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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">Vbb7yL4BDRGcgJQ5pBK6sSf</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00016</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2005001600016</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(05)08500316</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2005001600016</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Atualiza&#231;&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Eventos cardiovasculares: um efeito de classe dos inibidores de COX-2</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Araujo</surname>
            <given-names>Leila Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Soeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de Matos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Juliano de Lara</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Serrano J&#250;nior</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Vicente</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>85</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>222</fpage>
      <lpage>229</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>10</day>
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ATUALIZA&#199;&#195;O</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Eventos cardiovasculares: um efeito de classe dos inibidores de COX-2</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Leila Fernandes Araujo; Alexandre de Matos Soeiro; Juliano de Lara Fernandes; Carlos Vicente Serrano J&#250;nior</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas &#150; FMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back10">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>Os antiinflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o-ester&#243;ides (AINEs) s&#227;o uma classe de medicamentos largamente utilizada no tratamento de dor p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria<sup>1</sup>, osteoartrite<sup>2</sup>, artrite reumat&#243;ide<sup>3</sup> e dores m&#250;sculo-esquel&#233;ticas<sup>4,5</sup>, entre diversas condi&#231;&#245;es. Seus principais efeitos s&#227;o antiinflamat&#243;rio, analg&#233;sico e antipir&#233;tico<sup>6</sup>. Em geral, esses efeitos est&#227;o relacionados &#224; inibi&#231;&#227;o da enzima cicloxigenase, que catalisa a transforma&#231;&#227;o de &#225;cido araquid&#244;nico em diversos mediadores lip&#237;dicos, denominados prostaglandinas e tromboxanos<sup>2</sup>. Estas subst&#226;ncias t&#234;m importante fun&#231;&#227;o homeost&#225;tica na prote&#231;&#227;o da mucosa g&#225;strica, fisiologia renal, gesta&#231;&#227;o e agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, al&#233;m de terem sua produ&#231;&#227;o induzida em condi&#231;&#245;es como inflama&#231;&#227;o e c&#226;ncer<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Duas isoformas da enzima acima referida foram caracterizadas: cicloxigenase-1 (COX-1) e cicloxigenase-2 (COX-2)<sup>2</sup>. COX-1 &#233; expressa constitutivamente em todos os tecidos do organismo<sup>8</sup>. &#201; a &#250;nica isoforma presente em plaquetas, onde leva &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o de TXA<sub>2</sub>. &#201; encontrada, entre outros tecidos, na mucosa g&#225;strica, onde catalisa a bios&#237;ntese de prostaglandinas citoprotetoras, no endot&#233;lio vascular e no tecido renal. Por fim, acredita-se ainda que a COX-1 tamb&#233;m tenha participa&#231;&#227;o em condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas como inflama&#231;&#227;o<sup>7</sup>. Por outro lado, a enzima COX-2 tem sua express&#227;o aumentada principalmente durante processos inflamat&#243;rios e transforma&#231;&#227;o celular<sup>9-12</sup>, apesar de ter sido demonstrada sua express&#227;o constitutiva em alguns tecidos do sistema nervoso central e do rim<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Os primeiros AINEs desenvolvidos foram os cl&#225;ssicos AINEs n&#227;o-espec&#237;ficos, que inibem tanto uma como a outra isoforma da cicloxigenase<sup>7</sup> e, apesar de terem efic&#225;cia comprovada quanto ao efeito antiinflamat&#243;rio a que se prop&#245;em, t&#234;m uso cont&#237;nuo limitado devido a efeitos adversos gastrintestinais<sup>8</sup>, como dispepsia e dor abdominal, al&#233;m de perfura&#231;&#227;o ou sangramento gastroduodenal, em menor propor&#231;&#227;o<sup>2</sup>. Temos, como exemplo dos primeiros AINEs, indometacina, naproxeno, ibuprofeno, nabumetona, entre diversos outros<sup>6</sup>. Nesse cen&#225;rio, desenvolveu-se uma subclasse de AINEs, os inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, com a inten&#231;&#227;o de diminuir a inflama&#231;&#227;o com a mesma efic&#225;cia, sem provocar os efeitos gastrintestinais oriundos da inibi&#231;&#227;o da COX-1<sup>2,5,7,8,13,14</sup>. Entre eles podemos incluir rofecoxib, celecoxib, etoricoxib, valdecoxib e lumiracoxib<sup>6</sup>.</p>
    <p>A cria&#231;&#227;o dessa subclasse de medicamentos baseava-se, assim, na id&#233;ia de que COX-1 seria uma enzima constitutiva e COX-2 uma enzima induzida em situa&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas<sup>2,7</sup>. Tal classifica&#231;&#227;o caracterizaria, no entanto, uma simplifica&#231;&#227;o perigosa da realidade<sup>2</sup>. Diversos estudos foram desenvolvidos, desde a introdu&#231;&#227;o dos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2 no mercado, em 1999, relacionando seu potencial antiinflamat&#243;rio &#224; sua seguran&#231;a gastrintestinal e, a partir da&#237;, surgiram dados que sugeriram um potencial da subclasse em elevar o risco de eventos adversos cardiovasculares<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Em 2000, foi publicado o primeiro estudo a apontar tais riscos, que o fez ao comparar rofecoxib a naproxeno<sup>8</sup>. Seguiram a ele diversas publica&#231;&#245;es com resultados controversos sobre o potencial risco cardiovascular do rofecoxib e da classe de inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, at&#233; que o medicamento foi prontamente retirado de circula&#231;&#227;o, em setembro de 2004, ap&#243;s a suspens&#227;o prematura de um estudo de adenomas col&#244;nicos<sup>15</sup>. Este estudo, <italic>Vioxx Gastrintestinal Outcomes Research</italic> (VIGOR)<sup>8</sup>, indicou eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa de 3,9 na incid&#234;ncia de efeitos tromboemb&#243;licos adversos no grupo recebendo rofecoxib, comparado ao grupo recebendo placebo. Em seguida, foi tamb&#233;m detectado aumento significativo do risco de evento adverso cardiovascular com o uso de celecoxib comparado ao placebo, al&#233;m de valdecoxib comparado ao placebo.</p>
    <p>Apesar de in&#250;meros resultados d&#237;spares publicados at&#233; esta data, no que se refere &#224; seguran&#231;a cardiovascular de inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, os estudos mais recentes evidenciam o potencial da classe em provocar efeitos adversos cardiovasculares<sup>1,13,14</sup>. A d&#250;vida sobre tal potencial surgiu com a publica&#231;&#227;o do estudo que comparava rofecoxib ao naproxeno, citado anteriormente, e a demora para sua elucida&#231;&#227;o deveu-se &#224; inexist&#234;ncia de estudos multic&#234;ntricos, rand&#244;micos, controlados, amplos e de longa dura&#231;&#227;o, que avaliassem diretamente efeitos cardiovasculares de tais agentes<sup>16-18</sup>.</p>
    <p>Esse texto prop&#245;e-se a ilustrar o papel da enzima COX-2 e seus inibidores no sistema vascular, al&#233;m de realizar uma revis&#227;o da literatura no que diz respeito a esse papel, com uma descri&#231;&#227;o dos principais estudos envolvidos na demonstra&#231;&#227;o do efeito cardiovascular desses medicamentos. Por fim, assinalamos as recomenda&#231;&#245;es elaboradas pelo <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> para o uso dos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Antiinflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o-ester&#243;ides: mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>H&#225; tr&#234;s classes de inibidores da cicloxigenase, cujas diferen&#231;as se baseiam na seletividade que apresentam em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s diferentes isoformas da enzima. S&#227;o elas: 1) aspirina, 2) indometacina e outros AINEs tradicionais e 3) inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2. Para se avaliar a seletividade para cicloxigenase, ensaios s&#227;o baseados na produ&#231;&#227;o de tromboxano B<sub>2</sub> durante a coagula&#231;&#227;o, o que avalia a atividade da COX-1 plaquet&#225;ria, e na produ&#231;&#227;o de prostaglandina E<sub>2</sub> de lipopolissacar&#237;deos de bact&#233;rias, em ensaios com sangue total, um &#237;ndice de atividade de COX-2 em mon&#243;citos<sup>2</sup>. Contudo, os prostan&#243;ides respons&#225;veis pela manuten&#231;&#227;o da homeostase vascular s&#227;o o tromboxano A<sub>2</sub> (TXA<sub>2</sub>) e a prostaglandina I<sub>2</sub> (PGI<sub>2</sub>).</p>
    <p>TXA<sub>2</sub>, sintetizado por plaquetas, tem sua produ&#231;&#227;o acionada pela ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, levando a agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e prolifera&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;sculo liso<sup>7</sup>. &#201;, portanto, importante mediador de eventos agudos vasoclusivos, ligado &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o da enzima COX-1. A produ&#231;&#227;o aumentada de metab&#243;litos de TXA<sub>2</sub> foi reportada em pacientes com angina inst&#225;vel, em epis&#243;dios de dor tor&#225;cica, e foi tamb&#233;m associada &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o do risco de eventos cardiovasculares adversos em pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial perif&#233;rica<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por outro lado, PGI<sub>2</sub>, ou prostaciclina, &#233; o principal produto das c&#233;lulas do endot&#233;lio vascular, cuja produ&#231;&#227;o &#233; ativada pela COX-2. Seus efeitos consistem em potente vasodilata&#231;&#227;o e inibi&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria e da prolifera&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;sculo liso vascular. Assim, alguns autores sugerem que a prostaciclina &#233; um eucosan&#243;ide antiproliferativo, e a relativa defici&#234;ncia dessa prostaciclina, derivada de COX-2, pode predispor aterog&#234;nese<sup>19</sup>. No entanto, prostaciclina, em conjunto com prostaglandina E<sub>2</sub> (PGE<sub>2</sub>), tem sido apontada como mediador pr&#243;-inflamat&#243;rio, ativado pela express&#227;o de COX-2 durante est&#237;mulo inflamat&#243;rio. Deste modo, o impacto da inibi&#231;&#227;o de COX-2 sobre a progress&#227;o de aterosclerose permanece controverso<sup>7</sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">fig. 1</xref>).</p>
    <p content-type="asset">
      <fig id="f1">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-03-0222-00016-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    </p>
    <p>Ao analisarmos as classes de inibidores da cicloxigenase, temos que a aspirina provoca uma modifica&#231;&#227;o covalente da enzima, bloqueando irreversivelmente sua atividade. Como as plaquetas humanas expressam apenas COX-1, a aspirina bloqueia irreversivelmente esta enzima e, conseq&#252;entemente, sua produ&#231;&#227;o de TXA<sub>2</sub>. A inibi&#231;&#227;o funcional da ativa&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria dependente de TXA<sub>2</sub> requer supress&#227;o da capacidade de gerar esse prostan&#243;ide superior a 95%, e somente a aspirina &#233; comprovadamente capaz de sustentar tal efeito durante seu intervalo de administra&#231;&#227;o. Apesar de tamb&#233;m provocar supress&#227;o de prostaciclina, a supress&#227;o concomitante de tromboxano predomina e o efeito final &#233; cardioprotetor<sup>7</sup>.</p>
    <p>A classe de AINEs tradicionais inibe a produ&#231;&#227;o de TXA<sub>2</sub> e de prostaciclina a um grau semelhante - apesar de haver pequenas varia&#231;&#245;es na seletividade bioqu&#237;mica por cada isoforma entre os diversos medicamentos - e este efeito &#233; revers&#237;vel durante o intervalo de administra&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig2">fig. 2</xref>). Portanto, a inibi&#231;&#227;o intermitente da fun&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria n&#227;o produziria efeito final cardioprotetor. A d&#250;vida restante, contudo, &#233; sobre o efeito cardiovascular da supress&#227;o de prostaciclina sem concomitante supress&#227;o de tromboxano, determinada pelos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2. Estudos com a dele&#231;&#227;o de genes que codificam os receptores para prostaciclina (IP) e PGE<sub>2</sub> (EP<sub>2</sub>) de camundongos n&#227;o demonstram ocorr&#234;ncia de trombose espont&#226;nea, mas os animais cujos genes para IP foram deletados apresentaram responsividade aumentada a est&#237;mulos tromb&#243;ticos<sup>20,21</sup>. De tal modo, seria esperado um aumento de efeitos adversos cardiovasculares apenas em indiv&#237;duos predispostos.</p>
    <fig id="fig2">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-03-0222-00016-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>In&#250;meros ensaios cl&#237;nicos foram realizados desde o surgimento dos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, com o intuito de avaliar a efic&#225;cia analg&#233;sica e antiinflamat&#243;ria desses medicamentos, al&#233;m de seus efeitos adversos. A preocupa&#231;&#227;o quanto aos efeitos cardiovasculares dessa classe surgiram em 2000, com a publica&#231;&#227;o do estudo VIGOR<sup>8</sup> e seus resultados, at&#233; ent&#227;o inesperados. Prop&#245;e-se que tais efeitos da classe devam-se a: 1) inibi&#231;&#227;o de prostaciclina, com conseq&#252;ente inativa&#231;&#227;o de um mecanismo primordial de defesa do endot&#233;lio contra agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria, hipertens&#227;o e aterosclerose, e 2) promo&#231;&#227;o de um desbalan&#231;o que favore&#231;a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o<sup>17</sup>. No entanto, ensaios cl&#237;nicos ora sucedem em evidenciar o aumento do risco cardiovascular, ora negam sua exist&#234;ncia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Experi&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas com inibidores de COX-2</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>
        <italic>Primeiras suspeitas de efeitos adversos cardiovasculares</italic>
      </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a cria&#231;&#227;o dos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, diversos estudos foram desenvolvidos como intuito de provar a maior seguran&#231;a gastrintestinal desses medicamentos. Entretanto, esses mesmos estudos suscitaram d&#250;vidas quanto &#224; seguran&#231;a cardiovascular dos mesmos. O primeiro estudo a levantar essas d&#250;vidas foi o VIGOR<sup>8</sup>, publicado em 2000, que visava comparar a toxicidade gastrintestinal de dois AINEs: rofecoxib e naproxeno. Os pesquisadores recrutaram 8.076 pacientes com artrite reumat&#243;ide para um estudo prospectivo, rand&#244;mico e duplo-cego. A m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes era 58 anos e 80% era do sexo feminino, todos submetidos a uma m&#233;dia de 9 meses de tratamento. Pacientes submetidos a tratamento com aspirina foram exclu&#237;dos do estudo.</p>
    <p>Uma dose di&#225;ria de 50 mg de rofecoxib, inibidor espec&#237;fico de COX-2, foi comparada a 500 mg de naproxeno, duas vezes ao dia, quanto &#224; efic&#225;cia antiinflamat&#243;ria e &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de obstru&#231;&#227;o ou perfura&#231;&#227;o gastroduodenal, sangramento gastrintestinal alto e &#250;lcera gastroduodenal sintom&#225;tica. Ambos os medicamentos apresentaram efic&#225;cia equivalente, por&#233;m a incid&#234;ncia de eventos adversos gastrintestinais foi de 2,1 eventos por 100 pacientes/ano para rofecoxib contra 4,5 eventos por 100 pacientes/ano, para naproxeno. Tal resultado sustentou a hip&#243;tese de maior seguran&#231;a gastrintestinal do rofecoxib, no entanto, trouxe &#224; tona um outro dado alarmante. A incid&#234;ncia de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) foi significativamente menor entre o grupo recebendo naproxeno: 0,1% de naproxeno versus 0,4% de rofecoxib, com risco relativo de 0,2.</p>
    <p>O estudo aponta que essa diferen&#231;a na incid&#234;ncia de IAM foi verificada devido &#224; alta taxa de IAM, ocorrido nos 4% da popula&#231;&#227;o com maior risco para doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria. Esse grupo teria indica&#231;&#227;o de tratamento com aspirina, como profilaxia secund&#225;ria, e a diferen&#231;a entre as incid&#234;ncias de IAM de cada medicamento na popula&#231;&#227;o sem necessidade dessa profilaxia n&#227;o teria sido significativa. Al&#233;m disso, afirma que o naproxeno provoca uma inibi&#231;&#227;o da agrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria de 88%, semelhante &#224;quela da aspirina, efeito protetor tamb&#233;m sugerido por Solomon e cols.<sup>22</sup> e Capone e cols.<sup>23</sup>. Portanto, os efeitos do uso regular desse medicamento teriam efeito cardioprotetor, diferentemente do rofecoxib, o que poderia explicar a diferen&#231;a entre as taxas de infarto citadas acima.</p>
    <p>Outro estudo do mesmo ano se prop&#244;s a realizar uma compara&#231;&#227;o semelhante. O estudo prospectivo, duplo-cego, rand&#244;mico e controlado, denominado <italic>Celecoxib Long-term Arthritis Safety Study</italic> (CLASS)<sup>5</sup>, acompanhou 8.059 pacientes com osteoartrite ou artrite reumat&#243;ide, durante seis meses de tratamento. A interven&#231;&#227;o consistia em receber celecoxib 400 mg duas vezes ao dia, ibuprofeno 800 mg tr&#234;s vezes ao dia ou diclofenaco 75 mg duas vezes ao dia, na qual seriam avaliadas a ocorr&#234;ncia &#250;lceras gastrintestinais altas sintom&#225;ticas e suas complica&#231;&#245;es, al&#233;m de outros efeitos adversos. O uso de aspirina para profilaxia cardiovascular foi permitido, ao contr&#225;rio do estudo acima. A m&#233;dia de idade dos pacientes girava em torno dos 60 anos e, aproximadamente, 70% eram mulheres.</p>
    <p>Os pesquisadores conclu&#237;ram que celecoxib, quando comparado a ibuprofeno ou diclofenaco, estava associado a uma menor incid&#234;ncia de &#250;lceras sintom&#225;ticas e complica&#231;&#245;es oriundas, al&#233;m de outros efeitos t&#243;xicos clinicamente importantes. A an&#225;lise de efeitos adversos cardiovasculares apontou incid&#234;ncias semelhantes, tanto de efeitos cardiovasculares, em geral, quanto simplesmente IAM, para ambas as compara&#231;&#245;es. Para os pacientes que n&#227;o recebiam tratamento com aspirina, nas duas compara&#231;&#245;es a incid&#234;ncia de IAM foi de 0,3% contra 0,1% de ambas, em tratamento com aspirina.</p>
    <p>Em artigo publicado no ano seguinte aos dois estudos acima<sup>2</sup>, FitzGerald apontou diferen&#231;as importantes entre os estudos, que poderiam ser respons&#225;veis pelos resultados incongruentes. Essas diferen&#231;as inclu&#237;am uso concomitante de aspirina, substrato de pacientes e o AINE n&#227;o-espec&#237;fico utilizado<sup>2</sup>. Tanto rofecoxib quanto celecoxib suprimem prostaciclina de modo equivalente, por&#233;m, seria poss&#237;vel que o uso concomitante de aspirina tenha exclu&#237;do a comprova&#231;&#227;o desse fen&#244;meno, sobretudo em pacientes com maior risco de eventos tromb&#243;ticos. Ainda n&#227;o &#233; claro se o uso concomitante de aspirina acaba com a seguran&#231;a gastrintestinal dos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, por&#233;m, essa combina&#231;&#227;o &#233; preferida &#224; aspirina associada ao ibuprofeno, j&#225; que este &#250;ltimo bloqueia o acesso da primeira ao seu s&#237;tio na COX-1 e, conseq&#252;entemente, diminui sua atividade anti-agregante<sup>2</sup>.</p>
    <p>Al&#233;m disso, apenas 27% dos pacientes do CLASS tinham diagn&#243;stico de artrite reumat&#243;ide versus todos aqueles do VIGOR, e an&#225;lises epidemiol&#243;gicas indicam que a incid&#234;ncia de eventos tromb&#243;ticos agudos tem aumento de 33% em pacientes com tal diagn&#243;stico, quando comparados a pacientes com osteoartrite e &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o em geral<sup>7</sup>. A partir da&#237;, seria poss&#237;vel acreditar que a popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo utilizando rofecoxib estaria mais sujeita a um mecanismo dependente de prostaciclina, o que sustentaria o maior alarde causado pelo VIGOR.</p>
    <p>Em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, diferen&#231;as do naproxeno, que garantam seguran&#231;a cardiovascular, quando comparado a outros AINEs n&#227;o-espec&#237;ficos t&#234;m evid&#234;ncias limitadas. Alguns estudos sugerem que naproxeno tenha efeito cardioprotetor<sup>8,22</sup> e h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de m&#225;xima inibi&#231;&#227;o sustentada da produ&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria de tromboxano por 8 horas, em volunt&#225;rios recebendo naproxeno<sup>24</sup>. Por outro lado, h&#225; estudos que negam qualquer efeito cardioprotetor<sup>25,26</sup>. Dados epidemiol&#243;gicos s&#227;o restritos e a quest&#227;o permanece sem uma conclus&#227;o satisfat&#243;ria.</p>
    <p>Topol e cols.<sup>4</sup> compararam os resultados de quatro estudos referentes aos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, celecoxib e rofecoxib, com aqueles de um grupo placebo de uma meta-an&#225;lise relativa &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria com aspirina. A taxa anual de IAM no grupo placebo da meta-an&#225;lise foi de 0,52% versus 0,74%, para rofecoxib (P=0,04, quando comparado ao grupo placebo) e 0,80%, para celecoxib (P=0,02, quando comparado ao grupo placebo). Apesar de reconhecerem as limita&#231;&#245;es de se estabelecer uma compara&#231;&#227;o entre popula&#231;&#245;es de estudos distintos, os pesquisadores obtiveram dados apontando um efeito pr&#243;-tromb&#243;tico dos inibidores de COX-2 como respons&#225;vel pelo aumento das taxas de eventos cardiovasculares adversos nesses grupos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Lumiracoxib n&#227;o foi relacionado a aumento de eventos cardiovasculares</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Farkouh e cols. publicaram uma an&#225;lise da seguran&#231;a cardiovascular e gastrintestinal do inibidor de COX-2 lumiracoxib comparado a naproxeno e ibuprofeno, no <italic>Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrintestinal Event Trial</italic> (TARGET)<sup>27</sup>. Esse ensaio, rand&#244;mico e controlado, incluiu 18.325 pacientes com osteoartrite, acima de 50 anos de idade, recebendo lumiracoxib 400 mg duas vezes ao dia, naproxen 500 mg duas vezes ao dia ou ibuprofen 800 mg tr&#234;s vezes por dia. Ap&#243;s um ano de acompanha mento, o desfecho cardiovascular, que inclu&#237;a IAM, n&#227;o variou significativamente entre lumiracoxib e os demais agentes, independendo do uso de aspirina. Todavia, houve um aumento n&#227;o-significativo do risco de IAM com lumiracoxib comparado a naproxeno, em pacientes que n&#227;o recebiam aspirina. Essa diferen&#231;a foi atribu&#237;da ao acaso, ou ao efeito antitromb&#243;tico do naproxeno, discutido anteriormente. Assim, lumiracoxib foi considerado, pelos pesquisadores do TARGET, como sendo o tratamento ideal para os pacientes com osteoartrite.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Estudos com rofecoxib apresentaram resultados controversos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Um estudo posterior se disp&#244;s a determinar se pacientes em tratamento com rofecoxib tinham um excesso de eventos cardiovasculares tromb&#243;ticos em rela&#231;&#227;o a pacientes tratados com placebo, naproxeno ou outros AINEs n&#227;o-espec&#237;ficos tradicionais (diclofenaco, ibuprofeno e nabumetona), atrav&#233;s de uma an&#225;lise combinada de dados, incluindo mais de 28 mil pacientes<sup>28</sup>. Foram analisados 23 estudos cl&#237;nicos fase IIb &#150; V, rand&#244;micos, duplo-cegos e controlados, e o desfecho consistia em um agrupamento de eventos definidos pelo <italic>Anti-Platelet Trialists' Collaboration</italic> (APTC): mortes cardiovasculares, hemorr&#225;gicas e de causa desconhecida, infartos do mioc&#225;rdio n&#227;o-fatais e acidentes vasculares cerebrais (AVC) n&#227;o-fatais.</p>
    <p>Ao se comparar rofecoxib ao placebo, o risco relativo para um desfecho foi de 0,84 (95%, Intervalo de Confian&#231;a: 0,51 &#150; 1,38). Ao se comparar o primeiro com AINEs que n&#227;o naproxeno, o risco relativo foi de 0,79 (95%, IC: 0,40 &#150;1,55). Ao se comparar rofecoxib com naproxeno, contudo, o risco relativo foi de 1,69 (95%, IC: 1,07 &#150; 2,69). Essa an&#225;lise n&#227;o deparou com qualquer excesso de eventos adversos cardiovasculares para rofecoxib comparado a placebo ou AINEs que n&#227;o naproxeno. Com isso, os pesquisadores conclu&#237;ram que a diferen&#231;a entre rofecoxib e naproxeno seria oriunda do efeito antiplaquet&#225;rio do &#250;ltimo, apesar dos resultados inconclusivos sobre tal efeito.</p>
    <p>Soma-se &#224; anterior uma an&#225;lise de base de dados de 8 estudos duplo-cegos, controlados, de fase IIb-III, incluindo 5.435 pacientes com osteoartrite, com resultados similares<sup>29</sup>. Com o intuito de avaliar o risco de eventos tromb&#243;ticos cardiovasculares entre pacientes recebendo rofecoxib, AINES tradicionais e placebo, a interven&#231;&#227;o durou uma m&#233;dia de 3 meses e meio e o desfecho considerava os eventos do APTC. O estudo apontou taxas equivalentes de eventos adversos cardiovasculares para usu&#225;rios de rofecoxib, placebo e AINES n&#227;o-espec&#237;ficos (ibuprofeno, diclofenaco e nabumetona).</p>
    <p>Coortes retrospectivas tamb&#233;m foram realizadas. Ray e cols. reuniram quase 400 mil indiv&#237;duos em uma coorte que analisaria doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria grave em usu&#225;rios de AINEs e controles em um per&#237;odo de 2,5 anos<sup>26</sup>. Usu&#225;rios de rofecoxib em altas doses tinham risco 1,70 (95%, IC 0,98-2,95, p=0,058) vezes maior de ter doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria que n&#227;o-usu&#225;rios. Al&#233;m disso, o risco aumentava para 1,93 entre novos usu&#225;rios (95%, IC 1,09-2,95, p=0,024). Entretanto, n&#227;o houve evid&#234;ncia de risco elevado em usu&#225;rios de doses de rofecoxib inferiores a 25 mg por dia ou menos. Sobrep&#245;e-se a essa uma coorte canadense, publicada em 2003<sup>30</sup>, que falhou em demonstrar aumento do risco de IAM em usu&#225;rios recentes de rofecoxib comparados ao grupo controle.</p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s todos os estudos que refutaram a poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o do rofecoxib a eventos adversos cardiovasculares, surgiram outros que apoiaram essa hip&#243;tese, sugerida, primariamente, no estudo VIGOR<sup>8</sup>. Uma recente meta-an&#225;lise<sup>31</sup> sugeriu aumento do risco relativo desses eventos dentre pacientes, tomando diversas doses de rofecoxib, comparados &#224;queles tomando naproxeno, mas n&#227;o placebo, resultado muito semelhante ao VIGOR. Juni e cols.<sup>32</sup> desenvolveram, em seguida, nova meta-an&#225;lise envolvendo 18 ensaios cl&#237;nicos, rand&#244;micos e controlados, que comparavam rofecoxib com outros AINEs ou com placebo, e 11 estudos observacionais sobre risco cardiovascular e naproxeno. Foram encontrados riscos relativos significativos, maiores de 2, com pouca evid&#234;ncia de varia&#231;&#227;o do risco dependente do grupo controle (placebo, AINE n&#227;o-naproxeno e naproxeno) ou do tempo de dura&#231;&#227;o da interven&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    <p>Estudos observacionais tamb&#233;m questionaram a seguran&#231;a cardiovascular do rofecoxib. Em 2004, Solomon e cols.<sup>33</sup> conduziram um estudo de caso-controle, em que 54.475 pacientes, acima de 65 anos, foram observados quanto &#224; hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por IAM. Uso de rofecoxib, celecoxib, AINEs n&#227;o-espec&#237;ficos e nenhum AINE foi a base de compara&#231;&#227;o. Foi encontrada associa&#231;&#227;o de elevado risco de IAM com uso de rofecoxib, quando comparado ao celecoxib ou nenhum AINE. Al&#233;m disso, doses acima de 25 mg foram associadas a risco mais elevado que doses abaixo de 25 mg. Por fim, o risco era elevado apenas nos primeiros 90 dias de uso e n&#227;o no per&#237;odo conseguinte.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Confirma&#231;&#227;o da cardiotoxicidade de rofecoxib provoca retirada do medicamento do mercado</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram os resultados do estudo <italic>Adenomatous Polyp Prevention on Vioxx</italic> (APPROVe)<sup>13</sup> os respons&#225;veis pela maior como&#231;&#227;o por parte de &#243;rg&#227;os de fiscaliza&#231;&#227;o, comunidade cient&#237;fica, empresas farmac&#234;uticas e opini&#227;o p&#250;blica. Liberados em setembro de 2004, causaram a pronta retirada do rofecoxib do mercado por parte da empresa que o comercializava.</p>
    <p>Como a enzima COX-2 &#233; expressa em s&#237;tios de inflama&#231;&#227;o, como &#233; o caso de neoplasias, foi levantada a hip&#243;tese de que a sua inibi&#231;&#227;o pudesse ser &#250;til no tratamento ou preven&#231;&#227;o de diversas doen&#231;as neopl&#225;sicas. Um total de 1.586 pacientes com hist&#243;ria de adenomas col&#244;nicos foi inclu&#237;do em um ensaio cl&#237;nico duplo-cego, controlado e rand&#244;mico, no qual um grupo receberia 25 mg de rofecoxib por dia e o outro receberia placebo. Buscava-se determinar se o uso do agente por tr&#234;s anos alteraria o risco de recorr&#234;ncia de p&#243;lipos neopl&#225;sicos no intestino grosso. Ap&#243;s 18 meses de tratamento, a interven&#231;&#227;o foi suspensa devido &#224; associa&#231;&#227;o do agente a um aumento significativo do risco cardiovascular. O risco relativo obtido foi de 1.92 (95%, IC 1,19-3,11, p=0,008) e tornou-se aparente apenas ap&#243;s 18 meses de tratamento. Ainda assim, pesquisadores consideraram incerto se os resultados obtidos deviam-se exclusivamente ao rofecoxib ou &#224; classe de inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2, por&#233;m, questionaram a seguran&#231;a cardiovascular tamb&#233;m de AINEs tradicionais.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Efeito de classe comprovado</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Concomitantes &#224; publica&#231;&#227;o do APPROVe, outros dois estudos fortaleceram a hip&#243;tese do efeito de classe. O primeiro estudo, <italic>Adenoma Prevention with Celecoxib</italic> (APC)<sup>14</sup>, incluiu 2.035 pacientes com hist&#243;ria de neoplasia colo-retal para comparar duas doses de celecoxib (200mg ou 400mg duas vezes ao dia) com placebo, na preven&#231;&#227;o de adenomas colo-retais. Mais uma vez, a interven&#231;&#227;o foi suspensa precocemente, quando j&#225; eram dispon&#237;veis 2,8 a 3,1 anos de seguimento. Foi notado um aumento de eventos definidos como morte por evento cardiovascular, IAM, AVC ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. O grupo recebendo menor dose do medicamento, quando comparado ao placebo, apresentou hazard ratio de 2,3 (95% IC 0,9-5,5), enquanto o grupo recebendo maior dose apresentou hazard ratio igual a 3,4 (95% IC 1,4-7,8). Determinou-se, ent&#227;o, aumento dose-dependente do risco cardiovascular do celecoxib.</p>
    <p>Pesquisadores do APC discutiram resultados de outros estudos envolvendo celecoxib. Segundo eles, an&#225;lises preliminares do PreSAP trial n&#227;o demonstraram aumento do risco cardiovascular. Eles acreditam que o fato de PreSAP utilizar uma dose di&#225;ria de 400 mg de celecoxib sem provocar aumento do risco sustenta a hip&#243;tese de que &#233; a inibi&#231;&#227;o sustentada de prostaciclina a respons&#225;vel por esse aumento. Al&#233;m disso, indicam que tal aumento tamb&#233;m foi demonstrado em um ensaio cl&#237;nico rand&#244;mico e controlado de celecoxib em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Alzheimer, reportado ao FDA (<italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic>) americano. Considerando outras publica&#231;&#245;es sobre os efeitos adversos cardiovasculares de outros agentes da classe, o APC fortalece a evid&#234;ncia de aumento do risco de tais eventos com o uso prolongado de inibidores de COX-2.</p>
    <p>A outra publica&#231;&#227;o, que fortalece as evid&#234;ncias acima, avaliou a seguran&#231;a cardiovascular de outro inibidor de COX-2 ao administrar valdecoxib e sua pr&#243;-droga endovenosa parecoxib a 1.671 pacientes submetidos a cirurgia de bypass coron&#225;rio<sup>1</sup>. Os agentes seriam administrados durante 10 dias para tratar dor p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria da seguinte forma: parecoxib intravenoso por um m&#237;nimo de tr&#234;s dias, seguido de valdecoxib oral at&#233; completar o d&#233;cimo dia; placebo endovenoso, seguido de valdecoxib oral; ou placebo por 10 dias. Pacientes tinham, ainda, acesso a medicamentos opi&#243;ides. O seguimento para observa&#231;&#227;o de efeitos adversos consistia em 30 dias. Foi verificada maior freq&#252;&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares entre os pacientes recebendo parecoxib e valdecoxib em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles recebendo placebo, com risk ratio 3,7 (95%, IC 1,0-13,5, p=0,03). O achado de risco significativo de eventos tromboemb&#243;licos em pacientes com alto risco para tais eventos elevou a preocupa&#231;&#227;o quanto &#224; seguran&#231;a desses medicamentos al&#233;m da classe, preocupa&#231;&#227;o surgida em 2003 com a publica&#231;&#227;o de Ott e cols.<sup>34</sup> de resultados semelhantes em um estudo menor com 311 pacientes.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Os recentes resultados dos tr&#234;s &#250;ltimos estudos envolvendo rofecoxib, celecoxib e valdecoxib fortaleceram evid&#234;ncias preexistentes<sup>17</sup> e convenceram especialistas do maior risco de eventos adversos cardiovasculares da classe, como IAM, AVC, hipertens&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>13,17</sup>. H&#225; indicativos de que a cardiotoxicidade seja dose-dependente e proporcional &#224; seletividade para COX-2<sup>35</sup>. Esta seletividade est&#225; ordenada de forma decrescente: lumiracoxib; etoricoxib, rofecoxib e valdecoxib; celecoxib e diclofenaco. Como discutido anteriormente, o estudo TARGET<sup>27</sup> falhou em detectar risco cardiovascular para lumiracoxib, por&#233;m, tal resultado pode se dever &#224; pequena dimens&#227;o e ao curto per&#237;odo de estudo<sup>35</sup>. Ainda &#233; razo&#225;vel acrescentar a curta meia-vida do lumiracoxib para essa diferen&#231;a de resultados<sup>35</sup>. Cabe ressaltar ainda que, apesar de ser comercializado como um AINE n&#227;o-espec&#237;fico, diclofenaco tem seletividade para COX-2 muito semelhante ao celecoxib<sup>35</sup>, fator que pode ter influenciado resultados do CLASS, entre outros estudos.</p>
    <p>Entretanto, a demora em se definir a cardiotoxicidade dos inibidores de COX-2 causou grande preocupa&#231;&#227;o &#224; comunidade cient&#237;fica<sup>15-18,35</sup>. Os trabalhos publicados sobre o t&#243;pico apresentaram falhas consider&#225;veis no que diz respeito &#224; busca por essa defini&#231;&#227;o. O VIGOR<sup>8</sup>, por exemplo, excluiu indiv&#237;duos com eventos cardiovasculares recentes e usu&#225;rios de aspirina. Com isso, eliminou um grupo de risco consider&#225;vel para tais eventos. Sabe-se que pacientes de alto risco para doen&#231;a cardiovascular s&#227;o respons&#225;veis por enorme por&#231;&#227;o dos usu&#225;rios de inibidores de COX-2<sup>7</sup> e sua exclus&#227;o provoca um s&#233;rio vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o no estudo. Outro fator a dificultar a elucida&#231;&#227;o do caso foi a escolha do desfecho prim&#225;rio. O estudo enfocava os efeitos gastrintestinais do agente, o que dificulta a mensura&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos cardiovasculares<sup>18</sup>. Estes efeitos podem ter sido erroneamente classificados ou at&#233; despercebidos, o que dificultaria a formula&#231;&#227;o de associa&#231;&#245;es consistentes.</p>
    <p>Tamb&#233;m o CLASS<sup>5</sup> continha in&#250;meras limita&#231;&#245;es. Em primeiro lugar, o estudo teve curta dura&#231;&#227;o e foi demonstrado no APPROVe<sup>13</sup> que seria necess&#225;rio um acompanhamento mais prolongado para detec&#231;&#227;o dos desfechos. Al&#233;m disso, o CLASS se assemelhou ao VIGOR, j&#225; que n&#227;o foi designado para detec&#231;&#227;o formal e sistem&#225;tica de eventos cardiovasculares e incluiu pacientes de risco relativamente baixo para tais eventos<sup>14</sup>. Em &#250;ltimo lugar, h&#225; quem sugira que o CLASS n&#227;o negue evid&#234;ncias de aumento de risco cardiovascular, quando compara uso de celecoxib com ibuprofeno em n&#227;o-usu&#225;rios de aspirina<sup>36</sup>.</p>
    <p>Portanto, sugere-se que a libera&#231;&#227;o da comercializa&#231;&#227;o de inibidores de COX-2, principalmente ap&#243;s a primeira d&#250;vida sobre sua seguran&#231;a cardiovascular, deveria ter sido seguida diretamente da implanta&#231;&#227;o de ensaios cl&#237;nicos rand&#244;micos, controlados, multic&#234;ntricos e de longa dura&#231;&#227;o, que n&#227;o exclu&#237;ssem pacientes de alto risco e acessassem primariamente eventos cardiovasculares<sup>16,17,18,35</sup>. O grupo controle contaria com usu&#225;rios de naproxeno associado a um inibidor de bomba de pr&#243;ton, seguindo a recomenda&#231;&#227;o do FDA<sup>35</sup>. Tais estudos sucederiam em determinar n&#237;veis de risco de cada medicamento, tempo de tratamento associado a esse risco e poss&#237;veis popula&#231;&#245;es que teriam benef&#237;cio do uso desses agentes<sup>18</sup>. H&#225; quem acredite que a pronta realiza&#231;&#227;o de tais estudos pudesse ter diminu&#237;do a morbimortalidade oriunda do uso t&#227;o disseminado dos inibidores de COX-2<sup>17</sup>.</p>
    <p>Entretanto, h&#225; controv&#233;rsias sobre a praticidade de realiza&#231;&#227;o desses grandes estudos, j&#225; que pacientes de alto risco para doen&#231;a cardiovascular ficariam relutantes quanto &#224; sua participa&#231;&#227;o<sup>35</sup>. Ainda assim, a detec&#231;&#227;o de uma incid&#234;ncia aumentada de um evento cl&#237;nico comum, como &#233; o caso de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, &#233; muito dif&#237;cil<sup>17</sup> e tem um impacto muito grande sobre a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, o que caracteriza mais uma exig&#234;ncia &#224; implanta&#231;&#227;o desses estudos.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>AINEs convencionais, aspirina e paracetamol (acetaminofeno) s&#227;o agentes com efetividade semelhantes aos inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2 quanto &#224; analgesia<sup>18,37-40</sup>, n&#227;o h&#225; evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas de que esses &#250;ltimos sejam mais efetivos<sup>35</sup>. Assim, o uso desses agentes deveria se restringir a pacientes em que falhassem outras estrat&#233;gias de tratamento. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas desenvolvidas em sess&#245;es cient&#237;ficas do <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> (ACC)<sup>35</sup> para o uso de antiinflamat&#243;rios s&#227;o as seguintes:</p>
    <list list-type="bullet">
      <list-item>
        <p>Uso continuado de aspirina em baixa dosagem, quando indicado;</p>
      </list-item>
      <list-item>
        <p>Alternativas a AINEs devem ser consideradas, como paracetamol e terapias t&#243;picas;</p>
      </list-item>
      <list-item>
        <p>Se o uso de um AINE for necess&#225;rio, a primeira escolha &#233; naproxeno associado a um inibidor de bomba de pr&#243;tons;</p>
      </list-item>
      <list-item>
        <p>Inibidores espec&#237;ficos de COX-2 n&#227;o devem ser usados a n&#227;o ser que todas as estrat&#233;gias acima falhem.</p>
      </list-item>
    </list>
    <p>No caso do uso de inibidores de COX-2 ser imprescind&#237;vel, os riscos e benef&#237;cios da terapia devem ser cuidadosamente analisados<sup>14</sup>. Al&#233;m disso, o paciente deve estar ciente dos seus riscos, a dose deve ser a mais baixa poss&#237;vel e o tempo de tratamento o mais curto poss&#237;vel. &#201; importante ressaltar, mais uma vez, que a avalia&#231;&#227;o de riscos permanece dif&#237;cil j&#225; que ainda n&#227;o temos uma avalia&#231;&#227;o adequada dos mesmos em estudos de longa dura&#231;&#227;o envolvendo popula&#231;&#245;es de alto e de baixo risco<sup>16,17</sup>.</p>
    <p>Por fim, &#243;rg&#227;os de fiscaliza&#231;&#227;o, como &#233; o caso do FDA americano, receberam cr&#237;ticas severas quanto ao controle e fiscaliza&#231;&#227;o de tais processos<sup>15,16</sup>. Tais &#243;rg&#227;os deveriam exigir dos produtores dos medicamentos dinamicidade compat&#237;vel com novos conhecimentos, incluindo mudan&#231;as nas bulas e nas indica&#231;&#245;es de uso, educa&#231;&#227;o de pacientes e profissionais de sa&#250;de, limita&#231;&#227;o de propaganda, restri&#231;&#227;o do uso em determinados grupos de pacientes, implanta&#231;&#227;o de estudos e ensaios relacionados &#224; seguran&#231;a dos agentes, fim da comercializa&#231;&#227;o e retirada do agente do mercado<sup>18</sup>. Medicamentos t&#227;o largamente utilizados<sup>3,15,16,41-44</sup> caracterizam uma quest&#227;o de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica e n&#227;o poderiam ter sido comercializados por tanto tempo sem uma defini&#231;&#227;o precisa da sua seguran&#231;a cardiovascular. A cada lan&#231;amento de um novo agente, o mercado se expande, com vendas anuais estimadas em mais de dois bilh&#245;es de d&#243;lares americanos em todo o mundo<sup>3</sup>. A preocupa&#231;&#227;o com a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica deve superar os interesses comerciais de empresas farmac&#234;uticas.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>Posi&#231;&#227;o do FDA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Segundo artigo de Okie<sup>45</sup>, o FDA decidiu permitir a continua&#231;&#227;o da comercializa&#231;&#227;o dos inibidores seletivos de COX-2, desde que seguisse certas recomenda&#231;&#245;es. As embalagens devem conter avisos dos seus efeitos rec&#233;m-comprovados, al&#233;m de outras medidas que restrinjam seu uso. Essa conduta do FDA levou a empresa produtora do rofecoxib a indicar que, em breve, deve retornar a comercializar o produto.</p>
    <p>O instituto americano ainda ressaltou a necessidade de um amplo estudo multic&#234;ntrico que determinasse a seguran&#231;a de toda a classe de AINEs, a longo e a curto prazos. O estudo levaria anos e deveria incluir, segundo ele, pacientes com osteoartrite, artrite reumat&#243;ide ou dor cr&#244;nica, estratificados quanto ao seu risco inicial de doen&#231;a cardiovascular. Foi proposta a compara&#231;&#227;o de grupos com mais de 1.000 indiv&#237;duos recebendo ibuprofeno, naproxeno, diclofenaco e celecoxib, com um grupo controle recebendo dose terap&#234;utica de aspirina e inibidor de bomba de pr&#243;ton ou paracetamol com code&#237;na. O desfecho deveria considerar morte por doen&#231;a cardiovascular, AVC, IAM e sangramento, a press&#227;o arterial deveria ser monitorada e pacientes, com risco aumentado para doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria, receberiam aspirina em baixas doses. Contudo, ainda n&#227;o h&#225; quem financie tal estudo e sua praticidade, como discutido anteriormente, ainda &#233; motivo de controv&#233;rsia.</p>
    <p>
      <bold>REFER&#202;NCIAS</bold>
    </p>
    <p>1. Nussmeier NA, Whelton AA, Brown MT. Complications of the COX-2 inhibitors parecoxib and valdecoxib after cardiac surgery. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1081-91.</p>
    <p>2. FitzGerald GA, Patrono CP. The coxibs, selective inhibitors of cycloxygenase-2. N Engl J Med 2001; 345: 433-42.</p>
    <p>3. Dieppe PA, Ebrahim S, Martin RM, J&#252;ni P. Lessons from the withdrawal of rofecoxib. Br Med J 2004; 329: 867-8.</p>
    <p>4. Mukherjee D, Nissen SE, Topol EJ. Risk of cardiovascular events associated with selective COX-2 inhibitors. JAMA 2001; 286: 954-9.</p>
    <p>5. Silverstein FE, Faich G, Goldstein JL et al. Gastrointestinal toxicity with celecoxib vs nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis: the CLASS study: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2000; 284: 1247-55.</p>
    <p>6. Rang HP, Dale MM, Ritter JM. Farmacologia. 4a edi&#231;&#227;o. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 2001.</p>
    <p>7. FitzGerald GA. Cardiovascular pharmacology of nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and coxibs: clinical considerations. Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 26D-32D.</p>
    <p>8. Bombardier C, Laine L, Reicin A et al. Comparison of upper gastrointestinal toxicity of rofecoxib and naproxen in patients with rheumatoid arthritis. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1520-8.</p>
    <p>9. Bakhle YS, Botting RM. Cyclooxygenase-2 and its regulation in inflammation. Mediators Inflamm 1996; 5: 305-23.</p>
    <p>10. Seibert K, Zhang Y, Leahy K et al. Pharmacological and biochemical demonstration of the role of cyclooxygenase-2 in inflammation and pain. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994; 91: 12013-17.</p>
    <p>11. Sano H, Hla T, Maier JA et al. In vivo cyclooxygenase expression in synovial tissues of patients with rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis and rats with adjuvant and streptococcal cell wall arthritis. J Clin Invest 1992; 89: 97-108.</p>
    <p>12. Fosslein E. Adverse effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on the gastrointestinal system. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1998; 28: 67-81.</p>
    <p>13. Bresalier RS, Sandler RS, Quan H et al. Cardiovascular events associated with rofecoxib in a colorectal adenoma chemoprevention trial. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1092-102.</p>
    <p>14. Solomon SD, McMurray JJV, Pfeffer MA et al. Cardiovascular risks associated with celecoxib in a clinical trial for colorectal adenoma prevention. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1071-80.</p>
    <p>15. FitzGerald GA. Coxibs and cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1709- 11.</p>
    <p>16. Topol EJ. Failing the public health &#150; rofecoxib, Merk, and the FDA. N Engl J Med 2004; 351: 1707-09.</p>
    <p>17. Drazen JM. COX-2 inhibitors: a lesson in unexpected problems. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1131-32.</p>
    <p>18. Psaty BM, Furberg CD. COX-2 inhibitors &#150; lessons in drug safety. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1133-35.</p>
    <p>19. Topper JN, Cai J, Falb D, Gimbrone MA Jr. Identification of vascular endothelial genes differentially responsive to fluid mechanical stimuli: cycloxygenase-2, manganese superoxide dismutase, and endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase are selectively up-regulated by steady laminar shear stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93: 10417-22.</p>
    <p>20. Narumiya S, FitzGerald GA. Genetic and pharmacological analysis of prostanoid receptor function. J Clin Invest 2001; 108: 25-30.</p>
    <p>21. Murata T, Ushikubi F, Matsuoka T et al. Altered pain perception and inflammatory response in mice lacking prostacyclin receptor. Nature 1997; 388: 678-82.</p>
    <p>22. Solomon DH, Glynn RJ, Levin R, Avorn J. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug use and acute myocardial infarction. Arch Intern Med. 2002; 162(10): 1099-1104.</p>
    <p>23. Capone ML, Tacconelli S, Sciulli MG et al. Clinical pharmacology of platelet, monocyte, and vascular cycloxigenase inhibition by naproxen and low-dose aspirin in healthy subjects. Circulation 2004; 109: 1468-71.</p>
    <p>24. Van Hecken A, Schwartz JI, Depre M et al. Comparative inhibitory activity of rofecoxib, meloxicam, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen on COX-2 versus COX-1 in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 40: 1109-20.</p>
    <p>25. Garcia Rodriguez LA, Varas C, Patrono C. Differential effects of aspirin and non-aspirin nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. Epidemiology 2000; 11: 382-7.</p>
    <p>26. Ray WA, Stein CM, Hall K, Daugherty JR, Griffin MR. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of serious coronary heart disease: an observational cohort study. Lancet 2002; 359: 118-23.</p>
    <p>27. Farkouh ME, Kirshner H, Harrington RA et al. Comparison of lumiracoxib with naproxen and ibuprofen in the Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrointestinal Event Trial (TARGET), cardiovascular outcomes: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 675-85.</p>
    <p>28. Konstam MA, Weir MR, Reicin AS et al. Cardiovascular thrombotic events in controlled, clinical trials of rofecoxib. Circulation 2001; 104: 2280-8.</p>
    <p>29. Reicin AS, Shapiro D, Sperling RS, Barr E, Yu Q. Comparison of cardiovascular thrombotic events in patients with osteoarthritis treated with rofecoxib versus nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (ibuprofen, diclofenac, and nabumetone). Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 204-09.</p>
    <p>30. Mamdani M, Rochon P, Juurlink DN et al. Effect of selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors and naproxen on short-term risk of acute myocardial infarction in the elderly. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 481-6.</p>
    <p>31. Baron JA, Cole BF, Sandler RS et al. A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 891-9.</p>
    <p>32. Juni P, Nartey L, Reichenbach S, Sterchi R, Dieppe PA, Egger M. Risk of cardiovascular events and rofecoxib: cumulative metanalysis. Lancet 2004; 364: 2021-9.</p>
    <p>33. Solomon DH, Schneeweiss S, Glynn RJ et al. Relationship between selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and acute myocardial infarction in older adults. Circulation 2004; 109: 2068-73.</p>
    <p>34. Ott E, Nussmeier NA, Duke PC et al. Efficacy and safety of the cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors parecoxib and valdecoxib in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125: 1481-92.</p>
    <p>35. Hughes S: Coxibs: where do we go from here? <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.theheart.org">http://www.theheart.org</ext-link>.</p>
    <p>36. FitzGerald GA. COX-2 and beyond: approaches to prostaglandin inhibition in human disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003; 2: 879-90.</p>
    <p>37. Day R, Morrison S, Luza A et al. A randomized trial of the efficacy and tolerability of the COX-2 inhibitor rofecoxib. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1781-7.</p>
    <p>38. Cannon GW, Caldwell JR, Holt P et al. Rofecoxib, a specific inhibitor of cyclooxygenase 2, with clinical efficacy comparable with that of diclofenac sodium: results of a one-year, randomized, clinical trial in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43: 978-87.</p>
    <p>39. Ehrich EW, Schnitzer TJ, McIlwain H et al. Effect of specific COX-2 inhibition in osteoarthritis of the knee: a 6 week double blind, placebo controlled pilot study of rofecoxib. J Rheumatol 1999; 26: 2438-47.</p>
    <p>40. Simon LS, Weaver AL, Graham DY et al. Anti-inflammatory and upper gastrointestinal effects of celecoxib in rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 282: 1921-8.</p>
    <p>41. Lenzer J. US government agency to investigate FDA over rofecoxib. Br Med J 2004; 329: 935.</p>
    <p>42. Lenzer J. FDA to review risks of antidepressants in adults. Br Med J 2004; 329: 816.</p>
    <p>43. Farkouh ME, Kirshner H, Harrington RA et al. Comparison of lumiracoxib with naproxen and ibuprofen in the Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrointestinal Event Trial (TARGET), reduction in ulcer complications: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 665-74.</p>
    <p>44. Davies NM, Jamali F. COX-2 selective inhibitors cardiac toxicity: getting to the heart of the matter. J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci 2004; 7: 332-6.</p>
    <p>45. Okie S. Raising the safety bar &#150; the FDA's coxib meeting. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 1283-5.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="back10" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Carlos Vicente Serrano Jr </p>
        <p> Av. Dr En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 </p>
        <p> 05403-000 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="carlos.serrano@incor.usp.br">carlos.serrano@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido para publica&#231;&#227;o em 06/04/05 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 07/04/05</p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Update</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Cardiovascular events: a class effect by COX-2 inhibitors</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>UPDATE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular events: a class effect by COX-2 inhibitors</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Leila Fernandes Araujo; Alexandre de Matos Soeiro; Juliano de Lara Fernandes; Carlos Vicente Serrano J&#250;nior</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas &#150; FMUSP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="back10-body2">Correspondence</xref>
      </p>
      <p>Non-steroidal anti-inflamatories (NSAIDs) are widely used in the treatment of post-surgery pain<sup>1</sup>, osteoarthritis<sup>2</sup>, rheumatoid arthritis<sup>3</sup> and muscle-skeletal pain<sup>4,5</sup>, in different conditions. Major effects are: anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and antipyretic<sup>6</sup>. Generally speaking, such effects are associated to the inhibition of the enzyme cyclooxygenase (COX). COX catalyzes the transfor- mation of arachidonic acid into different lipid mediators called prostaglandins and thromboxanes<sup>2</sup>. Those substances play a relevant hemostatic role in protecting gastric mucosa, renal physiology, and platelet aggregation, in addition to having their production induced under conditions such as inflammation and cancer<sup>7</sup>. Two isozymes &#150; or forms of the COX enzyme &#150; have been characterized: cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cycloxygenase-2(COX-2)<sup>2</sup>. COX-1 has shown to be constitutive in all body tissues<sup>8</sup>. It is the only isozyme found in platelets, leading to the formation of TXA2. It is found in gastric mucosa, among other tissues, where it catalyzes the biosynthesis of cytoprotective prosta-glandins in vascular endotelium and in renal tissue.</p>
      <p>Finally, it is believed that COX-1 also plays a role in pathologic conditions such as inflammation<sup>7</sup>. On the other hand, COX-2 is shown to be increased in inflammatory and cell transformation processes particularly<sup>9-12</sup>, although its constitutive expression has been demonstrated in some CNS and kidney tissues<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The first NSAIDs to be developed were the classic, non-specific NSAIDs, acting as inhibitors for both COX isozymes.<sup>7</sup> Despite the proven anti-inflammatory efficacy they are meant to deliver, continued use is limited due to gastro-intestinal adverse effects<sup>8</sup>, such as dyspepsia and abdominal pain, in addition to gastro-duodenal perforation or bleeding at a lower scale<sup>2</sup>. Those first NSAIDs include: indometacin, naproxen, ibuprofen, and nabumetone, among others<sup>6</sup>. Against such scenario, a sub-class of NSAIDs was developed &#150; the specific COX-2 inhibitors, for the purpose of reducing inflammation as efficaciously while free from COX-1 inhibitors gastro-intestinal effects<sup>2,5,7,8,13,14</sup>. Among those: rofecoxib, celecoxib, etoricoxib, valdecoxib and lumiracoxib<sup>6</sup>.</p>
      <p>That creation of a subclass was based on the assumption that COX-1 was a constitutive enzyme, while COX-2, an enzyme induced at pathologic situations<sup>2,7</sup>. Such classification woud, however, stand for a dangerous simplification of the real scenario<sup>2</sup>. A number of studies were developed &#150; as of the introduction of specific COX-2 inhibitors in the market &#150; associating their anti-inflammatory potential to gastrointestinal safety. From then on, data have been made available to suggest class potential to increase cardiovascular adverse events<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>The first study to point out such risks was published in 2000, by comparing rofecoxib to naproxen<sup>8</sup>. A number of other publications followed, all reporting controversial results on the potential cardiovascular risk posed by rofecoxib and the specific COX-2 inhibitors, until the medication was withdrawn from the market in September, 2004, immediately after the early termination of a study on colonic adenomas<sup>15</sup>. The study - <italic>Vioxx Gastrintesti-nal Outcomes Research</italic> (VIGOR)<sup>8</sup> &#150; reported a 3.9 significant increase in thromboembolic adverse effects in the groups being administered rofecoxib as compared to the placebo group. Right afterwards, significantly increased risk of cardiovascular adverse events was also detected with the administration of celecoxib as compared to placebo, in addition to data on valdecoxib when compared to placebo.</p>
      <p>Despite the high inconsistency in the results published to date, most recent studies on the cardiovascular safety of COX-2 specific inhibitors provide evidence of their potential cardiovascular adverse effects<sup>1,13,14</sup>. Questioning on such potential was raised after the publication of a study comparing rofecoxib and naproxen, as mentioned earlier. Delayed elucidation was due to the non-existence of multicenter, randomized, extensive, controlled, long-term studies to directly evaluate the cardiovascular effects of those agents<sup>16-18</sup>.</p>
      <p>The present paper has the purpose of illustrating the role played by COX-2 enzyme and its inhibitors on the vascular system. In addition, the paper will present literature review on such role, with a descripton of major studies involved in demonstrating the cardiovascuolar effect of those medications. Finally, recommendations by the <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> on the use of specific COX-2 inhibitors will be pointed out.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Non-Steroidal Anti-inflammatories: Action Mechanisms</bold>
      </p>
      <p>There are three classes of cyclooxygenase inhibitors. The differences between them are based on the selectivity regarding the different isozymes. Those classes are: 1) aspirin, 2) indometacin, and other traditional NSAIDs, and 3) COX-2 specific inhibitors. For the purpose of assessing cyclooxygenase selectivity the assays are based on the production of thromboxane B<sub>2</sub> during clotting - to assess COX-1 platelet activity - and on the production of prostaglandin E<sub>2</sub> in bacteria lipopolysacharides; COX-2 activity in monocytes is assessed based on total blood assays<sup>2</sup>. However, the prostanoids responsible for vascular homeostasis maintenance are thromboxane A<sub>2</sub> (TXA<sub>2</sub>) and prostaglandin I<sub>2</sub> (PGI<sub>2</sub>).</p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="fig" rid="en_26011f1-body2">Figure 1</xref>
      </p>
      <p content-type="asset">
        <fig id="en_26011f1-body2">
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-03-0222-00016-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Platelet synthetized TXA<sub>2</sub> has its production triggered by platelet activation, leading to platelet aggregation, vasoconstriction, and smooth muscle proliferation<sup>7</sup>. Therefore, it is an important mediator of acute vaso-occlusive events associated to COX-1 enzyme. Increased production of TXA<sub>2</sub> metabolites was reported in patients with unstable angina, during episodes of chest pain, and was also associated to increasing risk of adverse cardiovascular events in patients with peripheral artery diseases<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>PGI<sub>2</sub>, or prostacyclin, in its turn, is the main product from vascular endothelium cells, whose production is activated by COX-2. PGI<sub>2</sub> effects consist in powerful vasodilation and inhibition of platelet aggregation, as well as proliferation of vascular smooth muscle. Having that in mind, some authors suggest that prostacyclin is an anti-proliferative eicosanoid, and the relative deficiency of COX-2-derived prostacyclin may predispose atherogenesis.<sup>19</sup> However, prostacyclin combined with prostaglandin E<sub>2</sub> (PGE<sub>2</sub>) has been referred to as a pro-inflammatory mediator activated by the expression of COX-2 during inflammatory stimulus. Thus, the impact of COX-2 inhibition on the progression of atherosclerosis has been kept a controversy.<sup>7</sup></p>
      <p>When analyzing classes of cyclooxygenase inhibitors, aspirin is shown to trigger a covalent change in the enzyme, irreversibly blocking its activity. Since human platelets express COX-1 only, aspirin blocks that enzyme in an irreversible way. Consequently, TXA<sub>2</sub> production is blocked. Functional inhibition of TXA<sub>2</sub>-dependent platelet activation requires the supression of above 95% capacity in generating that prostanoid; only aspirin has proven to be able to sustain such effect during administration intervals. <sub>{0&gt;</sub>Apesar de tamb&#233;m provocar supress&#227;o de prostaciclina, a supress&#227;o concomitante de tromboxano predomina e o efeito final &#233; cardioprotetor<sup>7</sup>.<sub>&lt;}0{&gt;</sub>Although prostacyclin suppression is also provoked, concurrent thromboxane suppression predominates and the final outcome is cardioprotective<sup>7</sup>.</p>
      <p>A classe de AINEs tradicionais inibe a produ&#231;&#227;o de TXA<sub>2</sub> e de prostaciclina a um grau semelhante - apesar de haver pequenas varia&#231;&#245;es na seletividade bioqu&#237;mica por cada isoforma entre os diversos medicamentos - e este efeito &#233; revers&#237;vel durante o intervalo de administra&#231;&#227;o.<sub>&lt;}0{&gt;</sub>Traditional NSAIDs inhibit TXA<sub>2</sub> and prostacyclin production at similar level, although there are slight variations in biochemical selectivity by each isozyme in the different drugs &#150; a reversible effect during administration interval.<sub>&lt;0}</sub> Therefore, intermitent inhibition of platelet function would not result in final cardioprotective effect.</p>
      <p>Doubt still remains, though, on the cardiovascular effect of protacyclin suppresion with no concurrent suppression of thromboxane, as determined by COX-2 specific inhibitors. Studies on the deletion of genes that codify prostacyclin receptors (IP) and PGE<sub>2</sub> (EP<sub>2</sub>) in rats did not show the occurrence of spontaneous thrombosis, although the animals whose genes for IP had been deleted presented increased responsiveness to thrombotic stimuli<sup>20,21</sup>. So, some increase in cardiovascular adverse effects would be expected from predisposed individuals.</p>
      <p>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-85-03-0222-00016-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
      <p>A number of clinical assays were carried out as of the availability of COX-2 specific inhibitors, with the purpose of investigating their analgesic and anti-inflammatory efficacy, in addition to adverse effects. The concern in regard to the cardiovascular effects from that class was raised in 2000, after the VIGOR<sup>8</sup> study was published with its results seen as unexpected until that point in time. It has been proposed that such effects may be due to: 1) prostacyclin inhibition, with consequent inactivation of a primordial endothelium defense mechanism against platelet aggregation, hypertension, and atherosclerosis, and 2) the promotion of some imbalance that may favor vasoconstriction<sup>17</sup>. However, clinical trials take turns in either evidencing cardiovascular risk or denying it.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Clinical Experiences with COX-2 Inhibitors</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>
          <italic>First Suspicions of Cardiovascular Adverse Effects</italic>
        </bold>
      </p>
      <p>After COX-2 specific inhibitors were made available a number of studies have been carried out with the purpose to prove their high gastrointestinal safety level. However, the same studies have raised doubts concerning their cardiovascular safety level. The first to raise those doubts was the VIGOR<sup>8</sup> study, published in 2000, with the purpose to compare the gastrointestinal toxicity level of 2 NSAIDs: rofecoxib and naproxen. Researchers recruited 8,076 patients with rheumatoid arthritis for a prospective, double-blind, randomized study. Patients' average age was 58 years old, 80% females, all submitted to 9 months of treatment in average. Patients submitted to treatment with aspirin were excluded from the study.</p>
      <p>A 50 mg daily dose Rofecoxib &#150; a COX-2 specific inhibitor &#150; was compared to a 500 mg dose of naproxen administered twice a day to compare anti-inflammatory efficacy and the occurrence of gastro-duodenal obstruction or perforation, upper gastrointestinal bleeding, and symptomatic gastro-duodenal ulcer. Both medications reported equivalent efficacy level. The incidence of gastrointestinal events, though, was: 2.1 events for every 100 patients/year for rofecoxib against 4.5 events per 100 patients/year for naproxen. Such result supported the assumption of the higher gastrointestinal safety level by rofecoxib, but did bring to light another alarming piece of information. The incidence of acute myocardial infarction (AMI) was significantly lower in the group being administered naproxen: 0.1% for naproxen versus 0.4% for rofecoxib, with relative risk at 0.2.</p>
      <p>The study points out that such difference in AMI incidence was due to the high rate of AMI reported by the 4% higher risk population for coronary diseases. That group would have had the indication for treatment with aspirin as secondary prophylaxis. The difference between AMI incidence levels for each of the drugs in the population not in need of that prophylaxis would not have been significant. In addition, the study also states that naproxen causes an 88% inhibition of platelet aggregation, similar to aspirin, a protective effect also suggested by Solomon and collaborators<sup>22</sup> and Capone and collaborators<sup>23</sup>. Therefore, effects from regular use of that drug would have cardioprotective effect, as opposed to rofecoxib, which could explain the difference between the two AMI rates as mentioned earlier.</p>
      <p>Another study, in the same year, had the purpose of similar comparison. A prospective, double-blind, randomized, controlled study entitled <italic>Celecoxib Long-term Arthritis Safety Study</italic> (CLASS)<sup>5</sup> monitored 8,059 patients with osteoarthritis or rheumatoid arthritis for six months in their treatment. The intervention consisted in the administration of 400 mg of celecoxib twice a day, 800 mg of ibuprofen three times a day, or 75 mg of diclofenac twice a day. The occurrence of upper, symptomatic gastrointestinal ulcers and their complications, in addition to other adverse effects would be investigated. The use of aspirin for cardiovascular prophylaxis was allowed, contrarily to the other study. Patients' average age was approximately 60; nearly 70% were females.</p>
      <p>Researchers concluded that when compared to ibuprofen or diclofenac, celecoxib showed to be associated to lower incidence of symptomatic ulcers and consequent complications, in addition to other clinically important toxic effects. In the two comparisons, the analysis of cardiovascular adverse effects pointed out similar incidence levels, both in regard to cardiovascular effects in general, as to specifically AMI. For those patients who were not on aspirin AMI was reported to be 0.3% in both comparisons, against 0.1% also in the two comparisons for those on aspirin.</p>
      <p>In the following year<sup>2</sup>, an article published by FitzGerald pointed out relevant differences between the two studies that could account for the inconsistent results. The differences included concurrent use of aspirin, patients's substratum and the non-specific NSAID used<sup>2</sup>. Rofecoxib and celecoxib supress prostacyclin equivalently; however, concurrent use of aspirin may have excluded evidence of such phenomenon, particularly in patients with higher risk of thrombotic events. It still remains unclear whether the concurrent use of aspirin anihilates the gastrointestinal safety of COX-2 specific inhibitors; however, such combination is preferred to that of aspirin and ibuprofen, since ibuprofen blocks aspirin access to its site in COX-1, with consequent reduction of anti-aggregating activity<sup>2</sup>.</p>
      <p>Additionally, only 27% of patients in the CLASS study had been diagnosed for rheumatoid arthritis versus all those diagnosed in VIGOR. Epidemiologic analyses demonstrate that the incidence of acute thrombotic events reports a 33% increase in such patients when compared to patients with osteoarthritis or to the general population<sup>7</sup>. Based on such findings, it is possible to believe that the population under study being administered rofecoxib would be more exposed to a prostacyclin-dependend mechanism, which would support the louder alarm by the VIGOR study.</p>
      <p>Ultimately, naproxen differences that safeguard cardiovascular safety when compared to other non-specific NSAIDs provide limited evidence. Some studies suggest that naproxen has cardioprotective effects.<sup>8,22</sup> There is evidence of 8-hour maximum sustained inhibition of thromboxane platelet production in volunteers being administered naproxen<sup>24</sup>. On the other hand, other studies deny any cardioprotective effect.<sup>25,26</sup> Epidemiologic data are restricted, and the issue is still pending, with no satisfactory conclusion.</p>
      <p>Topol and collaborators<sup>4</sup> have compared results from four studies on COX-2 specific inhibitors - celecoxib and rofecoxib &#150; to those of a placebo group in a meta-analysis on primary prevention with aspirin. Yearly rate for AMI in the meta-analysis placebo group was 0.52% versus 0.74%, in the rofecoxib group (P=0.04, when compared to placebo) and 0.80%, in the celecoxib group (P=0.02, when compared to placebo). Although aware of the limitations for the comparison of populations in different studies, researchers obtained data to point out the pro-thrombotic effect of COX-2 inhibitors as responsible for the increased rates of adverse cardiovascular events in those groups.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Lumiracoxib was not associated to the increase of cardiovascular events</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Farkouh and collaborators published a cardiovascular and gastrointestinal safety analysis of COX-2 inhibitor lumiracoxib as compared to naproxen and ibuprofen in <italic>Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrintestinal Event Trial</italic> (TARGET)<sup>27</sup>. The randomized, controlled assay included 18,325 patients with osteoarthritis. All patients were over 50 years old, were being administered 400 mg of lumiracoxib twice a day, 500 mg of naproxen twice a day, or 800 mg of ibuprofen three times a day. After a one-year follow-up, the cardiovascular outcome - which included AMI &#150; did not change significantly when comparing lumiracoxib and the other agents, irrespective of the use of aspirin. However, a non-significant increase was found for AMI risk with lumiracoxib when compared to naproxen in patients who were not being administered aspirin. The difference was seen as fortuitous, or to the anti-thrombotic effect of naproxen, as discussed earlier. So, lumiracoxib was found to be the ideal treatment for patients with osteoarthritis by TARGET researchers.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Studies on rofecoxib reported controversial results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A studied that followed had the purpose to determine whether patients on rofecoxib reported more thrombotic cardiovascular events as compared to patients on placebo, naproxen or other traditional, non-specific NSAIDs (diclofenac, ibuprofen and nabumetone) through a combined data analysis of over 28,000 patients<sup>28</sup>. Twenty-three Phase IIb-V, randomized, double-blind, controlled clinical trials were carried out. Study outcome consisted in the grouping of events as defined by the <italic>Anti-Platelet Trialists' Collaboration</italic> (APTC): cardiovascular, hemorrhagic, and unknown cause deaths, non-fatal myocardial infaction, and non-fatal cerebrovascular accidents (CVA).</p>
      <p>While comparing rofecoxib to placebo, relative risk to one of the outcomes was 0.84 (CI 95%: = 0.51 &#150; 1.38). While comparing rofecoxib to NSAIDs - except for naproxen &#150; relative risk was 0.79 (CI 95% = 0.40 &#150; 1.55). While comparring rofecoxib to naproxen, however, relative risk was 1.69 (CI 95% = 1.07 &#150; 2.69). The analysis did not come across any excessive number of adverse cardiovascular events for rofecoxib as compared to placebo or to NSAIDs, naproxen excluded. Based on that, researchers concluded that although results were inconclusive on the specific effect, the difference between rofecoxib and naproxen might be due to naproxen's anti-platelet effect.</p>
      <p>To be added to that analysis is a data base analysis where 8 Phase IIb-III double-blind, controlled clinical trials which included 5,435 patients with osteoarthritis, with similar results<sup>29</sup>. With the purpose of investiga-ting the risk of cardiovascular thrombotic events among patients on rofecoxib, traditional NSAIDS and placebo, the intervention lasted an average of 3 and a half months, and the APTC events were considered for the outcome. The study reported equivalent rates of cardiovascular adverse events for users of rofecoxib, placebo and non-specific NSAIDS (ibuprofen, diclofenac and nabumetone).</p>
      <p>Retrospective cohorts were also carried out. Ray and collaborators put together over 400,000 individuals in a cohort to investigate serious coronary disease in NSAIDs users and controls for a period of 5 &#189; years, anc controls, for a period of 2 &#189; years<sup>26</sup>. Users of rofecoxib at high doses had 1.70 times higher risk (95%, CI 0.98-2.95, p=0.058) of coronary diseases than non-users. Additionally, the risk increased to 1.93 among new users (95%, CI 1.09-2.95, p=0.024). However, there was no evidence of high risk among users of rofecoxib at or under 25 mg/day dose. A Canadian cohort that followed and was published in 2003<sup>30</sup> failed to demonstrate increases risk for AMI in recent users of rofecoxib when compared to the control group.</p>
      <p>After all the studies had rejected the possible association between rofecoxib and cardiovascular adverse events, other studies came to light to support the assumption initially suggested by the VIGOR<sup>8</sup> study. A recent meta-analysis<sup>31</sup> sugested increased relative risk of those events among patients on many doses of rofecoxib when compared to those on naproxen, but not placebo. Results were very similar to the VIGOR study. Juni and collaborators<sup>32</sup> developed, right afterwards, a new meta-analysis involving 18 randomized, controlled clinical trials, which compared rofecoxib with other NSAIDs or with placebo, and 11 observational studies on cardiovascular risk and naproxen. Significant relative risks were found &#150; higher than 2 &#150; with little evidence of dependent risk variation in control group (placebo, non-naproxen NSAID, and naproxen) or intervention duration time.</p>
      <p>Observational studies also questioned the cardiovascular safety of rofecoxib. In 2004, Solomon and collaborators<sup>33</sup> conducted a case-control study where 54,475 patients over 65 years of age were observed in regard to hospital admission resulting from AMI. The use of rofecoxib, celecoxib, non-specific NSAIDs and no NSAIDs was the reference for comparison. Rofecoxib was found to be associated to high risk of AMI when compared to celecoxib or no NSAID at all. In addition, higher than 25 mg doses were associated to higher risk as compared to those under 25 mg. Finally, risk was shown to be high only in the first 90 days of use, but not in the period following it.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Rofecoxib Cardiotoxicity Results in Drug Withdrawal from the Market</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The results reported by the study entitled <italic>Adenomatous Polyp Prevention on Vioxx</italic> (APPROVe)<sup>13</sup> were the ones to cause highest commotion among health authorities, scientific community, pharmaceutical companies and public opinion. Results released in September, 2004 led to the immediate withdrawal of rofecoxib from the market by the company marketing it.</p>
      <p>As COX-2 is expressed inflammation sites &#150; as is the case for neoplasias &#150; an assumption was raised that its inhibition could be useful for the treatment or the prevention of different neoplasia diseases. A total of 1,586 patients with a history of colonic adenomas was included in a double-blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial, where one group would be administe red 25 mg of rofecoxib per day, and the other group, placebo. The purpose was to investigate if the use of the agent for a 3-year period would change the risk of neoplastic polyp in the large intestine. After 18 months of treatment, the intervention was terminated after the agent was associated to significant increase of cardiovascular risk. Relative risk reported was 1.92 (95%, CI =1.19-3.11, p=0.008), and was shown only after 18 months of treatment. Even though, researchers found it to be uncertain whether re- sults obtained were due to rofecoxib alone or to COX-2 specific inhibitors class. They also questioned the cardiovascular safety of traditional NSAIDs as well, though.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Class Effect Proven</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Concurrent to the publication of APPROVe, two other studies offered additional support to the hypothesis of class effect. The first &#150; <italic>Adenoma Prevention with Celecoxib</italic> (APC)<sup>14</sup> &#150; included 2,035 patients with a history of colorectal neoplasia to compare two doses of celecoxib (200mg or 400mg twice a day) to placebo for colorectal adenoma prevention. Once again intervention had early termination, when data from 2.8 to 3.1 years of follow-up were already available. An increase for events defined as death from cardiovascular event, AMI, CVA or heart failure was observed. When compared to placebo, the group being administered lower dose of the medication reported hazard ratio at 2.3 (95%, CI = 0.9-5.5), whereas the group under higher dose reported hazard ratio at 3.4 (95%, CI = 1.4-7.8). Celecoxib dose-dependent cardiovascular risk was determined at that point in time.</p>
      <p>APC study researchers discussed the results of other studies involving celecoxib. In their opinion, preliminary analyses of PreSAP trial did not report increase of cardiovascular risk. They believe the fact that PreSAP uses a 400 mg daily dose of celecoxib with no risk increase supports the assumption that sustained inhibition of prostacyclin to be accounted for such increase. In addition, researchers point out that such increase was also demonstrated in a celecoxib randomized, controlled clinical trial, with patients with Alzheimer disease, as reported to FDA (<italic>Food and Drug Administration</italic>). While considering other publications on the cardiovascular adverse effects of other class agents, the APC study emphasizes the evidence of increased risks of those events with prolonged use of COX-2 inhibitors.</p>
      <p>Another publication to support those evidences evaluated cardiovascular safety of another COX-2 inhibitor while administrating valdecoxib and its IV pro-drug parecoxib to 1,671 patients submitted to coronary artery bypass surgery<sup>1</sup>. The agents were to be administered for 10 days to treat post-surgery pain as follows: IV parecoxib for at least 3 days, followed by valdecoxib orally up to day 10; IV placebo, followed by valdecoxib orally; or placebo for 10 days. Patients also had access to opioids. Observational follow-up for adverse effects lasted 30 days. Higher rate of cardiovascular events was found among patients being administered parecoxib and valdecoxib as compared to those being administered placebo, with risk ratio at 3.7 (95%, CI = 1.0-13.5, p=0.03). The significant risk finding for thromboembolic events in patients at high risk for such events increased concerns related to the safety of medications in that class. That concern had been raised in 2003 after the publication by Ott and collaborators<sup>34</sup> on similar results from a smaller study involving 311 patients.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Recent results from the last three studies involving rofecoxib, celecoxib and valdecoxib have provided further previous evidence<sup>17</sup> and convinced specialists of the higher risk of cardiovascular adverse events by the class, such as AMI, CVA, hypertension and heart failure<sup>13,17</sup>. There are indications about cardiotoxicity being dose-dependent and proportional do COX-2 selectivity<sup>35</sup>. Such selectivity is ranked from highest to lowest: lumiracoxib; etoricoxib, rofecoxib and valdecoxib; celecoxib and diclofenac. As discussed previously, the TARGET<sup>27</sup> study failed to detect cardiovascular risk for lumiracoxib. However, such result may have been due to study small range and short term<sup>35</sup>. It is also reasonable to add the role played by lumiracoxib half life in such difference in results<sup>35</sup>. It is also to be pointed out that although it is marketed as a non-specific NSAID, COX-2 selectivity reported by diclofenac is very similar to that by celecoxib<sup>35</sup>, which may have had some influence in CLASS study results and in others.</p>
      <p>However, the delay in defining COX-2 inhibitors cardiotoxicity raised great concern in scientific community<sup>15-18,35</sup>. Papers published on the subject have presented considerable failure in regard to that definition. The VIGOR<sup>8</sup> study, for instance, excluded individuals with recent cardiovascular events and aspirin users. By doing that, it eliminated a considerable risk group for those events. High risk patients for cardiovascular disease are known to be responsible for a major share of COX-2<sup>7</sup> users; their exclusion stands for a serious bias in study screening. Another factor to hinder elucidation was the choice for primary outcome. The study focused gastrointestinal effects by agent, which poses difficulty in measuring cardiovascular effects<sup>18</sup>. Those effects may have been mistakengly classified, or even gone unnoticed, which would have posed difficulty in formulating consistent associations.</p>
      <p>The CLASS<sup>5</sup> study also had a number of constraints. In the first place, it was a short-term study, and APPROVe<sup>13</sup> demonstrated that a longer-term follow-up would be necessary to detect outcomes. Additionally, CLASS was similar to VIGOR, since it was not designed for formal and systematic detection of cardiovascular events, and included patients at relatively low risk for such events<sup>14</sup>. Finally, some suggest that CLASS does not deny evidence on cardiovascular risk increase when comparing the use of celecoxib with ibuprofen among non-users of aspirin<sup>36</sup>.</p>
      <p>Therefore, it is suggested that following the release of COX-2 inhibitors in the market &#150; and particularly after the first doubt was raised regarding cardiovascular safety &#150; multicenter, randomized, controlled, long-term clinical trials should have been carried out, not excluding high risk patients and addressing primarily cardiovascular events<sup>16,17,18,35</sup>. The control group would count on users of naproxen associated to a proton-pump inhibitor, following FDA recomendation<sup>35</sup>. Such studies would follow to establish risk levels for each medication, treatment time associated to that risk, and possible populations to be benefitted from the use of the agents.<sup>18</sup> Some believe that should those studies have been carried out immediately, morbimortality rate from such wide use of COX-2 inhibitors could have been reduced<sup>17</sup>.</p>
      <p>However, there is controversy on how practical those large scope studies could be, since patients at high risk for cardiovascular diseases would be reluctant to participate<sup>35</sup>. Even though, detecting increased incidence of a common clinical event &#150; as is the case for cardiovascular diseases &#150; is not an easy task at all<sup>17</sup>, in addition to having high impacting on public health &#150; which characterizes one more need to implement those studies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Recommendations</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Conventional NSAIDs &#150; aspirin and paracetamol (acetaminofen) &#150; are agents reporting effectiveness similar to that by COX-2 specific inhibitors in regard to analgesia<sup>18,37-40</sup>. There is no scientific evidence of higher effectiveness by COX-2 specific inhibitors<sup>35</sup>. Therefore, their use should be restricted to patients for whom other treatment strategies had failed. The clinical recommendations developed at scientific sessions of the <italic>American College of Cardiology</italic> (ACC)<sup>35</sup> for the use of anti-inflammatory are the following:</p>
      <p>&#149; Continuous use of low dose aspirin whenever there is indication;</p>
      <p>&#149; Alternatives to NSAIDs should be considered, such as paracetamol and topic therapies;</p>
      <p>&#149; If the use of an NSAID is made necessary, first choice is naproxen associated to a proton pump inhibitor;</p>
      <p>&#149; COX-2 specific inhibitors must not be used unless all strategies above have failed.</p>
      <p>Should the use of COX-2 inhibitors be indispensable, therapy risks and benefits must be carefully analyzed<sup>14</sup>. Additionally, pacients must be aware of the risks involved; dose must be the lowest possible; and treatment time frame the shortest possible. It is important to point out, once again, that risk assessment still poses diffi- culties, since no proper evaluation has been made available by long-term studies involving high and low risk populations<sup>16,17</sup>.</p>
      <p>Finally, regulatory agencies, such as the FDA in the United States, have received severe criticism regarding the control and the survaillance of such processes<sup>5,16</sup>. Those agencies should require compatible knowledge update on the part of manufacturers, that including changes in package inserts and drug indications; education of patients and health professionals; advertising limitations; use restrictions for certain groups of patients; implementation of studies and assays related to the safety of agents; sales interruption and agent withdrawal from the market<sup>18</sup>. When drugs are so widely used<sup>3,15,16,41-44</sup> public health issues are involved; therefore, they should not have been marketed for such a long time without accurate definition on theis cardiovascular safety. Every time a new agent is launched the market is expanded; annual sales volume is estimated to be over US$ 2 billion worlwide<sup>3</sup> for the industry. The concern in regard to public health must come before the commercial interests by the pharmaceutical companies.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>FDA positioning</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Based on article by Okie<sup>45</sup>, the FDA decided COX-2 selective inhibitors could be kept being marketed provided the following recommendations were complied with: packaging must contain warnings about recently proven effects, in addition to other measures to restrict use. After FDA's positioning rofecoxib manufacturers declared the product will be reintroduced in the market in the near future<sup>45</sup>.</p>
      <p>The American agency also pointed out the need for a wide-range multicenter study to investigate the safety of the NSAIDs class as a whole - long and short-term. The study would take years, and would include, according to the FDA, patients with osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, or chronic pain, stratified by cardiovascular disease risk at baseline. A proposal was made to compare groups with over 1,000 individuals being administered ibuprofen, naproxen, diclofenac and celecoxib, with a control group being administered therapeutic doses of aspirin and proton pump inhibitor or paracetamol with codeine. The outcome should consider death from cardiovascular disease, CVA, AMI and bleeding. Blood pressure should be monitored and patients at increased risk for conorany diseases should be administered aspirin at low doses. However, funds are not yet available for such study; and as discussed earlier, there is still controversy regarding its practicality.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>REFERENCES</bold>
      </p>
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      <p>12. Fosslein E. Adverse effects of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs on the gastrointestinal system. Ann Clin Lab Sci 1998; 28: 67-81.</p>
      <p>13. Bresalier RS, Sandler RS, Quan H et al. Cardiovascular events associated with rofecoxib in a colorectal adenoma chemoprevention trial. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1092-102.</p>
      <p>14. Solomon SD, McMurray JJV, Pfeffer MA et al. Cardiovascular risks associated with celecoxib in a clinical trial for colorectal adenoma prevention. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1071-80.</p>
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      <p>18. Psaty BM, Furberg CD. COX-2 inhibitors &#150; lessons in drug safety. N Engl J Med 2005; 352:1133-35.</p>
      <p>19. Topper JN, Cai J, Falb D, Gimbrone MA Jr. Identification of vascular endothelial genes differentially responsive to fluid mechanical stimuli: cycloxygenase-2, manganese superoxide dismutase, and endothelial cell nitric oxide synthase are selectively up-regulated by steady laminar shear stress. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93: 10417-22.</p>
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      <p>21. Murata T, Ushikubi F, Matsuoka T et al. Altered pain perception and inflammatory response in mice lacking prostacyclin receptor. Nature 1997; 388: 678-82.</p>
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      <p>23. Capone ML, Tacconelli S, Sciulli MG et al. Clinical pharmacology of platelet, monocyte, and vascular cycloxigenase inhibition by naproxen and low-dose aspirin in healthy subjects. Circulation 2004; 109: 1468-71.</p>
      <p>24. Van Hecken A, Schwartz JI, Depre M et al. Comparative inhibitory activity of rofecoxib, meloxicam, diclofenac, ibuprofen, and naproxen on COX-2 versus COX-1 in healthy volunteers. J Clin Pharmacol 2000; 40: 1109-20.</p>
      <p>25. Garcia Rodriguez LA, Varas C, Patrono C. Differential effects of aspirin and non-aspirin nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs in the primary prevention of myocardial infarction in postmenopausal women. Epidemiology 2000; 11: 382-7.</p>
      <p>26. Ray WA, Stein CM, Hall K, Daugherty JR, Griffin MR. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and risk of serious coronary heart disease: an observational cohort study. Lancet 2002; 359: 118-23.</p>
      <p>27. Farkouh ME, Kirshner H, Harrington RA et al. Comparison of lumiracoxib with naproxen and ibuprofen in the Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrointestinal Event Trial (TARGET), cardiovascular outcomes: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 675-85.</p>
      <p>28. Konstam MA, Weir MR, Reicin AS et al. Cardiovascular thrombotic events in controlled, clinical trials of rofecoxib. Circulation 2001; 104: 2280-8.</p>
      <p>29. Reicin AS, Shapiro D, Sperling RS, Barr E, Yu Q. Comparison of cardiovascular thrombotic events in patients with osteoarthritis treated with rofecoxib versus nonselective nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (ibuprofen, diclofenac, and nabumetone). Am J Cardiol 2002; 89: 204-09.</p>
      <p>30. Mamdani M, Rochon P, Juurlink DN et al. Effect of selective cyclooxygenase 2 inhibitors and naproxen on short-term risk of acute myocardial infarction in the elderly. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 481-6.</p>
      <p>31. Baron JA, Cole BF, Sandler RS et al. A randomized trial of aspirin to prevent colorectal adenomas. N Engl J Med 2003; 348: 891-9.</p>
      <p>32. Juni P, Nartey L, Reichenbach S, Sterchi R, Dieppe PA, Egger M. Risk of cardiovascular events and rofecoxib: cumulative metanalysis. Lancet 2004; 364: 2021-9.</p>
      <p>33. Solomon DH, Schneeweiss S, Glynn RJ et al. Relationship between selective cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors and acute myocardial infarction in older adults. Circulation 2004; 109: 2068-73.</p>
      <p>34. Ott E, Nussmeier NA, Duke PC et al. Efficacy and safety of the cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors parecoxib and valdecoxib in patients undergoing coronary artery bypass surgery. J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2003; 125: 1481-92.</p>
      <p>35. Hughes S: Coxibs: where do we go from here? <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.theheart.org">http://www.theheart.org</ext-link>.</p>
      <p>36. FitzGerald GA. COX-2 and beyond: approaches to prostaglandin inhibition in human disease. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2003; 2: 879-90.</p>
      <p>37. Day R, Morrison S, Luza A et al. A randomized trial of the efficacy and tolerability of the COX-2 inhibitor rofecoxib. Arch Intern Med 2000; 160: 1781-7.</p>
      <p>38. Cannon GW, Caldwell JR, Holt P et al. Rofecoxib, a specific inhibitor of cyclooxygenase 2, with clinical efficacy comparable with that of diclofenac sodium: results of a one-year, randomized, clinical trial in patients with osteoarthritis of the knee and hip. Arthritis Rheum 2000; 43: 978-87.</p>
      <p>39. Ehrich EW, Schnitzer TJ, McIlwain H et al. Effect of specific COX-2 inhibition in osteoarthritis of the knee: a 6 week double blind, placebo controlled pilot study of rofecoxib. J Rheumatol 1999; 26: 2438-47.</p>
      <p>40. Simon LS, Weaver AL, Graham DY et al. Anti-inflammatory and upper gastrointestinal effects of celecoxib in rheumatoid arthritis: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1999; 282: 1921-8.</p>
      <p>41. Lenzer J. US government agency to investigate FDA over rofecoxib. Br Med J 2004; 329: 935.</p>
      <p>42. Lenzer J. FDA to review risks of antidepressants in adults. Br Med J 2004; 329: 816.</p>
      <p>43. Farkouh ME, Kirshner H, Harrington RA et al. Comparison of lumiracoxib with naproxen and ibuprofen in the Therapeutic Arthritis Research and Gastrointestinal Event Trial (TARGET), reduction in ulcer complications: randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2004; 364: 665-74.</p>
      <p>44. Davies NM, Jamali F. COX-2 selective inhibitors cardiac toxicity: getting to the heart of the matter. J Pharm Pharmaceut Sci 2004; 7: 332-6.</p>
      <p>
        <fn id="back10-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Correspondence to</bold>
          </label>
          <p>Carlos Vicente Serrano Jr</p>
          <p> Av. Dr En&#233;as de Carvalho Aguiar, 44</p>
          <p> 05403-000 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="carlos.serrano@incor.usp.br">carlos.serrano@incor.usp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received on 04/06/2005</p>
      <p> Accepted on 04/07/2005</p>
      <p>Entretanto, h&#225; controv&#233;rsias sobre a praticidade de realiza&#231;&#227;o desses grandes estudos, j&#225; que pacientes de alto risco para doen&#231;a cardiovascular ficariam relutantes quanto &#224; sua participa&#231;&#227;o<sup>35</sup>. Ainda assim, a detec&#231;&#227;o de uma incid&#234;ncia aumentada de um evento cl&#237;nico comum, como &#233; o caso de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, &#233; muito dif&#237;cil<sup>17</sup> e tem um impacto muito grande sobre a sa&#250;de p&#250;blica, o que caracteriza mais uma exig&#234;ncia &#224; implanta&#231;&#227;o desses estudos.</p>
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