomplished under fluoroscopy, but navigation of the exploring catheter inside the chamber during mapping and ablation is guided by the real-time, three-dimensional image created by the system, minimizing x-ray use. Carto, the most widely used mapping equipment, was popularized by Paponne et al<sup>10-13</sup>, who used it to perform circumferential ablation of pulmonary vein ostia and create lines of block when performing the catheter maze procedure. Other systems for electroanatomic mapping using different techniques, yet with similar purposes, have been also employed (<italic>Nav X, RPM and EnSite</italic>), as well as the non-fluoroscopic navigation system (<italic>Localisa</italic>). The most interesting aspect about these new technologies is the integration of nuclear magnetic resonance or computed tomography images of the left atrium with electroanatomic mapping systems, allowing the electrical activity obtained during mapping to be incorporated to the patient's actual anatomy (<italic>Carto Merge</italic>). </p>
      <p>Intracardiac echocardiography has proved to be a useful tool for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation. This technique was popularized by the Cleveland Clinic team<sup>6,14</sup>, which underscores its usefulness to perform safer transeptal punctures, appropriate circular catheter positioning at PVs ostia, identification of early clot formation in the left atrium, plus monitoring and adjustment of RF energy delivery. Images are generated by a transducer inserted through the left femoral vein and advanced to the right atrium. These authors believe that, by using this system, they have obtained a higher success rate with lower risk of complications. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Ablation strategies</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Eminination of Atrial Fibrillation Firing Foci </bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>Focal Ablation</bold> - Focal AF ablation, developed by Haissaguere and coworkers at the H&#244;pital Cardiolologique du Haut-L&#233;v&#234;que, in Pessac, France, was the first catheter ablation technique proven effective<sup>7,8</sup>. It is intended for a restricted group of patients in whom the focal mechanisms that trigger AF episodes can be clearly located. Typical cases are patients with frequent atrial extrasystoles and recurrent atrial tachycardia originating in the pulmonary veins (90%), thoracic vessels (5%) [superior vena cava (SVC), left superior vena cava (LSVC), Marshall ligament], c<italic>rista terminalis </italic>(5%), or coronary sinus (2%), that, once identified and eliminated, cease to induce atrial fibrillation<sup>10</sup>. The main limitation of this technique is the absence or sparse occurrence of ectopic foci during the procedure, which limits their accurate location. Therefore, techniques were developed to induce ectopic foci, such as vagal maneuver, adenosine infusion, isoproterenol or AF induction with rapid stimulation followed by electrical cardioversion (ECV). However, recurrence rate was high due to foci of a different origin not reproduced in the initial procedure. The current trend in patients with seemingly focal atrial fibrillation is the electrical isolation of all four pulmonary veins. The most relevant complication arising from ablation of ectopic foci inside the pulmonary veins was the induction of PVs stenosis and, eventually, their occlusion, resulting in pulmonary hypertension<sup>15</sup>. Some degree of stenosis was observed in up to 40% of the evaluated veins of the first series with risk of severe stenosis &gt;70% in 3 to 5% of the approached veins<sup>16</sup>. These findings led to the modification of the technique. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>PULMONARY VEIN ISOLATION</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Segmental ablation of pulmonary vein ostia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Partly because of the limitations found in the location of ectopic foci, partly because of the risk of PVs stenosis, two techniques were developed to empirically isolate the ostium of all pulmonary veins. Originally called segmental PV isolation, the technique developed by Haissaguerre et al<sup>17</sup> aims at identifying the muscle sleeves of atrial tissue that penetrate inside the pulmonary veins and performing the specific ablation of the PV ostia quadrants where they are located, avoiding the circumferential ablation associated with high risk of stenosis. For this purpose, a circular catheter is inserted inside each PV to locate the atriovenous (AV) junctions. Ablation is performed using a 4-mm-tip catheter and low energy RF pulses (50 &#186;C and 30W) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">figure A1</xref>). This technique achieved the clinical control of 70% of the patients, with a low risk of pulmonary vein stenosis. However, reconnection of the isolated pulmonary veins poses a problem, requiring either a new intervention in 20% to 50% of the patients or maintenance of anti-arrhythmic drugs in about half of the cases<sup>17-19</sup>. </p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-04-0295-00014-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Evolution of the technique</bold>
      </p>
      <p>In a recent review, Hocini et al<sup>20</sup> present the technical modifications the group made in pulmonary vein isolation. Ablation now has been performed using an irrigated distal electrode (4 mm) catheter, lesions are created at about 1 cm from the PV ostium and in most part are circumferential (nearly 100%). Additionally, all regions of pulmonary vein antrum with electrograms with two or more components are also ablated. Evaluation of 368 consecutive patients who underwent this technique showed that 69% remained free of atrial fibrillation without anti-arrhythmic drugs in a mean follow-up of 10&#177;5 months. For patients with persistent or permanent AF, the authors suggest that two lines of block be created at the left atrium, in addition to isolation of the pulmonary veins. One line connects the left inferior pulmonary vein to the mitral annulus and the other, both superior pulmonary veins (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">figure A2</xref>). A comparative study also suggests that this approach is useful in patients with paroxysmal AF when sustained AF is induced following the pulmonary veins isolation<sup>21</sup>. By using this strategy, 87% of the patients with paroxysmal AF and 70% of the patients with persistent AF became free of atrial tachyarrhythmia without anti-arrhythmic drugs in a mean follow-up of one year. Evaluating 2,000 patients who underwent AF ablation in its many phases, these authors found that only four patients had severe PV stenosis (&gt;70%), and five others had right phrenic nerve palsy, four of whom experienced a complete recovery<sup>20</sup>. Hemopericardium was also found in 2% of the patients who underwent PV isolation techniques, and in 5% of the patients who underwent linear lesions<sup>22</sup>.  </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Circumferential ablation of pulmonary vein ostia</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Pulmonary vein circumferential ablation was developed by Pappone et al, at Hospital San Rafaele, in Milan, Italy<sup>12</sup>. At first, the strategy focused on the isolation of each PV ostium by circumferential RF energy delivery at least 5 mm from the ostia to prevent stenosis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig. B1</xref>). To perform this technique, they used an electroanatomic mapping system that generates three-dimensional reconstructions of the left atrium and displays the spatial locations of the pulmonary veins, besides enabling the documentation of the electrical activity in these structures. For the ablation, 4-mm-tip catheters were used at first, with maximal energy of 50W and temperature up to 60 &#186;C. The authors reported that AF was controlled in 80% of the patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation, and that no pulmonary vein stenosis was found during a mean one-year follow-up. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Evolution of the technique</bold>
      </p>
      <p>To achieve better results, particularly in patients with persistent AF and associated heart diseases, these same authors enlarged the isolation area of the periostial tissue, expanding the lines of block around the pulmonary veins and isolating them two at a time<sup>13</sup>. They added a posterior block line connecting the two isolated areas and another one from the left pulmonary veins to the mitral valve annulus, similar to the surgical techniques (catheter maze procedure) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig. B2</xref>). Radiofrequency ablation of the cavotricuspid isthmus was also systematically introduced. For this purpose, they used catheters with 8-mm-tip electrodes and 100w RF power to produce transmural atrial lesions. In a prospective, randomized study, Oral et al<sup>23 </sup>compared the segmental PV isolation technique with the circumferential ablation technique. These authors found that approximately 100% of the patients who underwent circular catheter-guided isolation achieved electrical isolation, compared to 60% of the patients who underwent electroanatomic-guided circumferential ablation. Despite this, after six months 67% of the patients from the first group and 88% from the second group were free of atrial fibrillation without anti-arrhythmic drugs. During circumferential ablation of the pulmonary vein antra, Pappone et al. noted that 30% of the patients experienced vagal reaction, suggestive of left atrium autonomic ganglia stimulation, which disappeared as the ablation went on. Clinical follow-up of these patients showed that 99% were free of AF without anti-arrhythmic drugs.<sup>13</sup> These data suggest that even the partial ablation of ganglia and fibers of the left atrium autonomic nervous system is important to control AF episodes. </p>
      <p>Although more effective, extra-ostial PV circumferential ablation showed severe limitation, namely, high energy RF pulse delivery in close proximity to the esophagus. The first cases of fistula between the left atrium and the esophagus were found recently, a severe and potentially fatal complication<sup>24,25</sup>. Carlo Papponi, in a personal communication, reported a new technical modification after this complication. A 3.5-mm irrigated-tip catheter replaced the ablation catheter with 8-mm distal electrode. The same enlarged circumferential ablation strategy was maintained, except for the moving of the posterior line to the roof of the left atrium to prevent the posterior wall from touching the esophagus. </p>
      <p>In a review of 3,980 patients, these authors reported the following complications: hemopericardium: 0.2%; stroke: 0.23%; atrial-esophageal fistula: 0.03%; PV stenosis: 0%, and incisional atrial tachycardias: 6%<sup>26</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Pulmonary vein antrum circumferential ablation guided by intracardiac echocardiogram</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Pulmonary vein ostia circumferential ablation was developed by Natale et al, in the Cleveland Clinic, Ohio, USA, after several attempts were made using different equipment and technology for AF ablation<sup>27</sup>. The rationale for the procedure is that pulmonary vein electrical isolation is imperative in atrial fibrillation management, but the fibers that originate in the posterior wall of the left atrium and penetrate these vessels are also potentially arrhythmogenic foci and, therefore, should be ablated. In this technique, the PV electrical isolation guided by a circular catheter is an essential step. Ablation is performed using an 8-mm-tip catheter, but the energy delivered is adjusted according microbubbles formation, observed by intracardiac echo. After isolation of each PV, the circular catheter is moved circumferentially around the PV ostium and progressively away, and the identified atrial potentials are ablated. This way, the atrial lesion is extended from the ostia to the posterior, superior, and inferior part of all pulmonary veins, and also to the anterior part (septum) of the right pulmonary veins (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig. C</xref>). Lines of block are not performed, but the superior vena cava is consistently isolated. According to an assessment performed two months after the intervention, this technique has an 80% success rate with first procedure, without anti-arrhythmic drugs. These authors are among the first to formulate the concept of blank period, according to which early ocurrence of atrial fibrillation does not necessarily means late failure. Repeat procedure, if necessary, is performed after this period, with success rate exceeding 90%. Success rate is higher in young patients with paroxysmal AF, lower in patients with ventricular disfunction (73%) or prior heart surgery (73%), and worse in patients with scars in the left atrium (&lt;50%). In the last 400 patients submitted to this procedure by Natale and coworkers, 0.25% of the patients had moderate PV stenosis, 0.8% had embolic stroke, and 0.5% had cardiac tamponade. No atrial-esophageal fistula was found<sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>At Incor, 420 patients underwent AF ablation between 1998 and 2004. Three distinct phases can be highlighted during this period: 1 - focal ablation phase (1998-2000), involving only patients with structurally normal heart and paroxysmal AF; 2 - PVs ostial isolation phase, guided by 15-mm circular catheter and 4-mm ablation catheter with maximum energy of 30J and temperature of 50 &#186;C (2000-2002), involving patients with paroxysmal (90%) and persistent (10%) AF and structurally normal heart; 3 - extra-ostial PVs isolation phase guided by 20- or 25-mm circular catheter and 8-mm ablation catheter with maximum energy of 60W and 55 &#186;C (2002-2004) in patients with paroxysmal (70%), persistent (20%), and permanent (10%) AF, involving patients with structural heart disease (30%) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">figure 2 A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">B</xref>). At focal phase, only 40% of the patients became free of AF recurrence (50% with AA); at ostial phase, 71% became free (50% with AA); and at extra-ostial phase, 75% became free (25% with AA) after a single procedure and at a mean follow-up of one year. The major complications observed in these periods were: four PV stenoses comprising phases 1 and 2 (one asymptomatic requiring angioplasty); three systemic embolic events (one in the spleen in phase 1, one coronary (angioplasty) in phase 2, and one transient ischemic attack in phase 3); two patients had right diaphragm paralysis in phase 2, with complete recovery at follow-up; eight patients had hemopericardium, resolved by percutaneous drainage over the three periods. The most severe complication leading to death was atrial-esophageal fistula in phase 3, when this complication had not yet been reported in percutaneous procedures (December 2003). After this, some modifications have been made in the technique, such as monitoring of the esophagus position during the intervention by esophagogram or by introduction of an orogastric tube with contrast. If the area to be ablated was close to the esophagus, energy delivery was reduced to a maximum power between 20W and 30W. More recently, we have used an esophageal thermometer to monitor the esophagus temperature, manipulated in such way as to be as close as possible to the ablation catheter during RF delivery. Either rapid elevation of esophageal temperature at the beginning of the application or local temperature of 38&#186;C is used empirically as the criterion to discontinuate application in this site. After these measures were implemmented, no other case of fistula was detected in 2004. </p>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-04-0295-00014-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>NEW STRATEGIES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>An interesting aspect in the analysis of results of circumferential ablation of pulmonary vein ostia described by Pappone was that recurrence incidence was lower than in ostial isolation, despite the lower rate of PV isolation. It was hypothesized that a great part of the substrate for maintenance of AF would be at the PV antrum, associated with the arrangement of atrial fibers in this site or with the autonomic innervation of the heart also distributed in these areas. Extensive ablation of these sites would modify the mechanisms of AF maintenance. Accordingly, three new techniques have been suggested: the first one aims at the ablation of low-amplitude and fragmented electrograms detected during atrial fibrillation, regarded as markers of the rotor areas that maintain the atrial fibrillation<sup>28</sup>. The second technique aims at identifying the areas of AF maintenance in sinus rhythm, based on the spectral analysis of atrial electrograms by Fourrier transform; polyphasic electrograms, regarded as possible markers of ANS nerve fibers entering the atrial tissue, are the targets of the intervention<sup>29</sup>. The third technique consists in locating the autonomic ganglia of the heart by neurophysiological stimulation and its specific ablation<sup>30</sup>. In these techniques, ablation of atrial fibers located in the interatrial septum and the roof of the left atrium has gained importance; PV isolation would not be essential for the success of these procedures. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>RESULT REPRODUCIBILITY</bold>
      </p>
      <p>As we have seen, although Haissaguerre, Pappone, and Natale groups - which together total at least 8,000 patients who underwent AF ablation - had applied seemingly different strategies, over time all of them started to perform the central intervention in a very similar way (PV antrum ablation, albeit using different mapping and navigation systems), and today they perform these procedures with slight technical variations. Although clinical results reported by these authors are quite satisfactory and involve acceptable risks, an important aspect to its widespread use is its reproducibility in distinct environments. Regarding this aspect, a global survey of AF ablation current status is mandatory. Cappato et al<sup>31</sup> gathered information from 90 centers throughout Europe, USA, Asia and South America involving about 8,745 patients who underwent AF ablation between 1995 and 2002, with a mean follow-up of 11.6 &#177; 7 months. It must be emphasized that most part of these results reflect the use of PVs isolation strategy, two thirds of which were guided by circular catheter. Control rate was higher among more experienced groups, and total mean was 50% AF control without the use of anti-arrhythmic drugs and 73% with clinical treatment. These findings are consistent with the results obtained by our group using the PV empirical isolation technique, the data of which have been included in this survey. Five hundred and twelve complications (6%) plus four deaths were reported (0.05%). Two patients died from massive stroke; one patient, from hemothorax; and another, from unknown cause. The main complications included: PVs stenosis: 1.63%, cardiac tamponade; 1.22%; stroke: 0.94%; femoral artery pseudoaneurysm: 0.53%; arteriovenous fistula: 0.42%; hemothorax: 0.16%, and diaphragmatic paralysis: 0.11%. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>INDICATIONS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The Brazilian Society of Cardiology recommends AF ablation in patients with symptomatic, paroxysmal AF that is difficult to control with drug therapy, normal left atrium and no metabolic conditions potentially correlated to arrhythmia (Recommendation B2, Level 3); and in patients with structural heart disease and frequent AF paroxysm difficult to control with drug therapy (Recommendation B2, Level 4)<sup>32</sup>. </p>
      <p>At the H&#244;pital Cardiologique Haut-L&#233;v&#234;que in Pessac, France, appropriate candidates are patients with symptomatic AF, with frequent episodes of over one-month duration resistant to two or more anti-arrhythmic drugs. No specific criterion is used. Exclusion criteria are based on AF duration, whether paroxysmal, persistent, or permanent; presence of structural disease; ventricular dysfunction; size of left atrium; prior cerebral embolism; or age<sup>20</sup>. </p>
      <p>At the Hospital San Rafaele, in Milan, Italy, patients considered for ablation are those with at least one episode of persistent and symptomatic AF per month, at least one episode of paroxysmal AF per week, or permanent AF, having unsuccessfully used at least an anti-arrhythmic drug. Exclusion criteria include: patients with CHF functional class IV, age over 80, contraindication for anticoagulants, presence of atrial thrombus, size of left atrium &gt;65 mm showed by echo, life expectancy less than one year, and thyroid dysfunction<sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>At the Cleveland Clinic, only symptomatic patients who failed to respond to at least one anti-arrhythmic drug are candidates for AF ablation, regardless of whether they have paroxysmal, persistent, or permant AF, but with no restrictions as to age, size of left atrium, or ejection fraction. Patients with thrombus in the left atrium on transesophageal echo, but not spontaneous contrast, are excluded<sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>At InCor, indications for AF ablation have been changing over the last years with the experience accumulated by the group. Current candidates are patients with symptomatic paroxysmal or persistent AF for a minimum of six months, refractory to at least two anti-arrhythmic drugs, after potentially triggering conditions, such as hyperthyroidism and excessive alcohol consumption, have been ruled out. AF ablation is avoided in patients with restrictions to oral anticoagulant therapy. Patient's overall clinical condition is an indication determinant, but not age, underlying heart disease, left atrium size, ventricular dysfunction, or previous stroke. Patients with paroxysmal AF and risk factors for thromboembolism, as well as patients with persistent AF, undergo anticoagulation therapy for at least four weeks, INR being maintained between two and three. All patients undergo transesophageal echocardiography prior to the procedure, and those with existent or suspected atrial throumbus are excluded. These patients are maintained on oral anticoagulation for four to six weeks, and transesophageal echo is repeated before intervention. Permanent AF ablation has been considered for young patients with the left atrium &lt;55 mm, especially those with poorly controlled ventricular response or progressive LV dilation and/or LV ejection fraction decrease. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>CONCLUSIONS</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Radiofrequency atrial fibrillation ablation aims, basically, at enhancing the patient's quality of life. The primary purpose of the several AF ablation techniques currently used is the curative treatment of the patient; however, in some situations only a partial control is achieved. In such cases, the combination of anti-arrhythmic drugs affords a quite satisfactory clinical condition for the majority of the patients. AF catheter ablation is a safe procedure if performed within the recommended patterns. Its complications vary according to the technique used and the experience of the interventional group. Its benefits depend on the clinical characteristics of the patients. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>REFERENCES</bold>
      </p>
      <p>1. Nath S, Haines DE. Biophysics and pathology of catheter energy delivery systems. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1995;37:185-204. </p>
      <p>2. Grubman E, Pavri BB, Lyle S et al. Histopathologic effects of radiofrequency catheter ablation in previously infarcted human myocardium. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol 1999;10:336-42. </p>
      <p>3. Nakagawa H, Yamanashi W, Itha JV et al. Comparison of in vivo tissue temperature profile and lesion geometry for radiofrequency ablation with salineirrigated electrode versus temperature control in a canine thigh muscle preparati. Circulation 1995;91:2264-73. </p>
      <p>4. Bunch TJ, Bruce GK, Johnson SB et al. Analysis of Catheter-tip (8-mm) and actual tissue temperatures achieved during radiofrequency ablation at the orifice of the pulmonary vein. Circulation 2004;110:2988-95. </p>
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      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Mailing address</p>
          <p> Mauricio Ibrahim Scanavacca</p>
          <p> InCor</p>
          <p> Av. Dr En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44</p>
          <p> 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="mauricio.scanavacca@incor.usp.br">mauricio.scanavacca@incor.usp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received on 05/02/05</p>
      <p> Acepted on 05/02/05 </p>
      <p>1. Nath S, Haines DE. Biophysics and pathology of catheter energy delivery systems. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 1995;37:185-204.  </p>
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</article>
