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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">L5TJ7TGbZLcyDBGfQn54ZMH</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2005000400009</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(05)08400409</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2005000400009</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>A exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro resulta em remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e preju&#237;zo da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em ratos</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Castardeli</surname>
            <given-names>&#201;dson</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paiva</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio A. R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Matsubara</surname>
            <given-names>Beatriz B.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Matsubara</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Minicucci</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos F.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Paula S.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Campana</surname>
            <given-names>&#193;lvaro O.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Zornoff</surname>
            <given-names>Leonardo A. M.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu </institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>84</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <fpage>320</fpage>
      <lpage>324</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2004</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2004</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Determinar as altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas estruturais e funcionais causadas pela exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro em ratos. M&#201;TODOS: Os animais foram aleatoriamente distribu&#237;dos em dois grupos: fumante (F), composto por 10 animais, expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro, na taxa de 40 cigarros/dia e controle (C), constitu&#237;do por 10 animais n&#227;o submetidos &#224; exposi&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s 4 meses, os animais foram submetidos a estudo morfol&#243;gico e funcional por meio do ecocardiograma. As vari&#225;veis estudadas foram analisadas pelo teste t ou pelo teste de Mann-Whitney. RESULTADOS: Os ratos fumantes apresentaram maior &#225;trio esquerdo (F=4,2&#177; 0,7mm; C=3,5&#177;0,6mm; p&lt;0,05), maiores di&#226;metros diast&#243;licos (F=7,9&#177;0,7mm; C=7,2&#177;0,5mm; p&lt;0,05) e sist&#243;licos (F=4,1 &#177;0,5; C=3,4&#177;0,5; p&lt;0,05) do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE). O &#237;ndice de massa do VE foi maior nos animais fumantes (F=1,5 mg/kg&#177; 0,2; C=1,3 mg/kg&#177;0,2; p&lt;0,05), e a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (F=0,85&#177;0,03; C=0,89&#177;0,03; p&lt;0,05) e a fra&#231;&#227;o de encurtamento (F=47,8 %&#177;3,7; C=52,7%&#177;4,6; p&lt;0,05) maiores no grupo controle. N&#227;o foram identificadas diferen&#231;as nas vari&#225;veis de fluxo diast&#243;lico (onda E, na onda A e na rela&#231;&#227;o E/A) transmitral. CONCLUS&#195;O: A exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro resulta em remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, com diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional ventricular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>hipertrofia</kwd>
        <kwd>fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular</kwd>
        <kwd>dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>02</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro resulta em remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e preju&#237;zo da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em ratos </p>
    <p>
      <bold>&#201;dson Castardeli; Sergio A. R. Paiva; Beatriz B. Matsubara; Luiz S. Matsubara; Marcos F. Minicucci; Paula S. Azevedo; &#193;lvaro O. Campana; Leonardo A. M. Zornoff</bold>
    </p>
    <p> Botucatu, SP</p>
    <p>Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold>Determinar as altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas estruturais e funcionais causadas pela exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro em ratos. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS: </bold>Os animais foram aleatoriamente distribu&#237;dos em dois grupos: fumante (F), composto por 10 animais, expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro, na taxa de 40 cigarros/dia e controle (C), constitu&#237;do por 10 animais n&#227;o submetidos &#224; exposi&#231;&#227;o. Ap&#243;s 4 meses, os animais foram submetidos a estudo morfol&#243;gico e funcional por meio do ecocardiograma. As vari&#225;veis estudadas foram analisadas pelo teste t ou pelo teste de Mann-Whitney. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold>Os ratos fumantes apresentaram maior &#225;trio esquerdo (F=4,2&#177; 0,7mm; C=3,5&#177;0,6mm; p&lt;0,05), maiores di&#226;metros diast&#243;licos (F=7,9&#177;0,7mm; C=7,2&#177;0,5mm; p&lt;0,05) e sist&#243;licos (F=4,1 &#177;0,5; C=3,4&#177;0,5; p&lt;0,05) do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE). O &#237;ndice de massa do VE foi maior nos animais fumantes (F=1,5 mg/kg&#177; 0,2; C=1,3 mg/kg&#177;0,2; p&lt;0,05), e a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (F=0,85&#177;0,03; C=0,89&#177;0,03; p&lt;0,05) e a fra&#231;&#227;o de encurtamento (F=47,8 %&#177;3,7; C=52,7%&#177;4,6; p&lt;0,05) maiores no grupo controle. N&#227;o foram identificadas diferen&#231;as nas vari&#225;veis de fluxo diast&#243;lico (onda E, na onda A e na rela&#231;&#227;o E/A) transmitral. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> A exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro resulta em remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, com diminui&#231;&#227;o da capacidade funcional ventricular. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold>hipertrofia, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular, dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular</p>
    <p> A exposi&#231;&#227;o ativa ou passiva &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro &#233; importante causa de morbidade e mortalidade<sup>1,2</sup>. V&#225;rios estudos t&#234;m mostrado que tabagistas cr&#244;nicos possuem risco aumentado de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, como aterosclerose, insufici&#234;ncia coronariana e morte s&#250;bita. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, o tabagismo causa disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, diminui&#231;&#227;o da reserva coronariana e vasoespasmo<sup>3-5</sup>. </p>
    <p>Enquanto os efeitos vasculares da exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro s&#227;o bem conhecidos, os efeitos do tabagismo no cora&#231;&#227;o t&#234;m recebido menos aten&#231;&#227;o. Um aspecto relevante &#233; que a maioria dos estudos analisou os efeitos da administra&#231;&#227;o aguda de nicotina em vari&#225;veis card&#237;acas<sup>6,7</sup>. Em diferente abordagem, foi evidenciado que a exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica ao mon&#243;xido de carbono, outro componente encontrado na fase de vapor da fuma&#231;a do cigarro, resultou em aumento da express&#227;o g&#234;nica de endotelina-1, induzindo hipertrofia card&#237;aca<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>Considera-se que n&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel extrapolar os efeitos da exposi&#231;&#227;o aguda de componentes espec&#237;ficos, como, por exemplo, a nicotina ou o mon&#243;xido de carbono, com os efeitos da exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica da fuma&#231;a do cigarro no cora&#231;&#227;o, j&#225; que a fuma&#231;a do cigarro cont&#233;m milhares de subst&#226;ncias conhecidas<sup>9</sup>. Houdi e cols<sup>10</sup>, para esclarecer os efeitos card&#237;acos da exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro, expuseram ratos &#224; fuma&#231;a por 4 dias e verificaram aumento da press&#227;o arterial e diminui&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco. Esse efeito foi atenuado por antagonista da vasopressina. Brooks e cols<sup>11</sup>, utilizando o modelo de avalia&#231;&#227;o de contratilidade por meio de prepara&#231;&#245;es de m&#250;sculo papilar isolado, n&#227;o encontraram diferen&#231;as no desempenho card&#237;aco entre ratos expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a por 180 dias e os animais controle. Em ratos espontaneamente hipertensos, a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a por 8 semanas resultou em aumento da press&#227;o arterial e queda da freq&#252;&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles<sup>12</sup>. Tamb&#233;m no modelo do rato, a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro por 6 meses resultou em aumento da express&#227;o do RNA mensageiro para a endotelina 1 no tecido card&#237;aco<sup>13</sup>. J&#225; no modelo de c&#227;es, tanto a administra&#231;&#227;o de nicotina como a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro, por 22 meses, n&#227;o modificaram a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e a press&#227;o diast&#243;lica final do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, em compara&#231;&#227;o aos controles<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>Pelo exposto, os efeitos card&#237;acos da exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro precisam ser melhor caracterizados. Assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi estudar os efeitos da exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro, em vari&#225;veis morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais card&#237;acas, analisadas por meio do ecocardiograma. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O protocolo experimental deste estudo seguiu os Princ&#237;pios &#201;ticos na Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal adotados pelo Col&#233;gio Brasileiro de Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal e aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Experimenta&#231;&#227;o Animal de nossa institui&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Ratos Wistar, machos, pesando 200-250g, foram aleatoriamente distribu&#237;dos em dois grupos compostos por 10 animais: grupo fumante (F), exposto &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro, na taxa de 40 cigarros/dia, durante 4 meses e grupo controle (C), n&#227;o submetido &#224; exposi&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Foi utilizado o m&#233;todo proposto por Wang e cols<sup>15</sup> e padronizado em nosso laborat&#243;rio<sup>16</sup>, para expor os animais &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro em incubadora modificada. Os ratos foram colocados na c&#226;mara transparente, com um volume de aproximadamente 95x80x65cm, conectado ao aparelho de fumar. Puffs de fuma&#231;a foram tirados do cigarro por v&#225;cuo por meio do aparelho de fumar e depois jogados na c&#226;mara durante per&#237;odo de 30min. Ap&#243;s esse per&#237;odo, a fuma&#231;a era exaurida e o procedimento repetido. Durante a primeira semana, a fuma&#231;a foi liberada a uma taxa de 5 cigarros, duas vezes por dia no per&#237;odo da tarde, com intervalos de descanso de 10min. O n&#250;mero de cigarros foi aumentado para uma taxa de 10 cigarros/30min, duas vezes no per&#237;odo da manh&#227; e duas no per&#237;odo da tarde, at&#233; o final estudo. Assim, ao final, os animais foram expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de 40 cigarros/dia. O cigarro utilizado era um cigarro comercial com composi&#231;&#227;o: 1,1 mg de nicotina, 14 mg de alcatr&#227;o e 15 mg de mon&#243;xido de carbono. </p>
    <p>Ao final do 1&#186; e 3&#186; m&#234;s de observa&#231;&#227;o, foi colhido sangue dos animais dos dois grupos para exame de hemogasimetria. As amostras de sangue arterial da cauda de cada animal foram obtidas com o aux&#237;lio de <italic>butterfly </italic>conectado a seringa de 5 ml previamente heparinizada. A an&#225;lise foi processada imediatamente ap&#243;s as coletas de sangue, em analisador de gases autom&#225;tico Technicon, modelo RA-XT e estudadas as vari&#225;veis: press&#227;o parcial de oxig&#234;nio (PO2), press&#227;o parcial de di&#243;xido de carbono (PCO2), concentra&#231;&#227;o de carboxihemoglobina (COHb) e satura&#231;&#227;o da hemoglobina (SAT O2). </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s 3 meses de observa&#231;&#227;o, foram determinadas as press&#245;es sist&#243;licas caudais dos animais fumantes e controles, utilizando-se um plestim&#243;grafo de cauda, com um pol&#237;grafo (Byo-Sistem PE 300, NARCO) com um sensor colocado na regi&#227;o proximal da cauda e um eletroesfigmoman&#244;metro, para possibilitar o registro da press&#227;o caudal. Os animais foram aquecidos em caixa de madeira a 37&#186;C com o calor gerado por duas l&#226;mpadas de filamentos, por 4min e transferidos para um suporte de ferro, onde a cauda foi exposta. Na regi&#227;o proximal da cauda foi colocado o sensor (KSM-microfone) ligado ao plestim&#243;grafo. A press&#227;o arterial foi registrada em papel com o pol&#237;grafo na velocidade de 2,5 mm/s. </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s 4 meses de tratamento, os animais dos dois grupos foram submetidos a estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico, segundo m&#233;todo descrito previamente<sup>17</sup>. Resumidamente, os animais foram anestesiados com cloridrato de cetamina (50mg/kg) e cloridrato de xilidino (1mg/kg), por via intramuscular, e ap&#243;s tricotomia da regi&#227;o anterior do t&#243;rax, foram posicionados em dec&#250;bito lateral esquerdo. O ecocardiograma foi realizado com equipamento da Hewlett-Packard (modelo Sonos 2000), equipado com transdutor eletr&#244;nico de 7,5 MHz. A avalia&#231;&#227;o dos fluxos foi realizada com o mesmo transdutor operando em 5,0 MHz. A partir do corte paraesternal em eixo menor, obteve-se a imagem monodimensional transversa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, utilizando-se a imagem bidimensional como guia para posicionamento do feixe ultrass&#244;nico logo abaixo do plano da valva mitral entre os m&#250;sculos papilares. As imagens da aorta e do &#225;trio esquerdo tamb&#233;m foram obtidas na posi&#231;&#227;o para-esternal eixo menor com o cursor do modo-M posicionado ao n&#237;vel da valva a&#243;rtica. O registro da imagem monodimensional, ajustada para a velocidade de 100 mm/s, foi realizado por meio da impressora modelo UP-890MD da Sony Co. Posteriormente, as estruturas card&#237;acas foram medidas manualmente com o aux&#237;lio de um paqu&#237;metro de precis&#227;o, segundo as recomenda&#231;&#245;es da <italic>American Society of Echocardiography</italic><sup>18</sup>. As estruturas card&#237;acas foram medidas em tr&#234;s a cinco ciclos card&#237;acos consecutivos o di&#226;metro diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (DDVE) e a espessura diast&#243;lica da parede posterior do VE (EDVE) medidos no momento correspondente ao di&#226;metro m&#225;ximo da cavidade; o di&#226;metro sist&#243;lico do VE (DSVE) no momento de m&#225;xima excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica da parede posterior da cavidade. A fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE foi avaliada, calculando-se a porcentagem de encurtamento sist&#243;lico (DDVE-DSVE/DDVE) x 100 e a fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (DDVE<sup>3</sup>-DSVE<sup>3</sup>/DDVE<sup>3</sup> ). O fluxo diast&#243;lico transmitral (ondas E e A) foi obtido com o transdutor na posi&#231;&#227;o apical quatro c&#226;maras. Os picos de velocidade nas fases de enchimento ventricular r&#225;pido (onda E) e durante a contra&#231;&#227;o atrial (onda A) foram medidos diretamente no monitor do ecocardi&#243;grafo, em cinco ciclos card&#237;acos consecutivos. </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s o Doppler-ecocardiograma, os ratos foram sacrificados, o f&#237;gado e o cora&#231;&#227;o retirados e os ventr&#237;culos direito e esquerdo (incluindo o septo interventricular) separados e pesados. Em seguida, os ventr&#237;culos foram levados a estufa, onde permaneciam por 48h em temperatura de 80&#186;C, para desidratar, sendo poss&#237;vel determinar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre o peso &#250;mido e seco das estruturas e o teor de &#225;gua tecidual. </p>
    <p>As compara&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos foram feitas pelo teste t de Student, quando os dados apresentavam distribui&#231;&#227;o normal. Quando n&#227;o o apresentavam, as compara&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos foram feitas pelo teste U de Mann-Whitney e os dados expressos em m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (para distribui&#231;&#227;o normal) ou mediana com o quartil 25 e o quartil 75 (para distribui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o normal). Os resultados foram considerados estatisticamente significantes se p&lt;0,05. As an&#225;lises foram feitas com o programa Sigmastat. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>As vari&#225;veis corporais dos animais encontram-se na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela I</xref>. Os ratos fumantes apresentaram menor rela&#231;&#227;o entre o peso &#250;mido e o peso seco do VE, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos animais controle. Quanto &#224;s outras vari&#225;veis, n&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os valores morfol&#243;gicos obtidos do estudo ecocardiogr&#225;fico encontram-se na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tabela II</xref>. Os ratos fumantes apresentaram maior &#225;trio esquerdo (F=4,2&#177;0,7 mm; C=3,5&#177;0,6 mm; p&lt;0,05) em compara&#231;&#227;o com os animais do grupo controle. Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos di&#226;metros ventriculares, os animais do grupo F apresentaram maiores di&#226;metros diast&#243;licos (F=7,9&#177;0,7 mm; C=7,2&#177;0,5 mm; p&lt;0,05) e sist&#243;licos (F=4,1&#177;0,5; C=3,4&#177;0,5; p&lt;0,05) do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) em compara&#231;&#227;o aos ratos do grupo C. Quando essas vari&#225;veis foram ajustadas pelo peso corporal dos animais, os ratos fumantes apresentaram maiores di&#226;metros atriais e ventriculares (p&lt;0,05) e o &#237;ndice de massa do VE foi maior nos animais fumantes (F=1,5&#177;0,2; C=1,3&#177;0,2; p&lt;0,05). </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Considerando-se as vari&#225;veis funcionais, n&#227;o foram identificadas diferen&#231;as na onda E, na onda A e na rela&#231;&#227;o E/A entre os dois grupos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tab. II</xref>). A fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o (F=0,85&#177;0,03; C=0,89&#177; 0,03; p&lt;0,05) e a fra&#231;&#227;o de encurtamento (F=47,8%&#177;3,7; C=52,7%&#177;4,6; p&lt;0,05) foram maiores no grupo controle. </p>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; an&#225;lise dos gases sangu&#237;neos, ap&#243;s 1 m&#234;s de exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro, os ratos fumantes apresentaram concentra&#231;&#227;o de carboxihemoglobina, estatisticamente, maior que os ratos n&#227;o fumantes (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tab. III</xref>). Essa vari&#225;vel foi utilizada para confirmar a efici&#234;ncia da exposi&#231;&#227;o dos animais fumantes &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro. Quanto &#224;s outras vari&#225;veis, n&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as entre os grupos. Ap&#243;s 3 meses de evolu&#231;&#227;o, observamos diferen&#231;as gasom&#233;tricas entre os 2 grupos apenas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; PCO2, que foi menor no grupo fumante. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos, o grupo exposto &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro apresentou, ap&#243;s 3 meses de exposi&#231;&#227;o, aumento da press&#227;o sist&#243;lica caudal, em rela&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle (F=118&#177;15 mmHg, C=103&#177;16 mmHg; p=0,045) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>). </p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Nosso objetivo foi avaliar os efeitos card&#237;acos da exposi&#231;&#227;o por tempo prolongado (4 meses) &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro no modelo do rato. Os resultados alcan&#231;ados indicam que a exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a resulta em altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas, tanto morfol&#243;gicas como funcionais, avaliadas pelo ecocardiograma. Assim, os efeitos card&#237;acos, freq&#252;entemente negligenciados, podem promover dano suplementar aos fumantes agredidos pela fuma&#231;a inalada. Esse efeito seria adicional aos efeitos bem conhecidos no endot&#233;lio vascular e pulm&#245;es, entre outros. </p>
    <p>Um dos dados mais relevantes obtido foi que a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro resultou em altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. Esse fen&#244;meno foi caracterizado por aumento dos di&#226;metros ventriculares, tanto sist&#243;lico como diast&#243;lico. Altera&#231;&#245;es da geometria, volume, massa e constitui&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o em resposta &#224; agress&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica ou &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es nas condi&#231;&#245;es de carga t&#234;m sido estudadas, recentemente, com o nome de remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca<sup>19-21</sup>. Apesar de n&#227;o se ter estudado todas as vari&#225;veis envolvidas no processo, como por exemplo, constitui&#231;&#227;o celular, estrutura tecidual e matriz intersticial, nossos resultados identificaram altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas, que caracterizam a remodela&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda. </p>
    <p>Uma das caracter&#237;sticas mais marcantes da remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca &#233; que esse processo resulta, invariavelmente, em queda progressiva da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular. Primeiramente, em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia do crescimento celular, a remodela&#231;&#227;o pode contribuir para manter ou restaurar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca. Cronicamente, entretanto, ocorrem altera&#231;&#245;es bioqu&#237;micas, gen&#233;ticas e estruturais que ir&#227;o resultar em disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular progressiva<sup>19-21</sup>. Em conson&#226;ncia com este conceito, nos ratos expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a de cigarro, o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o foi acompanhado por queda significativa da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica, avaliada pela fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o e de encurtamento. Nosso estudo n&#227;o mostrou altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, pelo menos as vari&#225;veis avaliadas pelo fluxo transmitral. </p>
    <p>Um dado intrigante foi que, apesar da disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, n&#227;o conseguimos identificar edema tecidual ventricular ou hep&#225;tico nos animais expostos &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro. Devemos lembrar, por&#233;m, que o processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o &#233; evolutivo. Inicialmente, temos a agress&#227;o ao cora&#231;&#227;o (est&#225;gio A). Com o passar do tempo, identificamos altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais, sem qualquer altera&#231;&#227;o funcional (est&#225;gio B). Conforme o processo progride, aparece a disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular assintom&#225;tica, sem sinais/sintomas congestivos ou de baixa press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o<sup>22</sup>. Os sinais/sintomas congestivos aparecem apenas nas fases mais avan&#231;adas (est&#225;gio C) da remodela&#231;&#227;o. Assim, acreditamos que a aus&#234;ncia de maior teor de &#225;gua nos &#243;rg&#227;os dos animais fumantes sugere um processo patol&#243;gico que ainda n&#227;o se encontra em seu est&#225;gio mais avan&#231;ado. </p>
    <p>Outros estudos t&#234;m analisado os efeitos da exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro em modelos experimentais e cl&#237;nicos. Entretanto, enquanto os efeitos vasculares do tabagismo est&#227;o bem caracterizados, os efeitos card&#237;acos da exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro ainda n&#227;o se encontram completamente esclarecidos. Em modelo de c&#227;es, a administra&#231;&#227;o aguda de nicotina induziu melhora da contratilidade do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco<sup>6</sup>. Em ratos com infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, o tratamento agudo com nicotina resultou em aumento da cavidade ventricular, com afilamento da parede infartada, sugerindo que a nicotina levou a efeitos delet&#233;rios no processo de remodela&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s o infarto<sup>7</sup>. Em trabalho anterior<sup>16</sup>, mostramos que a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro por 30 dias j&#225; resultava em discreta queda da fun&#231;&#227;o do VE. Alguns estudos cl&#237;nicos tamb&#233;m analisaram os efeitos card&#237;acos do tabagismo. Assim, a inala&#231;&#227;o aguda da fuma&#231;a de cigarro foi acompanhada por dist&#250;rbios da fun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica, em pacientes com documentada doen&#231;a arterial coronariana<sup>23,24</sup>. No estudo observacional CARDIA, fumantes tiveram maior massa ventricular esquerda, em compara&#231;&#227;o com n&#227;o fumantes, avaliados por ecocardiograma<sup>25</sup>, sugerindo que o tabagismo pode induzir altera&#231;&#245;es no cora&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Considerando-se os mecanismos pelos quais a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro resulta em altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais card&#237;acas, nosso estudo n&#227;o observou altera&#231;&#245;es no PO2 e na porcentagem de satura&#231;&#227;o da hemoglobina. Assim, hipoxemia cr&#244;nica e altera&#231;&#245;es na viscosidade sangu&#237;nea secund&#225;rias &#224; hip&#243;xia, potenciais candidatos que poderiam explicar os resultados de nosso estudo, provavelmente, n&#227;o tiveram participa&#231;&#227;o na fisiopatologia das altera&#231;&#245;es induzidas pelo cigarro. Outra possibilidade seria a participa&#231;&#227;o de fatores hemodin&#226;micos, particularmente a vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o arterial. Esse fen&#244;meno poderia ser resultado de subst&#226;ncias (catecolaminas, endotelina, vasopressina, entre outros) liberadas pelo estresse dos animais ou em conseq&#252;&#234;ncia da inala&#231;&#227;o da fuma&#231;a do cigarro. Al&#233;m de altera&#231;&#245;es hemodin&#226;micas, a ativa&#231;&#227;o neurohormonal poderia, por mecanismos aut&#243;crinos, par&#225;crinos ou end&#243;crinos, resultar em altera&#231;&#245;es em vias sinalizadoras intracelulares. Nosso estudo encontrou diferen&#231;as na press&#227;o arterial entre os grupos. Apesar dos n&#237;veis press&#243;ricos n&#227;o serem t&#227;o altos como em outros modelos, nossos dados sugerem que a ativa&#231;&#227;o de fatores neurohormonais pode, pelo menos em parte, explicar as altera&#231;&#245;es morfol&#243;gicas e funcionais que encontramos. </p>
    <p>Conclu&#237;mos que, apesar das evid&#234;ncias de que a exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro resulte em altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas, os mecanismos exatos envolvidos nesse processo permanecem por ser elucidados. Nossos dados indicam que a exposi&#231;&#227;o cr&#244;nica por 4 meses &#224; fuma&#231;a do cigarro resulta em remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca com preju&#237;zo da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular em ratos.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Leonardo A. M. Zornoff </p>
        <p> Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP - Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica </p>
        <p> Cep 18618-000 - Botucatu - SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="lzornoff@cardiol.br">lzornoff@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br">lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Enviado em 19/05/2004 - Aceito em 29/10/2004</p>
  </body>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Chronic cigarette smoke exposure results in cardiac remodeling and impaired ventricular function in rats</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To determine the cardiac structural and functional alterations caused by cigarette smoke exposure in rats. METHODS: The animals were randomly distributed into the following 2 groups: 1) smokers (S), comprising 10 animals exposed to cigarette smoke at a rate of 40 cigarettes/day; and 2) control (C), comprising 10 animals not exposed to cigarette smoke. After 4 months, the animals underwent morphological and functional study with echocardiography. The variables studied were analyzed by use of the t test or the Mann-Whitney test. RESULTS: The smoking rats had a greater left atrium (S=4.2&#177;0.7mm; C=3.5&#177;0.6mm; P&lt;0.05), and greater left ventricular diastolic (S=7.9&#177;0.7mm; C=7.2&#177;0.5mm; P&lt;0.05) and systolic (S=4.1&#177;0.5; C=3.4&#177;0.5; P&lt;0.05) diameters. The left ventricular mass index was greater in the smoking animals (S=1.5mg/kg&#177;0.2; C=1.3mg/kg&#177;0.2; P&lt;0.05), and the ejection fraction (S=0.85&#177;0.03; C=0.89&#177;0.03; P&lt;0.05) and the shortening fraction (S=47.8%&#177;3.7; C=52.7%&#177;4.6; P&lt;0.05) were greater in the control group. No differences were observed in the diastolic transmitral flow variables (E wave, A wave, and E/A ratio). CONCLUSION: Chronic cigarette smoke exposure results in cardiac remodeling with a decrease in ventricular functional capacity.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>hypertrophy</kwd>
        <kwd>ventricular function</kwd>
        <kwd>ventricular dilation</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Chronic cigarette smoke exposure results in cardiac remodeling and impaired ventricular function in rats</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>&#201;dson Castardeli; Sergio A. R. Paiva; Beatriz B. Matsubara; Luiz S. Matsubara; Marcos F. Minicucci; Paula S. Azevedo; &#193;lvaro O. Campana; Leonardo A. M. Zornoff</bold>
      </p>
      <p> Botucatu, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Correspondence</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To determine the cardiac structural and functional alterations caused by cigarette smoke exposure in rats. </p>
      <p><bold>METHODS: </bold>The animals were randomly distributed into the following 2 groups: 1) smokers (S), comprising 10 animals exposed to cigarette smoke at a rate of 40 cigarettes/day; and 2) control (C), comprising 10 animals not exposed to cigarette smoke. After 4 months, the animals underwent morphological and functional study with echocardiography. The variables studied were analyzed by use of the t test or the Mann-Whitney test.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold>The smoking rats had a greater left atrium (S=4.2&#177;0.7mm; C=3.5&#177;0.6mm; P&lt;0.05), and greater left ventricular diastolic (S=7.9&#177;0.7mm; C=7.2&#177;0.5mm; P&lt;0.05) and systolic (S=4.1&#177;0.5; C=3.4&#177;0.5; P&lt;0.05) diameters. The left ventricular mass index was greater in the smoking animals (S=1.5mg/kg&#177;0.2; C=1.3mg/kg&#177;0.2; P&lt;0.05), and the ejection fraction (S=0.85&#177;0.03; C=0.89&#177;0.03; P&lt;0.05) and the shortening fraction (S=47.8%&#177;3.7; C=52.7%&#177;4.6; P&lt;0.05) were greater in the control group. No differences were observed in the diastolic transmitral flow variables (E wave, A wave, and E/A ratio). </p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> Chronic cigarette smoke exposure results in cardiac remodeling with a decrease in ventricular functional capacity. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words: </bold>hypertrophy, ventricular function, ventricular dilation </p>
      <p>Active or passive cigarette smoke exposure is an important cause of morbidity and mortality <sup>1,2</sup>. Several studies have shown that chronic smokers have an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, such as atherosclerosis, coronary heart disease, and sudden death. In addition, smoking causes endothelial dysfunction, a decrease in coronary reserve, and vasospasms <sup>3-5</sup>. </p>
      <p>Although the vascular effects of cigarette smoke exposure are well known, the effects of tobacco smoking on the heart have received less attention. A relevant aspect is that most studies have assessed the effects of the acute administration of nicotine on cardiac variables <sup>6,7</sup>. In a different approach, chronic exposure to carbon monoxide, another constituent of the vapor phase of cigarette smoke, resulted in an increase in gene expression of endothelin-1, inducing cardiac hypertrophy <sup>8</sup>. </p>
      <p>The effects of acute exposure to specific components, such as nicotine or carbon monoxide, on the heart cannot be extrapolated to chronic exposure to cigarette smoke, because cigarette smoke contains thousands of known substances <sup>9</sup>. Houdi et al <sup>10</sup>, in a study to clarify the cardiac effects of cigarette smoke exposure, exposed rats to smoke for 4 days and observed an increase in blood pressure and a decrease in cardiac output. This effect was attenuated by a vasopressin antagonist. Brooks et al <sup>11</sup>, using the assessment model of contractility with preparations of isolated papillary muscle, found no differences in cardiac performance between the rats exposed to smoke for 180 days and control animals. In spontaneously hypertensive rats, exposure to smoke for 8 weeks resulted in an increase in blood pressure and a decrease in heart rate compared with that in controls <sup>12</sup>. Yet in the rat model, exposure to cigarette smoke for 6 months resulted in an increase in messenger RNA expression for endothelin 1 in cardiac tissue<sup>13</sup>. On the other hand, in the canine model, both administration of nicotine and exposure to cigarette smoke for 22 months did not modify the ejection fraction and left ventricular end-diastolic pressure compared with that in controls <sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>Therefore, the cardiac effects of chronic exposure to cigarette smoke require better characterization. Thus, this study aimed at assessing the effects of chronic exposure to cigarette smoke on morphological and functional cardiac variables analyzed by use of echocardiography. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The experimental protocol of this study followed the Ethical Principles in Animal Experimentation adopted by the Brazilian College of Animal Experimentation and approved by the Committee on Ethics and Animal Experimentation of our institution. </p>
      <p> Male Wistar rats weighing 200-250 g were randomly distributed into the following 2 groups of 10 animals each: 1) smoking group (S), exposed to cigarette smoke at the rate of 40 cigarettes/day for 4 months; and 2) control group (C), not exposed to cigarette smoke. </p>
      <p>The animals were exposed to cigarette smoke in a modified incubator according to the method proposed by Wang et al <sup>15</sup> and standardized at our laboratory <sup>16</sup>. The rats were placed in a transparent chamber with a volume of approximately 95x80x65 cm, connected to a smoking device. Puffs of cigarette smoke were collected by use of vacuum in the smoking device, being then thrown into the chamber for 30 minutes. After that period, the smoke was exhausted, and the procedure repeated. During the first week, the smoke was released at a rate of 5 cigarettes, twice a day in the afternoon with 10-minute rest intervals. The number of cigarettes was increased to a rate of 10 cigarettes/30 min, twice in the morning and twice in the afternoon, until the end of the study. Thus, at the end, the animals had been exposed to the smoke of 40 cigarettes/day. The composition of the commercial cigarette used was as follows: 1.1 mg of nicotine, 14 mg of tar, and 15 mg of carbon monoxide. </p>
      <p>At the end of the first and third month of observation, blood of the animals in both groups was drawn for blood gas analysis. Samples of the arterial blood of the tail of each animal were obtained with the aid of a "butterfly" connected to a previously heparinized 5-mL syringe. Immediately after blood collection, the analysis was performed in a Technicon automate gas analyzer, RA-XT model, and the following variables were studied: partial pressure of oxygen (PO2); partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PCO2); concentration of carboxyhemoglobin (COHb); and saturation of hemoglobin (SAT O2). </p>
      <p>After 3 months of observation, the systolic pressures in the tail of the smoking and control animals were measured by use of a tail plethysmograph with a polygraph (Byo-Sistem PE 300, NARCO), a sensor placed in the proximal region of the tail, and an electrosphygmomanometer, to enable recording tail pressure. The animals were warmed in a wooden box at 37&#186;C with the heat generated by 2 incandescent lamps for 4 minutes and were transferred to an iron support, where the tail was exposed. In the proximal region of the tail, a sensor (KSM-microfone) was placed and coupled to the plethysmograph. Blood pressure was recorded on paper with the polygraph at a 2.5-mm/s velocity. </p>
      <p>After 4 months of treatment, the animals of both groups underwent the echocardiographic study according to the previously described method <sup>17</sup>. Briefly, the animals were anesthetized with ketamine hydrochloride (50 mg/kg) and xylazine hydrochloride (1 mg/kg) through an intramuscular route, and, after epilation of the anterior region of the thorax, they were positioned in the left lateral decubitus position. Echocardiography was performed with Hewlett-Packard equipment, Sonos 2000 model, and an electronic 7.5-MHz transducer. Flows were assessed with the same transducer operating at 5.0 MHz. In the short-axis parasternal view, a transverse left ventricular one-dimensional image was obtained by using the 2-dimensional image as a guide for positioning the ultrasound beam right below the mitral valve plane, between the papillary muscles. Images of the aorta and left atrium were also obtained in the short-axis parasternal view with the M-mode cursor positioned level with the aortic valve. Recording of the one-dimensional image, adjusted for the 100-mm/s velocity, was performed by use of a Sony Co printer, UP-890MD model. Later, the cardiac structures were manually measured with the aid of a precision pachymeter according to the recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography <sup>18</sup>. The cardiac structures were measured in 3 to 5 consecutive cardiac cycles as follows: left ventricular diastolic diameter (LVDD) and left ventricular posterior wall thickness (LVPWT) were measured at the moment corresponding to the maximum diameter of the cavity; the left ventricular systolic diameter (LVSD) was measured at the moment of the maximum systolic excursion of the posterior wall of the cavity. Left ventricular systolic function was assessed by calculating the percentage of systolic shortening [(LVDD-LVSD)/LVDD x 100] and the left ventricular ejection fraction (LVDD<sup>3 </sup>- LVSD<sup>3</sup>/LVDD<sup>3</sup>). The transmitral diastolic flow (E and A waves) was obtained with the transducer at the apical 4-chamber view. The peak velocities in the rapid ventricular filling phase (E wave) and during atrial contraction (A wave) were measured directly on the echocardiographic monitor in 5 consecutive cardiac cycles. </p>
      <p>After undergoing Doppler echocardiography, the rats were euthanized, the liver and heart were removed and the right and left ventricles (including the ventricular septum) were separated and weighed. Then, the ventricles were put into an incubator, where they remained for 48 hours at the temperature of 80&#186;C, to dehydrate. The relation between the humid and dry weights of the structures could be determined, as well as the tissue water content. </p>
      <p>The Student <italic>t</italic> test was used for comparisons between the groups when data had a normal distribution. When their distribution was not normal, the comparisons between the groups were performed by using the U test (or Mann-Whitney test). Data are expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation (for normal distribution), or median with the quartile 25 and the quartile 75 (for nonnormal distribution). The results were considered statistically significant if P&lt;0.05. The analyses were performed with the Sigmastat program. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The body variables of the animals are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">table I</xref>. The smoking rats had a smaller relation between left ventricular humid weight and dry weight, as compared with that of control animals. In regard to the other variables, no differences were found between the groups. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The morphological variables obtained from the echocardiographic study are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">table II</xref>. Smoking rats had greater left atria (S=4.2&#177;0.7 mm; C=3.5&#177;0.6 mm; P&lt;0.05) compared with those of control animals. In regard to ventricular diameters, the S group animals had greater left ventricular diastolic (S=7.9&#177;0.7 mm; C=7.2&#177;0.5 mm; P&lt;0.05) and systolic (S=4.1 &#177;0.5; C=3.4&#177;0.5; P&lt;0.05) diameters compared with those of control animals. When those variables were adjusted for body weight, the smoking rats had greater atrial and ventricular diameters (P&lt;0.05) and left ventricular mass index (S=1.5&#177;0.2; C=1.3&#177;0.2; P&lt;0.05). </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Considering the functional variables, differences were identified neither in the E and A waves nor in the E/A ratio between the 2 groups (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">tab. II</xref>). The ejection (S=0.85&#177;0.03; C=0.89&#177;0.03; P&lt;0.05) and shortening (S=47.8%&#177;3.7; C=52.7%&#177;4.6; P&lt;0.05) fractions were greater in the control group. </p>
      <p> In regard to blood gas analysis, after one month of exposure to cigarette smoke, the smoking rats had statistically greater concentrations of carboxyhemoglobin than nonsmoking rats did (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">tab. III</xref>). That variable was used to confirm the efficacy of the exposure of smoking animals to cigarette smoke. Regarding the other variables, no differences were found between the groups. After 3 months of evolution, differences in blood gas analysis were observed between the 2 groups only in regard to PCO2, which was smaller in the smoking group. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>Regarding blood pressure levels, the group exposed to cigarette smoke showed, after a 3-month exposure, an increase in systolic blood pressure in the tail as compared with that in the control group (S=118&#177;15mm Hg, C=103&#177;16mm Hg; P=0.045) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig. 1</xref>). </p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-04-0320-00009-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Our objective was to assess the cardiac effects of prolonged exposure (4 months) to cigarette smoke in the rat model. The results indicate that chronic cigarette exposure leads to cardiac alterations, both morphological and functional, assessed through echocardiography. Thus, the usually neglected cardiac effects may cause additional damage to smokers affected by inhaled smoke. This is an additional effect to the already well-known effects, such as those on the vascular endothelium and lungs. </p>
      <p>One of the most relevant pieces of data obtained was that exposure to cigarette smoke resulted in left ventricular morphological alterations. This phenomenon was characterized by an increase in ventricular diameters, both systolic and diastolic. Recently, alterations in cardiac geometry, volume, mass, and constituents in response to myocardial aggression or to alterations in load conditions have been studied under the name of cardiac remodeling <sup>19-21</sup>. Although we have not studied all variables involved in the process, such as cell constitution, tissue structure, and interstitial matrix, our results identified morphological alterations that characterize left ventricular remodeling. </p>
      <p>One of the most striking characteristics of cardiac remodeling is that that process invariably results in a progressive decrease in ventricular function. Initially, due to cell growth, remodeling may contribute to maintain or restore cardiac function. Chronically, however, biochemical, genetic, and structural alterations occur, resulting in progressive ventricular dysfunction<sup> 19-21</sup>. In agreement with that concept, in rats exposed to cigarette smoke, the remodeling process was accompanied by a significant decrease in the systolic function assessed by use of the ejection and shortening fractions. Our study showed no alteration in diastolic function, at least in the variables assessed through transmitral flow. </p>
      <p> An intriguing fact was that, despite the existence of left ventricular dysfunction, no ventricular or hepatic tissue edema was identified in the animals exposed to cigarette smoke. However, it is worth noting that the remodeling process is evolutionary. Initially, aggression to the heart occurs (stage A). As time goes by, structural alterations, but not functional alterations, are identified (stage B). As the process progresses, asymptomatic ventricular dysfunction appears with signs/symptoms of congestion or of low perfusion pressure <sup>22</sup>. Congestive signs/symptoms appear only in the more advanced phases (stage C) of remodeling. Thus, we believe that the lack of greater water content in the organs of smoking animals suggests the existence of a pathological process, which is not in its most advanced stage. </p>
      <p>Other studies have analyzed the effects of cigarette smoke exposure on experimental and clinical models. However, while the vascular effects of smoking have been well characterized, the cardiac effects of cigarette smoke exposure have not yet been completely clarified. In a canine model, the acute administration of nicotine induced an improvement in cardiac muscle contractility<sup>6</sup>. In rats with myocardial infarction, the acute treatment with nicotine resulted in an enlargement of the ventricular cavity, with thinning of the infarcted wall, suggesting that nicotine led to deleterious effects on the remodeling process after infarction <sup>7</sup>. In a previous study <sup>16</sup>, we reported that exposure to cigarette smoke for 30 days resulted in a mild decrease in LV function. Some clinical studies have also analyzed the cardiac effects of smoking. Thus, acute inhalation of cigarette smoke was accompanied by disorders in the diastolic function of patients with documented coronary heart disease <sup>23,24</sup>. In the observational CARDIA study, smokers had a greater left ventricular mass when compared with that of nonsmokers on echocardiography <sup>25</sup>, suggesting that smoking may induce cardiac alterations. </p>
      <p>Considering the mechanisms through which cigarette smoke exposure results in cardiac morphological and functional alterations, our study did not show alterations in PO2 and in the percentage of hemoglobin saturation. Thus, chronic hypoxemia and alterations in blood viscosity secondary to hypoxia, which are potential candidates to explain our results, may not have participated in the pathophysiology of the cigarette-induced alterations. Another possibility could be the participation of hemodynamic factors, particularly arterial vasoconstriction. This phenomenon could result from substances, such as catecholamines, endothelin, and vasopressin, released by the stress or consequent to the inhalation of cigarette smoke. In addition to the hemodynamic alterations, the neurohormonal activation could, through autocrine, paracrine, or endocrine mechanisms result in alterations in the intracellular signaling pathways. Our study found differences in blood pressure between the groups. Although the blood pressure levels were not as high as those in other models, our data suggest that activation of neurohormonal factors may, at least in part, explain the morphological and functional alterations found. </p>
      <p>In conclusion, despite the evidence that chronic exposure to cigarette smoke results in cardiac alterations, the exact mechanisms involved in that process remain to be elucidated. Our data indicate that chronic exposure to cigarette smoke for 4 months results in cardiac remodeling with ventricular function impairment in rats.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Correspondence to</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Leonardo A. M. Zornoff </p>
          <p> Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu - UNESP - Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica </p>
          <p> Cep 18618-000 - Botucatu, SP, Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p><email xlink:href="lzornoff@cardiol.br">lzornoff@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br">lzornoff@fmb.unesp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Sent for publication: 05/19/2004 </p>
      <p> Accepted for publication: 10/29/2004 </p>
      <p>English version by Stela Maris Costalonga</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
