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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">mJQggbzRLCxdLkBb3GgLMfc</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00015</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2005001400015</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(05)08500115</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2005001400015</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Ponto de Vista</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Terap&#234;utica na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica cardiovascular: viv&#234;ncias e evid&#234;ncia</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fuchs</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio Danni</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre</institution>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>85</volume>
      <issue>1</issue>
      <fpage>72</fpage>
      <lpage>75</lpage>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>PONTO DE VISTA</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Terap&#234;utica na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica cardiovascular. Viv&#234;ncias e evid&#234;ncia </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fl&#225;vio Danni Fuchs </bold>
    </p>
    <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Porto Alegre, RS</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p> A qualidade da evid&#234;ncia em Cardiologia acentuou-se nos &#250;ltimos anos. Excedendo a fundamenta&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gica e biol&#243;gica cl&#225;ssica, os m&#233;todos da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias, particularmente o ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado, aplicaram-se ao cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico, permitindo discernir entre terapias eficazes, inertes e delet&#233;rias. Estudos cl&#225;ssicos, como o que demonstrou a inefic&#225;cia de cirurgia de ligadura da art&#233;ria mam&#225;ria no tratamento da angina de peito refrat&#225;ria, foram predominantemente realizados em afec&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. A apropria&#231;&#227;o da linguagem e m&#233;todos da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias por parte das corpora&#231;&#245;es, com o correspondente investimento em pesquisas e promo&#231;&#227;o, expandiu em muito o armament&#225;rio terap&#234;utico e diagn&#243;stico. Vive-se, no entanto, &#233;poca de distor&#231;&#245;es no relacionamento entre as corpora&#231;&#245;es, academia e profissionais, decorrente de forte vi&#233;s corporativo, que influencia prioridades de pesquisa, divulga&#231;&#227;o e prescri&#231;&#227;o. Limita&#231;&#245;es de custeio p&#250;blico requerem que cardiologistas se habilitem fortemente no dom&#237;nio dos paradigmas da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias, para explorar a precis&#227;o de terap&#234;utica cardiovascular a um custo socialmente toler&#225;vel. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias: origem e desenvolvimento</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias vem se consolidando como novo paradigma m&#233;dico. Consiste no uso consciente, expl&#237;cito e criterioso das melhores evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis na literatura m&#233;dica para tomar decis&#245;es no cuidado de pacientes<sup>1</sup>. </p>
    <p>Esta defini&#231;&#227;o &#233; universal e n&#227;o diverge, no fundo, dos postulados &#233;ticos da profiss&#227;o m&#233;dica. O m&#233;dico sempre exerceu a medicina baseando-se na melhor evid&#234;ncia dispon&#237;vel. O que realmente mudou nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas foi a qualidade da evid&#234;ncia. A evid&#234;ncia cient&#237;fica produzida na primeira metade do s&#233;culo passado, predominantemente pela fisiologia e patologia, deu &#224; medicina forte embasamento biol&#243;gico, eliminando m&#225;gica e fantasia. No cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico, entretanto, os processos diagn&#243;stico e terap&#234;utico n&#227;o eram avaliados comparativamente, entendo-se que a observa&#231;&#227;o e descri&#231;&#227;o sistematizada eram suficientes para discernir entre o falso e o verdadeiro. Entendia-se que interven&#231;&#245;es m&#233;dicas sobre o homem doente consistiam por si s&#243; em um experimento, similar ao realizado em ci&#234;ncias duras. H&#225;, no entanto, diversas raz&#245;es que podem explicar a evolu&#231;&#227;o para a cura, sendo somente uma o efeito intr&#237;nseco do tratamento. Praticamente toda doen&#231;a evolui naturalmente para a cura ou passa por um per&#237;odo de arrefecimento. Esta condi&#231;&#227;o, associada &#224; arte de alguns terapeutas, ao efeito placebo e a regress&#227;o a m&#233;dia, determina o sucesso de muitas terapias<sup>2</sup>. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o de terapias com claro efeito intr&#237;nseco &#233; a condi&#231;&#227;o que separa m&#233;dicos de terapeutas n&#227;o cient&#237;ficos, charlat&#227;es e outros. </p>
    <p>A detec&#231;&#227;o do efeito intr&#237;nseco dos tratamentos ficou inicialmente a cargo das pesquisas farmacol&#243;gicas. Nestas, passou-se a exigir o controle de interven&#231;&#227;o, para que se documentasse com seguran&#231;a que o efeito observado no experimento decorria da atividade intr&#237;nseca do f&#225;rmaco e n&#227;o do ve&#237;culo ou do ritual experimental. Os resultados dos estudos farmacol&#243;gicos da primeira metade do s&#233;culo passado foram reunidos no cl&#225;ssico texto de Goodman e Gilman, cuja primeira edi&#231;&#227;o data de 1941. Desenhou-se ent&#227;o a terapia cient&#237;fica do s&#233;culo XX, aquela baseada em medicamentos que se mostravam eficazes nos modelos experimentais. </p>
    <p>A evid&#234;ncia farmacol&#243;gica validou o emprego em Cardiologia de medicamentos at&#233; hoje &#250;teis, como digit&#225;licos e nitratos. Por outro lado, mostrou-se insuficiente para discernir sobre a utilidade cl&#237;nica de v&#225;rios outros medicamentos. Um exemplo &#233; o dipiridamol, f&#225;rmaco com atividade vasodilatadora, mas sem efeito antianginoso. Seu efeito dilatador de art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias mostrou-se delet&#233;rio (s&#237;ndrome do roubo coronariano), efeito at&#233; hoje explorado para indu&#231;&#227;o de isquemia. </p>
    <p>Ficou claro que algo mais do que efeito farmacol&#243;gico teria que ser evidenciado para justificar o emprego de f&#225;rmacos e outras terap&#234;uticas, ou seja, a demonstra&#231;&#227;o do efeito cl&#237;nico na doen&#231;a espec&#237;fica objeto do tratamento, seja ele sintom&#225;tico ou preventivo<sup>3</sup>. Este efeito foi qualificado como <bold>efic&#225;cia</bold> no contexto da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias. O novo ramo do conhecimento que se dedicou a estudar a efic&#225;cia de medicamentos e sua seguran&#231;a, no homem, foi a Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica<sup>2</sup>. </p>
    <p>A Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica confunde-se, no que tange a avalia&#231;&#227;o da utilidade de tratamentos, com a medicina embasada em evid&#234;ncias. As fases I (observa&#231;&#245;es de seguran&#231;a e cin&#233;tica no homem normal) e II (idem, no homem doente) s&#227;o as iniciais. Na fase III est&#225; o maior m&#233;rito da Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica, ao trazer para o cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico o modelo experimental controlado, similar ao experimento farmacol&#243;gico. Diferentemente da pesquisa com &#243;rg&#227;os ou tecidos isolados, ou com animais de experimenta&#231;&#227;o, a pesquisa no homem exigiu que a constitui&#231;&#227;o dos grupos de compara&#231;&#227;o fosse feita de forma absolutamente casual (randomiza&#231;&#227;o). Assim, curso cl&#237;nico diverso entre os grupos de compara&#231;&#227;o poder&#225; ser atribu&#237;do ao tratamento alocado a um deles. </p>
    <p>Al&#233;m de avaliar a efic&#225;cia de tratamentos, a Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica estima os efeitos adversos dos medicamentos. Os mais corriqueiros s&#227;o identificados nos ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados, especialmente naqueles controlados por placebo. Muitos pacientes se queixam de efeitos adversos mesmo quando utilizam placebo (efeito nocebo), sendo os reais efeitos adversos dos f&#225;rmacos aqueles que excedem o efeito nocebo. Efeitos adversos raros s&#243; s&#227;o identificados no uso populacional do medicamento, durante a fase de farmacovigil&#226;ncia (fase IV). A identifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de anti-inflamat&#243;rios inibidores seletivos da COX-2 para o sistema cardiovascular &#233; um exemplo maior<sup>4</sup>. </p>
    <p>A vertente epidemiol&#243;gica tamb&#233;m contribuiu para o nascimento da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias. Seus m&#233;todos de observa&#231;&#227;o sistematizada da realidade, estudos de coorte, transversais, ecol&#243;gicos e de casos e controles, foram agrupados aos ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados na Epidemiologia Cl&#237;nica<sup>5</sup>. As s&#233;ries de casos e os quase-experimentos, t&#237;picos da medicina cl&#237;nica, tamb&#233;m foram agregados a seus m&#233;todos de pesquisa, dirigidos a avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco, diagn&#243;stico, tratamento e progn&#243;stico. &#201; no tratamento, entretanto, que reside a maior inova&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica orientada pela evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Os estudos cl&#225;ssicos da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias </bold>
    </p>
    <p>O primeiro ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado, o pilar da medicina embasada em evid&#234;ncias no que concerne ao efeito de tratamentos, s&#243; foi publicado em 1948<sup>6</sup>. Neste estudo, pacientes com tuberculose tratados com estreptomicina, apresentaram redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade de 50% em 6 meses (22 versus 44%). Este e outros onze estudos foram nomeados como cl&#225;ssicos entre os ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados<sup>7</sup>. A observa&#231;&#227;o destes estudos pioneiros demonstra a grande revolu&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica que propiciaram, consistindo nos pilares da medicina embasada em evid&#234;ncias. No total, 7 entre os 12 cl&#225;ssicos foram feitos com afec&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares. </p>
    <p>O primeiro estudo inclu&#237;do foi provavelmente o primeiro a demonstrar o poderoso efeito placebo de cirurgias<sup>8</sup>. Consistia da ligadura da art&#233;ria mam&#225;ria como medida terap&#234;utica em pacientes com angina refrat&#225;ria. Por incr&#237;vel que possa parecer hoje, havia v&#225;rias hip&#243;teses para explicar como a liga&#231;&#227;o de uma art&#233;ria que nutria um m&#250;sculo estriado levava ao al&#237;vio de angina. Cobb e cols. randomizaram 17 pacientes com angina severa para ligadura da mam&#225;ria ou cirurgia <italic>sham</italic>, em tudo id&#234;ntica &#224; interven&#231;&#227;o, exceto pela n&#227;o ligadura. A avalia&#231;&#227;o foi feita por pesquisadores que desconheciam o procedimento feito, assim como os pacientes. Em cada grupo, 5 pacientes relataram melhora, sendo que em um a melhora foi acentuada, tendo retornado a atividade normal. Sua art&#233;ria n&#227;o havia sido ligada. </p>
    <p>O magn&#237;fico efeito de heparina na embolia pulmonar, com NNT de somente 2 pacientes para prevenir um evento grave<sup>9</sup>, a ampla superioridade de penicilina G benzatina sobre penicilina oral e sulfa na preven&#231;&#227;o de febre reum&#225;tica<sup>10</sup>, a efic&#225;cia de terapia baseada em diur&#233;tico para prevenir eventos em hipertensos graves<sup>11</sup>, a inefic&#225;cia de cirurgia de <italic>bypass</italic> entre a art&#233;ria temporal e a art&#233;ria cerebral m&#233;dia no tratamento do AVC agudo<sup>12</sup> e a efic&#225;cia de baixa dose de aspirina no infarto agudo e sua sinergia com estreptoquinase<sup>13</sup> s&#227;o outros exemplos. O mais recente cl&#225;ssico cardiol&#243;gico &#233; o CAST<sup>14</sup>, possivelmente o estudo que mais fortemente influenciou a pr&#225;tica cardiol&#243;gica contempor&#226;nea. O CAST demonstrou que antiarr&#237;tmicos capazes de abolir arritmias ventriculares em pacientes de alto risco, recuperados de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, aumentavam a mortalidade em mais de 300%. A no&#231;&#227;o de que desfecho substituto, corre&#231;&#227;o de arritmias, n&#227;o era capaz de predizer a efic&#225;cia em prevenir desfechos duros (mortalidade) ficou claramente demonstrada neste estudo. Para desfecho duro (<italic>hard endpoint</italic>) se prop&#244;s a denomina&#231;&#227;o de desfecho primordial, correspondente, em termos pr&#225;ticos, a condi&#231;&#227;o percebida como relevante pelo pr&#243;prio paciente<sup>15</sup>. </p>
    <p>Muitos outros estudos paralelos ou posteriores aos cl&#225;ssicos nomeados contribu&#237;ram para a consolida&#231;&#227;o da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncia em Cardiologia, confirmando ou desmentindo as expectativas te&#243;ricas. Os &#250;ltimos t&#234;m maior impacto, pois refor&#231;am a id&#233;ia de que somente avaliando a utilidade de tratamentos no homem, e com desfechos primordiais, se chega &#224; absoluta seguran&#231;a sobre benef&#237;cio, in&#233;rcia ou risco de terapias. O fracasso da terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal na preven&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a cardiovascular (associado ao assustador aumento da incid&#234;ncia de c&#226;ncer de mama) &#233; um exemplo maior, pois desmentiu toda a expectativa origin&#225;ria de estudos experimentais e cl&#237;nicos com desfechos substitutos<sup>16</sup>. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias: limita&#231;&#245;es e uso inadequado</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O panorama contempor&#226;neo encontra a pr&#225;tica cardiol&#243;gica solidamente fundamentada pelos resultados provindos da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias. Alguns colegas mais renitentes ainda a desprezam conceitualmente, apesar de incorporarem seus resultados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. Em um ponto tem raz&#227;o, qual seja, de que n&#227;o cabe vis&#227;o dogm&#225;tica sobre sua supremacia. Neste ponto se aproximam daqueles que reconhecem a inequ&#237;voca revolu&#231;&#227;o da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias, mas apontam limita&#231;&#245;es em sua difundida utiliza&#231;&#227;o. As limita&#231;&#245;es que se seguem est&#227;o entre elas. </p>
    <p><bold>Extens&#227;o dos conceitos da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias - </bold>O n&#250;mero de trabalhos que se utiliza de conceitos da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncia &#233; incont&#225;vel. Como Epidemiologia Cl&#237;nica e Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica foram incorporadas ao ensino da Medicina somente h&#225; alguns anos, e n&#227;o em todas as escolas, colegas t&#234;m dificuldade em reconhecer m&#233;todos e linguagem pr&#243;prias da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias. Desenho de estudos, crit&#233;rios de randomiza&#231;&#227;o, nomea&#231;&#227;o de desfechos substitutos, intermedi&#225;rios e primordiais, medidas de freq&#252;&#234;ncia e de associa&#231;&#227;o (m&#233;dias, medianas, percentis, desvios-padr&#227;o, intervalos de confian&#231;a, risco relativo, <italic>odds ratio</italic>), medidas de efeito (redu&#231;&#227;o do risco relativo, redu&#231;&#227;o do risco absoluto, NNT), erros sistem&#225;ticos, erros aleat&#243;rios, entre outros, constituem par&#226;metros em que se requer sufici&#234;ncia para leitura independente da volumosa literatura em terap&#234;utica cardiovascular. Para muitos, ainda, &#233; cient&#237;fico e confi&#225;vel um resultado com P&lt;0,05 (ainda mais confi&#225;vel com Ps menores do que este), desconhecendo-se que interessa mais a qualifica&#231;&#227;o de desfecho, a magnitude do efeito e a adequa&#231;&#227;o dos grupos experimentais, entre outros atributos do estudo. </p>
    <p><bold>O vi&#233;s corporativo - </bold>Os estudos iniciais da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias foram realizados e financiados predominantemente pela academia e institui&#231;&#245;es p&#250;blicas. Ag&#234;ncias reguladoras passaram a exigir que o registro de medicamentos fosse fundamentado por estudos farmacol&#243;gico-cl&#237;nicos de qualidade. Fruto desta exig&#234;ncia e por interesse pr&#243;prio, houve progressivo e maci&#231;o investimento das grandes corpora&#231;&#245;es farmac&#234;uticas no patroc&#237;nio e mesmo realiza&#231;&#227;o de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados, somando-se ao tradicional investimento na farmacologia pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica. </p>
    <p>Como regra, este investimento se traduziu por qualidade e avan&#231;o. N&#227;o s&#243; em medicamentos, mas tamb&#233;m em outros dispositivos terap&#234;uticos e diagn&#243;sticos, a pesquisa patrocinada ou realizada pela ind&#250;stria levou a grande expans&#227;o dos recursos para assist&#234;ncia cardiol&#243;gica de qualidade, em benef&#237;cio do paciente. Nos &#250;ltimos anos, entretanto, verificou-se que as pr&#225;ticas de divulga&#231;&#227;o destes estudos e mesmo a rela&#231;&#227;o das corpora&#231;&#245;es com a academia muitas vezes afastaram-se de padr&#245;es adequados. Veja-se que as ind&#250;strias influenciam todos os passos de desenvolvimento e incorpora&#231;&#227;o de novas tecnologias, desde a pesquisa pr&#233;-cl&#237;nica at&#233; a formula&#231;&#227;o de diretrizes. Assim, as revistas m&#233;dicas l&#237;deres publicam o que se produz, e o que se produz &#233; em grande parte financiado pela ind&#250;stria. Estudos com resultados negativos fazem parte do passivo previsto pelas corpora&#231;&#245;es, sendo muitos apresentados. Outros, no entanto, n&#227;o s&#227;o publicados. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos em andamento, em que se antecipa resultados negativos, como o estudo Convince, s&#227;o sumariamente interrompidos<sup>17</sup>, com grave quebra do pacto entre pacientes e pesquisadores<sup>18</sup>. Resultados negativos menos evidentes, entretanto, tendem a ser maquiados e apresentados de forma positiva. </p>
    <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da efic&#225;cia de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos, particularmente quanto a escolha da primeira op&#231;&#227;o, tem sido particularmente suscet&#237;vel a tendenciosidades decorrentes da promo&#231;&#227;o da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica. Entre os v&#225;rios exemplos, est&#225; a rean&#225;lise do estudo INSIGHT<sup>19</sup> em pacientes com diabetes melito<sup>20</sup>. A aparente superioridade de nifedipina sobre diur&#233;tico na preven&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade total apresentada na rean&#225;lise se devia a inexplic&#225;vel multiplica&#231;&#227;o dos desfechos fatais, em mais de duas vezes superiores aos descritos no estudo original<sup>21</sup>. </p>
    <p>N&#227;o s&#243; em hipertens&#227;o encontram-se exemplos de distor&#231;&#227;o no planejamento e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados. O clopidogrel vem conquistando terreno comercial agressivamente, tendo sido comparado a ticlopidina, o prot&#243;tipo do grupo, somente em estudos menores. </p>
    <p>Exemplos como os comentados ilustram o momento turbulento da forma&#231;&#227;o de opini&#227;o em Cardiologia, que tamb&#233;m &#233; cr&#237;tico em outras &#225;reas da terap&#234;utica e diagn&#243;stico. Fora da Cardiologia os conflitos s&#227;o mais intensos ainda, dada a menor tradi&#231;&#227;o de pesquisa aplicada em muitas especialidades m&#233;dicas. Mas certamente s&#227;o situa&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias, pois mesmo com dificuldade moment&#226;nea em discernir entre o falso e o verdadeiro, haver&#225; cont&#237;nua aproxima&#231;&#227;o com a verdade. Por exemplo, a utilidade de diur&#233;ticos, f&#225;rmacos preferenciais no manejo de hipertens&#227;o<sup>22</sup>, vem sendo progressivamente reconhecida, pelo menos quando da associa&#231;&#227;o entre anti-hipertensivos. </p>
    <p><bold>Estudos de custo-efetividade e avalia&#231;&#227;o de tecnologia em sa&#250;de - </bold>O s&#243;lido reconhecimento da evid&#234;ncia em termos de efic&#225;cia de interven&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o &#233;, ainda, o fim da hist&#243;ria. Segue-se a necessidade de estimar a magnitude do benef&#237;cio (tamanho do efeito), medida pela redu&#231;&#227;o do risco absoluto. Com este, calcula-se o n&#250;mero de pacientes que se necessita tratar (NNT) para prevenir um evento. Esta informa&#231;&#227;o &#233; inclu&#237;da nos c&#225;lculos de custo-efetividade, que apontar&#227;o o volume de recursos necess&#225;rios para beneficiar um paciente. A an&#225;lise conjunta de todas informa&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224; efic&#225;cia, efetividade e custo-efetividade fica a cargo da avalia&#231;&#227;o de tecnologia em sa&#250;de, &#225;rea em franco desenvolvimento. </p>
    <p>Nenhuma sociedade contempor&#226;nea tem condi&#231;&#245;es de estender tratamentos eficazes a todos seus cidad&#227;os. Limites estabelecidos pelo cliente s&#227;o indiscut&#237;veis (cada um &#233; livre para decidir quanto vai investir em tentativa de recupera&#231;&#227;o ou manuten&#231;&#227;o de sa&#250;de). Poucas vezes, no entanto, julgamento e custeio ficam a cargo do paciente ou seus familiares. Terceiros &#150; o Estado ou seguradoras - s&#227;o ent&#227;o instados a pagar a conta. O custeio por parte do Estado interessa a todos cidad&#227;os. Assim, aspectos t&#233;cnicos, econ&#244;micos e emocionais que cercam as decis&#245;es s&#227;o levados para o plano pol&#237;tico. Vive-se momento particularmente cr&#237;tico neste contexto em Cardiologia no que tange a diversas terapias eficazes, mas de alto custo e com grandes NNTs. Certamente n&#227;o haver&#225; f&#244;lego para o Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de estender a todos casos com indica&#231;&#227;o o uso de desfibriladores autom&#225;ticos<sup>23</sup> e terapias de ressincroniza&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca<sup>24</sup> em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Cardiologistas est&#227;o, no atendimento individualizado de pacientes e no acessoramento a &#243;rg&#227;os p&#250;blicos, profundamente envolvidos na tomada de decis&#227;o, que enfim deve ficar a cargo da sociedade como um todo. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Conclus&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este passeio pelo desenvolvimento e m&#233;todos da medicina baseada em evid&#234;ncias, com exemplos pontuais, tentou ilustrar sua import&#226;ncia progressiva na fundamenta&#231;&#227;o de atos m&#233;dicos. &#201; imposs&#237;vel a ela permanecer alheio, requerendo-se que novos e velhos cardiologistas se habilitem fortemente no dom&#237;nio deste novo paradigma, para que a terap&#234;utica cardiovascular seja mais precisa e de custo aceit&#225;vel. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Refer&#234;ncias </bold>
    </p>
    <p> 1. Evidence-based medicine working group. Evidence-based medicine: a new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. JAMA 1992; 208: 2420-5. </p>
    <p>2. Fuchs FD. Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica, contribui&#231;&#227;o para a terap&#234;utica racional. In: Fuchs FD, Wannmacher L, Ferreira MBC (eds). Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica: Fundamentos da Terap&#234;utica Racional. 3&#170;.ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 2004: 3-7. </p>
    <p>3. Fuchs FD. O m&#233;dico e a quest&#227;o dos medicamentos: uma an&#225;lise cr&#237;tica sobre os fundamentos da prescri&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos. Ci&#234;ncia e Cultura 1988; 40: 652-55. </p>
    <p>4. Mukherjee D, Nissen SE, Topol EJ. Risk of cardiovascular events associated with selective COX-2 inhibitors. JAMA 2001; 286: 954-9. </p>
    <p>5. Duncan BB, Schmidt MI. Epidemiologia cl&#237;nica e a medicina embasada em evid&#234;ncias. In: Duncan B, Schmidt MI, Giugliani ERJ (eds.). Medicina Ambulatorial: Condutas Cl&#237;nicas em Aten&#231;&#227;o Prim&#225;ria, 2&#170;.ed. Porto Alegre: Artes M&#233;dicas, 1996. </p>
    <p>6. Marshall G, Blacklock JW, Cameron C et al. Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Br Med J 1948; 2: 769-82. </p>
    <p>7. Fuchs FD, Klag MJ, Whelton PK. The classics: a tribute to the fiftieth anniversary of the randomized clinical trial. J Clin Epidemiol 2000; 53: 335-42. </p>
    <p>8. Cobb LA, Thomas GI, Dillard DH, Merendino KA, Bruce RA. An evaluation of internal-mammary-artery ligation by a double-blind technic. N Engl J Med 1959; 260: 1115-18. </p>
    <p> 9. Barrit DW, Jordan SC. Anticoagulant drugs in the treatment of pulmonary embolism. A controlled trial. Lancet 1960; 1: 1309-12. </p>
    <p>10. Albam B, Epstein JA, Feinstein AR et al. Rheumatic fever in children and adolescents: a long-term epidemiologic study of subsequent prophylaxis, streptococcal infections, and clinical sequelae. Ann Intern Med 1964; 60(suppl 5): 1-129. </p>
    <p>11. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents. Effects of treatment on morbidity in hypertension. Results in patients with diastolic blood pressures averaging 115 through 129 mmHg. JAMA 1967; 202: 1028-34. </p>
    <p>12. The EC/IC Bypass Study Group. Failure of extracranial-intracranial arterial bypass surgery to reduce risk of ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1191-200. </p>
    <p>13. ISIS-2 Collaborative Group. Randomized trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17,187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction: ISIS-2. Lancet 1988; 2: 349-60. </p>
    <p>14. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators: Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 406-12. </p>
    <p>15. Fuchs SC, Fuchs FD. M&#233;todos de investiga&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico-cl&#237;nica. In: Fuchs FD, Wannmacher L, Ferreira MBC (eds). Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica: Fundamentos da Terap&#234;utica Racional. 3&#170;.ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 2004: 8-23. </p>
    <p>16. Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women. JAMA 2002; 288: 321-33. </p>
    <p>17. Black HR, Elliott WJ, Grandits G et al. CONVINCE Research Group. Principal Results of the Controlled Onset Verapamil Investigation of Cardiovascular End Points (CONVINCE) Trial. JAMA 2003; 289: 2073-82. </p>
    <p>18. Psaty BM, Rennie D. Stopping medical research to save money: a broken pact with researchers and patients. JAMA 2003; 289: 2128-31. </p>
    <p>19. Brown MJ, Palmer CR, Castaigne A et al. Morbidity and mortality in patients randomised to double-blind treatment with a long-acting calcium-channel blocker or diuretic in the International Nifedipine GITS study (INSIGHT). Lancet 2000; 356: 366&#150;72. </p>
    <p>20. Mancia G, Brown M, Castaigne A et al. Outcomes with nifedipine GITS or co-amizolide in hypertensive diabetics and nondiabetics in Intervention as a Goal in Hypertension (INSIGHT). Hypertension 2003; 41: 431-6. </p>
    <p>21. Fuchs FD. May we die twice? Hypertension 2003; 42: e8. </p>
    <p>22. Fuchs FD. Diuretics: drugs of choice for the initial management of patients with hypertension. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2003; 1: 35-41. </p>
    <p>23. Bardy GH, Lee KL, Mark DB et al. Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial (SCD-HeFT) Investigators. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 225-37. </p>
    <p>24. Cleland JG, Daubert JC, Erdmann E et al. The effect of cardiac resynchronization on morbidity and mortality in heart failure. N Engl J Med 2005 Mar 7; 352: [Epub ahead of print].</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Fl&#225;vio Danni Fuchs </p>
        <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350 </p>
        <p> 90035-603 - Porto Alegre, RS </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="ffuchs@hcpa.ufrgs.br">ffuchs@hcpa.ufrgs.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
  </body>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Point of View</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Therapeutics in clinical cardiovascular practice: experiences and evidence</article-title>
      </title-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>POINT OF VIEW</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Therapeutics in clinical cardiovascular practice. Experiences and evidence</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Fl&#225;vio Danni Fuchs </bold>
      </p>
      <p>Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas de Porto Alegre - Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul - Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Correspondence</xref>
      </p>
      <p>The quality of evidence in Cardiology has been intensified in the last years. By exceeding classic pharmachological and biological foundation, evidence-based methods of classic medicine, particularly randomized clinical assay, were applied to clinical scenario, allowing for discriminating among efficient, inert and injurious therapies. Classic studies, such as the one that demonstrated the inefficiency of mammary artery ligature surgery in the treatment of refractory chest angina, were predominantly carried out in cardiovascular diseases. The assimilation of methods of evidence-based medicine by corporations with corresponding investment in research and promotion, has expanded therapeutic and diagnostic possibilities quite much. However, it has been experienced a time of distortions in the relationship among corporations, academy and professionals, resulting from a strong corporate bias, which influences priorities of research, disclosure and prescription. Public cost limitations require cardiologists to strongly qualify in knowing the paradigms of evidence-based medicine, to explore the accuracy of cardiovascular therapy with a socially tolerable cost.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Evidence-based medicine: origin and development</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Evidence-based medicine has been ratified as new medical paradigm. It consists of the conscious, explicit and judicious use of the best evidences available in medical literature to make decisions on patient care<sup>1</sup>. </p>
      <p>That definition is universal and does not deeply disagree with ethical principles of medical profession. The physician has always performed medicine by basing on the best evidence available. What has really changed in the last decades was the quality of the evidence. Scientific evidences produced in the first half of last century, predominantly by physiology and pathology, has provided medicine with a strong biological basis, by eliminating magic and fantasy. In clinical scenario, however, diagnostic and therapeutic processes were not comparatively assessed, by understanding that observation and systematized description were sufficient to distinguish between what was false and what was true. It was understood that medical intervention in men consisted in a single experiment, which was similar to the one performed in hard sciences. However, there are many reasons that may explain the evolution to the cure, being the intrinsic effect of treatment the only one. Practically every disease naturally evolves to the cure or undergoes a period of control. Such condition, associated to the art of some therapists, to placebo effect and the regression to the mean, determines the success of many therapies<sup>2</sup>. The use of therapies clear intrinsic effect with is the condition that separates physicians from non-scientific therapists, charlatans and others. </p>
      <p>The detection of intrinsic effect of treatments was at first done by pharmacogical experiments. In those, the intervention control was required, so it would be possible to document that the effect observed in the experiment resulted from the intrinsic activity from the medicine and not from the experimental vehicle or ritual. Results from pharmachological studies in the first half in the last century were assembled in the classic text by Goodman and Gilman, whose first edition goes back to 1941. The 20<sup>th</sup> century scientific therapy was then recognized as based on medications that showed efficient in experimental models. </p>
      <p>Pharmachological evidence validated the use, in Cardiology, of medications that have been useful so far, such as digitalis and nitrates. On the other hand, it was unable to demonstrate the clinical usefulness of many other medications. An example of that is dipyridamole, a drug with vasodilator activity, but without antianginous effect. Its coronary artery dilator effect was shown deleterious (coronary stealing syndrome), which is an effect that has been currently explored for ischemia induction. </p>
      <p>It was clear that something else than the pharmachological effect would have to be evidenced to justify the use of drugs and other therapies, which means, the demonstration of the clinical effect on the specific objective of the treatment, be it symptomatic or preventive<sup>3</sup>. Such effect was qualified as <bold>efficacy</bold> in the context of evidence-based medicine. The new division of knowledge that dedicated to study the efficacy of medications and their safety, in men, was Clinical Pharmacology<sup>2</sup>. </p>
      <p>Clinical Pharmacology, concerning the assessment of treatment usefulness, becomes mixed up with evidence-based medicine. Phases I (safety and kinetic observations in normal men) and II (the same, but in sick men) are the first ones. In phase III lies the greatest merit of Clinical Pharmacology, for bringing the controlled experimental method to the clinical scene, which is similar to pharmacological experiment. Unlike the research with isolated organs or tissues, or with experiment animals, the research in men required that the constitution of comparison groups were carried out in an absolutely casual manner (randomization). So, a different clinical course among comparison groups can be attributed to the treatment allocated to one of them. </p>
      <p>Besides assessing the efficacy of treatments, Clinical Pharmacology estimates adverse effects of medications. Common adverse effects are identified in randomized clinical trials, especially in those controlled by placebo. Many patients complain about adverse effects even when they use placebo (nocebo effect), being those that exceed the nocebo effect the real adverse effects of drugs. Rare adverse effects are only identified in populational use of the medication, during pharmacovigilance phase (phase IV). The identification of anti-inflammatory COX-2 selective inhibitor risk for cardiovascular system is an important example<sup>4</sup>. </p>
      <p>Epidemiology also contributed to the formation of evidence-based medicine. Its methods of systemized observation of reality, cohort, cross-sectional, alecological and case and control studies were grouped with randomized clinical assays in Clinical Epidemiology<sup>5</sup>. The series of cases and the quasi-experiments, typical of clinical medicine, were also aggregated to its research methods, directed towards risk assessment, diagnosis, treatment and prognostic. However, the greatest clinical evidence-oriented medical innovation lies in the treatment.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Classic studies of evidence-based medicine </bold>
      </p>
      <p>The first randomized clinical assay, the pillar of evidence-based medicine concerning treatment effects, was only published in 1948<sup>6</sup>. In such study, patients with tuberculosis treated with streptomycin, showed a 50% mortality reduction in 6 months (22% versus 44%). That one and other eleven studies were appointed as classics among randomized clinical assays<sup>7</sup>. The observation of those pioneer studies shows the great medical revolution they provided, consisting of the basis of evidence-based medicine. In total, 7 among the 12 classics were carried out with cardiovascular diseases. </p>
      <p>The first study included in was probably the first one to demonstrate the powerful placebo effect of surgeries<sup>8</sup>. It consisted of the ligature of mammary artery as a therapeutic measure in patients with refractory angina. As incredible as it may seem today, there were many hypotheses to explain how the ligation of an artery that nourished a striated muscle led to angina relief Cobb et al. randomized 17 patients with severe angina for mammary artery ligature or <italic>sham </italic>surgery, completely identical to intervention, except for the non-ligature. The assessment was carried out by researchers who did not know the procedure performed, as well as the patients. In each group, 5 patients reported improvement, and in one that improvement was pronounced, having returned to normal activity. His/Her artery had not been ligated. </p>
      <p>The superb effect of heparin on pulmonary na embolia, with NNT of only 2 patients to prevent from a severe event<sup>9</sup>, the impressive superiority of penicillin G benzatin over oral penicillin and sulfa in the prevention of rheumatic fever<sup>10</sup>, the efficacy of diuretic-based therapy to prevent from events in severe hypertensive patients<sup>11</sup>, the inefficacy of bypass surgery between the temporal artery and the middle cerebral artery in acute stroke<sup>12</sup>, and the efficacy of low aspirin dose in acute myocardial infarction and its synergy with streptokinase<sup>13</sup> are other examples. The most recent cardiological classic is CAST<sup>14</sup>, possibly the study that most strongly influenced the modern cardiological practice. CAST demonstrated that antiarrhythmics able to abolish ventricular arrhythmias in high risk patients, recovered from myocardial infarction, increased mortality rate in more than 300%. The idea that substitute outcome, correction of arrhythmias, was not able to predict the efficacy in preventing from hard endpoint (mortality), was clearly demonstrated in this study. For hard endpoints, the denomination of primordial endpoint was proposed, which corresponds, in practical terms, to the condition perceived as relevant by the patient himself/herself<sup>15</sup>. </p>
      <p>Many other studies parallel or after the assigned classics contributed to the consolidation of evidence-based medicine in Cardiology, by confirming or denying theoretical expectations. The latter ones have a greater impact, as they reinforce the idea that only by assessing the usefulness of treatments in men, and with primordial outcomes, absolute safety, benefit it is possible to estimate the inertia or risk of therapies. The failure of hormone reposition therapy in the prevention of cardiovascular diseases (associated to the alarming increase of incidence of breast cancer) is an important example, as it has contradicted the whole expectation of experimental and clinical studies with surrogate outcomes<sup>16</sup>.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Evidence-based medicine: limitations and inapropriate use</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The current cardiological practice is soundly founded by the results from evidence-based medicine. Some more renitent colleagues still despise it conceptually, despite incorporating its results in clinical practice. They are right in an aspect, which means that there is no dogmatic view on its supremacy. In same way, they agree with those who acknowledge the unequivocal revolution of evidence-based medicine, but point out limitations in its widespread application. The following limitations are among them. </p>
      <p><bold>Extension of concepts of evidence-based medicine - </bold>The number of papers using evidence-based medicine concepts is countless. As Clinical Epidemiology and Clinical Pharmacology have been incorporated to Medicine teaching only few years ago, and not in all schools, colleagues have difficulties in acknowledging methods and language of evidence-based medicine. Design of studies, randomization criteria, assignment of surrogate, intermediate and primordial outcomes, frequency and association measurements (means, medians, percentiles, standard deviations, confidence intervals, relative risk, odds ratio), effect measurements (relative risk reduction, absolute reduction, NNT), systematic errors, random errors, among others, constitute parameters in which sufficiency for reading is required, regardless of the ample literature on cardiovascular therapeutics. Nevertheless, for many, a result with P&lt;0.05 is scientific and reliable (even more reliable with P values lower than that), by ignoring that outcome qualification, effect magnitude and experimental group adequacy, among other attributes of the study are of greater importance. </p>
      <p><bold>Corporate bias</bold><bold>-</bold> Initial studies of evidence-based medicine were predominantly carried out and funded by academy and public institutions. Regulatory agencies began to require that medication registration was based on quality pharmacological-clinical studies. As a result from that requirement and for their own interest, there was a progressive and massive investment from big pharmaceutical corporations in sponsoring and carrying out randomized clinical trials, by adding to the traditional investment in pre-clinical pharmacology. </p>
      <p>As a rule, that investment resulted in quality and progress. Not only in medications, but also in other therapeutic and diagnostic devices, research sponsored or carried out by the sector led to a great expansion of resources for quality cardiological assistance, in the patient's benefit. However, it has been verified in the last years that disclosure practices of those studies and even the relationship between corporations and academy have been often away from apropriate standards. It has been observed that industries influence all stages of development and incorporation of new technologies, from pre-clinical research to guideline formulation. So, leading medical journals publish whatever is produced, and what is produced is mostly financed by the sector. Negative result studies are part of losses forecast by the corporations, with many of them being presented. Others, however, are not published. Ongoing clinical assays, in which negative results are anticipated, such as Convince study, are summarily interrupted<sup>17</sup>, with serious breaking of the pact between patients and researchers<sup>18</sup>. Less evident negative results, however, tend to be made up and shown in a positive way. </p>
      <p>The assessment of efficacy of anti-hypertensive medications, especially regarding first option choice, has been particularly susceptible to tendencies resulting from pharmaceutical sector promotion. Among many examples, there is INSIGHT study<sup>19 </sup>reanalysis in patients with diabetes mellitus<sup>20</sup>. The apparent superiority of nifedipine over diuretics in the prevention of total mortality shown in reanalysis was due to the inexplicable multiplication of fatal outcomes, in more than twice higher than those described in the original study<sup>21</sup>. </p>
      <p>Not only in hypertension are examples of distortion in planning and understanding of randomized clinical assays found. Clopidogrel has been aggressively conquering commercial ground, by having been compared to ticoplidine, the group prototype, only in minor studies. </p>
      <p>Examples as those commented illustrate the critical moment of opinion making in Cardiology, which is also critical in other areas of therapeutics and diagnosis. Outside Cardiology the conflicts are even more intense, provided the little tradition of research applied to many medical specialties. But they surely are transitory situations, as even with a temporary difficulty in discerning between what is false and what is true, there will be a continuous approach with the truth. For example, the usefulness of diuretics, preferential medications in hypertension handling<sup>22</sup>, has been progressively acknowledged at least regarding the association among antihypertensives. </p>
      <p><bold>Studies on cost-effectiveness and assessment of technology in healthcare - </bold>The sound recognition of evidence in terms of intervention efficacy is not the end of the story yet. It is necessary to estimating the magnitude of the benefit (size of effect), measured by absolute risk reduction. With that, the number of patients that need to be treated (NNT) is calculated to prevent from an event. Such information is included in cost-effectiveness calculation, which will show the amount necessary resources to be beneficial to a patient. The joint analysis of all information related to efficacy, effectiveness and cost-effectiveness are under the responsibility of healthcare technology assessment, an area under fast development. </p>
      <p>No modern society has conditions to extend efficacious therapies to all its citizens. Limits established by the customer are indisputable (every one is free to decide how much he/she is going to invest in an attempt of health recovering or maintenance). However, few times the judgment and costing are under the responsibility of the patient or his/her family. Third parties &#150; the government or insurance companies &#150; are then urged to pay the bill. Costing from the government interests all citizens. So, technical, economical and emotional aspects that are associated to decisions are taken to political level. A particularly critical moment has been experienced in this context in Cardiology, concerning several efficient therapies, but of high cost and with high NNTs. There will not surely easy for "SUS" to extended to all cases with indication the use of automatic defibrillators<sup>23</sup> and cardiac resynchronization therapies<sup>24</sup> in heart failure patients. Cardiologists are, in individualized medical care of patients and in advisement to public organs, deeply involved in decision making process, which at last must be under the responsibility of society as a whole.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Conclusion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This look to the development and methods of evidence-based medicine, with few examples, tried to illustrate its progressive importance in the indication of medical interventions. It is impossible to ignore it, and should be handling old and new cardiologists habilitate in this new paradigm, in order to get more efficient cardiovascular therapeutics at an acceptable cost.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p> 1. Evidence-based medicine working group. Evidence-based medicine: a new approach to teaching the practice of medicine. JAMA 1992; 208: 2420-5. </p>
      <p>2. Fuchs FD. Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica, contribui&#231;&#227;o para a terap&#234;utica racional. In: Fuchs FD, Wannmacher L, Ferreira MBC (eds). Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica: Fundamentos da Terap&#234;utica Racional. 3&#170;.ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 2004: 3-7. </p>
      <p>3. Fuchs FD. O m&#233;dico e a quest&#227;o dos medicamentos: uma an&#225;lise cr&#237;tica sobre os fundamentos da prescri&#231;&#227;o de f&#225;rmacos. Ci&#234;ncia e Cultura 1988; 40: 652-55. </p>
      <p>4. Mukherjee D, Nissen SE, Topol EJ. Risk of cardiovascular events associated with selective COX-2 inhibitors. JAMA 2001; 286: 954-9. </p>
      <p>5. Duncan BB, Schmidt MI. Epidemiologia cl&#237;nica e a medicina embasada em evid&#234;ncias. In: Duncan B, Schmidt MI, Giugliani ERJ (eds.). Medicina Ambulatorial: Condutas Cl&#237;nicas em Aten&#231;&#227;o Prim&#225;ria, 2&#170;.ed. Porto Alegre: Artes M&#233;dicas, 1996. </p>
      <p>6. Marshall G, Blacklock JW, Cameron C et al. Streptomycin treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis. Br Med J 1948; 2: 769-82. </p>
      <p>7. Fuchs FD, Klag MJ, Whelton PK. The classics: a tribute to the fiftieth anniversary of the randomized clinical trial. J Clin Epidemiol 2000; 53: 335-42. </p>
      <p>8. Cobb LA, Thomas GI, Dillard DH, Merendino KA, Bruce RA. An evaluation of internal-mammary-artery ligation by a double-blind technic. N Engl J Med 1959; 260: 1115-18. </p>
      <p>9. Barrit DW, Jordan SC. Anticoagulant drugs in the treatment of pulmonary embolism. A controlled trial. Lancet 1960; 1: 1309-12. </p>
      <p>10. Albam B, Epstein JA, Feinstein AR et al. Rheumatic fever in children and adolescents: a long-term epidemiologic study of subsequent prophylaxis, streptococcal infections, and clinical sequelae. Ann Intern Med 1964; 60(suppl 5): 1-129. </p>
      <p>11. Veterans Administration Cooperative Study Group on Antihypertensive Agents. Effects of treatment on morbidity in hypertension. Results in patients with diastolic blood pressures averaging 115 through 129 mmHg. JAMA 1967; 202: 1028-34. </p>
      <p>12. The EC/IC Bypass Study Group. Failure of extracranial-intracranial arterial bypass surgery to reduce risk of ischemic stroke. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1191-200. </p>
      <p>13. ISIS-2 Collaborative Group. Randomized trial of intravenous streptokinase, oral aspirin, both, or neither among 17,187 cases of suspected acute myocardial infarction: ISIS-2. Lancet 1988; 2: 349-60. </p>
      <p>14. The Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) Investigators: Preliminary report: effect of encainide and flecainide on mortality in a randomized trial of arrhythmia suppression after myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 406-12. </p>
      <p>15. Fuchs SC, Fuchs FD. M&#233;todos de investiga&#231;&#227;o farmacol&#243;gico-cl&#237;nica. In: Fuchs FD, Wannmacher L, Ferreira MBC (eds). Farmacologia Cl&#237;nica: Fundamentos da Terap&#234;utica Racional. 3&#170;.ed. Rio de Janeiro: Guanabara Koogan, 2004: 8-23. </p>
      <p>16. Women's Health Initiative Investigators. Risks and benefits of estrogen plus progestin in healthy postmenopausal women. JAMA 2002; 288: 321-33. </p>
      <p>17. Black HR, Elliott WJ, Grandits G et al. CONVINCE Research Group. Principal Results of the Controlled Onset Verapamil Investigation of Cardiovascular End Points (CONVINCE) Trial. JAMA 2003; 289: 2073-82. </p>
      <p>18. Psaty BM, Rennie D. Stopping medical research to save money: a broken pact with researchers and patients. JAMA 2003; 289: 2128-31. </p>
      <p>19. Brown MJ, Palmer CR, Castaigne A et al. Morbidity and mortality in patients randomised to double-blind treatment with a long-acting calcium-channel blocker or diuretic in the International Nifedipine GITS study (INSIGHT). Lancet 2000; 356: 366-72. </p>
      <p>20. Mancia G, Brown M, Castaigne A et al. Outcomes with nifedipine GITS or co-amizolide in hypertensive diabetics and nondiabetics in Intervention as a Goal in Hypertension (INSIGHT). Hypertension 2003; 41: 431-6. </p>
      <p>21. Fuchs FD. May we die twice? Hypertension 2003; 42: e8. </p>
      <p>22. Fuchs FD. Diuretics: drugs of choice for the initial management of patients with hypertension. Expert Rev Cardiovasc Ther 2003; 1: 35-41. </p>
      <p>23. Bardy GH, Lee KL, Mark DB et al. Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure Trial (SCD-HeFT) Investigators. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 2005; 352: 225-37. </p>
      <p>24. Cleland JG, Daubert JC, Erdmann E et al. The effect of cardiac resynchronization on morbidity and mortality in heart failure. N Engl J Med 2005 Mar 7; 352: [Epub </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Correspondence to</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Fl&#225;vio Danni Fuchs </p>
          <p> Rua Ramiro Barcelos, 2350 </p>
          <p> 90035-603 - Porto Alegre, RS - Brazil </p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="ffuchs@hcpa.ufrgs.br">ffuchs@hcpa.ufrgs.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
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</article>
