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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
        <publisher-loc>S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</publisher-loc>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v3">GLGXJNywBKT9PnK9QWxPKSm</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v2">S0066-782X2004001900006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id" specific-use="scielo-v1">S0066-782X(04)08300006</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1590/S0066-782X2004001900006</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigos Originais</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Efeitos da estimula&#231;&#227;o com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til sobre as propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas atriais: estudo experimental da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em c&#227;es</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Dalmo Antonio Ribeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Sousa</surname>
            <given-names>Amanda Guerra Moraes Rego</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Valente</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Leone</surname>
            <given-names>Elizabete Hosri</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff01">
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="state">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
      </aff>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2004</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>83</volume>
      <issue>spe</issue>
      <fpage>26</fpage>
      <lpage>33</lpage>
      <history>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2004</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2003</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <p>OBJETIVO: Avaliar se a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til induz fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e os seus efeitos sobre as propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas atriais e as altera&#231;&#245;es histol&#243;gicas atriais. M&#201;TODOS: Foram submetidos &#224; toracotomia lateral direita 22 c&#227;es e implantados eletrodos de marcapasso no sulcus terminalis (ST), ap&#234;ndice atrial direito (ADb) e na regi&#227;o p&#243;stero-inferior do &#225;trio esquerdo (AE); um par de eletrodos foi suturado na auriculeta direita para estimula&#231;&#227;o com bateria alcalina de 9 Volts conectada a uma sistema (LM 555) que transforma a energia cont&#237;nua linear da bateria em corrente cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til, durante 60 min. A bi&#243;psia epic&#225;rdica atrial foi realizada antes e ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. RESULTADOS: N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as nas dura&#231;&#245;es dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios efetivos atriais. Os tempos de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial, interatrial, bem como dos extra-est&#237;mulos atriais tamb&#233;m prolongaram-se. A dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas atriais prolongou-se durante ritmo sinusal e estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial programada; em 68% dos c&#227;es a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial foi induzida e sustentou-se. Foram observados edema intersticial e bandas de contra&#231;&#227;o celular no subepic&#225;rdio &#224; microscopia &#243;ptica, e intensa desorganiza&#231;&#227;o miofibrilar e aumento do tamanho das mitoc&#244;ndrias &#224; microscopia eletr&#244;nica. CONCLUS&#195;O: Esta t&#233;cnica de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial induz fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e provoca modifica&#231;&#245;es atriais que aumentam sua vulnerabilidade para o surgimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt" kwd-group-type="author-generated">
        <kwd>arritmia card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</kwd>
        <kwd>eletrofisiologia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>13</day>
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2004</year>
      </pub-date>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>
      <bold>ARTIGO ORIGINAL</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Efeitos da estimula&#231;&#227;o com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til sobre as propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas atriais. Estudo experimental da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em c&#227;es</bold>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Dalmo Antonio Ribeiro Moreira; Amanda Guerra Moraes Rego Sousa; Paulo Valente; Elizabete Hosri Leone</bold>
    </p>
    <p> S&#227;o Paulo, SP </p>
    <p>Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia de S&#227;o Paulo </p>
    <p>
      <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end">Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</xref>
    </p>
    <p>
      <bold>RESUMO</bold>
    </p>
    <p><bold>OBJETIVO: </bold>Avaliar se a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til induz fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e os seus efeitos sobre as propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas atriais e as altera&#231;&#245;es histol&#243;gicas atriais. </p>
    <p><bold>M&#201;TODOS:</bold> Foram submetidos &#224; toracotomia lateral direita 22 c&#227;es e implantados eletrodos de marcapasso no sulcus terminalis (ST), ap&#234;ndice atrial direito (ADb) e na regi&#227;o p&#243;stero-inferior do &#225;trio esquerdo (AE); um par de eletrodos foi suturado na auriculeta direita para estimula&#231;&#227;o com bateria alcalina de 9 Volts conectada a uma sistema (LM 555) que transforma a energia cont&#237;nua linear da bateria em corrente cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til, durante 60 min. A bi&#243;psia epic&#225;rdica atrial foi realizada antes e ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. </p>
    <p><bold>RESULTADOS:</bold> N&#227;o foram observadas diferen&#231;as nas dura&#231;&#245;es dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios efetivos atriais. Os tempos de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial, interatrial, bem como dos extra-est&#237;mulos atriais tamb&#233;m prolongaram-se. A dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas atriais prolongou-se durante ritmo sinusal e estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial programada; em 68% dos c&#227;es a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial foi induzida e sustentou-se. Foram observados edema intersticial e bandas de contra&#231;&#227;o celular no subepic&#225;rdio &#224; microscopia &#243;ptica, e intensa desorganiza&#231;&#227;o miofibrilar e aumento do tamanho das mitoc&#244;ndrias &#224; microscopia eletr&#244;nica. </p>
    <p><bold>CONCLUS&#195;O:</bold> Esta t&#233;cnica de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial induz fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e provoca modifica&#231;&#245;es atriais que aumentam sua vulnerabilidade para o surgimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. </p>
    <p><bold>Palavra chave: </bold>arritmia card&#237;aca; fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; eletrofisiologia</p>
    <p> O interesse despertado pela fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial na atualidade deve-se n&#227;o somente por ser uma arritmia freq&#252;ente mas, tamb&#233;m, pelo alto risco de complica&#231;&#245;es que acarreta<sup>1</sup>. Devido &#224; alta preval&#234;ncia, aliada ao conhecimento cada vez maior das complica&#231;&#245;es e, tamb&#233;m, com o grande progresso advindo do tratamento percut&#226;neo de algumas arritmias, o interesse na abordagem terap&#234;utica da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial vem aumentando nos &#250;ltimos anos. Os conhecimentos recentes dos mecanismos eletrofisiol&#243;gicos, envolvendo sua g&#234;nese, t&#234;m permitido entender melhor os fatores desencadeantes e de sua manuten&#231;&#227;o. Para que esses conhecimentos chegassem ao est&#225;gio atual e pudessem evoluir, muitos modelos experimentais foram descritos cujos resultados se assemelham aos dados obtidos em cora&#231;&#245;es de humanos no laborat&#243;rio de eletrofisiologia<sup>2-4</sup>. Apesar de todo avan&#231;o, a literatura n&#227;o disp&#245;e, at&#233; o presente, de uma t&#233;cnica experimental simples e r&#225;pida para indu&#231;&#227;o artificial e manuten&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em c&#227;es, que seja pr&#225;tica e pouco dispendiosa. Por esta raz&#227;o, a utilidade de um modelo experimental simples e reprodut&#237;vel, est&#225; impl&#237;cita. Os modelos experimentais citados anteriormente utilizavam marcapassos especiais e sofisticados, controlados por sistemas computadorizados, capazes de estimula&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida por per&#237;odos prolongados<sup>2,3</sup>. Entretanto, esses sistemas, s&#227;o caros e nem sempre dispon&#237;veis em nosso meio, o que constitui um fator limitante e que retarda a evolu&#231;&#227;o nos conhecimentos envolvidos no surgimento desta arritmia. </p>
    <p>Da mesma maneira que a estimula&#231;&#227;o ventricular com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua causa fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular, imaginou-se ser poss&#237;vel experimentalmente, por meio da utiliza&#231;&#227;o de baterias alcalinas de 9 Volts, estimular-se os &#225;trios e obter o mesmo efeito. Experimentos preliminares em nosso laborat&#243;rio demonstraram que o contato direto da bateria com o epic&#225;rdio atrial produzia les&#245;es importantes, que poderiam, eventualmente, influenciar nos resultados. Por esta raz&#227;o optou-se pelo acoplamento da bateria a um sistema eletr&#244;nico para estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, denominado LM555, que transforma a corrente cont&#237;nua linear liberada pela bateria, em corrente cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til, acarretando com isso menor risco de comprometimento da musculatura atrial. Este estudo foi planejado considerando-se a hip&#243;tese de que a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til induz fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e pode provocar altera&#231;&#245;es das propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas atriais que facilitam a sua manuten&#231;&#227;o ou o seu surgimento espont&#226;neo, possibilitando a pesquisa de novas modalidades terap&#234;uticas em laborat&#243;rio de experimenta&#231;&#227;o. Assim, os objetivos deste estudo foram: a) avaliar a efic&#225;cia da estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til para indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em cora&#231;&#227;o de c&#227;es; b) avaliar os efeitos desta modalidade de estimula&#231;&#227;o sobre as propriedades eletrofisiol&#243;gicas atriais (per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo; os tempos de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial e interatrial; a dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas atriais em ritmo sinusal e durante a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial programada; o &#237;ndice de comprimento de onda do impulso atrial); c) avaliar a vulnerabilidade atrial &#224; indu&#231;&#227;o artificial ou ao surgimento espont&#226;neo de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de estimula&#231;&#227;o; d) analisar as altera&#231;&#245;es histol&#243;gicas no tecido atrial causadas pela estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial (remodelamento morfol&#243;gico ou anat&#244;mico). </p>
    <p>
      <bold>M&#233;todos</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram inclu&#237;dos neste estudo, c&#227;es saud&#225;veis sem ra&#231;a definida e de qualquer sexo, com p&#234;so variando entre 15 e 30Kg e exclu&#237;dos c&#227;es idosos (idade estimada pelo aspecto da denti&#231;&#227;o) nos quais o surgimento de arritmias atriais espont&#226;neas s&#227;o mais comuns; animais com extra-s&#237;stoles atriais freq&#252;entes (acima de 10/min), com taquicardias atriais ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial parox&#237;stica ou persistente; animais que apresentassem espessamentos do peric&#225;rdio, altera&#231;&#245;es da colora&#231;&#227;o do epic&#225;rdio atrial, presen&#231;a de fibrose atrial ou qualquer outra altera&#231;&#227;o que sugerisse acometimento card&#237;aco pr&#233;vio por meio da inspe&#231;&#227;o direta ap&#243;s a abertura do t&#243;rax. Ap&#243;s medica&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-anest&#233;sica (fentanil 1,0 mg/kg de peso por via intramuscular), foi administrado thiopental s&#243;dico (12,5 mg/kg de peso) por via intravenosa para indu&#231;&#227;o anest&#233;sica. Ap&#243;s a intuba&#231;&#227;o endotraqueal, a manuten&#231;&#227;o da anestesia foi realizada com oxig&#234;nio a 100% com respirador Takaoka modelo 670 (Takaoka, S&#227;o Paulo) associada &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua de halotano. A freq&#252;&#234;ncia do respirador foi ajustada para manuten&#231;&#227;o de gasometria arterial dentro de limites fisiol&#243;gicos (pH entre 7,3 e 7,4; pO2 arterial acima de 90 mmHg; pCO2 entre 35 e 40 mmHg e bicarbonato plasm&#225;tico entre 20 e 30 mmol/l). Ap&#243;s a anestesia, os animais foram submetidos &#224; toracotomia lateral direita no quarto espa&#231;o intercostal, seguida de exposi&#231;&#227;o do cora&#231;&#227;o no saco peric&#225;rdico. No epic&#225;rdio atrial foram implantados fios tempor&#225;rios de marcapasso nas seguintes regi&#245;es: a) &#225;trio direito alto, pr&#243;ximo ao <italic>sulcus terminalis</italic> (identificado como ST); b) &#225;trio direito anterior e inferior, pr&#243;ximo ao anel atrioventricular, logo abaixo do ap&#234;ndice atrial (identificado como ADb); c) &#225;trio esquerdo p&#243;stero-inferior, pr&#243;ximo ao anel atrioventricular e ao ap&#234;ndice atrial (identificado como AE); d) um par de eletrodos no ap&#234;ndice atrial direito, que servia para estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. As extremidades externas dos eletrodos epic&#225;rdicos foram conectadas a um pol&#237;grafo de m&#250;ltiplos canais (<italic>FEAS Eletr&#244;nica<sup>&#174;</sup>, Argentina</italic>), para registro dos eletrogramas bipolares das respectivas regi&#245;es atriais, juntamente com as deriva&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas D1, D2, aVF. Todos os registros foram realizados &#224; velocidade de 100 mm/s e o ganho de registro de 1 cm equivalente a 1,0 mV. </p>
    <p>Ap&#243;s a prepara&#231;&#227;o do animal, e por meio de vis&#227;o direta, foram realizadas bi&#243;psias do epic&#225;rdio atrial direito, na regi&#227;o &#226;ntero-lateral para an&#225;lise histol&#243;gica (amostra controle). </p>
    <p>A determina&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio atrial foi obtida pela estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial programada (estimulador FEAS<sup>&#174;</sup>, Argentina), com ciclos de estimula&#231;&#227;o (intervalo S1-S1) de 300 e 200 ms, para aferi&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo. Para sua obten&#231;&#227;o, a estimula&#231;&#227;o foi realizada por meio dos eletrododos epic&#225;rdicos das regi&#245;es ST, ADb e AE, utilizada intensidade de 5,0 mAmperes (mA) e com dura&#231;&#227;o da largura de pulso de 2,0 ms. A intensidade de 5 mA foi adotada para se garantir o comando tecidual atrial constante e uniforme durante todo o experimento. Para aferi&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo foi utilizada a t&#233;cnica cl&#225;ssica da estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial programada, sendo obedecido o seguinte protocolo: ap&#243;s introdu&#231;&#227;o de 8 pulsos (ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o S1-S1 de 300 e 200 ms), eram aplicados extra-est&#237;mulos (S2) com intervalos de acoplamento (S1-S2) progressivamente decrescentes de 5,0 ms, at&#233; quando n&#227;o mais se observasse captura atrial<sup>5</sup>. </p>
    <p>Os intervalos para determina&#231;&#227;o dos tempos de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial e interatrial foram obtidos por meio da estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial cont&#237;nua por 10s a partir de ST, com intensidade de 5,0 mA e largura de pulso de 2,0 ms. Com seq&#252;&#234;ncia de pulsos a intervalos de 300 e 200 ms determinaram-se os tempos de condu&#231;&#227;o entre ST e ADb (tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial) e entre ST e AE (tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o interatrial). O tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial dos est&#237;mulos prematuros, a partir da estimula&#231;&#227;o em ST para as regi&#245;es ADb e AE, foi obtido pela aferi&#231;&#227;o do intervalo S2-A2 (intervalo compreendido entre a esp&#237;cula liberada pelo estimulador e o respectivo eletrograma atrial do batimento prematuro nas regi&#245;es ADb e AE) com ciclos de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 300 e 200 ms. A vari&#225;vel dispers&#227;o da refratariedade atrial foi obtida a partir do conhecimento das dura&#231;&#245;es dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios atriais. </p>
    <p>A vulnerabilidade atrial foi determinada com a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial cont&#237;nua e r&#225;pida, com intervalo S1-S1 de 100 ms (equivalente a 600 pulsos por minuto [ppm]), com intensidade de 5,0 mA, largura de pulso de 2,0 ms por per&#237;odos de 10s, por tr&#234;s vezes consecutivas, na regi&#227;o ST antes e ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial induzida por esta t&#233;cnica era considerada <italic>sustentada </italic>se a dura&#231;&#227;o fosse maior ou igual a 30s; ou <italic>n&#227;o sustentada,</italic> quando a sua dura&#231;&#227;o fosse menor que 30 segundos. </p>
    <p>Os efeitos da corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til foram analisados ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial que era realizada quando os polos positivo e negativo de uma bateria de 9 Volts (Duracel<sup>&#174;</sup>) eram conectados a um circuito eletr&#244;nico comercialmente dispon&#237;vel, denominado LM555<sup>&#174;</sup>. Esse circuito &#233; um sistema est&#225;vel, que gera intervalos de estimula&#231;&#227;o ou oscila&#231;&#245;es previamente programados de maneira muito simples e de alta precis&#227;o. A forma de libera&#231;&#227;o da corrente el&#233;trica, a partir da bateria, deixa de ser cont&#237;nua e linear, para ser do tipo cont&#237;nua e puls&#225;til. Assim, a energia da bateria &#233; transformada em freq&#252;&#234;ncias pr&#233;-programadas de estimula&#231;&#227;o, com varia&#231;&#245;es da largura de pulso e da intensidade de estimula&#231;&#227;o que se julguem adequadas ao procedimento. Nesse protocolo, o sistema era programado para realizar estimula&#231;&#245;es a partir do ap&#234;ndice atrial direito utilizando a corrente com intensidade de 5,0 mA e freq&#252;&#234;ncia de 600 ppm, com largura de pulso de 2,0 ms, por per&#237;odo de 1h. Ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, foram reavaliadas imediatamente as vari&#225;veis eletrofisiol&#243;gicas obtidas na condi&#231;&#227;o controle. Ao final do estudo, era realizada outra bi&#243;psia epic&#225;rdica atrial direita para an&#225;lises histol&#243;gicas, com microscopias &#243;ptica e eletr&#244;nica. Essas an&#225;lises eram programadas para serem realizadas pelo menos em um para cada dois c&#227;es pela microscopia &#243;ptica e, em um para quatro c&#227;es pela a microscopia eletr&#244;nica. A seguir, os animais eram sacrificados com inje&#231;&#227;o endovenosa de cloreto de pot&#225;ssio para indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular, precedida pelo aprofundamento da anestesia. </p>
    <p><bold>Defini&#231;&#245;es - a) </bold><italic>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</italic>: ritmo card&#237;aco irregular, na aus&#234;ncia de atividade el&#233;trica atrial ordenada (aus&#234;ncia de onda P), que &#233; substitu&#237;da por ondula&#231;&#245;es irregulares da linha de base; <bold>b)</bold> p<italic>er&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial</italic>: o mais curto intervalo S1-S2, no qual S2 n&#227;o &#233; seguido de ativa&#231;&#227;o atrial<sup>5</sup>; <italic>per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial global</italic> &#233; a m&#233;dia das dura&#231;&#245;es obtidas nas tr&#234;s regi&#245;es ST, ADb e AE; <bold>c) </bold>d<italic>ispers&#227;o da refratariedade atrial</italic>: definida pelo coeficiente de varia&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial como sendo a raz&#227;o entre o desvio padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia e a m&#233;dia dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios multiplicada por 100, em cada ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o<sup>6</sup>;<bold> d) </bold>t<italic>empos de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial e interatrial</italic>: tempo decorrido para ativa&#231;&#227;o de ADb e AE a partir da estimula&#231;&#227;o de ST, medido entre a esp&#237;cula de estimula&#231;&#227;o (S) e os correspondentes eletrogramas bipolares locais (A1); tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial do extra-est&#237;mulo atrial &#233; o intervalo medido entre a esp&#237;cula de estimula&#231;&#227;o correspondente ao impulso prematuro (S2) e o respectivo eletrograma atrial (A2)<sup>5,7</sup>; <bold>e) </bold><italic>remodelamento anat&#244;mico atrial: </italic>modifica&#231;&#245;es histol&#243;gicas observadas nas c&#233;lulas e estruturas celulares (miofibrilas e mitoc&#244;ndrias) e no meio intersticial causadas pela estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial; <bold>f)</bold><italic> vulnerabilidade atrial</italic>: indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial p&#243;s-estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial r&#225;pida com ciclo de 100 ms realizada em tr&#234;s tentativas consecutivas. O tempo de dura&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial induzida correspondeu ao maior epis&#243;dio documentado ap&#243;s os tr&#234;s per&#237;odos de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial a 600 ppm e n&#227;o &#224; somat&#243;ria da dura&#231;&#227;o de curtos epis&#243;dios da arritmia ap&#243;s cada fase da estimula&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>O manejo dos animais seguiu as regras nacionais e internacionais relacionadas ao estudo experimental em laborat&#243;rio. O protocolo de estudo foi previamente aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da Institui&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p><bold>An&#225;lise Estat&#237;stica - </bold>Foram comparadas as m&#233;dias das vari&#225;veis eletrofisiol&#243;gicas obtidas na situa&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial (situa&#231;&#227;o controle) e ap&#243;s a mesma. Foram comparadas a m&#233;dia de dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo foi comparada dentro do mesmo ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o (intervalo S1-S1 de 300 ms e intervalo S1-S1 de 200 ms separadamente) para cada regi&#227;o ST, ADb e AE bem como para as tr&#234;s regi&#245;es (per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial global). O mesmo foi feito com as m&#233;dias das dura&#231;&#245;es do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio funcional das regi&#245;es ST e ADb. Essas vari&#225;veis foram tamb&#233;m analisadas, comparando-se os valores das m&#233;dias obtidas entre os ciclos de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 300 ms e entre aqueles com o ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 200 ms, tanto antes quanto ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. Os tempos de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial e interatrial, tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial dos impulsos prematuros, &#237;ndice de comprimento de onda do impulso atrial e a dispers&#227;o da refratariedade atrial foram comparados dentro do mesmo ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o, antes e ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. Os resultados para an&#225;lise comparativa s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia e erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia, enquanto que os resultados descritivos s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia e um desvio padr&#227;o. Os valores das vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas (dura&#231;&#227;o dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios; tempos de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial; &#237;ndice de comprimento de onda do impulso atrial; dispers&#227;o dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios atriais) foram comparados pelo teste <italic>t </italic>de Student pareado. Foram considerados significantes os valores p &lt;0,05. </p>
    <p>
      <bold>Resultados</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Foram empregados 22 c&#227;es, 17 (77,27%) do sexo masculino e cinco (22,73%) do sexo feminino, sem ra&#231;a definida, com m&#233;dia de p&#234;sos de 23&#177;12 kg (variando entre 16 e 27 kg). A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial foi induzida em 100% dos animais durante a aplica&#231;&#227;o da corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til sobre o tecido atrial (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01">fig.1</xref>). Ap&#243;s o surgimento da arritmia, a observa&#231;&#227;o do campo cir&#250;rgico evidenciava intensa dilata&#231;&#227;o das c&#226;maras atriais com aumento da tens&#227;o de suas paredes, conforme percebido pela palpa&#231;&#227;o. Foram observados per&#237;odos de uma resposta atrial para cada dois est&#237;mulos (captura atrial com rela&#231;&#227;o 2:1), &#224;s vezes de 3:1, no in&#237;cio da estimula&#231;&#227;o que gradualmente foram se transformando em captura 1:1, logo seguidos de degenera&#231;&#227;o do ritmo atrial para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, com condu&#231;&#227;o atrioventricular vari&#225;vel. Em 19/22 c&#227;es (86,36%), interrup&#231;&#245;es ocasionais da estimula&#231;&#227;o por cerca de tr&#234;s a cinco segundos, por volta dos 30 minutos de estimula&#231;&#227;o, confirmaram a presen&#231;a da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial como ritmo subjacente, indicando que a arritmia estava presente naquele per&#237;odo. Ap&#243;s a interrup&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial manteve-se espontaneamente em 12/22 c&#227;es (54,54%), por um per&#237;odo de 155,17&#177;212,69 segundos (variando entre 10 segundos e 780 segundos). Nos outros 10 animais (45,46%), a interrup&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o foi logo seguida de restabelecimento do ritmo sinusal.</p>
    <fig id="fig01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>N&#227;o se observaram diferen&#231;as significativas nas dura&#231;&#245;es dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios efetivos, comparando-se as condi&#231;&#245;es pr&#233; e p&#243;s-estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, tanto nas regi&#245;es ST, ADb e AE, com ciclos de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 300 e 200 ms. A m&#233;dia da dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial global reduziu significativamente quando comparados os valores obtidos com os ciclos de 300 e 200 ms, tanto antes quanto ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tab. I</xref>). Comparan do-se as m&#233;dias das dura&#231;&#245;es dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios dentro do mesmo ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01">tab. I</xref>), as diferen&#231;as observadas n&#227;o foram significativas. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab01">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt01.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>A dispers&#227;o da dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atri al, definida pelo coeficiente de varia&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio, foi similar nas duas situa&#231;&#245;es, antes e ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02">tab. II</xref>). Entretanto, na determina&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial com ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 300 ms, houve aumento do seu coeficiente de varia&#231;&#227;o em 14/21 c&#227;es (67%) indo de 7,00&#177;1,24 ms antes para 12,06&#177;1,64 ms ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial (aumento de 72%) e em 12/20 (60%) c&#227;es com ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 200 ms, indo de 7,19&#177;1,08 ms para 11,98&#177;1,81 ms (aumento de 67%). Dos 12 c&#227;es em que se observou aumento do coeficiente de varia&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio com ciclo de 200 ms ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, 9 (75%) apresentaram tamb&#233;m aumento da dispers&#227;o com ciclo de 300 ms. Esses achados indicam que, com o protocolo de estimula&#231;&#227;o utilizado nesse estudo, a dispers&#227;o da dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo tende a ser maior ap&#243;s o desencadeamento da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt02.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>O tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o intra-atrial foi similar nas situa&#231;&#245;es pr&#233; e p&#243;s-estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, quando comparados dentro do mesmo ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o (intervalos S1-S1 de 300 ms e de 200 ms) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03">tab. III</xref>). O tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o interatrial apresentou-se prolongado tanto com ciclo de 300 ms quanto com ciclo de 200 ms, entretanto somente com ciclo de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 200 ms houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt03.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <p>Observou-se prolongamento significativo da m&#233;dia dos valores do tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o dos extra-estr&#237;mulos atriais, aplicados em ST e medidos em ADb e AE, com ciclos de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 300 ms e 200 ms, ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em compara&#231;&#227;o com a situa&#231;&#227;o controle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02">fig. 2</xref>). O prolongamento dos intervalos ST2-AE2 e ST2-ADb2 foi marcante ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial conforme pode ser observado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03">figura 3</xref>. </p>
    <fig id="fig02">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf02.jpg"/></fig>
    <fig id="fig03">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf03.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>A dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas atriais em ST, ADb e AE durante ritmo sinusal, antes e imediatamente ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, encontra-se descrita na <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab04">tab. IV</xref>. Pode-se observar que houve aumento da dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas em ST e ADb e tend&#234;ncia de aumento da dura&#231;&#227;o em AE, ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial artificialmente induzida. Na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04">figura 4</xref> encontra-se um exemplo de aumento da dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas locais das tr&#234;s regi&#245;es ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. </p>
    <table-wrap id="tab04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt04.jpg"/></table-wrap>
    <fig id="fig04">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf04.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>Antes e ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, foi testada a indutibilidade da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial com a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial a 600 ppm. Na situa&#231;&#227;o controle, em nenhum animal conseguiu-se a indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial sustentada; a forma n&#227;o sustentada foi observada em apenas tr&#234;s c&#227;es (13,60%; com m&#233;dia de dura&#231;&#245;es de 18,67&#177;11 segundos); em um animal (4,40%) foi induzido <italic>flutter</italic> atrial com dura&#231;&#227;o de 23s. Nenhum outro tipo de arritmia atrial foi induzido nos outros 18 (82%) c&#227;es. Entretanto, ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de 60min de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial sustentada foi desencadeada em 15/22 c&#227;es (68,18%), com m&#233;dia de dura&#231;&#227;o de 148,00&#177;123s (variando entre 35 e 420s). A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial n&#227;o sustentada foi induzida em quatro animais (dura&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia de 17,00&#177;8,72 segundos). Em apenas 3 (13,63%) c&#227;es, nenhuma arritmia foi induzida durante o teste da vulnerabilidade atrial. A estimula&#231;&#227;o programada de ST e ADb mostrou serem estes locais os mais vulner&#225;veis para a indu&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. Assim, com a estimula&#231;&#227;o em ST, a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial foi induzida em 5/8 (62,5%) c&#227;es; a estimula&#231;&#227;o de ADb induziu-a em 6/8 c&#227;es (75%) e a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial foi induzida com a estimula&#231;&#227;o em AE em apenas 2/8 c&#227;es (25%). </p>
    <p>A bi&#243;psia epic&#225;rdica atrial foi realizada em 10 (45,5%) c&#227;es, com a retirada de tecido da regi&#227;o anterior do &#225;trio direito, a cerca de 2 cm de dist&#226;ncia de onde estava sendo realizada a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente cont&#237;nua. Na situa&#231;&#227;o controle nenhuma altera&#231;&#227;o histol&#243;gica foi observada. Entretanto, em 100% dos animais em que a bi&#243;pisa foi realizada, ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, foram observadas &#225;reas de edema intersticial na regi&#227;o subepic&#225;rdica, e bandas de contra&#231;&#227;o celular na regi&#227;o do subepic&#225;rdio foram observadas em 5/10 (50%) dos animais. A microscopia eletr&#244;nica, realizada em cinco animais, mostrou intensa desorganiza&#231;&#227;o miofibrilar, edema intersticial difuso al&#233;m de hipertrofia importante das mitoc&#244;ndrias. Essas &#250;ltimas apresentavam desarranjo lamelar difuso al&#233;m de &#225;reas de edema e fragmenta&#231;&#227;o de lamelas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05">fig. 5</xref>). </p>
    <fig id="fig05">
      <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf05.jpg"/></fig>
    <p>
      <bold>Discuss&#227;o</bold>
    </p>
    <p>Este estudo demonstrou que a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente el&#233;trica cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til induz fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial de maneira constante e reprodut&#237;vel. Em mais da metade do grupo de animais (54,54%) a arritmia persistiu espontaneamente por per&#237;odos de at&#233; 13min, mesmo ap&#243;s o interrup&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial induzida provocou altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais celulares, caracterizando o remodelamento anat&#244;mico atrial, conforme demonstrado pela bi&#243;psia epic&#225;rdica. A principal altera&#231;&#227;o da eletrofisiologia atrial observada nesta investiga&#231;&#227;o foi o prolongamento do tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial. </p>
    <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o do ap&#234;ndice atrial direito, com freq&#252;&#234;ncia de 600 ppm por 60min, provoca inicialmente captura atrial irregular, mas ap&#243;s decorridos cerca de 15min do in&#237;cio do procedimento, j&#225; se percebia claramente a resposta atrial numa rela&#231;&#227;o 1:1, por alguns batimentos, seguida de intensa desorganiza&#231;&#227;o da atividade el&#233;trica dessa regi&#227;o. Este achado sugere que, com o passar do tempo, o encurtamento progressivo da refratariedade atrial, com a persist&#234;ncia da estimula&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, permite capturas atriais mais freq&#252;entes, at&#233; pr&#243;ximo do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo, momento no qual as frentes de onda come&#231;am a coincidir com a fase de repolariza&#231;&#227;o (per&#237;odo vulner&#225;vel atrial). Al&#233;m disso, pode-se supor que a recupera&#231;&#227;o da excitabilidade atrial &#233; heterog&#234;nea quando os &#225;trios s&#227;o ativados em seq&#252;&#234;ncia r&#225;pida, o que faz com que o impulso caminhe mais lentamente em tecido pouco excit&#225;vel. De acordo com Prinzmetal, a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial r&#225;pida pr&#243;xima do limiar de indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, provoca retardos graduais da condu&#231;&#227;o local que se tornam cada vez mais intensos, fato esse que intensifica a quebra de ondas de despolariza&#231;&#227;o el&#233;trica<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial foi induzida em todos os animais durante o per&#237;odo de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial e, em 54% deles, a arritmia persistiu espontaneamente, mesmo ap&#243;s a interrup&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o. Esse fato deve-se provavelmente &#224;s modifica&#231;&#245;es eletrofisiol&#243;gicas e estruturais celulares que facilitariam a manuten&#231;&#227;o da arritmia. A maioria dos estudos relacionados &#224; indu&#231;&#227;o artificial de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em laborat&#243;rio obteve per&#237;odos progressivamente maiores dessa arritmia, &#224; medida que o tempo de estimula&#231;&#227;o se prolongava<sup>2-4</sup>. Estas observa&#231;&#245;es implicam ter havido mudan&#231;as estruturais nas c&#233;lulas, associadas &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es da eletrofisiologia. Provavelmente, per&#237;odos curtos de estimula&#231;&#227;o, como os empregados em nosso estudo, promovam apenas modifica&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias e revers&#237;veis da eletrofisiologia atrial, em reposta &#224; freq&#252;&#234;ncia r&#225;pida de estimula&#231;&#227;o, diferentemente do que ocorre quando a estimula&#231;&#227;o prolonga-se por tr&#234;s ou quatro semanas. Em outras palavras, com per&#237;odos curtos de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, as altera&#231;&#245;es observadas seriam apenas funcionais e prim&#225;rias relacionadas com a pr&#243;pria estimula&#231;&#227;o, indicando uma fase de adapta&#231;&#227;o celular &#224; taquicardia, artificialmente induzida. Por outro lado, per&#237;odos mais longos de estimula&#231;&#227;o induziriam altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais mais intensas, tornando dif&#237;cil a separa&#231;&#227;o entre o efeito prim&#225;rio e o secund&#225;rio da estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, no surgimento da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial<sup>9</sup>. </p>
    <p>A estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente cont&#237;nua puls&#225;til causou modifica&#231;&#245;es da eletrofisiologia celular. Em outros modelos experimentais, que incluem a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial por mais de 24h, &#224;s vezes por semanas, &#233; freq&#252;ente observar-se prolongamento do tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial, principalmente nos experimentos em que se desenvolve insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca<sup>2</sup>. Este fato ocorre devido &#224; presen&#231;a de fibrose tecidual e tamb&#233;m &#224; intensa desorganiza&#231;&#227;o estrutural das c&#233;lulas<sup>10</sup>. O maior retardo da condu&#231;&#227;o atrial encontrado em nosso estudo ocorreu no intervalo ST-AE, com a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com ciclo de 200 ms. Nesse caso, o retardo aconteceu com a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial mais r&#225;pida e entre dois eletrodos distantes, ao inv&#233;s de surgir tamb&#233;m entre ST e ADb, pr&#243;ximos entre si. Este achado indica que a frente de onda encontra cada vez mais tecido parcialmente refrat&#225;rio &#224; sua frente durante estimula&#231;&#245;es r&#225;pidas, j&#225; que o tempo de recupera&#231;&#227;o da excitabilidade local &#233; mais prolongado nessa condi&#231;&#227;o. O grau de retardo maior entre as regi&#245;es ST e AE, com ciclo de 200 ms e n&#227;o com o ciclo de 300 ms, seria indicativo da invers&#227;o na adapta&#231;&#227;o da condu&#231;&#227;o atrial a freq&#252;&#234;ncias mais r&#225;pidas, segundo Manios e cols.<sup>11</sup>, tendo em considera&#231;&#227;o o potencial de a&#231;&#227;o monof&#225;sico. No &#225;trio direito e com ciclos de estimula&#231;&#227;o mais longos (intervalo ST-ADb com ciclo de 300 ms), n&#227;o se observou prolongamento do tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial, pois a recupera&#231;&#227;o da excitabilidade atrial &#233; mais r&#225;pida pr&#243;xima da fonte estimuladora, como foi o caso da estimula&#231;&#227;o em ST, o que reduziria a chance de condu&#231;&#227;o do impulso el&#233;trico em tecido ainda parcialmente refrat&#225;rio entre essa regi&#227;o e ADb<sup>8</sup>. </p>
    <p>Um achado importante em nosso estudo foi a observa&#231;&#227;o de que o tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial de impulsos prematuros esteve significativamente prolongado, ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. A fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial surge e tende a se perpetuar quando existe grau importante de retardo da condu&#231;&#227;o do impulso el&#233;trico, mesmo que n&#227;o haja altera&#231;&#245;es da dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio atrial. Experimentalmente, j&#225; se demonstrou que em cora&#231;&#245;es de coelhos, um retardo cr&#237;tico da condu&#231;&#227;o &#233; necess&#225;rio para se iniciar a atividade em um circuito reentrante<sup>12</sup>. Cosio e cols.<sup>7</sup> e Buxton e cols.<sup>13</sup> j&#225; demonstraram que pacientes com hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial apresentam prolongamento da condu&#231;&#227;o de extra-s&#237;stoles artificialmente introduzidas nos &#225;trios, sendo essa uma marca da vulnerabilidade atrial para o surgimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial nessa popula&#231;&#227;o. Qin e cols.<sup>14</sup> demonstraram que pacientes com hist&#243;ria de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial apresentam aumento muito mais significativo e intenso da inclina&#231;&#227;o da curva de condu&#231;&#227;o atrial em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; prematuridade dos extra-est&#237;mulos atriais do que os pacientes sem arritmias e que n&#227;o havia diferen&#231;a importante das dura&#231;&#245;es de per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios atriais em ambos os grupos, como observado em nosso estudo, sugerindo que a altera&#231;&#227;o do substrato atrial, representado pelo prolongamento do tempo de condu&#231;&#227;o, era o fator mais importante para o desencadeamento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial nos pacientes com hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica dessa arritmia. </p>
    <p>Uma das condi&#231;&#245;es para o surgimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, mesmo em cora&#231;&#245;es normais, &#233; a heterogeneidade da dura&#231;&#227;o dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios. O nosso estudo mostrou que nos animais, nos quais a vulnerabilidade ao surgimento de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial era maior, a dispers&#227;o da refratariedade tamb&#233;m o era. Dos 15 animais, nos quais se conseguiu a indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial sustentada ap&#243;s a pesquisa da vulnerabilidade atrial, 11 (73,3%) deles apresentavam aumento da dispers&#227;o da dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial. Achado que sugere que a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial causa um desarranjo eletrofisiol&#243;gico tecidual, acarretando heterogeneidade regional dos per&#237;odos refrat&#225;rios. A aus&#234;ncia de modifica&#231;&#245;es significativas na dura&#231;&#227;o do per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo atrial, ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial por 60min, e o aumento da sua heterogeneidade (ou seja maior dispers&#227;o) nos c&#227;es nos quais se induziu fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ap&#243;s aquele per&#237;odo s&#227;o resultados similares aos de Fareh e cols<sup>5</sup> que observaram maior vulnerabilidade atrial nos animais que se submeteram &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial a 400 ppm durante 24h. Nesses c&#227;es, a dispers&#227;o da refratariedade foi o principal fator relacionado &#224; maior vulnerabilidade para indu&#231;&#227;o artificial de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, enquanto que o per&#237;odo refrat&#225;rio efetivo em si e o comprimento de onda n&#227;o apresentaram qualquer rela&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Imediatamente ap&#243;s a interrup&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial induzida, a dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas locais prolongou-se significativamente durante ritmo sinusal, nas tr&#234;s regi&#245;es estudadas, particularmente em ST e ADb. Esse achado indica retardo local da condu&#231;&#227;o com freq&#252;&#234;ncias card&#237;acas mais lentas, ou seja, efeito freq&#252;&#234;ncia-dependente reverso e pode ser um fator importante para o surgimento de novos epis&#243;dios da arritmia, particularmente na presen&#231;a de gatilhos, como as extra-s&#237;stoles atriais. Em estudo realizado por Tanigawa e cols.<sup>16</sup>, o mapeamento do &#225;trio direito de pacientes com hist&#243;ria de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, com ou sem disfun&#231;&#227;o sinusal associada, evidenciou eletrogramas atriais fracionados, de longa dura&#231;&#227;o, distribu&#237;dos heterogeneamente. Tai e cols.<sup>17</sup> realizando mapeamento endoc&#225;rdico em pacientes com e sem arritmias atriais, demonstraram que os portadores de <italic>flutter </italic>ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial parox&#237;stica apresentaram eletrogramas do &#225;trio direito mais fracionados e de maior dura&#231;&#227;o que os indiv&#237;duos sem qualquer arritmia atrial documentada. Nos c&#227;es de nosso estudo, altera&#231;&#245;es estruturais celulares caracterizadas pela presen&#231;a de desorganiza&#231;&#227;o de miofibrilas, degenera&#231;&#227;o de mi&#243;citos, a interposi&#231;&#227;o de tecido col&#225;geno entre as miofibrilas e edema intersticial podem justificar retardos locais da condu&#231;&#227;o e o conseq&#252;ente aumento da dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas atriais<sup>18</sup>. </p>
    <p>Na pesquisa da vulnerabilidade atrial, obteve-se f&#225;cil indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial na maioria dos animais (86,36%) ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial com corrente cont&#237;nua. A sustenta&#231;&#227;o da arritmia por um per&#237;odo maior que 30s foi observada em 68,18% deles, valor esse similar aos 67% dos c&#227;es do estudo de Gaspo e cols.<sup>19</sup>, nos quais o &#225;trio direito foi estimulado por sete dias<sup>25</sup>. Baseado nas informa&#231;&#245;es do estudo de Wijffels e cols.<sup>3</sup>, sabe-se, hoje, que s&#227;o necess&#225;rios tempos de estimula&#231;&#227;o longos para que os per&#237;odos de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial tornem-se sustentados por per&#237;odos de 24h ou mais<sup>3</sup>. Em nossos animais, contudo, a dispers&#227;o da refratariedade e o retardo local da condu&#231;&#227;o do impulso foram suficientes para que a arritmia fosse induzida e sustentada em 73,30% deles, apesar do per&#237;odo de estimula&#231;&#227;o de 60min. </p>
    <p>No nosso estudo, a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial persistente provoca modifica&#231;&#245;es da eletrofisiologia e da arquitetura atriais em cora&#231;&#227;o de c&#227;es sem cardiopatia. As altera&#231;&#245;es provocadas devem aumentar a vulnerabilidade atrial ao surgimento espont&#226;neo ou ao desencadeamento da arritmia por meio da estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial programada. Uma das maiores dificuldades para o estudo experimental da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial est&#225; relacionado com a sua indu&#231;&#227;o e sustenta&#231;&#227;o por per&#237;odos longos, para que se permita testar t&#233;cnicas de tratamento n&#227;o famacol&#243;gico. Com a maior vulnerabilidade do tecido atrial, tanto para a indu&#231;&#227;o artificial quanto para o surgimento espont&#226;neo e sustentado da arritmia, t&#233;cnicas de cardiovers&#227;o el&#233;trica intracavit&#225;ria e abla&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea com cateteres poder&#227;o tamb&#233;m ser testadas, visto que se trata de um modelo simples e r&#225;pido para a obten&#231;&#227;o dessa arritmia. </p>
    <p><bold>Limita&#231;&#245;es do Estudo - </bold>os resultados deste estudo foram obtidos ap&#243;s a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial por um per&#237;odo de apenas uma hora. Al&#233;m disso, os animais foram estimulados em vig&#234;ncia de anestesia geral e ap&#243;s a abertura do t&#243;rax, condi&#231;&#245;es diferentes das de outros modelos j&#225; publicados. Assim, nossos resultados n&#227;o podem ser comparados aos daqueles estudos ou extrapolados para situa&#231;&#245;es em que a estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial seja realizada no endoc&#225;rdio ou por mais tempo do que aquele utilizado nesta investiga&#231;&#227;o. </p>
    <p>Os registros dos eletrogramas atriais foram obtidos em tr&#234;s regi&#245;es, n&#227;o permitindo, contudo, que conclus&#245;es a respeito de modifica&#231;&#245;es, tanto da freq&#252;&#234;ncia atrial quanto das morfologias dos eletrogramas atriais de outras &#225;reas n&#227;o registradas, pudessem ser estabelecidas. Poder-se-ia aventar a hip&#243;tese de que a dura&#231;&#227;o dos eletrogramas atriais estivesse alterada ap&#243;s a indu&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, pelo eventual edema local causado pela sutura dos fios de marcapasso. Contra esta possibilidade est&#225; o fato de que a observa&#231;&#227;o por at&#233; uma hora ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino do experimento, mostrava retorno gradual da dura&#231;&#227;o destes eletrogramas &#224; condi&#231;&#227;o controle. Caso fosse de origem traum&#225;tica, a tend&#234;ncia seria a persist&#234;ncia de tais altera&#231;&#245;es, provavelmente. Al&#233;m disso, num estudo piloto realizado por n&#243;s, quando era utilizado o registro endoc&#225;rdico com cateteres multipolares, o alargamento dos eletrogramas tamb&#233;m era identificado mas somente ap&#243;s o protocolo de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial. </p>
    <p>Em nosso estudo n&#227;o foram determinados o tamanho do &#225;trio esquerdo nem a press&#227;o intracavit&#225;ria, de modo que a influ&#234;ncia dessas vari&#225;veis nos resultados n&#227;o p&#244;de ser definida. Entretanto, a observa&#231;&#227;o direta do campo cir&#250;rgico mostrou que havia aumento importante de ambas as c&#226;maras atriais, al&#233;m da detec&#231;&#227;o da maior tens&#227;o na parede atrial avaliada, subjetivamente, pela palpa&#231;&#227;o da massa muscular, nos momentos nos quais a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial estava sendo induzida. Com a interrup&#231;&#227;o da estimula&#231;&#227;o, essas altera&#231;&#245;es desapareceram. Durante a indu&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial n&#227;o se observaram quedas significativas da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica m&#233;dia que pudessem comprometer o estado hemodin&#226;mico dos animais e influenciado os resultados. </p>
    <p>N&#227;o &#233; poss&#237;vel afastar a possibilidade de influ&#234;ncias do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo sobre os resultados observados neste estudo, visto que o bloqueio auton&#244;mico completo n&#227;o foi realizado. Vale salientar entretanto, que as freq&#252;&#234;ncias card&#237;acas em ritmo sinusal, antes e ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de estimula&#231;&#227;o atrial, n&#227;o foram significativamente diferentes, o que pode ser um indicador sugestivo de que as condi&#231;&#245;es auton&#244;micas eram similares. Como o objetivo prim&#225;rio deste estudo era a avalia&#231;&#227;o de uma t&#233;cnica r&#225;pida e eficaz para indu&#231;&#227;o de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, artificialmente, sem a preocupa&#231;&#227;o em descrever mecanismos eletrofisiol&#243;gicos, justificaria a n&#227;o utiliza&#231;&#227;o da pr&#225;tica rotineira do bloqueio auton&#244;mico. Por outro lado, o remodelamento histol&#243;gico, por n&#243;s observado, pode ter sido o principal respons&#225;vel pelas altera&#231;&#245;es eletrofisiol&#243;gicas aqui registradas, independentemente, de eventuais modifica&#231;&#245;es do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo. </p>
    <p>
      <fn id="end" fn-type="corresp">
        <p>Endere&#231;o para correspond&#234;ncia</p>
        <p> Dr. Dalmo Antonio Ribeiro Moreira </p>
        <p> R. Rino Pieraline 126 apto 12 </p>
        <p> Cep 04017-010 &#150; S&#227;o Paulo &#150; SP </p>
        <p> E-mail: </p>
        <p><email xlink:href="dalmoarm@cardiol.br">dalmoarm@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
        <p>
          <ext-link xlink:href="mailto:dalmo_antonio@uol.com.br" ext-link-type="email">dalmo&#150;antonio@uol.com.br</ext-link>
        </p>
      </fn>
    </p>
    <p>Enviado para Publica&#231;&#227;o em 17/07/2003 </p>
    <p> Aceito em 25/08/04 </p>
  </body>
  <back>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Articles</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title xml:lang="en">Effects of stimulation with pulsatile continuous electrical current on atrial electrophysiological properties: experimental study of atrial fibrillation in dogs</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <abstract xml:lang="en">
        <p>OBJECTIVE: To assess whether atrial stimulation with pulsatile continuous electrical current induces atrial fibrillation and to evaluate its effects on atrial electrophysiological properties as well as the atrial histological alterations. METHODS: Twenty-two dogs underwent right lateral thoracotomy and implantation of pacemaker electrodes in the sulcus terminalis (ST), in the right atrial appendix (RAb), and in the posteroinferior region of the left atrium (LA). A pair of electrodes was sutured to the right atrial appendix for stimulation with a 9-volt alkaline battery connected to a system (LM 555) that transforms the linear continuous energy of the battery into a pulsatile continuous current for 60 minutes. Atrial epicardial biopsy was performed before and after atrial stimulation. RESULTS: No differences were observed in the durations of the effective atrial refractory periods. The times of intra-atrial and interatrial conduction, as well as that of atrial extrastimuli, were prolonged. The duration of atrial electrograms was prolonged during sinus rhythm and programmed atrial stimulation; in 68% of the dogs, atrial fibrillation was induced and was sustained. Interstitial edema and bands of cellular contraction were observed in the subepicardium on optical microscopy, as were intense myofibrillar disorganization and an increase in the size of the mitochondria on electron microscopy. CONCLUSION: That technique of atrial stimulation induces atrial fibrillation and causes atrial changes that increase atrial vulnerability to the appearance of atrial fibrillation.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>cardiac arrhythmia</kwd>
        <kwd>atrial fibrillation</kwd>
        <kwd>electrophysiology</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>
        <bold>ORIGINAL ARTICLE</bold>
      </p>
      <p>Effects of stimulation with pulsatile continuous electrical current on atrial electrophysiological properties. Experimental study of atrial fibrillation in dogs</p>
      <p>Dalmo Antonio Ribeiro Moreira; Amanda Guerra Moraes Rego Sousa; Paulo Valente; Elizabete Hosri Leone</p>
      <p> S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil</p>
      <p>Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia de S&#227;o Paulo </p>
      <p>
        <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="end-body2">Correspondence</xref>
      </p>
      <p>
        <bold>ABSTRACT</bold>
      </p>
      <p><bold>OBJECTIVE: </bold>To assess whether atrial stimulation with pulsatile continuous electrical current induces atrial fibrillation and to evaluate its effects on atrial electrophysiological properties as well as the atrial histological alterations.</p>
      <p><bold>METHODS:</bold> Twenty-two dogs underwent right lateral thoracotomy and implantation of pacemaker electrodes in the sulcus terminalis (ST), in the right atrial appendix (RAb), and in the posteroinferior region of the left atrium (LA). A pair of electrodes was sutured to the right atrial appendix for stimulation with a 9-volt alkaline battery connected to a system (LM 555) that transforms the linear continuous energy of the battery into a pulsatile continuous current for 60 minutes. Atrial epicardial biopsy was performed before and after atrial stimulation.</p>
      <p><bold>RESULTS:</bold> No differences were observed in the durations of the effective atrial refractory periods. The times of intra-atrial and interatrial conduction, as well as that of atrial extrastimuli, were prolonged. The duration of atrial electrograms was prolonged during sinus rhythm and programmed atrial stimulation; in 68% of the dogs, atrial fibrillation was induced and was sustained. Interstitial edema and bands of cellular contraction were observed in the subepicardium on optical microscopy, as were intense myofibrillar disorganization and an increase in the size of the mitochondria on electron microscopy.</p>
      <p><bold>CONCLUSION:</bold> That technique of atrial stimulation induces atrial fibrillation and causes atrial changes that increase atrial vulnerability to the appearance of atrial fibrillation. </p>
      <p><bold>Keywords:</bold> cardiac arrhythmia, atrial fibrillation, electrophysiology</p>
      <p> The interest in atrial fibrillation has currently risen not only because it is a frequent arrhythmia, but also due to its high risk of complications <sup>1</sup>. Due to its high prevalence, the increasing knowledge about its complications, and also the great progress of the percutaneous treatment of some arrhythmias, the interest in the therapeutic approach of atrial fibrillation has increased in recent years. The recent knowledge about the electrophysiological mechanisms involving its genesis has allowed better understanding of the triggering factors and their maintenance. For this knowledge to reach its current stage and to be able to evolve, several experimental models have been described, whose results are similar to data obtained in human hearts in the electrophysiology laboratory <sup>2-4</sup>. Despite all progress, so far, the literature has not had a simple, rapid, practical, and inexpensive experimental technique for artificial induction and maintenance of atrial fibrillation in dogs. That is why a simple and reproducible experimental model is useful. The previously cited experimental models used special and sophisticated pacemakers, controlled by computerized systems, capable of rapid stimulation for prolonged periods <sup>2,3</sup>. Those systems, however, are expensive and not always available, which is a limiting factor that delays the evolution of the knowledge involved in the appearance of that arrhythmia. </p>
      <p>Based on the manner in which ventricular stimulation with continuous electrical current causes ventricular fibrillation, experimental stimulation of the atria with 9-volt alkaline batteries was hypothesized to have the same effect. Preliminary experiments in our laboratory showed that the direct contact of the battery with the atrial epicardium produced important lesions that could eventually influence the results. Because of this, we chose to couple the battery to an electronic system for atrial stimulation, called LM555, which transforms the linear continuous current released by the battery into a pulsatile continuous current, causing lower risk of impairing the atrial musculature. This study was planed considering the hypothesis that atrial stimulation with pulsatile continuous electrical current induces atrial fibrillation and can cause alterations in the atrial electrophysiological properties. This facilitates maintenance or the spontaneous appearance of atrial fibrillation and enables the research of new therapeutic modalities in experimental laboratories. Therefore, the objectives of this study were as follows: a) to assess the efficacy of atrial stimulation with a pulsatile continuous electrical current for inducing atrial fibrillation in dog hearts; b) to assess the effects of that modality of stimulation on atrial electrophysiological properties (effective refractory period; intra-atrial and interatrial conduction times; duration of atrial electrograms in sinus rhythm and during programmed atrial stimulation; the wave length index of the atrial impulse); c) to assess atrial vulnerability to artificial induction or spontaneous appearance of atrial fibrillation after the stimulation period; d) to analyze the histological alterations in the atrial tissue caused by atrial stimulation (morphological or anatomical remodeling). </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Methods</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study comprised healthy dogs of no defined breed, of both sexes, and weighing between 15 and 30kg. Dogs with the following characteristics were excluded: old dogs (age estimated based on dentition), in which the appearance of spontaneous atrial arrhythmias is common; animals with frequent atrial extrasystoles (above 10/min), atrial tachycardia, or paroxysmal or persistent atrial fibrillation; animals with pericardial thickening, alterations in atrial epicardial color, presence of atrial fibrosis or any other alteration suggesting previous cardiac impairment through direct inspection after chest opening. After preanesthetic medication (fentanyl, 1.0 mg/kg, intramuscular), thiopental sodium (12.5 mg/kg) was intravenously administered for anesthetic induction. After endotracheal intubation, anesthesia was maintained with 100% oxygen with a Takaoka respirator, model 670 (Takaoka, S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil) in association with continuous administration of halothane. The frequency of the respirator was adjusted for maintaining arterial blood gases within the physiological limits (pH between 7.3 and 7.4; arterial pO<sub>2</sub> greater than 90 mmHg; pCO<sub>2</sub> between 35 and 40 mmHg and plasma bicarbonate between 20 and 30 mmol/L). After being anesthetized, the animals underwent right lateral thoracotomy in the fourth intercostal space, followed by exposure of the heart in the pericardial sac. On the atrial epicardium, temporary pacemaker threads were implanted in the following regions: a) high right atrium, close to the sulcus terminalis (identified as ST); b) anterior and inferior right atrium, close to the atrioventricular ring, right below the atrial appendix (identified as RAb); c) posteroinferior left atrium, close to the atrioventricular ring and the atrial appendix (identified as LA); d) one pair of electrodes were implanted in the right atrial appendix, serving for atrial stimulation. The external extremities of the epicardial electrodes were connected to a multiple-channel polygraph (FEAS Eletronica, Argentina), for recording bipolar electrograms of the respective atrial regions, along with the electrocardiographic leads D1, D2, aVF. All recordings were performed at the velocity of 100 mm/s and the recording gain of 1 cm equivalent to 1.0 mV. </p>
      <p>After preparation of the animal and through direct view, biopsies of the right atrial epicardium were performed in the anterolateral region for histological analysis (control sample). </p>
      <p>The effective atrial refractory period was determined by programmed atrial stimulation (stimulator FEAS, Argentina) with stimulation cycles (S1-S1 interval) of 300 and 200 ms. Stimulation was performed through epicardial electrodes in the ST, RAb, and LA regions, using an intensity of 5.0 mAmperes (mA) and duration of pulse width of 2.0 ms. The intensity of 5 mA was adopted to guarantee the constant and uniform atrial tissue command during the entire experiment. For measuring the effective refractory period, the classical technique of programmed atrial stimulation was used, and the following protocol was followed: after introduction of 8 pulses (S1-S1 stimulation cycle of 300 and 200 ms), extrastimuli (S2) were applied at progressively decreasing coupling intervals (S1-S2) of 5.0 ms, until no more atrial capture was observed <sup>5</sup>. </p>
      <p>The intervals for determining the times of intra-atrial and interatrial conduction were obtained through continuous atrial stimulation for 10s from ST, with an intensity of 5.0 mA and pulse width of 2.0 ms. With pulse sequence at intervals of 300 and 200 ms, the times of conduction between ST and RAb (time of intra-atrial conduction) and between ST and LA (time of interatrial conduction) were determined. The time of atrial conduction of the early stimuli, based on the stimulation in ST for the RAb and LA regions, was obtained by measuring the S2-A2 interval (interval between the spike released by the stimulator and the respective atrial electrogram of the early beat in the RAb and LA regions) with stimulation cycles of 300 and 200 ms. </p>
      <p>Dispersion of atrial refractoriness was obtained based on the knowledge about the durations of the atrial refractory periods in sinus rhythm. </p>
      <p>Atrial vulnerability was determined with continuous and rapid atrial stimulation at S1-S1 intervals of 100 ms [equivalent to 600 pulses per minute (ppm)], with intensity of 5.0 mA, pulse width of 2.0 ms per periods of 10s, for 3 consecutive times, in the ST region before and after atrial stimulation. Atrial fibrillation induced by that technique was considered sustained if the duration was longer than or equal to 30 s, or nonsustained when its duration was shorter than 30 seconds. </p>
      <p>The effects of the pulsatile continuous electrical current were analyzed after the atrial stimulation performed when the positive and negative poles of a 9-volt battery (Duracel) were connected to a commercially available electronic circuit called LM555. That circuit is a stable system that generates previously programmed intervals of stimulation or oscillations in a very simple and highly precise manner. The form of electrical current release from the battery is no longer continuous and linear, but of the continuous and pulsatile type. Therefore, the energy of the battery is transformed into preprogrammed frequencies of stimulation with variations in pulse width and intensity of the stimulation considered adequate for the procedure. In that protocol, the system was programmed to perform stimulations from the right atrial appendix using the current with an intensity of 5.0 mA and frequency of 600 ppm, with a pulse width of 2.0 ms for a one-hour period. After the atrial stimulation period, the electrophysiological variables obtained in the control condition were reassessed immediately. At the end of the study, another right atrial epicardial biopsy was performed for histological analyses with optical and electron microscopies. Those analyses were programmed to be performed in at least one in every 2 dogs on optical microscopy, and in one in every 4 dogs on electron microscopy. Then, the animals were sacrificed with an intravenous injection of potassium chloride for inducing ventricular fibrillation, preceded by deepening of anesthesia. </p>
      <p><bold>Definitions - </bold>a) Atrial fibrillation: irregular cardiac rhythm in the absence of ordered atrial electrical activity (no P wave), which is replaced by irregular waves in the baseline; b) effective atrial refractory period: the shortest S1-S2 interval, in which S2 is not followed by atrial activation <sup>5</sup>; overall effective atrial refractory period is the mean of the durations obtained in the ST, RAb, and LA regions; c) atrial refractoriness dispersion: defined by the coefficient of variation of the effective atrial refractory period as the ratio between the standard deviation of the mean and the mean of the refractory periods multiplied by 100 in each cycle of stimulation <sup>6</sup>; d) times of intra-atrial and interatrial conduction: time required for activation of the RAb and LA from ST stimulation, measured between the spike of stimulation (S) and the corresponding local bipolar electrograms (A1); time of atrial conduction of the atrial extrastimulus is the interval measured between the spike of stimulation corresponding to the early impulse (S2) and the respective atrial electrogram (A2)<sup>5,7</sup>; e) atrial anatomic remodeling: histologic modifications observed in cells and cell structures (myofibrils and mitochondria) and in the interstitial medium caused by atrial stimulation; f) atrial vulnerability: induction of atrial fibrillation after rapid atrial stimulation with a cycle of 100 ms performed in 3 consecutive attempts. The time of duration of induced atrial fibrillation corresponded to the greatest episode documented after the 3 periods of atrial stimulation at 600 ppm and not to the summation of the duration of short episodes of arrhythmia after each stimulation phase. </p>
      <p>The management of the animals conformed to the national and international guidelines for experimental laboratory study using animals. The protocol of the study was previously approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the institution. </p>
      <p><bold>Statistical Analysis - </bold>The means of the electrophysiological variables were obtained before atrial stimulation (control) and after it and compared. The mean duration of the effective refractory period was compared within the same cycle of stimulation (S1-S1 interval of 300 ms and S1-S1 interval of 200 ms, separately) for each ST, RAb, and LA region, as well as for the 3 regions (overall effective refractory atrial period). The same was performed with the mean durations of the functional refractory period of the ST and RAb regions. Those variables were also analyzed by comparing the values of the means obtained in the 300-ms stimulation cycles and those obtained in the 200-ms stimulation cycles, both before and after induction of atrial fibrillation. The times of intra-atrial and interatrial conduction, the time of atrial conduction of the early impulses, index of wave length of the atrial impulse and the dispersion of the atrial refractoriness were compared within the same stimulation cycle before and after atrial stimulation. The results for comparative analysis are presented as mean and standard error of the mean, while the descriptive results are shown as mean and standard deviation. The values of the continuous variables (duration of the refractory periods, times of atrial conduction, index of the wave length of the atrial impulse and dispersion of the refractory atrial period were compared by using the paired Student <italic>t</italic> test. The significance level of P &lt;0.05 was adopted. </p>
      <p>
        <bold>Results</bold>
      </p>
      <p>The study comprised 22 dogs, 17 (77.27%) of the male sex, and 5 (22.73%) of the female sex, with no defined breed and a mean weight of 23&#177;12 kg (ranging from 16 to 27 kg). Atrial fibrillation was induced in 100% of the animals during application of a pulsatile continuous electrical current on atrial tissue (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig01-body2">fig.1</xref>). After the appearance of the arrhythmia, observation of the surgical field showed intense dilation of the atrial chambers with an increase in the tension of the atrial walls, which was perceived on palpation. Periods of one atrial response to each 2 stimuli (atrial capture with a 2:1 relation), sometimes 3:1 capture, were observed at the beginning of stimulation. Those periods gradually transformed into 1:1 capture, being followed by degeneration of the atrial rhythm to atrial fibrillation, with variable atrioventricular conduction. In 19/22 dogs (86.36%), occasional interruptions of stimulation for approximately 3 to 5 seconds, around 30 minutes of stimulation, confirmed the presence of atrial fibrillation as the underlying rhythm, indicating that arrhythmia was present in that period. After interruption of the atrial stimulation, atrial fibrillation was spontaneously maintained in 12/22 dogs (54.54%), for 155.17&#177;212.69 seconds (range: 10 seconds to 780 seconds). In the other 10 animals (45.46%), interruption of stimulation was followed by reestablishment of sinus rhythm. </p>
      <fig id="fig01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>When comparing the conditions before and after atrial stimulation, no significant differences were observed in the durations of the effective refractory periods in the ST, RAb, and LA regions with 300- and 200-ms stimulation cycles. The mean duration of the overall effective atrial refractory period significantly decreased when comparing the values obtained with cycles of 300 and 200 ms, both before and after atrial stimulation (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">tab. I</xref>). Comparing the mean durations of the refractory periods within the same stimulation cycle (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab01-body2">tab. I</xref>), the differences observed were not significant. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab01-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt01-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The dispersion of duration of the effective atrial refractory period, defined as the coefficient of variation of the refractory period, was similar in both situations, before and after atrial fibrillation induction (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab02-body2">tab. II</xref>). However, in determining the effective atrial refractory period, an increase in the coefficient of variation was observed as follows: 1) in 14/21 dogs (67%) with 300-ms stimulation cycle, which passed from 7.00&#177;1.24 ms before atrial stimulation to 12.06&#177;1.64 ms after that (a 72% increase); and 2) in 12/20 (60%) dogs with 200-ms stimulation cycle, which passed from 7.19&#177;1.08 ms to 11.98&#177;1.81 ms (a 67% increase). Of the 12 dogs with an increase in the coefficient of variation of the refractory period with a 200-ms cycle after atrial stimulation, 9 (75%) also had an increase in dispersion with a 300-ms cycle. Those findings indicate that, with the stimulation protocol used in this study, the dispersion of the duration of the effective refractory period tends to be greater after atrial fibrillation is triggered. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt02-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>The intra-atrial conduction time was similar before and after atrial stimulation when compared within the same stimulation cycle (S1-S1 intervals of 300 ms and 200 ms) (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tab03-body2">tab. III</xref>). The interatrial conduction time was prolonged both in the 300-ms and 200-ms cycles, however, the difference was statistically significant only in the 200-ms stimulation cycle. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt03-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <p>In comparison with the control situation, a significant prolongation was observed in the mean values of the conduction time of the atrial extra-stimuli applied to ST and measured in RAb and LA, with 300-ms and 200-ms stimulation cycles, after atrial fibrillation induction (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig02-body2">fig. 2</xref>). The prolongation of the ST2-LA2 and ST2-RAb2 intervals was marked after atrial stimulation as can be seen in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig03-body2">figure 3</xref>. </p>
      <fig id="fig02-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf02-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <fig id="fig03-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf03-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Duration of the atrial electrograms in ST, RAb, and LA during sinus rhythm, before and immediately after atrial stimulation, are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tab04-body2">table IV</xref>. An increase in duration of the electrograms in ST and RAb and a tendency towards an increase in the duration in LA were observed after the artificially induced period of atrial fibrillation. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig04-body2">Figure 4</xref> shows an example of an increase in duration of the local electrograms of the 3 regions after atrial stimulation. </p>
      <table-wrap id="tab04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gt04-en.jpg"/></table-wrap>
      <fig id="fig04-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf04-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>Before and after atrial stimulation, inducibility of atrial fibrillation was tested with atrial stimulation at 600 ppm. In the control situation, induction of sustained atrial fibrillation was obtained in no animal; the nonsustained form was observed in only 3 dogs (13.60%; with mean duration of 18.67&#177;11 seconds); atrial flutter was induced in one animal (4.40%) with a duration of 23s. No other type of atrial arrhythmia was induced in the other 18 (82%) dogs. However, after 60 minutes of atrial stimulation, sustained atrial fibrillation was triggered in 15/22 dogs (68.18%), with a mean duration of 148.00&#177;123 seconds (range: from 35 to 420 seconds). Nonsustained atrial fibrillation was induced in 4 animals (mean duration, 17.00&#177;8.72 seconds). In only 3 (13.63%) dogs, no arrhythmia was induced during the atrial vulnerability test. Programmed stimulation of ST and RAb showed that those sites were the most vulnerable to atrial fibrillation induction. Therefore, with stimulation in ST, atrial fibrillation was induced in 5/8 (62.5%) dogs; stimulation in RAb induced atrial fibrillation in 6/8 dogs (75%); and stimulation in LA induced atrial fibrillation in only 2/8 dogs (25%). </p>
      <p>Epicardial atrial biopsy was performed in 10 (45.5%) dogs and comprised removal of tissue of the anterior region of the right atrium, 2 cm away from the site where atrial stimulation was performed with continuous current. In the control situation, no histological alteration was observed. However, in 100% of the animals undergoing biopsy after atrial fibrillation induction, areas of interstitial edema were observed in the subepicardial region, and bands of cell contraction in the subepicardial region were observed in 5/10 (50%) animals. Electron microscopy, performed in 5 animals, showed intense myofibrillar disorganization, diffuse interstitial edema, in addition to significant hypertrophy of the mitochondria, which showed diffuse lamellar disarray, in addition to areas of edema and lamellar fragmentation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig05-body2">fig. 5</xref>). </p>
      <fig id="fig05-body2">
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-83-spe-0026-00006-gf05-en.jpg"/></fig>
      <p>
        <bold>Discussion</bold>
      </p>
      <p>This study showed that atrial stimulation with pulsatile continuous electrical current induces atrial fibrillation in a constant and reproducible manner. In more than half of the animals (54.54%), the arrhythmia persisted spontaneously for up to 13 minutes, even after interruption of stimulation. In addition, induced atrial fibrillation caused structural cell alterations, characterizing anatomical atrial remodeling, as shown in epicardial biopsy. The major alteration in atrial electrophysiology observed in this study was the prolongation of time of atrial conduction. </p>
      <p>Stimulation of the right atrial appendix, at a frequency of 600 ppm for 60 minutes, initially causes irregular atrial capture, but approximately 15 minutes after the beginning of the procedure, atrial response in a 1:1 relation is clearly seen for some beats, followed by an intense disorganization of the electrical activity of that region. This finding suggests that, over time, the progressive shortening of atrial refractoriness with persistence of rapid stimulation allows more frequent atrial captures up to the effective refractory period, in which the wave fronts begin to coincide with the repolarization phase (period of atrial vulnerability). In addition, one may assume that recovery of atrial excitability is heterogeneous when the atria are activated in rapid sequence, which makes the impulse travel slowly in a little excitable tissue. According to Prinzmetal, rapid atrial stimulation close to the threshold of atrial fibrillation induction causes gradual delays in local conduction, which become increasingly intense, a fact that intensifies the breaking of electrical depolarization waves <sup>8</sup>. </p>
      <p>Atrial fibrillation was induced in all animals during the period of atrial stimulation, and in 54% of the animals the arrhythmia persisted spontaneously even after interruption of the stimulation. This may be due to the electrophysiological and structural cell modifications that facilitate the maintenance of arrhythmia. Most studies related to artificial induction of atrial fibrillation in the laboratory reported progressively longer periods of that arrhythmia as the time of stimulation increased <sup>2-4</sup>. Those observations indicate the occurrence of structural changes in the cells in association with electrophysiological alterations. Short periods of stimulation, as those used in our study, may cause only transient and reversible modifications in atrial electrophysiology in response to the rapid frequency of stimulation, differently from that which occurs when stimulation extends for 3 or 4 weeks. In other words, with short periods of atrial stimulation, the alterations observed would be only functional and primary, related to stimulation itself, indicating a phase of cell adaptation to artificially induced tachycardia. On the other hand, longer periods of stimulation would induce more intense structural alterations, hindering the separation of the primary effect from the secondary effect of atrial stimulation in the appearance of atrial fibrillation <sup>9</sup>. </p>
      <p>Atrial stimulation with pulsatile continuous current caused modifications in cell electrophysiology. In other experimental models, which include atrial stimulation for more than 24 hours, sometimes for weeks, enlargement of the time of atrial conduction is frequently observed, mainly in experiments in which heart failure is developed <sup>2</sup>. This is due to the presence of tissue fibrosis and also the intense structural disorganization of the cells <sup>10</sup>. The greatest delay in atrial conduction found in our study occurred in the ST-LA interval, with atrial stimulation at 200-ms cycle. In our study, the delay occurred with the more rapid atrial stimulation between 2 distant electrodes, instead of also appearing between ST and RAb, which were close to each other. This finding indicates that the wave front finds an increasing amount of partially refractory tissue before it during rapid stimulations, as the time of recovery of local excitability is more prolonged in that condition. The degree of greater delay between the ST and LA regions with 200-ms cycle and not with 300-ms cycle could indicate inversion in adaptation of atrial conduction to more rapid frequencies, according to Manios et al <sup>11</sup>, considering the monophasic action potential. In the right atrium and with longer stimulation cycles (ST-RAb interval with 300-ms cycle), no prolongation in the time of atrial conduction was observed, because recovery of atrial excitability is more rapid close to the stimulating source, similarly to the stimulation in ST, which would reduce the chance of conduction of the electric impulse in a still partially refractory tissue between that region and RAb <sup>8</sup>. </p>
      <p>One important finding in our study was the observation that the time of atrial conduction of the early impulses was significantly prolonged after atrial stimulation. Atrial fibrillation appears and tends to perpetuate itself when an important degree of delay in the conduction of the electrical impulse exists, even when no alteration in duration of the atrial refractory period exists. It has already been experimentally demonstrated in hearts of rabbits that a critical delay in conduction is necessary to initiate the activity in a reentrant circuit <sup>12</sup>. Cosio et al <sup>7</sup> and Buxton et al <sup>13</sup> have already shown that patients with a clinical history of atrial fibrillation have a prolongation in the conduction of extrasystoles artificially introduced in the atria, this being a mark of atrial vulnerability for the appearance of atrial fibrillation in that population. Qin et al <sup>14</sup> reported that patients with a history of atrial fibrillation have a much more significant and intense increase in the gradient of the curve of atrial conduction in regard to prematurity of the atrial extrastimuli than patients with no arrhythmias do. Those authors also reported that no important difference in the duration of the atrial refractory periods existed in both groups, as observed in our study, suggesting that the alteration in atrial substrate, represented by prolongation in the time of conduction was the most important factor for triggering atrial fibrillation in patients with a clinical history of that arrhythmia. </p>
      <p>One of the conditions for the appearance of atrial fibrillation, even in normal hearts, is the heterogeneity of duration of refractory periods. Our study showed that dispersion of refractoriness was greater in the animals more vulnerable to the appearance of atrial fibrillation. Of the 15 animals, in which sustained atrial fibrillation was induced after assessment of atrial vulnerability, 11 (73.3%) had an increase in dispersion of duration of the effective atrial refractory period. This finding suggests that atrial stimulation causes an electrophysiological disarray in the tissue, resulting in regional heterogeneity of the refractory periods. Absence of significant changes in duration of the effective atrial refractory period after atrial stimulation for 60 minutes and the increase in its heterogeneity (ie, greater dispersion) in dogs in which atrial fibrillation was induced after that period were observed. These results were similar to those reported by Fareh et al <sup>15</sup>, who observed greater atrial vulnerability in animals undergoing atrial stimulation at 400 ppm for 24 hours. In those dogs, dispersion of refractoriness was the major factor related to greater vulnerability to artificial induction of atrial fibrillation, while the effective refractory period per se and wave length showed no relation. </p>
      <p> Immediately after interrupting induced atrial fibrillation, the duration of the local electrograms prolonged significantly during sinus rhythm in the 3 regions studied, particularly in ST and RAb. This finding indicates a local delay in conduction with slower heart rates, ie, reverse heart-rate dependent effect, and may be an important factor for the appearance of new episodes of arrhythmia, particularly in the presence of triggers, such as atrial extrasystoles. In a study by Tanigawa et al <sup>16</sup>, right atrial mapping in patients with a history of atrial fibrillation, with or without associated sinus dysfunction, showed long-term fractioned atrial electrograms heterogeneously distributed. Tai et al <sup>17</sup>, performing endocardial mapping in patients with and without atrial arrhythmias, showed that patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation or flutter had more fractioned right atrial electrograms and of longer duration than individuals with no documented atrial arrhythmia. In our dogs, structural cell alterations characterized by the presence of myofibril disarray, degeneration of myocytes, interposition of collagen tissue among myofibrils and interstitial edema may justify local delays in conduction and the consequent increase in duration of atrial electrograms <sup>18</sup>. </p>
      <p>In assessing atrial vulnerability, atrial fibrillation was easily induced in most animals (86.36%) after the period of atrial stimulation with continuous current. Sustenance of arrhythmia for more than 30 seconds was observed in 68.18% of them, a value similar to the 67% of dogs of the study by Gaspo et al <sup>19</sup>, whose right atria were stimulated for 7 days <sup>2,5</sup>. Based on the study by Wijffels et al <sup>3</sup>, it is currently known that long times of stimulation are required for the periods of atrial fibrillation to be sustained for 24 hours or more <sup>3</sup>. In our animals, however, dispersion of refractoriness and local delay in conduction of the impulse were sufficient for arrhythmia to be induced and sustained in 73.30% of them, despite the stimulation period of 60 minutes. </p>
      <p>In our study, persistent atrial stimulation causes changes in atrial electrophysiology and architecture in the hearts of dogs with no heart disease. The changes should increase atrial vulnerability to the spontaneous appearance or triggering of arrhythmia through programmed atrial stimulation. One of the major difficulties for the experimental study of atrial fibrillation relates to its induction and sustenance for long periods, so that nonpharmacological treatments can be tested. With the greater vulnerability of the atrial tissue, both for the artificial induction and spontaneous and sustained appearance of arrhythmia, techniques of intracavitary electrical cardioversion and percutaneous ablation with catheters may also be tested, considering that it is a simple and rapid model for obtaining that arrhythmia. </p>
      <p><bold>Study limitations - </bold>The results of that study were obtained after atrial stimulation for only one hour. In addition, the animals were stimulated while being under general anesthesia and after chest opening, conditions different from those of the other models already reported on. Therefore, our results should not be compared with those of these studies or extrapolated to situations in which atrial stimulation is performed in the endocardium for a longer period than that used in our study. </p>
      <p>The recordings of atrial electrograms were obtained in 3 regions, not allowing, however, that conclusions about changes in atrial frequency and morphologies of atrial electrograms of other nonrecorded areas could be established. One could formulate the hypothesis that the duration of the atrial electrograms was altered after induction of atrial fibrillation due to the occasional local edema caused by suture of the pacemaker threads. Against this possibility is the fact that observation for up to one hour after ending the experiment showed a gradual return of duration of those electrograms to the control condition. If those alterations were of traumatic origin, they might tend to persist. In addition, in a pilot study using endocardial registration with multipolar catheters, widening of the electrograms was also identified, but only after the protocol of atrial stimulation. </p>
      <p>Our study determined neither left atrial size nor intracavitary pressure; therefore, the influence of those variables in the results could not be defined. However, direct observation of the surgical field showed an important enlargement of both atrial chambers, in addition to detecting the greater tension in the atrial wall, which was subjectively assessed on palpation of the muscular mass, at the moments when atrial fibrillation was induced. With interruption of stimulation, those alterations disappeared. During atrial fibrillation induction, significant drops in mean systemic blood pressure that could impair the hemodynamic status of the animals and influence the results were not observed. </p>
      <p>The possibility of influences of the autonomous nervous system on our results could not be ruled out, because complete autonomous block was not performed. It is worth emphasizing, however, that the heart rates in sinus rhythm, before and after the period of atrial stimulation, were not significantly different, which may be an indicator suggesting that the autonomic conditions were similar. The nonuse of the routine practice of autonomous block was justified because the primary objective of this study was to assess a rapid and effective technique for the artificial induction of atrial fibrillation, with no concern about describing the electrophysiological mechanisms. On the other hand, the histological remodeling that we observed may have been the major cause of the electrophysiological alterations here reported, regardless of occasional changes in the autonomous nervous system.</p>
      <p>
        <bold>References</bold>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fn id="end-body2" fn-type="corresp">
          <p>Correspondence to</p>
          <p> Dalmo Antonio Ribeiro Moreira </p>
          <p> Rua Rino Pieraline 126/12 </p>
          <p> Cep 04017-010 </p>
          <p> S&#227;o Paulo, SP, Brazil</p>
          <p> E-mail: </p>
          <p><email xlink:href="dalmoarm@cardiol.br">dalmoarm@cardiol.br</email>, </p>
          <p>
            <email xlink:href="dalmo_antonio@uol.com.br">dalmo_antonio@uol.com.br</email>
          </p>
        </fn>
      </p>
      <p>Received for publication: 07/17/2003</p>
      <p> Accepted for publication: 08/25/04 </p>
      <p>English version by Stela Maris Costalonga</p>
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  </sub-article>
</article>
