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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">CFMmstjJczxt4tyBcbvrhNK</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2005000300003</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(05)08400303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2005000300003</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fatores de risco associados com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo: uma regi&#227;o desenvolvida em um pa&#237;s em desenvolvimento</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Avezum</surname>
            <given-names>&#193;lvaro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
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          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Piegas</surname>
            <given-names>Leopoldo Soares</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff03"/>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>J&#250;lio C&#233;sar R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
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        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff04">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Paula</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o da Associa&#231;&#227;o do Sanat&#243;rio S&#237;rio</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff09">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital e Maternidade Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff08">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Municipal de Santo Andr&#233;</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff03">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#227;o Lu&#237;s</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff06">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Marcelina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff05">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Servidor P&#250;blico Municipal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Wladimir Arruda</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff07">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>84</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <fpage>206</fpage>
      <lpage>213</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2004</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>02</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2005</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Identificar os fatores de risco, associados com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), com as respectivas for&#231;as de associa&#231;&#227;o, na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo. M&#201;TODOS: Os casos eram pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de primeiro IAM com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST e os controles eram indiv&#237;duos sem doen&#231;a cardiovascular conhecida. Foram inclu&#237;dos 271 casos e 282 controles provenientes de 12 hospitais. Os fatores avaliados: ra&#231;a, escolaridade, estado civil, renda familiar, hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, antecedentes de hipertens&#227;o arterial e de diabetes mellitus, reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal em mulheres, tabagismo, atividade f&#237;sica, consumo de &#225;lcool, colesterol total, LDL-colesterol, HDL-colesterol, triglic&#233;rides e glicose, &#237;ndice de massa corporal e rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril. RESULTADOS: Os seguintes fatores de risco apresentaram associa&#231;&#227;o independente com IAM: tabagismo (raz&#227;o de chances [OR]=5,86; intervalo de confian&#231;a [IC] 95% 3,25-10,57; p&lt;0,00001), rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril [tercil superior vs. inferior] (OR=4,27; IC 95% 2,28-8,00; p&lt;0,00001), antecedentes de hipertens&#227;o arterial (OR=3,26; IC 95% 1,95-5,46; p&lt;0,00001), rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril [tercil intermedi&#225;rio vs. inferior] (OR=3,07; IC95% 1,66-5,66; p=0,0003), n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de LDL-colesterol (OR=2,75; IC 95% 1,45-5,19; p=0,0018), antecedentes de diabetes mellitus (OR=2,51; IC 95% 1,45-5,19; p=0,023), hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana (OR=2,33; IC 95% 1,44-3,75; p=0,0005) e HDL-colesterol (OR=0,53; IC 95% 0,32-0,87; p=0,011). CONCLUS&#195;O: Tabagismo, rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril, antecedentes de hipertens&#227;o arterial e de diabetes, hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LDL-colesterol e de HDL-colesterol encontram-se independentemente associados com IAM na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</kwd>
        <kwd>fatores de risco</kwd>
        <kwd>estudo de caso-controle</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>19</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Fatores de risco associados com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo. Uma regi&#227;o desenvolvida em um pa&#237;s em desenvolvimento </bold>
    </p>
    <p>&#193;lvaro Avezum; Leopoldo Soares Piegas; J&#250;lio C&#233;sar R. Pereira </p>
    <p> S&#227;o Paulo, SP</p>
    <p> Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o da Associa&#231;&#227;o do Sanat&#243;rio S&#237;rio, Hospital S&#227;o Lu&#237;s, Hospital S&#227;o Paulo, Hospital do Servidor P&#250;blico Municipal, Hospital Santa Marcelina, Hospital Santa Casa de S&#227;o Paulo, Hospital Municipal de Santo Andr&#233;, Hospital e Maternidade Brasil, Hospital Santa Paula, Hospital Wladimir Arruda</p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold>Identificar os fatores de risco, associados com infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM), com as respectivas for&#231;as de associa&#231;&#227;o, na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS: </bold>Os casos eram pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de primeiro IAM com eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST e os controles eram indiv&#237;duos sem doen&#231;a cardiovascular conhecida. Foram inclu&#237;dos 271 casos e 282 controles provenientes de 12 hospitais. Os fatores avaliados: ra&#231;a, escolaridade, estado civil, renda familiar, hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, antecedentes de hipertens&#227;o arterial e de diabetes mellitus, reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal em mulheres, tabagismo, atividade f&#237;sica, consumo de &#225;lcool, colesterol total, LDL-colesterol, HDL-colesterol, triglic&#233;rides e glicose, &#237;ndice de massa corporal e rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold>Os seguintes fatores de risco apresentaram associa&#231;&#227;o independente com IAM: tabagismo (raz&#227;o de chances [OR]=5,86; intervalo de confian&#231;a [IC] 95% 3,25-10,57; p&lt;0,00001), rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril [tercil superior vs. inferior] (OR=4,27; IC 95% 2,28-8,00; p&lt;0,00001), antecedentes de hipertens&#227;o arterial (OR=3,26; IC 95% 1,95-5,46; p&lt;0,00001), rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril [tercil intermedi&#225;rio vs. inferior] (OR=3,07; IC95% 1,66-5,66; p=0,0003), n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de LDL-colesterol (OR=2,75; IC 95% 1,45-5,19; p=0,0018), antecedentes de diabetes mellitus (OR=2,51; IC 95% 1,45-5,19; p=0,023), hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana (OR=2,33; IC 95% 1,44-3,75; p=0,0005) e HDL-colesterol (OR=0,53; IC 95% 0,32-0,87; p=0,011). </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O: </bold>Tabagismo, rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril, antecedentes de hipertens&#227;o arterial e de diabetes, hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LDL-colesterol e de HDL-colesterol encontram-se independentemente associados com IAM na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold>infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, fatores de risco, estudo de caso-controle</p>
    <p>  De acordo com proje&#231;&#245;es para o ano 2020, a doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) permanecer&#225; como causa principal de mortalidade e incapacita&#231;&#227;o, e atualmente, as regi&#245;es em desenvolvimento contribuem mais marcadamente sobre o &#244;nus da DCV que as desenvolvidas<sup>1</sup>. Esse aumento da DCV em regi&#245;es em desenvolvimento resulta, provavelmente, de tr&#234;s fatores: redu&#231;&#245;es da mortalidade por causas infecto-parasit&#225;rias, com aumento da expectativa de vida, estilo de vida e mudan&#231;as s&#243;cio-econ&#244;micas associados &#224; urbaniza&#231;&#227;o, conduzindo a n&#237;veis mais elevados de fatores de risco para DCV; e suscetibilidade especial de determinadas popula&#231;&#245;es (por causa de genes espec&#237;ficos), levando a maior impacto sobre eventos cl&#237;nicos quando comparadas &#224;s popula&#231;&#245;es de regi&#245;es ocidentais desenvolvidas<sup>1</sup>.  </p>
    <p>Os coeficientes de mortalidade por infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) e doen&#231;a cerebrovascular (DCbV), espec&#237;ficos por idade, em regi&#245;es metropolitanas do Brasil, apresentam perfis de risco diferentes de outros pa&#237;ses. Cerca de 50% dos &#243;bitos masculinos por doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC) ocorrem na faixa et&#225;ria abaixo de 65 anos, enquanto em outros pa&#237;ses (Estados Unidos, Cuba e Inglaterra) essa propor&#231;&#227;o encontra-se em torno de 25%<sup>1</sup>. No munic&#237;pio de S&#227;o Paulo, apesar do decl&#237;nio da mortalidade por DAC e DCbV a partir de meados da d&#233;cada de 70, as DCV, relacionadas &#224; aterosclerose, ainda representam o principal grupo de causas de &#243;bito no Estado, como nos pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos<sup>2,3</sup>. </p>
    <p>O conhecimento sobre fatores de risco para DCV ou DAC prov&#233;m de estudos realizados em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos na Am&#233;rica do Norte e Europa Ocidental. N&#227;o &#233;, portanto, totalmente seguro, nem perfeitamente aceit&#225;vel, fazer extrapola&#231;&#245;es para a popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira dos resultados obtidos primariamente nesses pa&#237;ses. N&#227;o s&#243; a preval&#234;ncia dos fatores de risco pode diferir significativamente, como tamb&#233;m o impacto de cada fator em uma determinada popula&#231;&#227;o pode ser drasticamente diferente. Adicionalmente, os fatores protetores para DAC podem ser diferentes, promovendo, assim, impactos n&#227;o clinicamente similares. </p>
    <p>Depreende-se do exposto que qualquer pol&#237;tica de sa&#250;de atendendo o ponto de vista individual, institucional ou governamental deve ser baseada, preferencialmente, em dados obtidos na popula&#231;&#227;o local. Conseq&#252;entemente, um estudo caso-controle avaliando os fatores de risco associados com IAM, em nossa regi&#227;o, constitui etapa fundamental para avaliarmos o impacto real dos fatores de risco em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o. O objetivo do presente estudo &#233; a identifica&#231;&#227;o da for&#231;a de associa&#231;&#227;o entre fatores de risco cardiovascular e IAM na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo. </p>
    <p>
      <bold> M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Estudo caso-controle, de base hospitalar, multic&#234;ntrico (12 hospitais na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo), coleta de dados prospectiva utilizando formul&#225;rio de medidas antropom&#233;tricas e coleta de sangue para avalia&#231;&#227;o laboratorial de perfil lip&#237;dico e glicose. A popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo envolveu indiv&#237;duos com diagn&#243;stico de IAM (primeira manifesta&#231;&#227;o) com eleva&#231;&#227;o de segmento ST (casos) e sem diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a cardiovascular (controles). </p>
    <p>Os crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade de inclus&#227;o para casos foram: pacientes admitidos nas Unidades de Emerg&#234;ncia ou Unidades Coronarianas com diagn&#243;stico de primeiro IAM com eleva&#231;&#227;o de segmento ST: dor precordial com in&#237;cio <underline>&lt;</underline> 24 horas, altera&#231;&#245;es no eletrocardiograma (ECG) compat&#237;veis com IAM, com eleva&#231;&#227;o de segmento ST, aumento dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos da fra&#231;&#227;o MB da creatinoquinase (CKMB) e/ou creatinoquinase (CK) total de pelo menos duas vezes o valor normal de refer&#234;ncia do laborat&#243;rio local. Para exclus&#227;o: doen&#231;a valvar, doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica consumptiva e condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica que, a crit&#233;rio do investigador, pudesse impedir a inclus&#227;o ou prejudicar a an&#225;lise do estudo. </p>
    <p>Os crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade de inclus&#227;o para controles foram: aus&#234;ncia de diagn&#243;stico conhecido de DCV, ECG dentro dos limites da normalidade (exce&#231;&#227;o feita para ectopia atrial isolada), portadores de HAS sem altera&#231;&#227;o no ECG e pacientes diab&#233;ticos sem suspeita de DCV associada. Em hospitais gerais, a sele&#231;&#227;o de controles incluiu pacientes admitidos no hospital, provenientes, por exemplo, de cl&#237;nicas de oftalmologia, otorrinolaringologia, ortopedia ou cirurgia pl&#225;stica. Em hospitais especializados em cardiologia, a sele&#231;&#227;o de controles incluiu indiv&#237;duos que procuraram o hospital para doa&#231;&#227;o de sangue ou para realiza&#231;&#227;o de exame de <italic>check-up</italic> de rotina, funcion&#225;rios da institui&#231;&#227;o ou familiares de pacientes hospitalizados. Os crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o foram: diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de DAC ou qualquer outra DCV, incluindo doen&#231;a vascular cerebral e perif&#233;rica, hepatopatias e nefropatias, hist&#243;ria de dor precordial sugestiva de isquemia coronariana, neoplasias ou qualquer outra co-morbidade significativa, gravidez, mudan&#231;a recente (&lt;30 dias) nos h&#225;bitos alimentares e condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica que, a crit&#233;rio do investigador, pudesse impedir a inclus&#227;o ou prejudicar a an&#225;lise do estudo. </p>
    <p>Os seguintes dados foram obtidos: amostra de sangue de 10ml foi coletada e analisada nos hospitais participantes. A coleta de sangue para exame de l&#237;pides foi at&#233; 24 horas do in&#237;cio dos sintomas de IAM e glicose entre cinco e oito dias da admiss&#227;o hospitalar para os casos e l&#237;pides e glicose at&#233; 30 dias da inclus&#227;o para os controles. As dosagens de colesterol total, HDL-colesterol, triglic&#233;rides e glicemia foram feitas por m&#233;todo direto, enquanto o c&#225;lculo de LDL-colesterol foi feito por m&#233;todo indireto, utilizando-se a equa&#231;&#227;o de Friedewald (LDL-colesterol = colesterol total - HDL-colesterol - triglic&#233;rides/5). </p>
    <p>A vari&#225;vel dependente era IAM e as independentes, os fatores de risco cardiovascular de interesse para este estudo caso-controle (ra&#231;a, escolaridade, estado civil, renda familiar, hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, antecedentes de hipertens&#227;o arterial, de diabetes mellitus (DM), tabagismo, atividade f&#237;sica, consumo de &#225;lcool, n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de colesterol total, LDL-colesterol, HDL-colesterol, triglic&#233;rides e glicose, &#237;ndice de massa corporal e rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril). </p>
    <p>As compara&#231;&#245;es entre as vari&#225;veis foram conduzidas ap&#243;s o ajuste por idade e g&#234;nero. A an&#225;lise univariada foi utilizada como estrat&#233;gia de avalia&#231;&#227;o das rela&#231;&#245;es entre doen&#231;a e exposi&#231;&#227;o para as vari&#225;veis estudadas. Foram calculados as m&#233;dias, os desvios padr&#227;o, as medianas e os intervalos m&#225;ximo e m&#237;nimo para as vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas, sendo as compara&#231;&#245;es entre casos e controles realizadas por testes param&#233;tricos e n&#227;o-param&#233;tricos, conforme aplic&#225;vel. Para o modelo log&#237;stico, foram consideradas todas as vari&#225;veis que na an&#225;lise univariada mostravam signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica (p&lt;0,05). As vari&#225;veis assim selecionadas tiveram suas eventuais intera&#231;&#245;es examinadas em uma matriz de correla&#231;&#227;o e todas as intera&#231;&#245;es com coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o <underline>&gt;</underline> 0,5 foram incorporadas ao modelo. Para cada vari&#225;vel foram calculados a raz&#227;o de chances e o intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%. Todas as vari&#225;veis foram categorizadas para a constru&#231;&#227;o do modelo multivariado, estabelecendo-se, antecipadamente, a categoria de refer&#234;ncia para a estimativa de risco. O m&#233;todo utilizado para a regress&#227;o log&#237;stica foi o "<italic>forward stepwise</italic>", estabelecendo-se n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de 0,05 para entrada de vari&#225;veis e de 0,10 para sa&#237;da de vari&#225;veis. As vari&#225;veis foram analisadas por meio de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica n&#227;o-condicional <sup>4-5</sup>. Com o objetivo de detectar alguma diferen&#231;a nos resultados da an&#225;lise multivariada, pela potencial heterogeneidade dos casos e controles inclu&#237;dos nos 12 hospitais participantes, foi realizada uma an&#225;lise adicional. O c&#225;lculo de tamanho amostral foi baseado na preval&#234;ncia de fatores de risco cardiovascular na popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira, utilizando raz&#227;o de chance de 2,0, propor&#231;&#227;o de um caso para um controle, teste de hip&#243;teses bicaudal, poder estat&#237;stico de 90% e alfa de 0,05. </p>
    <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelos Comit&#234;s de &#201;tica em Pesquisa dos 12 hospitais participantes. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram inclu&#237;dos 553 indiv&#237;duos (271 casos e 282 controles). O n&#250;mero total de indiv&#237;duos representados na an&#225;lise multivariada foi de 494, devido &#224; falta de dados em rela&#231;&#227;o a alguma vari&#225;vel independente necess&#225;ria &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o desta an&#225;lise. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas, com as respectivas m&#233;dias e desvios padr&#227;o, est&#227;o descritas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela I</xref>. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>De acordo com a an&#225;lise univariada, as seguintes vari&#225;veis apresentaram associa&#231;&#227;o com risco aumentado ou reduzido de desenvolver IAM: estado civil, estar aposentado, hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, antecedentes de HAS e DM, tabagismo, atividade f&#237;sica, LDL-colesterol, HDL-colesterol, glicose, IMC e RCQ. Por meio da an&#225;lise multivariada, as seguintes vari&#225;veis apresentaram associa&#231;&#227;o independente positiva com IAM, tabagismo, antecedente de HAS, antecedente de DM, hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, RCQ e n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de LDL-colesterol. A maior for&#231;a de associa&#231;&#227;o independente para o desenvolvimento de IAM foi o tabagismo (OR=5,86; IC 95%=3,25-10,57) e a menor foi a hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana (OR=2,33; IC 95%=1,44-3,75). O n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de HDL-colesterol apresentou associa&#231;&#227;o independente negativa com IAM. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tabela II</xref> descreve essas vari&#225;veis, com as respectivas raz&#245;es de chances, intervalos de confian&#231;a de 95% e valores de p. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">figura 1</xref> descreve a representa&#231;&#227;o gr&#225;fica dessas vari&#225;veis com suas respectivas for&#231;as de associa&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Ap&#243;s o controle da vari&#225;vel hospital participante no modelo multivariado, os resultados obtidos previamente foram mantidos. Portanto, a diferen&#231;a num&#233;rica entre casos e controles, promovendo diferen&#231;as qualitativas entre os mesmos, foi desconsiderada com a demonstra&#231;&#227;o da homogeneidade dos resultados. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Esses dados permitiram a determina&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco independentemente associados ao IAM, em uma amostra da popula&#231;&#227;o metropolitana da cidade de S&#227;o Paulo. A an&#225;lise de regress&#227;o log&#237;stica n&#227;o-condicional, demonstra que os fatores de risco tabagismo, RCQ, antecedente de HAS, antecedente de DM, hist&#243;ria familiar de DAC e n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de LDL-colesterol est&#227;o independentemente associados com risco elevado de IAM. Dentre os fatores de risco, o tabagismo foi o mais potente fator de risco independente identificado. </p>
    <p>Esse estudo demonstra o tabagismo como o fator de risco independente mais importante para IAM. A import&#226;ncia do tabagismo vem sendo demonstrada ao longo dos anos por uma s&#233;rie de evid&#234;ncias intra e inter-populacionais. Um estudo ecol&#243;gico, avaliando tabagismo e mortalidade por DAC, por meio da compara&#231;&#227;o entre capitais de regi&#245;es metropolitanas do Brasil em 1988, sugeriu clara associa&#231;&#227;o entre fumo e a mortalidade por DAC <sup>6</sup>. Recentemente, um estudo de base hospitalar, caso-controle, avaliando fatores de risco para IAM, em indianos, o fator preditor de IAM mais importante nesse estudo foi o tabagismo (OR=3,6)<sup>7</sup>. Comparativamente, o estudo conduzido na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo identifica o tabagismo (<underline>&gt;</underline> 5 cigarros/dia) com uma pot&#234;ncia maior do que o estudo indiano (OR=5,86 vs. 6,7). Outro estudo caso-controle de base hospitalar, conduzido na Argentina tamb&#233;m demonstrou resultados semelhantes <sup>8</sup>. No estudo de Moraes e Souza <sup>9</sup>, houve associa&#231;&#227;o significativa independente do tabagismo com risco aumentado de DAC, em homens, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos ex-fumantes (OR=2,24) e aos fumantes (OR=1,84); nas mulheres, houve apenas associa&#231;&#227;o significativa e independente com risco aumentado de DAC nos ex-fumantes (OR=2,68), confirmando os resultados do nosso estudo, por&#233;m com pot&#234;ncia menor de associa&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o a este estudo e com associa&#231;&#227;o mais intensa nos ex-fumantes em compara&#231;&#227;o com os fumantes atuais. Uma das poss&#237;veis explica&#231;&#245;es seria o fato de que, no presente estudo, foi analisado o IAM, um evento em que a trombose coronariana exerce um efeito predominante na g&#234;nese da ocorr&#234;ncia aguda, enquanto no estudo de Moraes e Souza <sup>9</sup>, foi analisado a DAC, que n&#227;o envolvia apenas IAM. Pode-se sugerir que o tabagismo apresenta for&#231;a de associa&#231;&#227;o mais potente com o evento aterotromb&#243;tico do IAM que a aterosclerose coronariana isoladamente. Neste estudo, o risco aumentado resultante do tabagismo foi de 5,86 em compara&#231;&#227;o com 1,80 no ECF. Como o IAM &#233; a principal causa de &#243;bito no Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, dados sobre tabagismo e mortalidade complementam a compreens&#227;o do elo entre tabagismo, IAM e &#243;bito decorrente de DAC. Os resultados do <italic>Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial</italic> (MRFIT)<sup>10</sup>, tamb&#233;m confirmaram a rela&#231;&#227;o gradual entre n&#250;mero de cigarros e &#243;bito decorrente de DAC. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo, o fator de risco antecedente de DM mostrou ser fator de risco independentemente associado ao IAM. Esse achado &#233; consistente com aquele obtido em estudos de coorte, de base populacional, os quais demonstram que o DM tipo 2 confere risco para DAC cerca de duas vezes maior em homens e de tr&#234;s vezes maior em mulheres. No ECF <sup>11</sup>, a presen&#231;a de DM dobrou o risco de DCV, ajustado por idade, em homens e triplicou o risco em mulheres. Infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, angina e morte s&#250;bita foram duas vezes mais freq&#252;entes em diab&#233;ticos quando comparados com n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos. Ap&#243;s an&#225;lise ajustada para todos os outros fatores de risco, o DM continuou a ser o principal fator de risco cardiovascular independente. No estudo MRFIT <sup>10</sup>, O risco de &#243;bito cardiovascular em 12 anos de seguimento foi aproximadamente tr&#234;s vezes mais alto em homens, comparados com os controles n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos. No estudo de Moraes e Souza <sup>9 </sup>uma das interpreta&#231;&#245;es para o desaparecimento do DM como fator preditor independente para DAC pode ser a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco mais potentes que o DM na ocorr&#234;ncia dos eventos coronarianos avaliados como DAC, no modelo multivariado, como tamb&#233;m, possivelmente, os diab&#233;ticos estavam adequadamente tratados, reduzindo o risco de DCV. </p>
    <p> Os dados do estudo atual sugerem fortemente que a presen&#231;a de HAS como antecedente mostrou ser um fator de risco potente e independentemente associado ao IAM. Essa correla&#231;&#227;o foi demonstrada em diversos estudos epidemiol&#243;gicos, e a redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de DCV com seu controle foi documentada em in&#250;meros estudos cl&#237;nicos em preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria<sup>12-14</sup>. No estudo de Moraes e Souza <sup>9</sup>, foi demonstrado que a HAS &#233; um fator preditor independente para a ocorr&#234;ncia de DAC (OR=3,67; em mulheres e OR=4,38, em homens). De acordo com o <italic>Seven Countries Study</italic><sup>12</sup>, cada incremento de 10 mmHg na mediana da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica na popula&#231;&#227;o correspondia &#224; duplica&#231;&#227;o do risco de &#243;bito coronariano. O estudo MRFIT<sup> 13</sup> tamb&#233;m demonstrou rela&#231;&#227;o direta entre eleva&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis das press&#245;es arteriais sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica e incid&#234;ncia subseq&#252;ente de mortalidade por DAC durante seguimento de 11,6 anos em homens inicialmente sem DAC. Finalmente, os resultados de uma meta-an&#225;lise de nove estudos observacionais prospectivos, incluindo 418.343 indiv&#237;duos inicialmente livres de DAC, demonstraram que o aumento do risco para mortalidade por DAC iniciava-se em n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica entre 73 mmHg e 78 mmHg, sendo esse aumento superior a cinco vezes quando os n&#237;veis se encontravam entre 73 mmHg e 105 mmHg<sup>14</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os dados do estudo da regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo s&#227;o corroborados por outros estudos caso-controle demonstrando a import&#226;ncia da hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana para o risco de IAM. Um estudo caso-controle realizado na Argentina analisou a rela&#231;&#227;o entre hist&#243;ria familiar de IAM e risco de IAM <sup>8</sup>. Um total de 1.070 indiv&#237;duos foi inclu&#237;do, demonstrando-se que o fato de ter um familiar em primeiro grau com hist&#243;ria de IAM aumenta o risco de apresentar IAM (OR=2,18). Quando a hist&#243;ria envolvia apenas um familiar com IAM o risco era menor (OR=2,04), em compara&#231;&#227;o com dois ou mais familiares (OR=3,18). &#201; interessante notar que a associa&#231;&#227;o foi mais potente para indiv&#237;duos mais jovens (OR=4,42 para indiv&#237;duos com idade &lt; 55 anos) comparativamente aos mais velhos (OR=3,0 para indiv&#237;duos <underline>&gt;</underline> 55 anos) com dois ou mais familiares com IAM. Moraes e Souza <sup>9</sup>, demonstraram a associa&#231;&#227;o independente dos antecedentes familiares de cardiopatia com o risco aumentado de DAC (OR=2,71, em mulheres; OR=3,29 em homens). No Brasil, o estudo FRICAS (Fatores de Risco para Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio no Brasil), que incluiu 591 indiv&#237;duos em 20 cidades, 13 das quais no Estado de S&#227;o Paulo, demonstrou que hist&#243;ria familiar de insufici&#234;ncia coronariana foi associada ao risco de IAM, por meio de an&#225;lise univariada<sup>15</sup>. Grande propor&#231;&#227;o das DCV pode ser atribu&#237;da &#224; predisposi&#231;&#227;o herdada ou familiar. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo caso-controle foi avaliado o IMC e a RCQ para avalia&#231;&#227;o de obesidade. O IMC n&#227;o esteve independentemente associado &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM. O <italic>Nurses' Health Study</italic> demonstrou que o IMC de 27 a 29 associou-se a risco relativo de &#243;bito de 1,6, o IMC de 29 a 32 associou-se a risco de 2,1 e o IMC <underline>&gt;</underline> 32 associou-se a risco de 2,2 comparativamente ao grupo de IMC abaixo de 19 <sup>16</sup>. O estudo NHANES relatou risco relativo de 1,5 para DCV, tardiamente na vida, para mulheres com IMC acima de 29, quando comparadas com a popula&#231;&#227;o referente (IMC&lt;21) <sup>17</sup>. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, a obesidade esteve associada com hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica, independentemente de HAS e com taxas mais altas de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no ECF <sup>18</sup>. Adicionalmente, os estudos observacionais sugerem associa&#231;&#227;o entre IMC e DCV ou DAC; e n&#227;o IAM isoladamente. </p>
    <p>A RCQ, por sua vez, foi um fator extremamente potente associado independentemente com o desenvolvimento de IAM. Essa medida revestiu-se de grande sensibilidade, pois permitiu que mesmo na compara&#231;&#227;o entre os tercis m&#233;dio e baixo houvesse a demonstra&#231;&#227;o de associa&#231;&#227;o estatisticamente significativa. De acordo com os dados obtidos neste estudo a RCQ constitui uma medida mais sens&#237;vel que o IMC para identifica&#231;&#227;o de risco independente associado com IAM. Entre os maiores estudos que examinaram a rela&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade abdominal e DAC, destaca-se o <italic>Nurses' Health Study</italic>. Este estudo, que avaliou a rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril, RCQ <underline>&gt;</underline> 0,88 estava associada a risco relativo de 3,25 para DAC, comparativamente a RCQ &lt; 0,72 <sup>19</sup>. A obesidade abdominal tamb&#233;m foi um fator preditor de risco de acidente vascular cerebral no <italic>Physician's Health Study</italic> <sup>20</sup>. A RCQ acima de 0,9 em homens ou de 0,8 em mulheres indica obesidade abdominal <sup>21,22</sup>. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo, o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de colesterol total n&#227;o mostrou ser preditor independente para a ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM. Os n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de colesterol total nos casos foram similares aos dos controles (195,74 vs. 195,46 mg/dl). A an&#225;lise descritiva envolvendo a mediana dos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de colesterol total mostra valores mais elevados nos casos em rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles (193,0 vs. 199,0 mg/dl). Provavelmente, como especificado anteriormente, a explica&#231;&#227;o metodologicamente plaus&#237;vel &#233; a possibilidade de poder estat&#237;stico insuficiente. A dire&#231;&#227;o da diferen&#231;a (casos com n&#237;veis superiores aos controles) e a plausibilidade biol&#243;gica, permite-nos interpretar esses achados como promissores. Seria poss&#237;vel, tamb&#233;m, sugerir que os n&#237;veis de colesterol total nos controles eram razoavelmente elevados, aproximando-se dos casos, dificultando, assim, a detec&#231;&#227;o de diferen&#231;a. Apesar de essa possibilidade n&#227;o poder ser afastada, pode-se raciocinar com base em dois cen&#225;rios para melhor compreens&#227;o dos dados atuais. Se houve um vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o no recrutamento de controles, permitindo, inconscientemente, a inclus&#227;o de controles com n&#237;veis de colesterol total acima da m&#233;dia da popula&#231;&#227;o geral, teria sido observada atenua&#231;&#227;o dessa diferen&#231;a. Por outro lado, ao se analisar os n&#237;veis de colesterol total dos controles, comparativamente aos n&#237;veis obtidos em um estudo transversal envolvendo 8.045 indiv&#237;duos de nove capitais, os resultados demonstram que os n&#237;veis desse estudo s&#227;o superiores aos obtidos neste estudo caso-controle, o que indica que possivelmente n&#227;o houve vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o suficiente para tornar os resultados obtidos inv&#225;lidos (198,40 mg/dl vs. 195,46 mg/dl <sup>23</sup>. Corroborando os resultados deste estudo, o EFC<sup>24</sup> demonstrou que, apesar de os n&#237;veis de colesterol, significativamente elevados, representarem fator de risco para DAC, aproximadamente 80% dos indiv&#237;duos que desenvolveram infarto do mioc&#225;rdio apresentava n&#237;veis de colesterol total na mesma faixa que aqueles que n&#227;o desenvolveram infarto do mioc&#225;rdio. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo, o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico mais alto de HDL-colesterol, de acordo com as recomenda&#231;&#245;es do NCEP (&lt; 40 mg/dl), demonstrou estar significativamente associado &#224; prote&#231;&#227;o contra IAM. O estudo conduzido na regi&#227;o metropolitana confirma, em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o, os resultados dos estudos descritos anteriormente, estabelecendo os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LDL-colesterol e HDL-colesterol como fatores independentes associados com IAM. </p>
    <p>Neste estudo, n&#227;o houve associa&#231;&#227;o independente com IAM de acordo com o estado civil avaliado (solteiro vs. n&#227;o-solteiro). Preferiu-se interpretar os achados como plausibilidade biol&#243;gica insuficiente. Certamente, por&#233;m, estudos posteriores, com maior n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos, assegurariam poder estat&#237;stico suficiente para avaliar essa hip&#243;tese. Com rela&#231;&#227;o a essa hip&#243;tese, postulou-se que, dependendo do estado civil, o n&#237;vel de estresse mental poderia ser diferente, podendo ser um fator de risco potencial associado ao IAM. Em estudo prospectivo realizado em homens suecos, foi detectado que o estresse mental estava associado a risco aumentado de eventos coronarianos subseq&#252;entes <sup>25</sup>. Adicionalmente, em 12 regi&#245;es russas, entre 1989 e 1994, quanto maior o estresse mental causado por eventos importantes na vida (&#243;bito de familiares, perda de emprego, etc.), maior foi o decl&#237;nio na expectativa de vida dos homens <sup>26</sup>. </p>
    <p>N&#227;o foi detectada associa&#231;&#227;o independente entre atividade f&#237;sica e ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM. Existe uma plausibilidade biol&#243;gica para que se possa aguardar um efeito protetor da atividade f&#237;sica contra o IAM. Al&#233;m disso, existe grande potencial para redu&#231;&#227;o do risco por DCV naqueles inicialmente sedent&#225;rios e que se tornam moderadamente ativos<sup>27</sup>. Entretanto, aqueles que permanecem sedent&#225;rios apresentam risco mais alto para DCV e mortalidade por todas as causas<sup>28</sup>. M&#250;ltiplos estudos prospectivos publicados durante os &#250;ltimos 35 anos demonstram rela&#231;&#227;o forte, consistente e gradual entre atividade f&#237;sica de recrea&#231;&#227;o e ocupacional, relatada pelos indiv&#237;duos e eventos cardiovasculares, mortalidade por todas as causas e mortalidade cardiovascular <sup>29-33</sup>. </p>
    <p>Diversos estudos sugerem rela&#231;&#227;o progressiva entre n&#237;veis de glicose e risco aumentado de DCV em indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos e diab&#233;ticos. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, em uma an&#225;lise de meta-regress&#227;o de todos os estudos de coorte de indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o-diab&#233;ticos, os n&#237;veis de glicose basais estavam relacionados a eventos cardiovasculares e mortalidade subseq&#252;entes <sup>34</sup>. No presente estudo, apesar de os casos apresentarem n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos m&#233;dios superiores aos controles (130,58 mg/dl vs. 104,31 mg/dl), essa diferen&#231;a n&#227;o demonstrou associa&#231;&#227;o independente com a ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM, pela an&#225;lise multivariada. Novamente, &#233; preciso atribuir a esse fato a falta de poder estat&#237;stico suficiente para que n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos iguais ou superiores a 126 mg/dl (32,8% nos casos vs. 13,2% nos controles) possam ser considerados fatores preditores independentemente associados a IAM. </p>
    <p>Os resultados deste estudo demonstraram que o n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de triglic&#233;rides n&#227;o foi independentemente associado &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM. Ao contr&#225;rio do comportamento dos outros l&#237;pides, a m&#233;dia do n&#237;vel s&#233;rico de triglic&#233;rides nos casos foi mais baixa que nos controles (146,73 mg/dl vs. 150,84 mg/dl). Pode-se supor que houve um vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o, permitindo a inclus&#227;o de controles com n&#237;veis similares ou mais elevados que os casos. Ao se considerar que n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de triglic&#233;rides constituem fator de risco independente para IAM, de acordo com outros estudos, o vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o seria uma alternativa plaus&#237;vel. Os dados quanto a essa associa&#231;&#227;o entre IAM e triglic&#233;rides elevados s&#227;o, entretanto, controversos de acordo com as evid&#234;ncias atuais, permitindo sugerir que os triglic&#233;rides talvez n&#227;o constituam fator de risco independente para IAM, na popula&#231;&#227;o estudada. </p>
    <p>Os caucasianos foram comparados a outros grupos &#233;tnicos, denominados n&#227;o-caucasianos (negros, mulatos, asi&#225;ticos e outros), n&#227;o havendo associa&#231;&#227;o da ra&#231;a com a ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM. Novamente, a possibilidade de poder estat&#237;stico insuficiente para detectar essas diferen&#231;as pode ser postulada como explica&#231;&#227;o potencial. </p>
    <p>A ra&#231;a ou grupo &#233;tnico, tem sido descrita como fator que proporciona diferentes taxas de risco de eventos cardiovasculares. O projeto MONICA <sup>35 </sup>descreveu as taxas de eventos relacionados &#224; DAC demonstrando que, de acordo com o pa&#237;s (incluindo g&#234;nero feminino e masculino), essas taxas variam de menos de 50/100.000 at&#233; acima de 900/100.000. Nos Estados Unidos, o maior impacto negativo da DCV foi encontrado nos indiv&#237;duos da ra&#231;a negra, com taxas de mortalidade por DAC mais em homens e mulheres<sup>36</sup>. No estudo SHARE <sup>37</sup> (<italic>Study of Health Assessment and Risk in Ethnic Groups)</italic> a aterosclerose carot&#237;dea determinada por meio de ultra-sonografia foi mais prevalente em sul-asi&#225;ticos, comparativamente a europeus e chineses (11%, 5% e 2%, respectivamente; p=0,0004). </p>
    <p>De acordo com os dados deste estudo, n&#227;o houve associa&#231;&#227;o independente significativa entre grau de escolaridade e renda familiar com ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM. Apesar da plausibilidade biol&#243;gica desses fatores, provavelmente, n&#227;o houve poder estat&#237;stico suficiente para detectar essa diferen&#231;a neste estudo. Por outro lado, no estudo caso-controle indiano, que apresentava poder estat&#237;stico similar a este, essas diferen&#231;as puderam ser detectadas. Como outras doen&#231;as epid&#234;micas, a DAC apresenta rela&#231;&#227;o pr&#243;xima com a condi&#231;&#227;o social e, sua preval&#234;ncia parece estar fortemente relacionada &#224;s condi&#231;&#245;es sociais e culturais da sociedade. Essa assertiva &#233; evidenciada pela observa&#231;&#227;o do decl&#237;nio r&#225;pido das taxas de DAC paralelamente &#224;s mudan&#231;as econ&#244;micas nos Estados Unidos e no Jap&#227;o, como tamb&#233;m pelo aumento dessas taxas em pa&#237;ses do Leste Europeu e da Am&#233;rica Latina <sup>7</sup>. </p>
    <p>Este estudo demonstrou que o consumo de &#225;lcool (tr&#234;s a seis vezes por semana) em compara&#231;&#227;o com a aus&#234;ncia de consumo (abstemia) n&#227;o confere prote&#231;&#227;o quanto &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de IAM. A possibilidade de poder estat&#237;stico insuficiente n&#227;o pode ser afastada. Em adi&#231;&#227;o, pode ter ocorrido multi-colinearidade. Isso significa que, pelo fato de muitos fatores terem sido analisados pelo n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos inclu&#237;dos, alguns fatores de certa forma relacionados (&#225;lcool e tabagismo, por exemplo) poderiam exercer influ&#234;ncia a ponto de n&#227;o permitir a detec&#231;&#227;o do fator em quest&#227;o (&#225;lcool). </p>
    <p>Estudos observacionais demonstraram uma curva J relacionando consumo de &#225;lcool e mortalidade total <sup>38</sup>. O ponto de menor mortalidade ocorreu entre aqueles que consumiam uma ou duas doses por dia <sup>39</sup> e a mortalidade total aumentou naqueles que consumiam mais de duas doses por dia. Embora exista decl&#237;nio gradual das taxas de mortalidade por DAC com o aumento do consumo de &#225;lcool, a mortalidade decorrente de outras doen&#231;as aumenta de acordo com o n&#250;mero de doses consumidas. O consumo exagerado de &#225;lcool pode causar v&#225;rios efeitos adversos para a sa&#250;de, incluindo HAS e acidente vascular cerebral <sup>40,41</sup>. Dados recentes demonstraram que a prote&#231;&#227;o contra DAC n&#227;o parece diferir de acordo com o tipo de bebida alco&#243;lica consumida <sup>42</sup>. Acrescentando plausibilidade a essa hip&#243;tese, um estudo caso-controle de base populacional realizado na Rep&#250;blica Tcheca, demonstrou que o risco mais baixo foi encontrado entre aqueles que consumiam &#225;lcool quase que diariamente ou diariamente (OR=0,38) e entre aqueles que consumiam entre quatro e oito litros de cerveja por semana (OR=0,34). </p>
    <p>As seguintes limita&#231;&#245;es podem ser consideradas neste estudo: vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; inclus&#227;o de controles, poder estat&#237;stico insuficiente para detectar associa&#231;&#245;es significativas em rela&#231;&#227;o a determinados fatores e presen&#231;a de fatores de confus&#227;o </p>
    <p>A defini&#231;&#227;o de casos envolvia crit&#233;rios bem estabelecidos para diagn&#243;stico de IAM. Portanto, a chance de vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o para os casos torna-se remota. Apesar da defini&#231;&#227;o de controles ser adequada, existe a possibilidade de inclus&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a cardiovascular sem diagn&#243;stico conhecido, demonstrando vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o dos controles. Se este vi&#233;s, al&#233;m de presente, for de magnitude moderada ou importante, a chance de detectar associa&#231;&#245;es entre fatores de risco e IAM torna-se atenuada. Alguns centros inclu&#237;ram mais casos, outros mais controles, e outros inclu&#237;ram mais casos e controles que a m&#233;dia dos hospitais. Para determinar se os controles inclu&#237;dos em hospitais especializados eram similares ou n&#227;o apresentavam diferen&#231;as substanciais em rela&#231;&#227;o aos controles inclu&#237;dos nos 10 hospitais gerais, foram comparadas as caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas entre esses controles. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa ao se comparar essas vari&#225;veis entre os controles de dois hospitais especializados com os controles de 10 hospitais gerais, exceto em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; renda familiar e atividade f&#237;sica (mais freq&#252;entes em hospitais especializados), e colesterol total &lt; 200 mg/dl e LDL-colesterol &lt; 100 mg/dl (mais freq&#252;entes em hospitais gerais). </p>
    <p>Conforme ressaltado anteriormente, &#233; poss&#237;vel que pequenas diferen&#231;as n&#227;o tenham sido detectadas, com base no tamanho da amostra e no poder estat&#237;stico deste estudo. Para isso, o c&#225;lculo de tamanho de amostra e de poder estat&#237;stico deste estudo foi realizado previamente, determinando-se que a raz&#227;o de chances m&#237;nima com interesse de ser detectada seria de 2,0. Raz&#245;es de chances inferiores a 2,0, pela relev&#226;ncia question&#225;vel para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. </p>
    <p>Os objetivos da preven&#231;&#227;o em pacientes com DAC, como tamb&#233;m em indiv&#237;duos de alto risco, envolvem os mesmos princ&#237;pios: redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de eventos isqu&#234;micos clinicamente relevantes, com conseq&#252;ente diminui&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade e da incapacita&#231;&#227;o prematuras e prolongamento da sobrevida. Como a DAC &#233; multifatorial em sua origem, torna-se importante estimar o risco absoluto do indiv&#237;duo (risco de desenvolver DAC fatal ou n&#227;o-fatal durante os pr&#243;ximos 10 anos) por meio da presen&#231;a dos fatores de risco. Os indiv&#237;duos com maior risco multifatorial devem ser identificados e selecionados para interven&#231;&#245;es de estilo de vida e, quando apropriado, para interven&#231;&#245;es farmacol&#243;gicas. As a&#231;&#245;es em cardiologia preventiva devem ser baseadas na preval&#234;ncia e nas taxas de mortalidade da doen&#231;a em quest&#227;o. Dentro desse contexto, existe uma condi&#231;&#227;o extremamente prevalente, o IAM, que figura como principal causa de mortalidade na popula&#231;&#227;o de S&#227;o Paulo. Conseq&#252;entemente, a diminui&#231;&#227;o do &#244;nus da DAC, particularmente do IAM, poderia ser iniciada pela redu&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco que, comprovada e independentemente, estejam associados com a ocorr&#234;ncia do mesmo. Neste estudo, foi poss&#237;vel detectar quais eram esses fatores, com suas respectivas for&#231;as de associa&#231;&#227;o, os fundamentais para o estabelecimento de pol&#237;ticas de sa&#250;de preventivas na regi&#227;o metropolitana de S&#227;o Paulo, tanto no que se refere &#224;s estrat&#233;gias populacionais como &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica di&#225;ria. Com base nos dados obtidos, as a&#231;&#245;es preventivas promotoras de sa&#250;de cardiovascular podem ser hierarquizadas. </p>
    <p>Os resultados deste estudo caso-controle permitem o direcionamento das pol&#237;ticas em cardiologia preventiva, visando &#224;s redu&#231;&#245;es da incid&#234;ncia de IAM e de suas conseq&#252;&#234;ncias de morbidade e mortalidade, por meio do controle efetivo dos fatores de risco identificados. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Agradecimentos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Aos indiv&#237;duos inclu&#237;dos neste estudo, aos investigadores principais e associados dos hospitais participantes (Anexo A) pela inestim&#225;vel contribui&#231;&#227;o tornando poss&#237;vel a realiza&#231;&#227;o deste estudo. </p>
    <p>Al&#233;m dos autores principais desse artigo, tamb&#233;m participaram do estudo os Pesquisadores listados abaixo:</p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-e01.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</p>
        <p> Alvaro Avezum J&#250;nior </p>
        <p> Rua Joinville, 637/701 </p>
        <p> Cep 04008-011 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="avezum@yahoo.com">avezum@yahoo.com</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Enviado em 05/05/2004 - Aceito em 10/02/2005</p>
  </body>
  <back>
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        <mixed-citation>41. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, Speizer    FE, Hennekens CH. A prospective study of moderate alcohol consumption and the    risk of coronary disease and stroke in women. N Engl J Med 1988; 319;    267-73. </mixed-citation>
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          <source>N Engl J Med</source>
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            <year>1988</year>
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          <fpage>267</fpage>
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              <surname>Stampfer</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Colditz</surname>
              <given-names>GA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Willett</surname>
              <given-names>WC</given-names>
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              <surname>Speizer</surname>
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              <surname>Hennekens</surname>
              <given-names>CH</given-names>
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        <mixed-citation>42. Klatsky AL, Armstrong MA, Friedman GD. Red    wine, white wine, liquor, beer, and risk for coronary artery disease hospitalization.    Am J Cardiol 1997; 80: 416-20.</mixed-citation>
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              <surname>Klatsky</surname>
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  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Risk factors associated with acute myocardial infarction in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region: a developed region in a developing country</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To identify the risk factors associated with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and their respective powers of association in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region. METHODS: The cases comprised patients diagnosed with first AMI with an ST segment elevation. The controls were individuals with no known cardiovascular disease. The study comprised 271 cases and 282 controls from 12 hospitals. Risk factors were as follows: ethnic group; educational level; marital status; family income; family history of coronary artery disease; antecedents of arterial hypertension and of diabetes mellitus; hormonal replacement in women; smoking; physical activity; alcohol consumption; total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglyceride, and glucose levels; body mass index; and waist-hip ratio (WHR). RESULTS: The following risk factors showed and independent association with AMI: smoking [odds ratio (OR)=5.86; 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.25-10.57; P &lt; 0.00001); waist-hip ratio (first vs. third tertile) (OR=4.27; 95% CI 2.28-8.00; P&lt;0.00001); antecedents of arterial hypertension (OR=3.26; 95% CI 1.95-5.46; P&lt; 0.00001); waist-hip ratio (first vs second tertile) (OR=3.07; 95% CI 1.66-5.66; P=0.0003); LDL-cholesterol level (OR=2.75; 95% CI 1.45-5.19; P=0.0018); antecedents of diabetes mellitus (OR= 2.51; 95% CI 1.45-5.19; P=0.023); family history of coronary artery disease (OR=2.33; 95% CI 1.44-3.75; P=0.0005); and HDL-cholesterol level (OR=0.53; 95% CI 0.32-0.87; P=0.011). CONCLUSION: Smoking, waist-hip ratio, antecedents of arterial hypertension and of diabetes mellitus, family history of coronary artery disease, and LDL-cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol levels showed to be independently associated with AMI within the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>acute myocardial infarction</kwd>
        <kwd>risk factors</kwd>
        <kwd>case-control study</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Risk factors associated with acute myocardial infarction in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region. A developed region in a developing country</p>
      <p>
        <bold>&#193;lvaro Avezum; Leopoldo Soares Piegas; J&#250;lio C&#233;sar R. Pereira</bold>
      </p>
      <p> S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o da Associa&#231;&#227;o do Sanat&#243;rio S&#237;rio, Hospital S&#227;o Lu&#237;s, Hospital S&#227;o Paulo, Hospital do Servidor P&#250;blico Municipal, Hospital Santa Marcelina, Hospital Santa Casa de S&#227;o Paulo, Hospital Municipal de Santo Andr&#233;, Hospital e Maternidade Brasil, Hospital Santa Paula, Hospital Wladimir Arruda </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Correspondence</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To identify the risk factors associated with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and their respective powers of association in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> The cases comprised patients diagnosed with first AMI with an ST segment elevation. The controls were individuals with no known cardiovascular disease. The study comprised 271 cases and 282 controls from 12 hospitals. Risk factors were as follows: ethnic group; educational level; marital status; family income; family history of coronary artery disease; antecedents of arterial hypertension and of diabetes mellitus; hormonal replacement in women; smoking; physical activity; alcohol consumption; total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglyceride, and glucose levels; body mass index; and waist-hip ratio (WHR).</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold>The following risk factors showed and independent association with AMI: smoking [odds ratio (OR)=5.86; 95% confidence interval (CI) 3.25-10.57; P &lt; 0.00001); waist-hip ratio (first vs. third tertile) (OR=4.27; 95% CI 2.28-8.00; P&lt;0.00001); antecedents of arterial hypertension (OR=3.26; 95% CI 1.95-5.46; P&lt; 0.00001); waist-hip ratio (first vs second tertile) (OR=3.07; 95% CI 1.66-5.66; P=0.0003); LDL-cholesterol level (OR=2.75; 95% CI 1.45-5.19; P=0.0018); antecedents of diabetes mellitus (OR= 2.51; 95% CI 1.45-5.19; P=0.023); family history of coronary artery disease (OR=2.33; 95% CI 1.44-3.75; P=0.0005); and HDL-cholesterol level (OR=0.53; 95% CI 0.32-0.87; P=0.011).</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold>Smoking, waist-hip ratio, antecedents of arterial hypertension and of diabetes mellitus, family history of coronary artery disease, and LDL-cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol levels showed to be independently associated with AMI within the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region.</p>
      <p><bold>Key words: </bold>acute myocardial infarction, risk factors, case-control study </p>
      <p> According to projections for the year 2020, cardiovascular disease (CVD) will remain as the major cause of mortality and disability. Currently, developing regions more greatly contribute to the CVD burden than developed ones <sup>1</sup>. Such rise in CVD within developing regions may result from the following 3 factors: a decrease in mortality due to parasite infections, with an increase in life expectancy; lifestyle and socioeconomic changes associated with urbanization, resulting in higher levels of CVD risk factors; and special susceptibility of certain populations (due to specific genes), leading to a greater impact on clinical events when compared with populations from developed western regions <sup>1</sup>. </p>
      <p>The age-specific coefficients for mortality due to acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and cerebrovascular disease (CbVD) within the metropolitan regions in Brazil have risk profiles that differ from those of other countries. About 50% of male deaths due to coronary artery disease (CAD) occur in the age group below 65 years, whilst in other countries (United States, Cuba and England) this proportion is found to be around 25% <sup>1</sup>. In the S&#227;o Paulo municipality, despite the decline in mortality due to CAD and CbVD from the mid-70s onwards, CVDs related to atherosclerosis still represent the major group of causes of death within the state, as in developed countries <sup>2,3</sup>. </p>
      <p>The knowledge about risk factors for CVD or CAD originates from studies carried out in developed countries in North America and Western Europe. Thus, it is neither entirely safe, nor perfectly acceptable, to extrapolate the results obtained primarily in those countries to the Brazilian population. Not only can the prevalence of risk factors differ significantly, but also the impact of each factor on a certain population can be drastically different. In addition, the protective factors for CAD may be different, thereby generating impacts that are not clinically similar. </p>
      <p>Thus, one may conclude that any health policy considering the individual, institutional or governmental point of view must be based, preferably, on data obtained from the local population. Consequently, a case-control study assessing the risk factors associated with AMI in our region is a fundamental stage for analyzing the real impact of the risk factors on our population. The aim of this present study is the identification of the power of association between cardiovascular risk factors and AMI in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>A multicenter (12 hospitals in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region), hospital-based, case-control study was carried out with prospective data collection using an anthropometric measure form and with blood collection for lipid profile and glucose level assessment. The study's population comprised individuals diagnosed with AMI (first manifestation) and an ST segment elevation (cases) and individuals with no diagnosis of cardiovascular disease (controls). </p>
      <p>The inclusion criteria for the cases were as follows: patients admitted into Emergency or Coronary Units diagnosed with first AMI and an ST segment elevation, presenting with chest pain initiated <underline>&lt;</underline> 24 hours, electrocardiographic (ECG) alterations compatible with AMI, an ST segment elevation, an increase in the levels of the MB fraction of creatine kinase (CKMB) and/or total creatine kinase (CK) of at least twice the normal reference value of the local laboratory. Patients with the following conditions were excluded: valvular heart disease; chronic consumptive disease; and clinical conditions that, according to the investigator, could prevent the patient's inclusion or jeopardize the study's analysis. </p>
      <p>The inclusion criteria for controls were as follows: absence of known diagnosis of CVD; ECG within the normal limits (except for isolated atrial ectopy); patients with SAH with no ECG alteration; and diabetic patients with no suspected association with CVD. In general hospitals, the selection of controls included patients admitted into the hospital, originating from the ophthalmology, otorhinolaryngology, orthopedics, or plastic surgery clinics. In cardiology-specialized hospitals, the selection of controls included the following: individuals who sought the hospital for blood donation or for performance of routine check-up exams; the institution's employees; and family members of hospitalized patients. The exclusion criteria were as follows: previous diagnosis of CAD or any other CVD, including cerebral and peripheral vascular disease; liver and renal diseases; history of chest pain suggestive of coronary ischemia; neoplasias, or any other significant comorbidity; pregnancy; recent (&lt; 30 days) change in eating habits; and clinical conditions that, according to the investigator, could prevent the patient's inclusion or jeopardize the study's analysis. </p>
      <p>The following data were obtained: a 10-mL blood sample was collected and analyzed at the hospitals participating in the study. For the cases, the blood sample for lipid profile was collected within the first 24 hours of AMI symptom onset, and that for glucose measurement was collected between 5 and 8 days of hospital admission. For the controls, the blood sample for lipid and glucose measurement was collected within the first 30 days of inclusion in the study. The measurements of total cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglyceride, and glucose levels were performed through the direct method, while the LDL-cholesterol level was calculated through the indirect method by using the Friedewald equation (LDL-cholesterol = total cholesterol &#150; HDL-cholesterol &#150; triglycerides/5). </p>
      <p>The dependent variable was AMI, and the independent variables were the following cardiovascular risk factors of interest for this case-control study: ethnic group; educational level; marital status; family income; family history of coronary artery disease; antecedents of arterial hypertension and of diabetes mellitus; smoking; physical activity; alcohol consumption; total cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, triglyceride, and glucose levels; body mass index; and waist-hip ratio. </p>
      <p>The variables were compared after adjustment for age and sex. Univariate analysis was used as a strategy for evaluating the relations between disease and exposure to the variables studied. For the continuous variables, the means, standard deviations, medians, and the maximum and minimum intervals were calculated, and the cases and controls were compared by using parametric and nonparametric tests, as required. For the logistic model, all variables that had statistical significance (p &lt; 0.05) in the univariate analysis were considered. The interactions of the variables selected as described were examined in a correlation matrix, and all interactions with a correlation coefficient &gt; 0.5 were incorporated to the model. The odds ratio and 95% confidence interval were calculated for each variable. All variables were categorized for the construction of a multivariate model, and the category of reference for the risk estimate was previously established. The forward stepwise was the method used for logistic regression; the significance level of 0.05 was established for inclusion of the variables in the study, and 0.10 was the significance level established for their exclusion. The variables were analyzed by using unconditional logistic regression <sup>4,5</sup>. Aiming at detecting any differences in the results of multivariate analysis, due to the potential heterogeneity of the cases and controls included in the 12 hospitals participating in the study, an additional analysis was performed. The sample size was calculated based on the prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors in the Brazilian population by using the odds ratio of 2.0, the proportion of one case to one control, 2-tailed test, statistical power of 90%, and an alpha value of 0.05. </p>
      <p>This study was approved by the committees on ethics and research at the 12 hospitals participating in the project.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study comprised 553 individuals (271 cases and 282 controls). The total number of individuals represented in the multivariate analysis was 494 due to lack of data regarding some independent variables necessary to this analysis. The continuous variables and their respective means and standard deviations are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">table I</xref>. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>According to the univariate analysis, the following variables were associated with an increased or reduced risk of developing AMI: marital status; retirement; family history of coronary artery disease; antecedents of SAH and DM; smoking; physical activity; LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol, and glucose levels; BMI; and WHR. Through multivariate analysis, the following variables showed a positive independent association with AMI: smoking; antecedent of SAH; antecedent of DM; family history of coronary artery disease; WHR; and LDL-cholesterol level. Smoking had the greatest independent power of association for the development of AMI (OR = 5.86; 95% CI = 3.25-10.57), whilst family history of coronary artery disease had the lowest (OR = 2.33; 95% CI = 1.44-3.75). The HDL-cholesterol level showed a negative independent association with AMI. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">Table II</xref> shows those variables with their respective odds ratios, 95% confidence intervals, and P values. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">Figure 1</xref> depicts the graphic representation of those variables with their respective powers of association. </p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>After controlling the variable "participant hospital" in the multivariate model, the results previously obtained were maintained. Therefore, the numeric difference between the cases and controls, causing qualitative differences between them, was ruled out due to the homogeneity of the results.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>These data allowed us to determine the risk factors independently associated with AMI in a sample of the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan population. The unconditional logistic regression analysis showed that the risk factors smoking, WHR, antecedent of SAH, antecedent of DM, family history of CAD, and LDL-cholesterol level were independently associated with an elevated risk of AMI. Smoking was the strongest independent risk factor identified. </p>
      <p>This study depicts smoking as the most important independent risk factor for AMI. The importance of smoking has been demonstrated over the years through a series of intra- and interpopulational proofs. An ecological study, assessing smoking and mortality due to CAD and comparing the capitals of some Brazilian metropolitan regions in 1988, suggested the existence of a clear association between smoking and mortality due to CAD <sup>6</sup>. Recently, a hospital-based, case-control study, assessing the risk factors for AMI in Indians, has reported that the most important predictive factor of AMI is smoking (OR = 3.6) <sup>7</sup>. Comparatively, the study conducted in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region has reported a greater potency for smoking (<underline>&gt;</underline> 5 cigarettes/day) than that in the Indian study (OR = 5.86 vs. 6.7). Another hospital-based, case-control study conducted in Argentina has also reported similar results <sup>8</sup>. In the study by Moraes and Souza <sup>9</sup>, a significant independent association of smoking with the increased risk for CAD was observed in men [ex-smokers (OR = 2.24), and smokers (OR = 1.84)]; in women, a significant independent association with the increased risk of CAD was observed only in ex-smokers (OR = 2.68), confirming our results. However, the power of association was smaller than that in our study, and the association was more intense in ex-smokers than that in current smokers. One possible explanation could be the fact that, in the present study, AMI was assessed, an event in which coronary thrombosis has a predominant effect on the genesis of the acute occurrence, while in the study by Moraes and Souza <sup>9</sup>, CAD was analyzed, not only AMI. One may suggest that smoking has a more potent power of association with the atherothrombotic event of AMI than coronary atherosclerosis in isolation. In this study, the increased risk resulting from smoking was 5.86 as compared with 1.80 in the FHS. As AMI is the major cause of death in the State of S&#227;o Paulo, data on smoking and mortality complement the understanding of the link between smoking, AMI, and death due to CAD. The results of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT) <sup>10 </sup>have also confirmed the gradual relation between the number of cigarettes and death due to CAD. </p>
      <p>In this study, the antecedent of DM showed to be a risk factor independently associated with AMI. This finding is consistent with that obtained in population-based cohort studies, showing that type 2 DM represents an approximately 2-fold greater risk for CAD in men and 3-fold greater risk for CAD in women. In the FHS <sup>11</sup>, the presence of DM doubled the risk of CVD adjusted for age in men and tripled the risk in women. Myocardial infarction, angina, and sudden death were twice more frequent in diabetic individuals as compared with those in nondiabetic individuals. After adjusting for all the other risk factors, DM continues to be the major independent cardiovascular risk factor. In the MRFIT study <sup>10</sup>, the risk of cardiovascular death in 12 years of follow-up was approximately 3-fold greater in men as compared with that in nondiabetic controls. In the study by Moraes and Souza <sup>9</sup>, one of the interpretations for the disappearance of DM as an independent predictive factor for CAD may be the presence of more potent risk factors than DM in the occurrence of the coronary events evaluated, such as CAD, in the multivariate model; in addition, the diabetic individuals may have been adequately treated, reducing the risk for CVD. </p>
      <p>Data of the current study strongly suggest that the presence of an antecedent of SAH is a potent risk factor independently associated with AMI. This correlation has been demonstrated in several epidemiological studies, and the reduction in the risk for CVD with SAH control has been reported in several clinical studies on primary prevention <sup>12-14</sup>. In their study, Moraes and Souza <sup>9</sup> showed that SAH is an independent predictive factor for the occurrence of CAD (OR = 3.67 in women, and OR = 4.38 in men). According to the Seven Countries Study <sup>12</sup>, each 10 mmHg increase in the median systolic blood pressure of the population corresponded to a duplication in the risk of coronary death. The MRFIT study<sup> 13</sup> has also shown a direct correlation between the elevation in the systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels and the subsequent incidence of mortality due to CAD during an 11.6-year follow-up in men initially without CAD. Finally, the results of a meta-analysis of 9 prospective observational studies, including 418,343 individuals initially free from CAD, showed that the increase in the risk of mortality due to CAD initiated at diastolic blood pressure levels between 73 mmHg and 78 mmHg, and that increase was greater than 5 times for levels between 73 mmHg and 105 mmHg <sup>14</sup>. </p>
      <p>The data of the study of the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region have been confirmed by those of other case-control studies showing the importance of the family history of coronary artery disease for the risk of AMI. A case-control study carried out in Argentina has assessed the relation between family history of AMI and the risk for AMI <sup>8</sup>. That study assessed 1,070 individuals and showed that the fact of having a first-degree relative with a history of AMI increases the risk for AMI (OR = 2.18). When the history involved only one family member with AMI, the risk was smaller (OR = 2.04) as compared with that when 2 or more relatives had AMI (OR = 3.18). It is worth noting that the association was stronger for younger individuals (OR = 4.42 for individuals aged &lt; 55 years) as compared with older ones (OR = 3.0 for individuals <underline>&gt;</underline> 55 years) with 2 or more relatives with AMI. Moraes and Souza <sup>9</sup> have demonstrated the independent association of family antecedents of heart disease with an increased risk for CAD (OR = 2.71 in women, and OR = 3.29 in men). In Brazil, the FRICAS (Fatores de Risco para Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio no Brasil &#150; risk factors for acute myocardial infarction in Brazil) study, comprising 591 individuals in 20 cities, 13 of which in the State of S&#227;o Paulo, has associated the family history of coronary artery disease with the risk for AMI through univariate analysis <sup>15</sup>. A large proportion of CVD may be attributed to inherited or familial predisposition. </p>
      <p>This case-control study analyzed BMI and WHR for assessing obesity. The BMI was not independently associated with the occurrence of AMI. The Nurses' Health Study has shown that a BMI between 27 and 29 was associated with a 1.6 relative risk of death, a BMI between 29 and 32 was associated with a 2.1 relative risk, and a BMI <underline>&gt;</underline> 32 was associated with a 2.2 relative risk as compared with the group with a BMI below 19 <sup>16</sup>. The NHANES study has reported a 1.5 relative risk for CVD late in life for women with a BMI above 29, when compared with the refe rence population (BMI &lt; 21) <sup>17</sup>. In addition, obesity has been associated with myocardial hypertrophy, independently of SAH, and with higher rates of heart failure in the FHS <sup>18</sup>. Furthermore, observational studies have suggested an association between BMI and CVD or CAD, but not with AMI in isolation. </p>
      <p>The WHR was an extremely strong factor independently associated with the development of AMI. This measure has been considered to bear great sensitivity, because it has allowed a statistically significant association to be reported, even when comparing the second and third tertiles. According to data obtained in this study, the WHR is a more sensitive measure than BMI for identifying the risk independently associated with AMI. Among the larger studies assessing the relation between abdominal obesity and CAD, the Nurses' Health Study stands out. That study has assessed the WHR and has reported that a WHR <underline>&gt;</underline> 0.88 was associated with a 3.25 relative risk for CAD, as compared with that of a WHR &lt; 0.72 <sup>19</sup>. Abdominal obesity has also been identified as a predictive risk factor for stroke in the Physician's Health Study <sup>20</sup>. A WHR above 0.9 in men or 0.8 in women indicates abdominal obesity <sup>21,22</sup>. </p>
      <p>In this study, total cholesterol level has not been identified as an independent predictor of the occurrence of AMI. The mean total cholesterol levels in the cases were similar to those in the controls (195.74 vs. 195.46 mg/dL). The descriptive analysis involving the median of the total cholesterol levels has shown more elevated values in the cases as compared with those in the controls (193.0 vs. 199.0 mg/dL). As already previously specified, the methodologically plausible explanation may be the possibility of insufficient statistical power. The direction of the difference (greater cholesterol levels in the cases than those in the controls) and the biological plausibility allow us to interpret these findings as promising. We could also suggest that the total cholesterol levels in the controls were reasonably elevated, nearing those of the cases, and, therefore, hindering the detection of the difference. Although this possibility cannot be ruled out, 2 scenarios can be considered to better explain the current data. On the one hand, if selection bias occurred in the recruitment of controls, allowing the unconscious inclusion of controls with total cholesterol levels above the mean of the general population, attenuation of that difference would have been observed. On the other hand, when comparing the total cholesterol levels of controls with those obtained in a cross-sectional study involving 8,045 individuals in 9 capitals, the results showed that the levels in that study were greater than those obtained in this case-control study, indicating that a selection bias may not have been sufficient to invalidate the results obtained (198.40 mg/dL vs. 195.46 mg/dL) <sup>23</sup>. Corroborating the results of this study, the FHS <sup>24</sup> has shown that, although the significantly elevated cholesterol levels represent a risk factor for CAD, approximately 80% of the individuals experiencing myocardial infarction had total cholesterol levels in the same range of those who did not develop myocardial infarction. </p>
      <p>In this study, the greater HDL-cholesterol levels (&gt; 40 mg/dL according to the recommendations of the NCEP) were shown to be significantly associated with protection against AMI. The study conducted in the metropolitan region has confirmed, in our population, the results of the studies previously described, establishing LDL-cholesterol and HDL-cholesterol levels as risk factors independently associated with AMI. </p>
      <p> This study has found no independent association of AMI with the marital status evaluated (single vs. nonsingle). We prefer to interpret the findings as having insufficient biological plausibility. However, further studies with a greater number of individuals could guarantee sufficient statistical power to evaluate that hypothesis. Regarding that hypothesis, it has been postulated that, the level of mental stress could vary depending on the marital status, and, therefore, it could be a potential risk factor associated with AMI. A prospective study carried out with Swedish men has reported an association between mental stress and an increased risk for subsequent coronary events<sup> 25</sup>. In addition, in 12 Russian regions, from 1989 to 1994, the greater the mental stress caused by important events in life, such as death in the family and job loss, the greater the decline in life expectancy for men <sup>26</sup>. </p>
      <p>No independent association has been detected between physical activity and the occurrence of AMI. However, biological plausibility suggests that physical activity may provide a protective effect against AMI. In addition, a great potential exists for reducing the risk for CVD among those who initially had a sedentary lifestyle and became moderately active <sup>27</sup>; however, those who maintained their sedentary lifestyle had a greater risk for CVD and all-cause mortality <sup>28</sup>. Multiple prospective studies published during the past 35 years have shown a strong, consistent and gradual correlation between recreational and occupational physical activity reported by individuals and cardiovascular events, all-cause mortality, and cardiovascular mortality<sup> 29-33</sup>. </p>
      <p>Several studies have suggested a progressive correlation between glucose levels and the increased risk for CVD in nondiabetic and diabetic individuals. In addition, in a meta-regression analysis of all cohort studies with nondiabetic individuals, the baseline glucose levels were related to cardiovascular events and subsequent mortality <sup>34</sup>. In the present study, although the cases had mean serum levels greater than those of controls (130.58 mg/dL vs. 104.31 mg/dL), that difference showed no independent association with the occurrence of AMI through multivariate analysis. Again, the fact that serum levels equal to or greater than 126 mg/dL (32.8% in the cases vs. 13.2% in controls) were not considered independent predictive factors associated with AMI should be attributed lack of sufficient statistical power. </p>
      <p>Our results showed that triglyceride levels were not independently associated with the occurrence of AMI. Unlike the behavior of other lipids, the mean triglyceride levels in the cases were lower than those in controls (146.73 mg/dL vs. 150.84 mg/dL). Selection bias may have occurred, allowing the inclusion of controls with levels similar to or higher than those of the cases. Considering that triglyceride levels are an independent risk factor for AMI according to other studies, selection bias may be a plausible alternative. Data on the association between AMI and elevated triglyceride levels are, however, controversial according to current evidence, allowing us to suggest that triglycerides may not constitute an independent risk factor for AMI in the population studied. </p>
      <p>Caucasians were compared with other ethnic groups, denominated non-Caucasians (blacks, mulattos, Asians, and others), and no ethnic association was observed with the occurrence of AMI. Once again, insufficient statistical power to detect those differences may be postulated as a potential explanation. </p>
      <p>Ethnic group has been described as a factor with different risk rates for cardiovascular events. The MONICA project <sup>35</sup> has reported the rates of events related to CAD and has shown that, according to the country (including the female and male sexes), those rates have ranged from under 50/100,000 to over 900/100,000. In the United States, the greatest negative impact of CVD has been found among African Americans, with greater mortality rates due to CAD in men than in women <sup>36</sup>. In the SHARE study <sup>37</sup> (Study of Health Assessment and Risk in Ethnic Groups), carotid atherosclerosis determined by using ultrasound was more prevalent among South Asians as compared with that in Europeans and Chinese (11%, 5%, and 2%, respectively; P = 0.0004). </p>
      <p>According to our data, no significant independent association was found between educational level and family income and the occurrence of AMI. Despite the biological plausibility of those factors, the statistical power may not have been sufficient to detect that difference in this study. On the other hand, in the Indian case-control study, whose statistical power was similar to ours, those differences could be detected. Similar to other epidemic diseases, CAD has a close relation with the social level, and its prevalence seems to be strongly related to social and cultural conditions of the population. This assumption is evidenced by the rapid decline in the CAD rates in parallel with the economic changes in the United States and Japan, as well as by the increase in those rates observed in Eastern European and Latin American countries <sup>7</sup>. </p>
      <p>Our study has shown that alcohol consumption (3 to 6 times per week) as compared with lack thereof (abstention) does not protect against the occurrence of AMI. The possibility of insufficient statistical power cannot be ruled out. In addition, multicolinearity may have occurred. This means that, as several factors were analyzed, those that were somehow related (alcohol and smoking, for example) could have influenced each other to the extent that the factor in question (alcohol) could not be detected. </p>
      <p>Some observational studies have reported a J curve correlating alcohol consumption and total mortality <sup>38</sup>. The point of lower mortality occurred among those ingesting one or two drinks per day <sup>39</sup>, and total mortality increased in those ingesting more than 2 drinks per day. Although the mortality rates for CAD gradually decline with the increase in alcohol consumption, mortality due to other diseases increases according to the number of drinks. Excessive alcohol consumption may have several adverse effects on health, including SAH and stroke <sup>40,41</sup>. Recent data have shown that protection against CAD seems not to differ according to the type of alcoholic beverage ingested <sup>42</sup>. Adding plausibility to this hypothesis, a population-based, case-control study carried out in the Czech Republic has reported a lower risk for CAD among individuals on a daily or almost daily alcohol consumption (OR = 0.38) and those ingesting from 4 to 8 liters of beer per week (OR = 0.34). </p>
      <p>The following limitations may be considered in this study: selection bias regarding the inclusion of controls, statistical power insufficient to detect significant associations with certain factors, and the presence of confounding factors. </p>
      <p>The definition of cases involved well-established criteria for the diagnosis of AMI. Therefore, the likelihood of selection bias for the cases is remote. Although the definition of the controls was adequate, the inclusion of individuals with undiagnosed cardiovascular disease may have occurred, evidencing selection bias for the controls. If that bias, in addition to being present, had a moderate or important magnitude, the detection of the associations between the risk factors and AMI may have been attenuated. Some centers included more cases, others more controls, and others included even more cases and controls than the mean of the hospitals. To determine whether the controls included at specialized hospitals were similar or had no substantial differences as compared with the controls included at the 10 general hospitals, the demographic characteristics of the controls were compared. When comparing the variables of the controls at 2 specialized hospitals with those at 10 general hospitals, no statistically significant difference was observed, except for family income and physical activity (more frequent at specialized hospitals), and total cholesterol level &lt; 200 mg/dL and LDL-cholesterol level &lt; 100 mg/dL (more frequent at general hospitals). </p>
      <p>As already emphasized, small differences may have passed undetected because of the sample size and the statistical power of this study. That is why the sample size and the statistical power of this study were previously calculated, and the minimum odds ratio with interest to be detected was established as 2.0. Odds ratios below 2.0, due to their questionable relevance for the clinical practice, were ruled out. </p>
      <p>The preventive objectives in patients with CAD, as well as in high-risk individuals, involve the same principles as follows: a reduction in the risk of clinically relevant ischemic events, with a consequent decrease in mortality and early disability, and an extension in survival. As CAD is multifactorial in its origin, the absolute risk of the individual (risk of developing fatal or nonfatal CAD during the next 10 years) should be estimated through the presence of risk factors. Individuals with greater multifactorial risk should be identified and selected for interventions in their lifestyle, and, when appropriate, for pharmacological interventions. Actions in preventive cardiology should be based on the prevalence and mortality rate of the disease in question. Within that context, AMI is an extremely prevalent condition, the major cause of death in the S&#227;o Paulo population. Consequently, the decrease in the CAD burden, particularly of AMI, should be initiated with a reduction in the risk factors that are assuredly and independently associated with its occurrence. This study was able to detect these factors and their respective powers of association, fundamental to the establishment of preventive health policies in the S&#227;o Paulo metropolitan region, regarding both population strategies and the daily clinical practice. Based on the data obtained, preventive cardiovascular health-promoting actions can be hierarchized. </p>
      <p>The results of this case-control study allow us to guide policies in preventive cardiology, aiming at reducing the incidence of AMI and its consequences regarding morbidity and mortality, through the effective control of the risk factors identified.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>Acknowledgement</bold>
      </p>
      <p> We thank the individuals who took part in this study and the major and associated investigators of the hospitals (Annex A) for their inestimable contribution. </p>
      <p>In addition to the major authors, the following investigators also took part in this study:</p>
      <p>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-03-0206-00003-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <label>
            <bold>Correspondence to</bold>
          </label>
          <p> Alvaro Avezum J&#250;nior</p>
          <p> Rua Joinville, 637/701</p>
          <p> CEP 04008-011 - S&#227;o Paulo - SP, Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="avezum@yahoo.com">avezum@yahoo.com</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Sent for publication: 05/05/2004 </p>
      <p> Accepted for publication: 02/10/2005</p>
      <p> English version by Stela Maris Costalonga</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
