<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" specific-use="sps-1.9" dtd-version="1.1" xml:lang="pt" article-type="research-article">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">N8SXBvJvb6NtV8nMM8pYCWq</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2005000200012</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(05)08400212</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2005000200012</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Doen&#231;a cardiovascular e fatores de risco cardiovascular em candidatos a transplante renal</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gowdak</surname>
            <given-names>Lu&#237;s Henrique Wolff</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Paula</surname>
            <given-names>Fl&#225;vio Jota de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Giorgi</surname>
            <given-names>Dante Marcelo Artigas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Vieira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Lu&#237;s Campos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Moacyr</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Jayme Galv&#227;o De</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <institution content-type="orgname">Incor</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff02">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">FM </institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>84</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <fpage>156</fpage>
      <lpage>160</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>26</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2004</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2004</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Determinar a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) e de fatores de risco tradicionais em portadores de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica em avalia&#231;&#227;o para inclus&#227;o em lista para transplante renal. M&#201;TODOS: Foram submetidos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e exames complementares 195 pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica dial&#237;tica e comparados a grupo de 334 hipertensos pareados por idade. As equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham foram usadas para o c&#225;lculo do risco absoluto (RA); o risco relativo (RR) foi calculado tendo como refer&#234;ncia o risco absoluto da coorte de baixo risco de Framingham. RESULTADOS: Do total, 37% apresentaram algum tipo de doen&#231;a cardiovascular na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial, sendo que arteriopatia obstrutiva (23%) foi a mais prevalente. Exclu&#237;dos os pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco tradicionais, houve diferen&#231;a significativa quanto &#224; press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e colesterol total (maiores no grupo de hipertensos) e &#224;s preval&#234;ncias de homens, diabetes e tabagismo, maiores no grupo de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, que apresentou maior grau de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, menor press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica e menor preval&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular e obesidade. O risco relativo para doen&#231;a cardiovascular dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica foi mais elevado em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o controle de Framingham por&#233;m n&#227;o diferiu da observada no grupo de hipertensos. CONCLUS&#195;O: Em candidatos a transplante renal &#233; significativa a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular e de fatores de risco tradicionais; as equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham n&#227;o quantificam adequadamente o risco cardiovascular real e outros fatores de risco espec&#237;ficos desta popula&#231;&#227;o devem contribuir para o maior risco cardiovascular.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>doen&#231;a cardiovascular</kwd>
        <kwd>fatores de risco</kwd>
        <kwd>transplante renal</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>08</day>
        <month>03</month>
        <year>2005</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Doen&#231;a cardiovascular e fatores de risco cardiovascular em candidatos a transplante renal </p>
    <p>Lu&#237;s Henrique Wolff Gowdak; Fl&#225;vio Jota de Paula; Dante Marcelo Artigas Giorgi; Marcelo Lu&#237;s Campos Vieira; Eduardo Moacyr Krieger; Jos&#233; Jayme Galv&#227;o De Lima </p>
    <p>S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
    <p>Incor e Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da FMUSP </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold> Determinar a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) e de fatores de risco tradicionais em portadores de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica em avalia&#231;&#227;o para inclus&#227;o em lista para transplante renal. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS: </bold> Foram submetidos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e exames complementares 195 pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica dial&#237;tica e comparados a grupo de 334 hipertensos pareados por idade. As equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham foram usadas para o c&#225;lculo do risco absoluto (RA); o risco relativo (RR) foi calculado tendo como refer&#234;ncia o risco absoluto da coorte de baixo risco de Framingham. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS: </bold> Do total, 37% apresentaram algum tipo de doen&#231;a cardiovascular na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial, sendo que arteriopatia obstrutiva (23%) foi a mais prevalente. Exclu&#237;dos os pacientes com doen&#231;a cardiovascular, em rela&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco tradicionais, houve diferen&#231;a significativa quanto &#224; press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e colesterol total (maiores no grupo de hipertensos) e &#224;s preval&#234;ncias de homens, diabetes e tabagismo, maiores no grupo de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, que apresentou maior grau de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda, menor press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica e menor preval&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular e obesidade. O risco relativo para doen&#231;a cardiovascular dos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica foi mais elevado em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o controle de Framingham por&#233;m n&#227;o diferiu da observada no grupo de hipertensos. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O: </bold> Em candidatos a transplante renal &#233; significativa a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular e de fatores de risco tradicionais; as equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham n&#227;o quantificam adequadamente o risco cardiovascular real e outros fatores de risco espec&#237;ficos desta popula&#231;&#227;o devem contribuir para o maior risco cardiovascular. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavras-chave: </bold> doen&#231;a cardiovascular, fatores de risco, transplante renal </p>
    <p> Receptores de transplante renal apresentam uma taxa extremamente elevada de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, particularmente, as decorrentes da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana<sup>1</sup>. Este fen&#244;meno provavelmente resulta da combina&#231;&#227;o entre a progress&#227;o de doen&#231;a cardiovascular presente por ocasi&#227;o do transplante, e aquela que se instala ap&#243;s o transplante<sup>2</sup>. A import&#226;ncia relativa de cada um destes mecanismos ainda n&#227;o foi elucidada, mas deve sofrer influ&#234;ncia tanto de caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e epidemiol&#243;gicas dos candidatos a transplante, como da dilig&#234;ncia com que se investigam a exist&#234;ncia e extens&#227;o de doen&#231;a cardiovascular antes da opera&#231;&#227;o. Por este motivo, investiga&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular minuciosa &#233; atualmente considerada como uma das mais importantes etapas da avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-transplante e uma medida fundamental para reduzir a morbidade e mortalidade associadas ao transplante renal, e deve incluir, obrigatoriamente, al&#233;m do diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a cardiovascular vigente, a identifica&#231;&#227;o dos principais fatores determinantes de risco cardiovascular. </p>
    <p>Quanto a este &#250;ltimo aspecto, os fatores de risco cardiovascular observados em pacientes renais cr&#244;nicos compreendem os chamados tradicionais, isto &#233;, aqueles observados tamb&#233;m na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, e outros, que s&#227;o ou peculiares aos pacientes renais cr&#244;nicos, como o aumento do produto c&#225;lcio-f&#243;sforo, n&#237;veis elevados de Lp(a) e a hiper-homocisteinemia<sup>3-5</sup> ou que, embora presentes na popula&#231;&#227;o geral, adquirem maior relev&#226;ncia entre os ur&#234;micos. A preval&#234;ncia dos fatores de risco tradicionais em pacientes renais cr&#244;nicos em tratamento dial&#237;tico j&#225; foi descrita anteriormente<sup>6</sup>. Existem, no entanto, poucos dados referentes &#224; preval&#234;ncia destes fatores em pacientes j&#225; inclu&#237;dos na lista de espera para transplante. Estes pacientes diferem da totalidade da popula&#231;&#227;o de renais cr&#244;nicos por terem sido j&#225; submetidos a uma pr&#233;-sele&#231;&#227;o pelas equipes transplantadoras que excluem os pacientes mais graves. Conseq&#252;entemente, conclus&#245;es derivadas daquelas, n&#227;o necessariamente, se aplicam a estas &#250;ltimas. Informa&#231;&#245;es sobre os riscos a que est&#227;o sujeitos os pacientes em lista de espera para transplante s&#227;o particularmente importantes naqueles considerados com maior probabilidade de apresentar complica&#231;&#245;es, tais como os mais idosos e os diab&#233;ticos. </p>
    <p>Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi o de determinar a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular e de fatores de risco tradicionais, e de alguns n&#227;o tradicionais, em um grupo de pacientes em fase de avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica para inclus&#227;o em lista de espera para transplante renal. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>O protocolo foi aprovado pelas Comiss&#245;es Cient&#237;fica e de &#201;tica das institui&#231;&#245;es envolvidas. Entre janeiro 1998 e outubro 2003, 273 portadores de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica dial&#237;tica e idade <underline>&gt;</underline> 50 anos foram encaminhados ao InCor para avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular pr&#233;-transplante pela Unidade de Transplante Renal do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas. Todos os indiv&#237;duos j&#225; haviam sido submetidos a uma investiga&#231;&#227;o preliminar destinada a eliminar aqueles com condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas que claramente contra-indicassem o transplante, como neoplasia, infe&#231;&#227;o ativa ou est&#225;gios avan&#231;ados de doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas. Foram exclu&#237;dos os pacientes que se recusaram a participar do estudo (n=2), os que n&#227;o preencheram as especifica&#231;&#245;es do protocolo (n=8) e aqueles com dados incompletos (n=68). Ap&#243;s assinarem o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido, 195 indiv&#237;duos foram inclu&#237;dos no estudo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig. 1</xref>). As causas da uremia cr&#244;nica foram: diabetes (n=69; 35%), nefrosclerose (n=48; 26%), nefropatia intersticial (n=14; 7%), glomerulonefrite (n=8; 4%), doen&#231;a polic&#237;stica (n=9; 4%) e n&#227;o determinada em 47 (24%) casos. Os pacientes estavam em tratamento por hemodi&#225;lise h&#225; 48&#177;30 (mediana, 39) meses. Hipertens&#227;o foi definida como press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e/ou diast&#243;lica <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 e 90mmHg, respectivamente, ou pelo uso de medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva. Diabetes foi definido por glicemia de jejum &gt; 126 mg% em pelo menos duas ocasi&#245;es ou uso corrente de antidiab&#233;ticos. </p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Quanto &#224; doen&#231;a cardiovascular preexistente, todos os casos foram submetidos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, exames laboratoriais e radiol&#243;gicos de rotina, al&#233;m do eletrocardiograma e ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico com mapeamento de fluxo em cores. Evid&#234;ncias cl&#237;nicas ou por exames complementares de doen&#231;a cardiovascular atual ou pregressa (insufici&#234;ncia coronariana cr&#244;nica e/ou infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico, arteriopatia bem como procedimentos por cateter/cirurgia em territ&#243;rio coronariano, carot&#237;deo ou vascular perif&#233;rico) foram ativamente pesquisadas. </p>
    <p>Para determina&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular absoluto em 10 anos, utilizaram-se as equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham<sup>7</sup> que levam em conta a idade, sexo, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica, colesterol total, tabagismo e diabetes. Os n&#237;veis do colesterol-HDL n&#227;o foram inclu&#237;dos no presente estudo. O escore de Framingham destina-se ao c&#225;lculo de risco para indiv&#237;duos sem manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas de doen&#231;a cardiovascular<sup>7</sup>; devido a este motivo, 72 pacientes nos quais se identificou doen&#231;a cardiovascular foram exclu&#237;dos. </p>
    <p>Como grupo controle, utilizamos 334 portadores de hipertens&#227;o arterial prim&#225;ria, sem evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, em acompanhamento na Unidade de Hipertens&#227;o do InCor no mesmo per&#237;odo, pareados em idade ao grupo de renais cr&#244;nicos, mas obviamente diferindo daqueles pela presen&#231;a de fun&#231;&#227;o renal normal (definida como creatinina s&#233;rica &lt; 1,5 mg/mL). A escolha destes pacientes prende-se &#224; observa&#231;&#227;o de que a quase totalidade dos indiv&#237;duos renais cr&#244;nicos s&#227;o tamb&#233;m hipertensos e, pelo fato dos indiv&#237;duos hipertensos prim&#225;rios terem sido submetidos &#224; equivalente avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e laboratororial pela mesma equipe m&#233;dica. Al&#233;m disto, os dois grupos foram tamb&#233;m analisados e comparados quanto &#224; preval&#234;ncia de outros fatores capazes de influenciar a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos e que n&#227;o s&#227;o levados em considera&#231;&#227;o pelo escore de Framingham: creatinina, press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica, hereditariedade (definida como hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a cardiovascular precoce em familiares de primeiro grau), obesidade (IMC <underline>&gt;</underline> 30), presen&#231;a de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda ao ecocardiograma (definida como &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo &gt; 134 g/m<sup>2 </sup>para homens e 110 g/m<sup>2 </sup>para mulheres<sup>8</sup>) e &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo. </p>
    <p>O risco relativo foi calculado dividindo-se o risco absoluto de cada um dos dois grupos de pacientes pelos valores absolutos do grupo de baixo risco de Framingham<sup>9</sup>. Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica, os resultados s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia&#177;desvio padr&#227;o e, quando de interesse, mediana. Adotou-se como n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia o valor de P&lt;0,05. Compara&#231;&#245;es entre os grupos foram feitas utilizando-se o teste t de Student n&#227;o-pareado bicaudal ou o teste de qui-quadrado, como indicado. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tabela I</xref> mostra a preval&#234;ncia das altera&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares observadas entre os candidatos a transplante renal por ocasi&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica inicial. Do total de 195 pacientes, 72 (37%) foram identificados como portadores de alguma forma de doen&#231;a cardiovascular atual ou pregressa. O achado mais freq&#252;ente foi o de doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica (23%). Nesta amostra, a preval&#234;ncia de hist&#243;ria de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular encef&#225;lico e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva n&#227;o ultrapassou 10%. Oito (4%) pacientes j&#225; haviam sido submetidos a procedimentos de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica antes de sua inclus&#227;o no estudo. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Os 123 pacientes candidatos a transplante renal sem evid&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica de doen&#231;a cardiovascular foram comparados a hipertensos prim&#225;rios quanto &#224; preval&#234;ncia de fatores que podiam influenciar a ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares no p&#243;s-transplante (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tab. II</xref>). Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco independentes, inclu&#237;dos nas equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham, observamos que os grupos apresentaram m&#233;dias de idade semelhantes. Diferiram quanto &#224; press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e aos n&#237;veis de colesterol total (P&lt;0,001), mais elevados nos hipertensos. As preval&#234;ncias do sexo masculino, diabetes e tabagismo (P&lt;0,001), predominaram nos renais cr&#244;nicos. Quanto a outros fatores de risco, observamos que a preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o foi compar&#225;vel nos dois grupos. O &#237;ndice de massa corp&#243;rea, a press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica e as preval&#234;ncias de obesidade e de hist&#243;ria familiar de doen&#231;a cardiovascular precoce foram significativamente mais elevadas nos hipertensos. Em contrapartida, os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de creatinina, o &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e a preval&#234;ncia de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda predominaram nos candidatos a transplante. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>As <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tabelas III</xref> e <xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab04">IV</xref> apresentam as estimativas do risco cardiovascular absoluto e relativo em 10 anos, em cinco faixas et&#225;rias, nos dois grupos de pacientes, tanto para homens como para mulheres, respectivamente. O risco dos pacientes foi em geral mais elevado que o dos controles de Framingham. P&#244;de-se observar que o risco relativo n&#227;o foi influenciado pela uremia, uma vez que renais cr&#244;nicos e hipertensos apresentaram risco relativo semelhante independentemente do sexo. Por outro lado, o sexo influenciou o risco atrav&#233;s das diferentes faixas et&#225;rias. Entre os homens, observou-se um aumento do risco absoluto de cerca de 80% e redu&#231;&#227;o paralela do risco relativo, ao longo das cinco faixas et&#225;rias nos dois grupos de pacientes. Contrastando com este padr&#227;o, nas mulheres, tanto o risco absoluto como o relativo aumentaram cerca de tr&#234;s vezes entre o primeiro e o &#250;ltimo quintilhos, tanto nos renais cr&#244;nicos como nos hipertensos. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>
      <undefined id="tab04"/>
    </p>
    <p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-e01.jpg"/></p>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>A insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica constitui um problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica dos mais vultosos. Nos Estados Unidos, tem-se observado um aumento significativo na incid&#234;ncia e preval&#234;ncia da doen&#231;a, onde o n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos tratados por hemodi&#225;lise e transplante ultrapassou a marca dos 320 mil em 1998 e espera-se que alcance os 650 mil em 2010<sup>10</sup>. A finalidade do transplante renal &#233; assegurar a normaliza&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o renal e sobrevida prolongada, livre de complica&#231;&#245;es. Objetivo este que vem sendo, em parte, frustrado pela elevada incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular em transplantados, j&#225; tida como de propor&#231;&#245;es epid&#234;micas. Dados recentes d&#227;o conta de que morte com fun&#231;&#227;o do transplante renal preservada &#233; a causa mais freq&#252;ente de perda de enxerto, sendo a doen&#231;a cardiovascular a causa mais freq&#252;ente de morte ap&#243;s o transplante renal<sup>10</sup>. H&#225; tamb&#233;m consenso entre os especialistas que a exist&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular pr&#233;-transplante constitui um importante fator de risco para o aparecimento de doen&#231;a cardiovascular no p&#243;s-transplante. Ocorre, entretanto, que muitas vezes a doen&#231;a cardiovascular &#233; assintom&#225;tica, especialmente em pacientes diab&#233;ticos, grupo particularmente sob risco de desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica. Por estas raz&#245;es, torna-se imperiosa a detec&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a cardiovascular bem como dos fatores de risco nesses portadores de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, anteriormente a sua inclus&#227;o em listas de espera para transplante renal<sup>11</sup>. </p>
    <p>No presente estudo, consoante com o conceito de que a doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica &#233; fator de risco para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;a cardiovascular<sup>12</sup>, encontramos alguma forma de comprometimento cardiovascular em mais de um ter&#231;o dos indiv&#237;duos encaminhados para avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica pr&#233;-transplante com idades acima de 50 anos, com predom&#237;nio da doen&#231;a arterial oclusiva perif&#233;rica. No <italic>Wave 2 Dialysis Morbidity and Mortality Study</italic><sup>13</sup>, em mais de 4 mil pacientes iniciando terapia dial&#237;tica, 52% apresentavam alguma forma de doen&#231;a cardiovascular preexistente ao iniciarem programa de di&#225;lise. Estudo publicado recentemente por nosso grupo mostrou que doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva esteve presente em 42% dos candidatos a transplante renal submetidos a cinecoronariografia protocolar, indicada independentemente da presen&#231;a de sintomas<sup>14</sup>. Nesta mesma coorte (dados n&#227;o publicados) observamos que 15 de 28 indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica apresentaram tamb&#233;m obstru&#231;&#227;o coronariana <underline>&gt;</underline> 70% na cinecoronariografia, observa&#231;&#227;o particularmente importante dada a elevada ocorr&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a vascular perif&#233;rica na amostra atual. No seu conjunto, esses dados sugerem que os eventos que ocorrem no per&#237;odo p&#243;s-transplante possam ser o resultado, como j&#225; mencionado, ou de complica&#231;&#245;es de doen&#231;a cardiovascular presente por ocasi&#227;o da opera&#231;&#227;o, ou da progress&#227;o de doen&#231;a preexistente. Na falta de estudos de preven&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de doen&#231;a cardiovascular especificamente na popula&#231;&#227;o com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, entendemos que estes constituem uma popula&#231;&#227;o de alto risco e as diretrizes atuais de modifica&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco devem ser utilizadas com o mesmo rigor<sup>1,12</sup>. </p>
    <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de risco "cl&#225;ssicos", em nossa casu&#237;stica de pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica sem evid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, comparativamente ao grupo de hipertensos, encontramos maior predom&#237;nio do sexo masculino, maior preval&#234;ncia do h&#225;bito de fumar e maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de pacientes diab&#233;ticos, caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nico-epidemiol&#243;gicas que <italic>per se</italic> j&#225; definem um grupo de indiv&#237;duos de alto risco cardiovascular, independentemente da presen&#231;a de uremia. A propor&#231;&#227;o de diab&#233;ticos em nossa casu&#237;stica foi cerca de 4 vezes maior do que aquela encontrada na popula&#231;&#227;o geral brasileira<sup>15</sup>, ilustrando a import&#226;ncia do diabetes como causa ou fator associado &#224; insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica. </p>
    <p>Do ponto de vista laboratorial, digna de nota &#233; a observa&#231;&#227;o de menor n&#237;vel de colesterol total em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica do que no grupo de hipertensos prim&#225;rios. Este achado &#233; freq&#252;ente na chamada dislipidemia ur&#234;mica, que &#233; caracterizada por n&#237;veis normais ou reduzidos de colesterol total e LDL-colesterol, diminui&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de HDL-colesterol e aumento de triglic&#233;rides<sup>16</sup>. De Lima e cols.<sup>17</sup>, estudando o perfil lip&#237;dico de 75 pacientes em hemodi&#225;lise, encontraram valores de colesterol total menores do que aqueles de um grupo controle de volunt&#225;rios sadios pareados para sexo e idade. </p>
    <p>Em termos de risco cardiovascular, &#233; importante salientar o achado de, entre os pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo e &#237;ndice de massa do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo aproximadamente 30% maior do que nos hipertensos, apesar de n&#237;veis mais baixos de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica. Neste aspecto, al&#233;m da sobrecarga press&#243;rica imposta ao ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, contribuem para o maior grau de hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo o aumento da rigidez da parede arterial, a sobrecarga volum&#233;trica e fatores humorais<sup>18</sup>. Sabemos que sua presen&#231;a est&#225; associada &#224; doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o e arritmias ventriculares complexas e, conseq&#252;entemente, a uma maior taxa de eventos cardiovasculares<sup>19,20</sup>, o que corrobora a no&#231;&#227;o de que o grupo insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica, no momento da indica&#231;&#227;o do transplante renal, j&#225; se encontra exposto a um risco maior de eventos futuros. </p>
    <p>O risco relativo, calculado pela equa&#231;&#227;o de Framingham, foi elevado nos dois grupos e esteve sempre acima de 1,5 nos homens e maior que 0,8 nas mulheres, ao longo das cinco faixas et&#225;rias. V&#225;rios estudos transversais sugerem que as equa&#231;&#245;es de risco de Framingham s&#227;o insuficientemente poderosas para a quantifica&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular <italic>real</italic> em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica<sup>21</sup>. Nossos dados indiretamente confirmam esta impress&#227;o pois apresentam riscos absoluto e relativo semelhantes nos dois grupos, independentemente do sexo. Sabendo-se que a mortalidade card&#237;aca &#233; muito mais elevada em indiv&#237;duos renais cr&#244;nicos do que em hipertensos, esperar-se-ia que este comportamento fosse refletido por maiores taxas de risco nos pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica. Tal fato n&#227;o foi observado, apesar da maior preval&#234;ncia de tabagismo e diabetes entre os candidatos a transplante renal, sugerindo que outros fatores presentes na uremia e n&#227;o contemplados pelas equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham, como por exemplo a hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, possam desempenhar um papel mais importante na determina&#231;&#227;o do risco em pacientes renais cr&#244;nicos comparados &#224; popula&#231;&#227;o geral. </p>
    <p>Em contraste com a observa&#231;&#227;o acima, que demonstra que o estado ur&#234;mico n&#227;o altera o risco de Framingham comparado aos hipertensos, o risco card&#237;aco foi claramente influenciado pelo sexo, como de resto ocorre na popula&#231;&#227;o geral. O risco relativo no sexo feminino aumentou com a idade enquanto o inverso ocorreu entre os homens. Este fen&#244;meno &#233; uma decorr&#234;ncia do risco cardiovascular n&#227;o variar proporcionalmente com a idade nos dois sexos, como pode ser comprovado comparando-se os riscos de homens e mulheres na popula&#231;&#227;o controle de Framingham. N&#227;o podemos nos esquivar de mencionar, no entanto, que o pequeno n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica limita o poder da an&#225;lise dos dados. </p>
    <p>Um limita&#231;&#227;o a ser considerada no c&#225;lculo dos riscos absoluto e relativo foi a n&#227;o inclus&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de HDL-colesterol, a qual n&#227;o era rotineiramente determinada na popula&#231;&#227;o estudada. Sabendo-se que pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica habitualmente t&#234;m diminui&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o HDL-colesterol, &#233; l&#237;cito supor que possa ter havido subestima&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular determinado pelas equa&#231;&#245;es de Framingham. </p>
    <p>Em conclus&#227;o, em portadores de insufici&#234;ncia renal cr&#244;nica candidatos a transplante renal &#233; grande a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a cardiovascular. Al&#233;m disto, mesmo depois da exclus&#227;o daqueles com doen&#231;a cardiovascular, a preval&#234;ncia dos fatores de risco <italic>cl&#225;ssicos</italic> &#233; significativa, bem como de outros que possam explicar mais adequadamente o risco <italic>real</italic> de eventos futuros nesta popula&#231;&#227;o, risco este reconhecidamente elevado.</p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <label>
          <bold>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</bold>
        </label>
        <p> Lu&#237;s Henrique Wolff Gowdak </p>
        <p> Av. Dr. En&#233;as C. Aguiar, 44 - 10&#186; andar - Bl II </p>
        <p> Cep 05403-000 </p>
        <p> S&#227;o Paulo - SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p>
          <email xlink:href="luis.gowdak@incor.usp.br">luis.gowdak@incor.usp.br</email>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Recebido em 26/01/2004 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 27/04/2004</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <ref id="B1">
        <mixed-citation>1. Levey AS, Beto JA, Coronado BE, et al. Controlling    the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: What do we    know? What we need to learn? Where we go from here? National kidney foundation    task force on cardiovascular disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 32: 853-906. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Controlling the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease: What do we know? What we need to learn? Where we go from here? National kidney foundation task force on cardiovascular disease</article-title>
          <source>Am J Kidney Dis</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>853</fpage>
          <lpage>906</lpage>
          <volume>32</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Levey</surname>
              <given-names>AS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Beto</surname>
              <given-names>JA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Coronado</surname>
              <given-names>BE</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <mixed-citation>2. Kasiske BL, Chakera HA, Roel J. Explained    and unexplained ischemic heart disease risk after renal transplantation. J Am    Soc Nephrol 2000; 11: 1735-43. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Explained and unexplained ischemic heart disease risk after renal transplantation</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Nephrol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1735</fpage>
          <lpage>43</lpage>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Kasiske</surname>
              <given-names>BL</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chakera</surname>
              <given-names>HA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Roel</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <mixed-citation>3. Uhlig K, Levey AS, Sarnak MJ. Traditional    cardiac risk factors in individuals with chronic kidney disease. Semin Dial    2003; 16: 118-27. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Traditional cardiac risk factors in individuals with chronic kidney disease</article-title>
          <source>Semin Dial</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>118</fpage>
          <lpage>27</lpage>
          <volume>16</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Uhlig</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Levey</surname>
              <given-names>AS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sarnak</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <mixed-citation>4. De Lima JJ, Maranh&#227;o RC, Latrilha MC,    et al. Early elevation of lipoprotein(a) levels in chronic renal insufficiency.    Ren Fail 1997; 19: 145-54. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Early elevation of lipoprotein(a) levels in chronic renal insufficiency</article-title>
          <source>Ren Fail</source>
          <date>
            <year>1997</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>145</fpage>
          <lpage>54</lpage>
          <volume>19</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>De Lima</surname>
              <given-names>JJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Maranh&#227;o</surname>
              <given-names>RC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Latrilha</surname>
              <given-names>MC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <mixed-citation>5. Zoccali C, Mallamaci F, Tripepi G. Novel cardiovascular    risk factors in end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2004; 15 Suppl 1:    S77-80. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Novel cardiovascular risk factors in end-stage renal disease</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Nephrol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2004</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>S77</fpage>
          <lpage>80</lpage>
          <volume>15 Suppl 1</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Zoccali</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Mallamaci</surname>
              <given-names>F</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tripepi</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <mixed-citation>6. Longenecker JC, Coresh J, Powe NR, et al.    Traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors in dialysis patients compared    with the general population: The CHOICE study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 1918-27.    </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors in dialysis patients compared with the general population: The CHOICE study</article-title>
          <source>J Am Soc Nephrol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2002</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1918</fpage>
          <lpage>27</lpage>
          <volume>13</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Longenecker</surname>
              <given-names>JC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Coresh</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Powe</surname>
              <given-names>NR</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <mixed-citation>7. Grundy SM, Pasternak R, Greenland P, Smith    S Jr, Fuster V. AHA/ACC scientific statement: Assessment of cardiovascular risk    by use of multiple-risk-factor assessment equations: a statement for healthcare    professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of    Cardiology. J Am Coll Cardiol 1999; 34: 1348-59. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>AHA/ACC scientific statement: Assessment of cardiovascular risk by use of multiple-risk-factor assessment equations: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association and the American College of Cardiology</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1999</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1348</fpage>
          <lpage>59</lpage>
          <volume>34</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Grundy</surname>
              <given-names>SM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pasternak</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Greenland</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Smith</surname>
              <given-names>S Jr</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Fuster</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <mixed-citation>8. Devereux RB. Detection of left ventricular    hypertrophy by M-mode echocardiography. Anatomic validation, standardization    and comparison to other methods. Hypertension 1987; 9(2 Pt 2): II9-26. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Detection of left ventricular hypertrophy by M-mode echocardiography: Anatomic validation, standardization and comparison to other methods</article-title>
          <source>Hypertension</source>
          <date>
            <year>1987</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>II9</fpage>
          <lpage>26</lpage>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <volume>9</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Devereux</surname>
              <given-names>RB.</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <mixed-citation>9. Wilson PW, D'Agostino RB, Levy D, et al. Prediction    of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories. Circulation 1998; 97:    1837-47. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Prediction of coronary heart disease using risk factor categories</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1837</fpage>
          <lpage>47</lpage>
          <volume>97</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Wilson</surname>
              <given-names>PW</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>D'Agostino</surname>
              <given-names>RB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Levy</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <label>10</label>
        <mixed-citation>10. United States Renal Data System. USRDS 2003 Annual Data Report. The National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Disease, Bethesda, MD, 2003. Dispon&#237;vel em: &lt;<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.usrds.org">http://www.usrds.org</ext-link>&gt;</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="book">
          <source>USRDS 2003 Annual Data Report</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <mixed-citation>11. The EBPG Expert Group on Renal Transplantation.    European best practice guidelines for renal transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transpl    2000; 15: S1-S85. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>European best practice guidelines for renal transplantation</article-title>
          <source>Nephrol Dial Transpl</source>
          <date>
            <year>2000</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>S1</fpage>
          <lpage>S85</lpage>
          <volume>15</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>The</surname>
              <given-names>EBPG</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <mixed-citation>12. Sarnak MJ, Levey AS, Schoolwerth AC, et al.    Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease. A    statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular    Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology    and Prevention. Circulation 2003; 108: 2154-69. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Kidney disease as a risk factor for development of cardiovascular disease: A statement from the American Heart Association Councils on Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease, High Blood Pressure Research, Clinical Cardiology, and Epidemiology and Prevention</article-title>
          <source>Circulation</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>2154</fpage>
          <lpage>69</lpage>
          <volume>108</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Sarnak</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Levey</surname>
              <given-names>AS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schoolwerth</surname>
              <given-names>AC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <mixed-citation>13. Foley RN, Herzog CA, Collins AJ. Smoking    and cardiovascular outcomes in dialysis patients: the United States Renal Data    System Wave 2 study. Kidney Int 2003; 63: 1462-7. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Smoking and cardiovascular outcomes in dialysis patients: the United States Renal Data System Wave 2 study</article-title>
          <source>Kidney Int</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>1462</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <volume>63</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Foley</surname>
              <given-names>RN</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Herzog</surname>
              <given-names>CA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Collins</surname>
              <given-names>AJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <mixed-citation>14. De Lima JJG, Sabbaga E, Vieira MLC, et al.    Coronary angiography is the best predictor of events in renal transplant candidates    compared with noninvasive testing. Hypertension 2003; 42: 263-8. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Coronary angiography is the best predictor of events in renal transplant candidates compared with noninvasive testing</article-title>
          <source>Hypertension</source>
          <date>
            <year>2003</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>263</fpage>
          <lpage>8</lpage>
          <volume>42</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>De Lima</surname>
              <given-names>JJG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sabbaga</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Vieira</surname>
              <given-names>MLC</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <mixed-citation>15. Estat&#237;sticas do Diabetes no Brasil.    Sociedade Brasileira de Diabetes. Dispon&#237;vel em: &lt;<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://www.diabetes.org.br/Diabetes/estatisticas/Estat_set.html?%20Estat0.html%7Emain">http://www.diabetes.org.br/Diabetes/estatisticas/Estat_set.html?    Estat0.html~main</ext-link>&gt; Acesso em: 09/01/2004. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="book">
          <source>Estat&#237;sticas do Diabetes no Brasil</source>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B16">
        <mixed-citation>16. Shoji T, Ishimura E, Inaba M, Tabata T, Nishizawa    Y. Atherogenic lipoproteins in end-stage renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2001;    38(4 Suppl 1): S30-3. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Atherogenic lipoproteins in end-stage renal disease</article-title>
          <source>Am J Kidney Dis</source>
          <date>
            <year>2001</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>S30</fpage>
          <lpage>3</lpage>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <volume>38</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Shoji</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ishimura</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Inaba</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tabata</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Nishizawa</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B17">
        <mixed-citation>17. de Lima JJ, Diament J, Gianini SD, et al.    Plasma lipid profile and coronary artery disease in brazilian hemodialysis patients.    Int J Cardiol 1995; 48: 163-6. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Plasma lipid profile and coronary artery disease in brazilian hemodialysis patients</article-title>
          <source>Int J Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1995</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>163</fpage>
          <lpage>6</lpage>
          <volume>48</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>de Lima</surname>
              <given-names>JJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Diament</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Gianini</surname>
              <given-names>SD</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B18">
        <mixed-citation>18. Cannella G. Clues for understanding the pathogenesis    of left ventricular hypertrophy in chronic uremia. Int J Artif Organs 1998;    21: 378-83. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Clues for understanding the pathogenesis of left ventricular hypertrophy in chronic uremia</article-title>
          <source>Int J Artif Organs</source>
          <date>
            <year>1998</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>378</fpage>
          <lpage>83</lpage>
          <volume>21</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Cannella</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B19">
        <mixed-citation>19. Devereux RB. Left ventricular geometry, pathophysiology    and prognosis. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995; 25: 885-7. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Left ventricular geometry, pathophysiology and prognosis</article-title>
          <source>J Am Coll Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1995</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>885</fpage>
          <lpage>7</lpage>
          <volume>25</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Devereux</surname>
              <given-names>RB</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B20">
        <mixed-citation>20. Verdecchia P, Schillaci G, Borgioni C, et    al. Prognostic value of left ventricular mass and geometry in systemic hypertension    with left ventricular hypertrophy. Am J Cardiol 1996; 78: 197-202. </mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Prognostic value of left ventricular mass and geometry in systemic hypertension with left ventricular hypertrophy</article-title>
          <source>Am J Cardiol</source>
          <date>
            <year>1996</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>197</fpage>
          <lpage>202</lpage>
          <volume>78</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Verdecchia</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Schillaci</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Borgioni</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B21">
        <mixed-citation>21. Sarnak MJ, Coronado BE, Greene T, et al.    Cardiovascular disease risk factors in chronic renal insufficiency. Clin Nephrol    2002; 57: 327-35.</mixed-citation>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <article-title>Cardiovascular disease risk factors in chronic renal insufficiency</article-title>
          <source>Clin Nephrol</source>
          <date>
            <year>2002</year>
          </date>
          <fpage>327</fpage>
          <lpage>35</lpage>
          <volume>57</volume>
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Sarnak</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Coronado</surname>
              <given-names>BE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Greene</surname>
              <given-names>T</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
        </element-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Cardiovascular disease and risk factors in candidates for renal transplantation</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To determine the prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and traditional risk factors in patients with chronic renal failure undergoing evaluation for inclusion on the renal transplantation list. METHODS: One hundred ninety-five patients with dialytic chronic renal failure underwent clinical evaluation and complementary tests and were compared with a group of 334 hypertensive patients paired for age. The Framingham equations were used for calculating the absolute risk (AR). The relative risk (RR) was calculated based on the absolute risk of the low-risk Framingham cohort. RESULTS: Thirty-seven percent of the patients had some sort of cardiovascular disease on the initial evaluation, peripheral vascular disease (23%) being the most prevalent. Patients with cardiovascular disease were excluded. Regarding traditional risk factors, a significant difference was observed in systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol (greater in the hypertensive group), and in the prevalence of men, diabetes, and smoking, which were greater in the chronic renal failure group. The latter had a greater degree of left ventricular hypertrophy, lower diastolic blood pressure, and a lower prevalence of familial history of cardiovascular disease and obesity. The relative risk for cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal failure was greater compared with that in the Framingham control population, but it did not differ from that observed in the group of hypertensive individuals. CONCLUSION: The prevalence of cardiovascular disease and traditional risk factors is high among candidates for renal transplantation; the Framingham equations do not adequately quantify the real cardiovascular risk, and other risk factors specific for that population should contribute for their greater cardiovascular risk.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>cardiovascular disease</kwd>
        <kwd>risk factors</kwd>
        <kwd>renal transplantation</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Cardiovascular disease and risk factors in candidates for renal transplantation</p>
      <p>Lu&#237;s Henrique Wolff Gowdak; Fl&#225;vio Jota de Paula; Dante Marcelo Artigas Giorgi; Marcelo Lu&#237;s Campos Vieira; Eduardo Moacyr Krieger; Jos&#233; Jayme Galv&#227;o de Lima</p>
      <p>S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>InCor and Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas of the FMUSP </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Correspondence</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To determine the prevalence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and traditional risk factors in patients with chronic renal failure undergoing evaluation for inclusion on the renal transplantation list.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS: </bold> One hundred ninety-five patients with dialytic chronic renal failure underwent clinical evaluation and complementary tests and were compared with a group of 334 hypertensive patients paired for age. The Framingham equations were used for calculating the absolute risk (AR). The relative risk (RR) was calculated based on the absolute risk of the low-risk Framingham cohort.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS: </bold> Thirty-seven percent of the patients had some sort of cardiovascular disease on the initial evaluation, peripheral vascular disease (23%) being the most prevalent. Patients with cardiovascular disease were excluded. Regarding traditional risk factors, a significant difference was observed in systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol (greater in the hypertensive group), and in the prevalence of men, diabetes, and smoking, which were greater in the chronic renal failure group. The latter had a greater degree of left ventricular hypertrophy, lower diastolic blood pressure, and a lower prevalence of familial history of cardiovascular disease and obesity. The relative risk for cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal failure was greater compared with that in the Framingham control population, but it did not differ from that observed in the group of hypertensive individuals.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION: </bold> The prevalence of cardiovascular disease and traditional risk factors is high among candidates for renal transplantation; the Framingham equations do not adequately quantify the real cardiovascular risk, and other risk factors specific for that population should contribute for their greater cardiovascular risk. </p>
      <p><bold>Key words: </bold> cardiovascular disease, risk factors, renal transplantation</p>
      <p> Those who receive renal transplants have an extremely elevated rate of cardiovascular complications, particularly, those due to coronary artery disease<sup> 1</sup>. This phenomenon may result from the combination of progression of the cardiovascular disease present on transplantation and the disease that precipitates after transplantation <sup>2</sup>. The relative importance of each mechanism has not been elucidated, but should undergo the influence of both clinical and epidemiological characteristics of the candidates for transplantation, and the care with the existence and extension of cardiovascular disease is investigated prior to surgery. Therefore, detailed cardiovascular investigation is currently considered one of the most important steps in pretransplantation evaluation and a fundamental measure for reducing morbidity and mortality associated with renal transplantation. It should necessarily include, in addition to the diagnosis of ongoing cardiovascular disease, the identification of the major determining factors of cardiovascular risk. </p>
      <p>Regarding the last aspect, cardiovascular risk factors observed in chronic renal patients comprise the following: 1) the so-called traditional cardiovascular risk factors, ie, those also observed in the general population; 2) those peculiar to chronic renal patients, such as the increase in the calcium-phosphorus product, high levels of Lp(a), and hyperhomocysteinemia<sup>3-5</sup>; 3) those that, although present in the general population, acquire greater relevance in uremic patients. The prevalence of traditional risk factors in chronic renal patients undergoing dialytic treatment has already been reported <sup>6</sup>. However, data referring to the prevalence of those factors in patients already waiting on the transplantation list are scarce. These patients differ from the population of chronic renal patients because they had already been preselected by the transplantation teams that exclude the most severely ill patients. Consequently, conclusions derived from the former do not necessarily apply to the latter. Information about the risks of patients on waiting lists for transplantation are particularly important for those considered to have a greater probability of developing complications, such as older persons and those with diabetes. </p>
      <p>Therefore, this study aimed at determining the prevalence of cardiovascular disease and traditional and nontraditional risk factors in a group of patients undergoing clinical evaluation for inclusion on the waiting list for renal transplantation. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The study protocol was approved by the scientific and ethics committees of the institutions involved. From January 1998 to October 2003, 273 patients with dialytic chronic renal failure and age <underline>&gt;</underline> 50 years were referred to InCor for pretransplantation cardiovascular evaluation the Renal Transplantation Unit of the Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas. All individuals had already undergone a preliminary investigation to eliminate those whose clinical conditions clearly contraindicated transplantation, such as neoplasia, active infection, or advanced stages of systemic diseases. The following patients were excluded from the study: those who refused to take part in the study (n=2); those who did not meet the specifications of the protocol (n=8); and those whose data were incomplete (n=68). After signing the written informed consent, 195 individuals were included in the study (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig. 1</xref>). The causes of chronic uremia were diabetes (n=69, 35%); nephrosclerosis (n=48, 26%); interstitial nephropathy (n=14, 7%); glomerulonephritis (n=8, 4%); polycystic disease (n=9, 4%); and undetermined (n=47, 24%). Patients had been undergoing hemodialysis for 48&#177;30 (median, 39) months. Hypertension was defined as systolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 140 mmHg, or diastolic blood pressure <underline>&gt;</underline> 90 mmHg, or both, or use of antihypertensive medication. Diabetes was defined as fasting glucose level &gt; 126 mg% on at least 2 occasions or current use of antidiabetic agents. </p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>In regard to pre-existing cardiovascular disease, all patients underwent clinical assessment, routine laboratory and radiological tests, in addition to electrocardiography and transthoracic echocardiography with color flow mapping. Clinical evidence or evidence deriving from complementary tests of current or previous cardiovascular disease (chronic coronary heart disease, or myocardial infarction, or both, heart failure, stroke, arteriopathy, as well as catheter or surgical procedures in the coronary, carotid, or peripheral vascular territory) were actively investigated. </p>
      <p>For determining the absolute cardiovascular risk in 10 years, the Framingham equations <sup>7</sup>, which consider age, sex, systolic blood pressure, total cholesterol, smoking, and diabetes, were used. The HDL-cholesterol levels were not included in the present study. The Framingham score is used for calculating the risk for individuals with no clinical manifestation of cardiovascular disease<sup>7</sup>; so, 72 patients in whom cardiovascular disease was identified were excluded. </p>
      <p>The control group comprised 334 patients with primary arterial hypertension and no clinical evidence of cardiovascular disease, who were followed up in the hypertension unit of InCor during the same period. The control group was paired for age with the chronic renal group, but differed from the latter due to the presence of normal renal function (defined as serum creatinine &lt; 1.5 mg/mL). These patients were chosen due to the observation that almost all chronic renal individuals are also hypertensive, and to the fact that all hypertensive individuals had undergone an equivalent clinical and laboratory evaluation by the same medical team. In addition, both groups were also analyzed and compared in regard to the prevalence of the following factors capable of influencing the occurrence of events, which are not taken into consideration by the Framingham score: creatinine; diastolic blood pressure; heredity (defined as history of early cardiovascular disease among first-degree family members); obesity (BMI <underline>&gt;</underline>30); presence of left ventricular hypertrophy on the echocardiogram (defined as left ventricular mass index &gt; 134 g/m<sup>2 </sup>for men, and 110 g/m<sup>2 </sup>for women <sup>8</sup>); and left ventricular mass index. </p>
      <p>The relative risk was calculated dividing the absolute risk of each group of patients by the absolute values of the Framingham low-risk group <sup>9</sup>. Regarding the statistical analysis, the results were expressed as mean &#177; standard deviation, and, when necessary, median. The significance level adopted was P&lt;0.05. The groups were compared by using the nonpaired 2-tailed Student <italic>t</italic> test or the chi-square test, as indicated. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">Table I</xref> shows the prevalence of cardiovascular disease observed in the candidates for renal transplantation on the initial evaluation. Of the 195 patients, 72 (37%) were identified as having some sort of current or previous cardiovascular disease. The most frequent finding was peripheral vascular disease (23%). In our sample, the prevalence of history of myocardial infarction, stroke, and congestive heart failure did not exceed 10%. Eight (4%) patients had already undergone myocardial revascularization procedures before their inclusion in the study. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The remaining 123 candidates for renal transplantation with no clinical evidence of cardiovascular disease were compared with primary hypertensive patients regarding the prevalence of factors that could influence the occurrence of cardiovascular complications after transplantation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">tab. II</xref>). Regarding the independent risk factors included in the Framingham equations, we observed that both groups had similar mean ages. They differed in systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol levels (P&lt;0.001), which were more elevated in hypertensive individuals. The male sex, diabetes, and smoking (P&lt;0.001) prevailed in chronic renal patients. In regard to other risk factors, we observed that the prevalence of hypertension was comparable in both groups. Body mass index, diastolic blood pressure, and the prevalence of obesity and family history of early cardiovascular disease were significantly more elevated in hypertensive patients. On the other hand, serum levels of creatinine, left ventricular mass index, and the prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy predominated in candidates for transplantation. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <label>Tables III</label>
        <p content-type="label"><xref/><xref ref-type="undefined" rid="tab04-body2">IV</xref> show the estimates of absolute and relative cardiovascular risks in 10 years for 5 age groups in 2 groups of patients (men and women), respectively. The overall patients' risk was more elevated than that of the Framingham controls. The relative risk was not influenced by uremia, because chronic renal patients and hypertensive patients had similar relative risk independently of sex. On the other hand, sex influenced the risk over the different age groups. Among men, an approximate 80% increase in the absolute risk and a parallel reduction in the relative risk were observed in the 5 age groups in both groups of patients. On the other hand, in women, both the absolute and relative risks increased 3 times between the first and last quintiles in the chronic renal and hypertensive patients. </p>
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>
        <undefined id="tab04-body2"/>
      </p>
      <p>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-84-02-0156-00012-e01-en.jpg"/></p>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Chronic renal failure is a very important public health problem. In the United States, a significant increase in the incidence and prevalence of that disease has been observed; the number of individuals treated with hemodialysis and transplantation exceeded 320,000 in 1998, and it is expected to reach 650,000 in 2010<sup>10</sup>. The finality of renal transplantation is to assure renal function normalization and prolonged complication-free survival. This objective has been partially frustrated by the elevated incidence of cardiovascular disease in transplanted individuals, which is considered of epidemic proportions. Recent data have shown that death with preserved renal transplant function is the most frequent cause of graft loss, and cardiovascular disease is the most frequent cause of death after renal transplantation<sup>10</sup>. Specialists have agreed that the existence of cardiovascular disease before transplantation is an important risk factor for the appearance of cardiovascular disease after transplantation. However, cardiovascular disease is often asymptomatic, especially in diabetic patients, a group particularly at risk for developing chronic renal failure. Therefore, the detection of cardiovascular disease and its risk factors in patients with chronic renal failure is mandatory before the patients' inclusion on the waiting lists for renal transplantation<sup>11</sup>. </p>
      <p>In the present study, in accordance with the concept that chronic renal disease is a risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease<sup>12</sup>, some sort of cardiovascular disease was found in more than one third of the individuals older than 50 years referred for cardiological evaluation before transplantation, with a predominance of peripheral occlusive arterial disease. In the Wave 2 Dialysis Morbidity and Mortality Study<sup>13</sup> with more than 4 thousand patients initiating dialytic therapy, 52% had some form of preexisting cardiovascular disease at the beginning of the dialytic program. A recently published study<sup>14</sup> by our team showed that obstructive coronary artery disease was present in 42% of the candidates for renal transplantation undergoing protocol coronary angiography indicated independently of the presence of symptoms. In that same cohort (unpublished data), we observed that 15 of 28 individuals with peripheral vascular disease also had coronary artery obstruction <underline>&gt;</underline> 70% on coronary angiography, a particularly important observation given the high occurrence of peripheral vascular disease in the current sample. As already mentioned, these data suggest that the events that occur after transplantation may be the result of either complications of cardiovascular disease present on the occasion of the surgery, or progression of preexisting disease. Due to the lack of studies on primary preven tion of cardiovascular disease specific to the population with chronic renal failure, we understand that they constitute a high-risk population and that the current guidelines about modification in the risk factors should be used with the same strictness <sup>1,12</sup>. </p>
      <p>In regard to the "classical" risk factors in our case series of chronic renal failure patients with no evidence of cardiovascular disease, as compared with the hypertensive group, we found a greater predominance of the male sex, a greater prevalence of smoking, and a greater concentration of diabetic patients. These clinico-epidemiological characteristics <italic>per se</italic> already define a group of cardiovascular high-risk individuals, independently of the presence of uremia. The proportion of diabetic individuals in our case series was approximately 4 times greater than that found in the general Brazilian population <sup>15</sup>, illustrating the importance of diabetes as a cause of or as a factor associated with chronic renal failure. </p>
      <p>From the laboratory test point of view, the lower level of total cholesterol found in patients with chronic renal failure compared to the group of patients with primary hypertension is noteworthy. This is a frequent finding in the so-called uremic dyslipidemia, which is characterized by normal or reduced levels of total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol, a reduction in the levels of HDL-cholesterol, and an increase in the level of triglycerides<sup>16</sup>. De Lima et al <sup>17</sup>, studying the lipid profile of 75 patients undergoing hemodialysis, reported total cholesterol levels lower than those found in the control group of healthy volunteers paired for sex and age. </p>
      <p>In regard to the cardiovascular risk, the greater prevalence of left ventricular hypertrophy and approximately 30% greater left ventricular mass index in patients with chronic renal failure compared with those in hypertensive patients are worth noting, despite the lower systolic and diastolic blood pressure levels. In addition to the pressure overload imposed on the left ventricle, the increase in arterial wall stiffness, the volume overload, and humoral factors contribute to the greater degree of left ventricular hypertrophy <sup>18</sup>. Its presence is known to be associated with ischemic heart disease and complex ventricular arrhythmias, and, consequently, with a greater rate of cardiovascular events <sup>19,20</sup>. This corroborates the notion that the group with chronic renal insufficiency is already exposed to a greater risk of future events when renal transplantation is indicated. </p>
      <p>The relative risk, calculated by using the Framingham equation, was elevated in both groups and was always greater than 1.5 and 0.8 in men and women, respectively, in the 5 age groups. Several cross-sectional studies have suggested that the Framingham risk equations are not sufficiently powerful for quantifying the real cardiovascular risk in patients with chronic renal failure <sup>21</sup>. Our data indirectly confirm this impression because they show similar absolute and relative risks in both groups, independently of sex. Knowing that cardiac mortality is much greater in chronic renal individuals than in hypertensive individuals, we expected that that behavior would be reflected in greater risk rates in patients with chronic renal failure. This was not observed, despite the greater prevalence of smoking and diabetes among candidates for renal transplantation, suggesting that other factors present in uremia and not considered in the Framingham equations, such as left ventricular hypertrophy, may play a more significant role in determining the risk in chronic renal patients as compared with that in the general population. </p>
      <p>In contrast with the above observation, which demonstrates that uremic status does not alter the Framingham risk compared with that in hypertensive individuals, the cardiac risk was clearly influenced by sex, as seen in the general population. Relative risk in women increased with age, while the inverse occurred in men. This phenomenon occurs because cardiovascular risk does not proportionally vary with age in both sexes, as can be confirmed by comparing the risks of men and women in the Framingham control population. However, one cannot forget that the small number of individuals with chronic renal failure limits the power of data analysis. </p>
      <p>One limitation to be considered in calculating the absolute and relative risks in this study was not including the measurement of HDL-cholesterol levels, which was not routinely performed in the population studied. Knowing that patients with chronic renal failure usually have a decreased HDL-cholesterol fraction, one may assume that the cardiovascular risk determined by the Framingham equations may have been underestimated. </p>
      <p>In conclusion, the prevalence of cardiovascular disease in patients with chronic renal failure who are candidates for renal transplantation is high. In addition, even after excluding patients with cardiovascular disease, the prevalence of classical risk factors is significant, as is that of others that may more adequately explain the real risk of future events in that population, a risk recognized as high.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Correspondence to</p>
          <p> Lu&#237;s Henrique Wolff Gowdak</p>
          <p> Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44 - 10&#186; And. - Bl II</p>
          <p> Cep 05403-000 - S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="luis.gowdak@incor.usp.br">luis.gowdak@incor.usp.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received for publication: 01/26/2004</p>
      <p> Accepted for publication: 04/27/2004</p>
      <p> English version by Stela Maris Costalonga</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
