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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">pCvfrTwBHBvK7463HSCHdHz</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2026000700605</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00605</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250655</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Doen&#231;a Cardiovascular e Fatores de Risco em Mulheres na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio T.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5805-1810</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Peix</surname>
            <given-names>Amalia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2243-1269</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rodr&#237;guez</surname>
            <given-names>Diana I.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados; An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7528-9011</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Due&#241;as-Criado</surname>
            <given-names>Karen A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3748-7356</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Guti&#233;rrez-Villamil</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5334-1429</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Puente</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2464-3188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Massardo</surname>
            <given-names>Teresa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7130-4608</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Berrocal</surname>
            <given-names>Isabel</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2953-9803</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Astesiano</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7372-0912</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ag&#252;ero</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto N.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7897-9648</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ba&#241;olas</surname>
            <given-names>Ryenne</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8584-5234</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hiplan</surname>
            <given-names>Enrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7214-9491</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>S&#225;nchez</surname>
            <given-names>Mayra</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1519-4755</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barreda</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Ma.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3133-0358</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>G&#243;mez</surname>
            <given-names>Vanessa V.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fern&#225;ndez</surname>
            <given-names>Cynthia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Portillo</surname>
            <given-names>Silvia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-6863-611X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Herrera</surname>
            <given-names>Yariela</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8091-5179</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mendoza</surname>
            <given-names>Aurelio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0011-3158</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kapitan</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-1620-0314</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Castellanos</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2597-8609</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Estrada-Lobato</surname>
            <given-names>Enrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9268-0979</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paez</surname>
            <given-names>Diana</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Os autores contribu&#237;ram igualmente para o trabalho</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-1083-2332</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <given-names>Giovane L.</given-names>
            <suffix>Azevedo Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Os autores contribu&#237;ram igualmente para o trabalho</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Antonio Pedro-Ebeserh</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">UFF</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Antonio Pedro-Ebeserh (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Cardiolog&#237;a y Cirug&#237;a Cardiovascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">La Habana</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CU">Cuba</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiolog&#237;a y Cirug&#237;a Cardiovascular, La Habana &#8211; Cuba </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Nuclear Medicine and Diagnostic Imaging Section</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Division of Human Health</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">International Atomic Energy Agency</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Vienna</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="AT">&#193;ustria</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Nuclear Medicine and Diagnostic Imaging Section, Division of Human Health, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna &#8211; &#193;ustria </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Fundaci&#243;n Cardioinfantil</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto de Cardiolog&#237;a</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Bogot&#225;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CO">Col&#244;mbia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fundaci&#243;n Cardioinfantil-Instituto de Cardiolog&#237;a, Bogot&#225; &#8211; Col&#244;mbia </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Centro M&#233;dico Nacional &#8216;20 de Noviembre&#8217;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ciudad de M&#233;xico</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="MX">M&#233;xico</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro M&#233;dico Nacional &#8216;20 de Noviembre&#8217;, ISSSTE, Ciudad de M&#233;xico &#8211; M&#233;xico </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Chile</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Cl&#237;nico</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Santiago</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CL">Chile</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidad de Chile - Hospital Cl&#237;nico, Santiago &#8211; Chile </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7">
        <label>7</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital San Juan de Dios</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">San Jos&#233;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital San Juan de Dios - Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, San Jos&#233; &#8211; Costa Rica</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8">
        <label>8</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Fundaci&#243;n Escuela Medicina Nuclear</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Mendoza</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fundaci&#243;n Escuela Medicina Nuclear (FUESMEN), Mendoza &#8211; Argentina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9">
        <label>9</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Fundaci&#243;n Centro Diagn&#243;stico Nuclear</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fundaci&#243;n Centro Diagn&#243;stico Nuclear (FCDN), Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10">
        <label>10</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Base</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Valdivia</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="CL">Chile</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Base, Valdivia &#8211; Chile </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11">
        <label>11</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Especialidades &#8216;Carlos Andrade Mar&#237;n&#8217;</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Quito</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="EC">Equador</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Especialidades &#8216;Carlos Andrade Mar&#237;n&#8217;, Quito &#8211; Equador </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12">
        <label>12</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Oncol&#243;gico del ISSS</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">San Salvador</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="SV">El Salvador</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Oncol&#243;gico del ISSS, San Salvador &#8211; El Salvador</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13">
        <label>13</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Mar&#237;a de Especialidades Pedi&#225;tricas</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tegucigalpa</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="HN">Honduras</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Mar&#237;a de Especialidades Pedi&#225;tricas, Tegucigalpa &#8211; Honduras </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14">
        <label>14</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional Cardiopulmonar</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Tegucigalpa</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="HN">Honduras</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional Cardiopulmonar, Tegucigalpa &#8211; Honduras </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15">
        <label>15</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santo Tom&#225;s</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ciudad de Panam&#225;</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PA">Panam&#225;</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santo Tom&#225;s, Ciudad de Panam&#225; &#8211; Panam&#225; </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16">
        <label>16</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional Cardiovascular</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Lima</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="PE">Per&#250;</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional Cardiovascular INCOR, Lima &#8211; Per&#250; </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17">
        <label>17</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Italiano</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Montevideo</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="UY">Uruguai</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Italiano, Montevideo &#8211; Uruguai </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18">
        <label>18</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Dr. Carlos Arvelo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Caracas</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="VE">Venezuela</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Dr. Carlos Arvelo, Caracas &#8211; Venezuela</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label>Amalia Peix Institute of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery - 17 #702, Vedado, PO 10 400, La Habana - Cuba Email: <email>atpeix@gmail.com</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse:</label>
          <p>Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>123</volume>
      <issue>7</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250655</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV) permanece como a principal causa de morte entre mulheres na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe (ALC), sendo a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o o principal componente. Apesar desse importante impacto, os programas de sa&#250;de da mulher na regi&#227;o tradicionalmente priorizaram a preven&#231;&#227;o do c&#226;ncer, frequentemente negligenciando a DCV.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivo</title>
          <p> Analisar a carga de DCV e a distribui&#231;&#227;o dos fatores de risco cardiovascular entre mulheres na ALC, destacando diferen&#231;as relacionadas ao sexo e disparidades regionais.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Este estudo analisou dados epidemiol&#243;gicos sobre mortalidade por DCV e fatores de risco cardiovascular nos pa&#237;ses da ALC, incluindo fatores comportamentais, metab&#243;licos e espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino, al&#233;m de compara&#231;&#245;es com pa&#237;ses selecionados fora da regi&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> As mulheres na ALC apresentaram maior preval&#234;ncia de sedentarismo, dislipidemia, glicemia de jejum elevada e sobrepeso/obesidade, enquanto o tabagismo foi mais frequente entre os homens. Fatores de risco espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino &#8211; como gravidez na adolesc&#234;ncia, parto prematuro, diabetes gestacional e dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos da gesta&#231;&#227;o &#8211; foram altamente prevalentes, por&#233;m sub-reconhecidos, sendo amplamente influenciados por determinantes socioecon&#244;micos. Em 2021, a COVID-19 superou temporariamente a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o e o acidente vascular cerebral como principal causa de morte nas Am&#233;ricas (176,7 &#243;bitos por 100.000 habitantes), evidenciando a vulnerabilidade de mulheres com risco cardiometab&#243;lico pr&#233;vio. A mortalidade prematura por DCV variou amplamente: as maiores probabilidades de morte entre 30 e 70 anos foram observadas no Haiti (21,9%) e na Guiana (15,2%), associadas, respectivamente, &#224; hipertens&#227;o mal controlada e ao colesterol elevado. Em contraste, o Canad&#225; apresentou a menor mortalidade prematura (1,7%), refletindo sistemas de sa&#250;de mais robustos e menor preval&#234;ncia de fatores de risco metab&#243;licos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> A DCV continua sendo a principal causa de mortalidade entre mulheres na ALC, caracterizada por importantes disparidades regionais e elevada carga de fatores de risco tradicionais e espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino. Esses achados refor&#231;am a necessidade urgente de estrat&#233;gias espec&#237;ficas ao sexo e sens&#237;veis ao contexto, integrando a preven&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular &#224;s pol&#237;ticas abrangentes de sa&#250;de da mulher, superando abordagens centradas exclusivamente no c&#226;ncer.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Doen&#231;a Cardiovascular e Fatores de Risco em Mulheres na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe</title>
            </caption>
            <alternatives>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/pCvfrTwBHBvK7463HSCHdHz/789bc6495e3637ba269bd64e0e23a1bbf37a3f0d.tif"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/pCvfrTwBHBvK7463HSCHdHz/3636d3233cef3e50d62326f79d49e575e0cfda45.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/pCvfrTwBHBvK7463HSCHdHz/771bada91a3e7f371d00ba1a3485a301d73d199c.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Am&#233;rica Latina</kwd>
        <kwd>Mulheres</kwd>
        <kwd>Imageamento Multimodal</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento:</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="10"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="52"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em 2019, as 10 principais causas de morte foram respons&#225;veis por 55% da mortalidade global, com a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o (DIC) permanecendo como a principal causa, respons&#225;vel por 16% de todos os &#243;bitos. Notavelmente, a DIC apresentou o aumento mais acentuado nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, passando de pouco mais de 2 milh&#245;es de mortes em 2000 para 8,9 milh&#245;es em 2019.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Na Am&#233;rica Latina e no Caribe (ALC), as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV) s&#227;o a principal causa de morte, com taxas de mortalidade espec&#237;ficas por causa de 184 por 100 000 entre homens adultos e 108 por 100 000 entre mulheres adultas &#8211; substancialmente superiores &#224;s m&#233;dias relatadas nos pa&#237;ses da Organiza&#231;&#227;o para a Coopera&#231;&#227;o e Desenvolvimento Econ&#244;mico (OCDE), de 104 e 53 por 100 000, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, entre mulheres mais jovens, a mortalidade por infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio tem sido relatada como maior do que entre homens em diversas regi&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Desde ent&#227;o, novos dados epidemiol&#243;gicos surgiram, e a pandemia de COVID-19 remodelou substancialmente as tend&#234;ncias de mortalidade em todo o mundo, incluindo na ALC, onde temporariamente superou as DCV como principal causa de morte. Essas mudan&#231;as refor&#231;am a necessidade de an&#225;lises atualizadas e novas revis&#245;es para reavaliar a carga crescente das DCV, particularmente entre mulheres.</p>
      <p>Embora as DCV sejam a principal causa de mortalidade entre mulheres na ALC, a conscientiza&#231;&#227;o sobre doen&#231;as cardiovasculares nesse grupo permanece baixa em toda a regi&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Alguns estudos mostram que mulheres da ALC t&#234;m maior probabilidade do que os homens de apresentar indicadores aumentados de adiposidade e tr&#234;s ou mais fatores de risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> De modo geral, a maioria dos casos de DCV e das mortes prematuras na ALC poderia ser evitada por meio do controle eficaz de fatores de risco metab&#243;licos e do tabagismo, que continuam sendo os determinantes mais comuns e mais potentes desses desfechos na regi&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As mulheres continuam sub-representadas em setores-chave, como economia, educa&#231;&#227;o e pesquisa cient&#237;fica, perpetuando disparidades estruturais. A igualdade de g&#234;nero n&#227;o &#233; apenas um direito humano fundamental, mas tamb&#233;m um fator essencial para a sa&#250;de global, a equidade e a sustentabilidade. Crises recentes de sa&#250;de, incluindo a pandemia de COVID-19, juntamente com os efeitos cont&#237;nuos das mudan&#231;as clim&#225;ticas, influenciaram ainda mais a mortalidade cardiovascular e a preval&#234;ncia de fatores de risco, ampliando as lacunas de g&#234;nero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Enfrentar esses desafios exige a gera&#231;&#227;o de dados confi&#225;veis e atualizados, capazes de orientar pol&#237;ticas de sa&#250;de alinhadas aos Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustent&#225;vel &#8211; particularmente o ODS 3: Sa&#250;de e Bem-Estar &#8211; por meio do monitoramento dos fatores de risco e de seu impacto nas comunidades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Para obter uma vis&#227;o atualizada e compreender os mecanismos que contribuem para o aumento das DCV em mulheres, a Ag&#234;ncia Internacional de Energia At&#244;mica (AIEA) iniciou um projeto regional com o objetivo de melhorar a conscientiza&#231;&#227;o sobre DCV por meio da identifica&#231;&#227;o de lacunas em educa&#231;&#227;o e treinamento. A AIEA oferece coopera&#231;&#227;o t&#233;cnica a 31 pa&#237;ses da ALC, auxiliando os Estados-Membros a enfrentar prioridades essenciais de desenvolvimento em &#225;reas como sa&#250;de, meio ambiente e aplica&#231;&#245;es industriais.</p>
      <p>Este artigo tem como objetivo descrever a situa&#231;&#227;o atual das DCV na regi&#227;o das Am&#233;ricas, como ponto de partida para a implementa&#231;&#227;o de iniciativas no &#226;mbito do projeto ARCAL 6086, apoiado pela AIEA: &#8220;Integra&#231;&#227;o de t&#233;cnicas de medicina nuclear em uma abordagem multimodal em cardiologia para diagn&#243;stico precoce e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares em mulheres latino-americanas&#8221;. Este estudo fornece uma an&#225;lise regional e espec&#237;fica por sexo sobre DCV em mulheres na ALC. Ao integrar dados de mortalidade entre pa&#237;ses, risco de DCV prematura (idades de 30 a 70 anos), fatores cardiometab&#243;licos tradicionais, determinantes espec&#237;ficos do ciclo de vida feminino e o impacto da COVID-19 em um &#250;nico arcabou&#231;o, buscamos ir al&#233;m das estimativas descritivas de carga de doen&#231;a e oferecer uma perspectiva sens&#237;vel ao contexto e orientada a pol&#237;ticas, adaptada &#224;s realidades dos sistemas de sa&#250;de da ALC.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Este estudo foi delineado como uma an&#225;lise ecol&#243;gica descritiva baseada exclusivamente em dados secund&#225;rios obtidos no portal ENLACE da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Pan-Americana da Sa&#250;de (OPAS) para doen&#231;as n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis e sa&#250;de mental.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> O objetivo foi caracterizar a carga de DCV e os fatores de risco associados em mulheres nos pa&#237;ses da ALC, dentro do contexto mais amplo da regi&#227;o das Am&#233;ricas.</p>
      <p>Analisamos os dados mais recentes dispon&#237;veis na OPAS, incluindo taxas de mortalidade e anos de vida ajustados por incapacidade (DALYs, do ingl&#234;s <italic>disability-adjusted life years</italic>) referentes a 2021. Al&#233;m disso, examinamos a preval&#234;ncia dos principais fatores de risco ateroscler&#243;ticos utilizando dados de 2022 para diabetes, atividade f&#237;sica insuficiente, sobrepeso e obesidade; dados de 2019 para preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o; e dados de 2018 para taxas de tabagismo e n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de colesterol total.</p>
      <p>O estudo apresenta indicadores epidemiol&#243;gicos padronizados conforme fornecidos pela OPAS, incluindo incid&#234;ncia, preval&#234;ncia, taxas de mortalidade e DALYs. Os dados foram analisados para todos os grupos et&#225;rios e estratificados por sexo (feminino, masculino e ambos os sexos combinados). A &#234;nfase foi colocada nos padr&#245;es de mortalidade espec&#237;ficos das mulheres e na mortalidade prematura por DCV (idades de 30 a 70 anos), quando dispon&#237;vel.</p>
      <p>Os 36 pa&#237;ses inclu&#237;dos na an&#225;lise foram: Ant&#237;gua e Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bol&#237;via (Estado Plurinacional da), Brasil, Canad&#225;, Chile, Col&#244;mbia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Rep&#250;blica Dominicana, Equador, El Salvador, Granada, Guatemala, Guiana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, M&#233;xico, Nicar&#225;gua, Panam&#225;, Paraguai, Peru, Porto Rico, S&#227;o Crist&#243;v&#227;o e Nevis, Santa L&#250;cia, S&#227;o Vicente e Granadinas, Suriname, Trinidad e Tobago, Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica, Uruguai e (Rep&#250;blica Bolivariana da) Venezuela. Embora os Estados Unidos e o Canad&#225; n&#227;o sejam pa&#237;ses da ALC, foram inclu&#237;dos para fins comparativos, em conformidade com a classifica&#231;&#227;o regional das Am&#233;ricas utilizada pela OPAS.</p>
      <p>O ENLACE funciona como um reposit&#243;rio regional abrangente que integra dados prim&#225;rios provenientes dos sistemas nacionais de estat&#237;sticas vitais oficialmente reportados pelos Estados-Membros, inqu&#233;ritos populacionais de sa&#250;de e estimativas globais harmonizadas da Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de (OMS) e do estudo <italic>Global Burden of Disease</italic> (GBD). Esses procedimentos de integra&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o desenvolvidos pela OPAS para aprimorar a padroniza&#231;&#227;o dos dados e a comparabilidade entre pa&#237;ses.</p>
      <p>A an&#225;lise concentrou-se na descri&#231;&#227;o e compara&#231;&#227;o de indicadores epidemiol&#243;gicos padronizados entre pa&#237;ses e entre os sexos. Todos os resultados s&#227;o apresentados como estimativas descritivas derivadas dos dados reportados pela OPAS, e as interpreta&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o limitadas a padr&#245;es populacionais, sem implicar associa&#231;&#245;es causais.</p>
      <p>Este estudo utilizou dados secund&#225;rios, agregados e de acesso p&#250;blico, provenientes da plataforma ENLACE da OPAS; portanto, n&#227;o houve necessidade de aprova&#231;&#227;o por comit&#234; de &#233;tica nem de consentimento informado. Todos os dados est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis no portal da OPAS, e nenhum conjunto de dados prim&#225;rios ou c&#243;digo anal&#237;tico foi gerado.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Carga global de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares nos pa&#237;ses da ALC</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares &#8211; principalmente a doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o (DIC) e as doen&#231;as cerebrovasculares, sobretudo o acidente vascular cerebral &#8211; continuam sendo as principais causas de mortalidade e importantes contribuintes para os DALYs. Em 2021, a COVID-19 foi a principal causa de carga de doen&#231;a na Regi&#227;o das Am&#233;ricas para ambos os sexos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>De acordo com as estimativas mais recentes da OPAS para 2021, as principais causas de morte nas Am&#233;ricas foram: COVID-19 (176,7 &#243;bitos por 100.000 habitantes), DIC (114,0 por 100.000) e acidente vascular cerebral (48,4 por 100.000), seguidas pela doen&#231;a de Alzheimer e outras dem&#234;ncias (38,1 por 100.000) e pela doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica (DPOC) (34,6 por 100.000). Quando estratificadas por sexo, a segunda e a terceira causas de mortalidade permaneceram DIC e AVC; entretanto, a quarta causa diferiu: entre homens, viol&#234;ncia interpessoal; entre mulheres, doen&#231;a de Alzheimer (ver <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Principais causas de morte e perda de sa&#250;de nas Am&#233;ricas, 2021 (ambos os sexos, homens e mulheres). Adaptado da Pan American Health Organization.47</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A mortalidade prematura por DCV &#8211; medida como a probabilidade incondicional de morrer entre as idades exatas de 30 e 69 anos &#8211; &#233; um dos indicadores monitorados pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de. Quanto maior essa probabilidade, maior o impacto das DCV na mortalidade de um pa&#237;s. A desagrega&#231;&#227;o desses dados por sexo ajuda a esclarecer disparidades na carga de DCV entre homens e mulheres.</p>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref> mostra a probabilidade de morrer por DCV entre as idades de 30 e 69 anos, estratificada por sexo. O pa&#237;s com a menor mortalidade prematura por DCV entre mulheres na regi&#227;o &#233; o Canad&#225; (1,7%). Essa probabilidade &#233; mais de 12 vezes maior no Haiti (21,9%). Entre os homens, Peru (4,4%) e Guatemala (4,4%) apresentaram as menores taxas de mortalidade prematura por DCV. No extremo oposto, as maiores probabilidades tamb&#233;m foram observadas no Haiti (20,1%) e na Guiana (17,7%).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Probabilidade de morrer por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares entre as idades exatas de 30 e 69 anos, dividida por sexo (expressa em porcentagem); adaptado da Pan American Health Organization.48</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>A probabilidade de morrer por DCV entre 30 e 69 anos &#233; maior entre mulheres apenas no Haiti (1,8 pontos percentuais acima dos homens). Em todos os demais pa&#237;ses das Am&#233;ricas, o risco de mortalidade prematura por DCV &#233; maior entre homens do que entre mulheres. Suriname e Guiana apresentaram as maiores diferen&#231;as entre os sexos: 6,7 pontos percentuais mais alta entre homens na Venezuela e 6,2 pontos percentuais mais alta na Rep&#250;blica Dominicana.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatores de risco ateroscler&#243;ticos</title>
        <p>Os fatores de risco cardiovascular para mulheres inclu&#237;dos nesta revis&#227;o cl&#237;nica s&#227;o aqueles tradicionalmente conhecidos, tais como: hipertens&#227;o arterial, diabetes mellitus, tabagismo, obesidade e sedentarismo. Al&#233;m disso, fatores espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino t&#234;m sido identificados, relacionados ao hist&#243;rico e &#224;s condi&#231;&#245;es pr&#243;prias das mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> A an&#225;lise a seguir avalia quais pa&#237;ses apresentam maior preval&#234;ncia desses fatores e os poss&#237;veis determinantes subjacentes. Todos os pa&#237;ses da regi&#227;o das Am&#233;ricas foram inclu&#237;dos para facilitar a compara&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>N&#237;veis de colesterol</title>
          <p>A m&#233;dia padronizada por idade do colesterol total nos pa&#237;ses das Am&#233;ricas em 2018 variou de 164 mg/dL em Barbados a 185 mg/dL no Uruguai entre os homens, e de aproximadamente 173 mg/dL em Barbados a mais de 192 mg/dL na Guiana entre as mulheres (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3a</xref>). Em quase todos os pa&#237;ses, as mulheres apresentaram n&#237;veis de colesterol mais elevados do que os homens, com exce&#231;&#227;o do Chile.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Principais fatores de risco cardiovascular nos pa&#237;ses das Am&#233;ricas: n&#237;vel m&#233;dio de colesterol total (a); preval&#234;ncia de diabetes em adultos (b); taxas de tabagismo atual entre pessoas com 15 anos ou mais (estimativa padronizada por idade) (c); preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o entre adultos de 30 a 69 anos (estimativa padronizada por idade) (d). Adaptado da Pan American Health Organization49,50 e World Health Organization.51</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf03.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Preval&#234;ncia de diabetes em adultos</title>
          <p>A preval&#234;ncia de diabetes em adultos (glicemia de jejum &#8805;126 mg/dL, HbA1c &#8805;6,5% ou uso atual de medica&#231;&#227;o) entre indiv&#237;duos com 18 anos ou mais &#233; apresentada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3b</xref>. A preval&#234;ncia variou amplamente entre os pa&#237;ses, indo de cerca de 7,7% no Canad&#225; a mais de 33,7% em Trinidad e Tobago entre as mulheres. Entre os homens, a menor preval&#234;ncia foi observada no Panam&#225; (7,8%) e a maior em Porto Rico (27,2%). Em m&#233;dia, a preval&#234;ncia nos pa&#237;ses da ALC foi notavelmente elevada &#8212; afetando uma em cada cinco mulheres (20%) e quase um em cada seis homens (16%) &#8212; conforme ilustrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>.</p>
          <p>A preval&#234;ncia de diabetes em adultos foi geralmente maior entre mulheres do que entre homens na maioria dos pa&#237;ses, com exce&#231;&#245;es nos Estados Unidos, Canad&#225;, Venezuela, Bol&#237;via e Guatemala. As maiores diferen&#231;as entre os sexos foram observadas em Dominica, Jamaica e Barbados, onde as mulheres apresentaram preval&#234;ncia marcadamente superior &#224; dos homens.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tabagismo</title>
          <p>Em 2018, a preval&#234;ncia de tabagismo foi consistentemente maior entre homens do que entre mulheres em todos os pa&#237;ses das Am&#233;ricas. Entre as mulheres, a preval&#234;ncia foi inferior a 20% na maioria dos pa&#237;ses, exceto no Chile, onde 32,7% das mulheres relataram fumar (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3c</xref>). Os pa&#237;ses com as maiores preval&#234;ncias de tabagismo feminino foram Chile (32,7%), Estados Unidos (17,3%), Argentina (16,6%) e Uruguai (16,0%). Na outra extremidade, as menores preval&#234;ncias entre mulheres foram observadas em Barbados (2%), Panam&#225; (2,1%) e El Salvador (2,2%).</p>
          <p>Entre os homens, a preval&#234;ncia de tabagismo foi substancialmente maior, ultrapassando 30% no Chile e em Cuba. As maiores diferen&#231;as entre os sexos foram observadas em Cuba, Guiana e El Salvador, sendo Cuba o pa&#237;s com a maior disparidade &#8212; o tabagismo foi 25,2 pontos percentuais mais prevalente entre homens. Em contraste, a Rep&#250;blica Dominicana apresentou a menor diferen&#231;a entre os sexos, com apenas 3,8 pontos percentuais.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Hipertens&#227;o arterial</title>
          <p>Foi identificada uma preval&#234;ncia heterog&#234;nea de hipertens&#227;o entre adultos de 30 a 79 anos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3d</xref>). A hipertens&#227;o foi definida como press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica &#8805;130 mmHg, press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica &#8805;80 mmHg ou uso autorreferido de medica&#231;&#227;o anti-hipertensiva.</p>
          <p>Os pa&#237;ses no quintil mais alto de preval&#234;ncia de HBP foram Paraguai (56,4%), Rep&#250;blica Dominicana (49,1%), Dominica (47,7%), Argentina (47,5%), Granada (46,6%), Jamaica (46,3%), S&#227;o Crist&#243;v&#227;o e Nevis (45,1%) e Brasil (45,0%). Em compara&#231;&#227;o, Guatemala (32,2%), M&#233;xico (32,1%), Estados Unidos (31,6%), Col&#244;mbia (31,0%), Bol&#237;via (28,3%), Equador (27,2%), Canad&#225; (22,1%) e Peru (20,7%) compuseram o quintil mais baixo.</p>
          <p>Interessantemente, a preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o foi relativamente menor entre mulheres na maioria dos pa&#237;ses. Argentina e Paraguai apresentaram as maiores diferen&#231;as entre os sexos: 12,8 pontos percentuais mais alta entre homens na Argentina (54,0% vs. 41,2%) e 10,7 pontos percentuais mais alta entre homens no Paraguai (61,6% vs. 50,9%). No sentido oposto, o Haiti apresentou a maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o entre mulheres em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens, com diferen&#231;a de 10,2 pontos percentuais (37,6% vs. 47,8%). O pa&#237;s com a maior preval&#234;ncia de hipertens&#227;o entre mulheres foi o Paraguai (50,9%).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Atividade f&#237;sica insuficiente</title>
          <p>Diferentemente da hipertens&#227;o arterial, a atividade f&#237;sica insuficiente &#233; mais prevalente entre mulheres do que entre homens em toda a ALC. A propor&#231;&#227;o de mulheres sedent&#225;rias &#233; altamente heterog&#234;nea na regi&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 4a</xref>). Os pa&#237;ses no quintil mais alto de inatividade f&#237;sica entre mulheres foram Cuba (72%), Panam&#225; (66,9%), Costa Rica (57,8%), Suriname (55,1%) e Trinidad e Tobago (54,2%). Em contraste, as menores preval&#234;ncias foram observadas em Santa L&#250;cia (24,0%), Bol&#237;via (26,6%), Equador (27,8%), M&#233;xico (30,5%) e Haiti (35,8%).</p>
          <p>O sedentarismo foi consistentemente mais comum entre mulheres. As maiores diferen&#231;as entre os sexos foram observadas em Cuba, Guiana e Bahamas, cada uma apresentando mais de 20 pontos percentuais de maior preval&#234;ncia de inatividade entre mulheres em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens. Em m&#233;dia, nos pa&#237;ses da ALC, 44% das mulheres e 31% dos homens relataram atividade f&#237;sica insuficiente (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sobrepeso e obesidade</title>
          <p>A preval&#234;ncia de sobrepeso e obesidade (&#237;ndice de massa corporal &#8805;25 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>) nos pa&#237;ses das Am&#233;ricas, por sexo, &#233; apresentada na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4b</xref>. Entre as mulheres, a preval&#234;ncia foi muito elevada, variando de 38,4% no Haiti a 81,9% em S&#227;o Crist&#243;v&#227;o e Nevis. Entre os homens, a menor preval&#234;ncia foi observada no Haiti (21,0%), enquanto a maior ocorreu no Chile (78,5%). De modo geral, o sobrepeso e a obesidade foram mais comuns entre mulheres do que entre homens na maioria dos pa&#237;ses, com exce&#231;&#245;es no Canad&#225;, Estados Unidos, Argentina e Uruguai.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Preval&#234;ncia de atividade f&#237;sica insuficiente entre adultos com 18 anos ou mais (estimativa padronizada por idade) (a) e preval&#234;ncia de sobrepeso e obesidade &#8212; &#237;ndice de massa corporal &#8805; 25 Kg/m2 (b) nos pa&#237;ses das Am&#233;ricas. Adaptado da Pan American Health Organization.52</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf04.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>As maiores diferen&#231;as entre mulheres e homens foram encontradas em Dominica, Jamaica, S&#227;o Vicente e Granadinas e Santa L&#250;cia, onde a preval&#234;ncia entre mulheres excedeu a dos homens em mais de 25 pontos percentuais. Em m&#233;dia, nos pa&#237;ses da ALC, 70% das mulheres e 59% dos homens apresentavam sobrepeso ou obesidade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Este estudo oferece uma an&#225;lise regional da carga de DCV em mulheres da ALC, destacando que, apesar do impacto excepcional da pandemia de COVID-19, as DCV continuam sendo a principal causa de morte na regi&#227;o. Nossos achados, derivados do banco de dados ENLACE, demonstram uma preval&#234;ncia preocupante de fatores de risco cardiometab&#243;licos tradicionais que afetam desproporcionalmente as mulheres da ALC em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens. Embora esses dados evidenciem a magnitude do problema em n&#237;vel populacional, a transi&#231;&#227;o desses padr&#245;es epidemiol&#243;gicos para o risco cl&#237;nico individual &#233; fortemente influenciada por determinantes espec&#237;ficos do sexo. Fatores biol&#243;gicos e desfechos adversos na gesta&#231;&#227;o atuam como importantes multiplicadores de risco, ainda sub-reconhecidos nas agendas de sa&#250;de regionais.</p>
      <p>Nesse contexto, &#233; essencial discutir como condi&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas do sexo feminino interagem com o perfil tradicional de risco observado em nossa an&#225;lise. &#201; amplamente reconhecido que fatores gen&#233;ticos e ambientais podem modificar significativamente o risco cardiovascular em mulheres. Alguns s&#227;o diretamente influenciados pelos horm&#244;nios sexuais, especialmente os estrog&#234;nios, que exercem efeitos cardiovasculares protetores durante os anos reprodutivos; outros s&#227;o moldados por mecanismos gen&#233;ticos e epigen&#233;ticos, incluindo dist&#250;rbios relacionados &#224; gesta&#231;&#227;o, que impactam o risco ao longo de todo o curso de vida. No contexto da ALC, v&#225;rios desses determinantes t&#234;m sido estudados especificamente, refor&#231;ando a necessidade de considerar a sa&#250;de cardiovascular das mulheres sob uma perspectiva de curso de vida, abrangendo as fases reprodutiva, climat&#233;rica e p&#243;s-menopausa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A s&#237;ndrome dos ov&#225;rios polic&#237;sticos afeta de 4% a 20% das mulheres em idade reprodutiva. Sua preval&#234;ncia relatada em mulheres latino-americanas &#233; vari&#225;vel: estima-se 6,6% (IC 95%: 2,3&#8211;10,9%) em mulheres mexicanas e cerca de 8,5% na Am&#233;rica Central e do Sul (ver Ilustra&#231;&#227;o Central). O diagn&#243;stico &#233; estabelecido pela presen&#231;a de dois dos seguintes crit&#233;rios: 1) hiperandrogenismo, 2) ov&#225;rios polic&#237;sticos e 3) disfun&#231;&#227;o ovariana. A s&#237;ndrome est&#225; associada a um risco significativamente maior (5 a 10 vezes) de fatores de risco cardiometab&#243;licos, como obesidade, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, diabetes mellitus tipo 2, hipertens&#227;o arterial e dislipidemia, que aumentam o risco de DCV em compara&#231;&#227;o com a popula&#231;&#227;o geral (OR 1,5; IC 95%: 1&#8211;1,2). Por isso, o cuidado com o estilo de vida &#233; fundamental no controle do sobrepeso, da obesidade e na preven&#231;&#227;o do desenvolvimento de diabetes mellitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os dist&#250;rbios relacionados &#224; gesta&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o cada vez mais reconhecidos como importantes fatores de risco cardiovasculares espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino. Condi&#231;&#245;es como os dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos da gravidez (por exemplo, pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia, ecl&#226;mpsia), diabetes gestacional e parto prematuro aumentam significativamente o risco de morbimortalidade cardiovascular tanto durante a gesta&#231;&#227;o quanto ao longo da vida. Na ALC, essas complica&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o particularmente preocupantes devido &#224;s desigualdades estruturais: muitas mulheres enfrentam barreiras de acesso aos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de, oportunidades limitadas de rastreamento e baixa conscientiza&#231;&#227;o entre profissionais de sa&#250;de sobre suas implica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares de longo prazo. Enfrentar essas lacunas exige maior capacita&#231;&#227;o dos profissionais de sa&#250;de, inclus&#227;o sistem&#225;tica do hist&#243;rico gestacional na avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular e integra&#231;&#227;o dessas vari&#225;veis em prontu&#225;rios eletr&#244;nicos e diretrizes nacionais de preven&#231;&#227;o. Ampliar o acesso ao acompanhamento p&#243;s-parto e a programas de preven&#231;&#227;o direcionados em pa&#237;ses de baixa e m&#233;dia renda tamb&#233;m ser&#225; essencial para reduzir a carga de DCV a longo prazo entre mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A preval&#234;ncia global relatada de diabetes gestacional varia amplamente, de 1% a 28%, e &#233; de aproximadamente 8,5% (IC 95%: 3,9%&#8211;14,7%) na ALC (ver Ilustra&#231;&#227;o Central). Especificamente, a Federa&#231;&#227;o Internacional de Diabetes relata uma preval&#234;ncia de 20,7% na Am&#233;rica do Norte e Caribe, 15,8% na Am&#233;rica Central e do Sul e de 8,1%, 10,6% e 9,8% na Argentina, Brasil e Chile, respectivamente, com preval&#234;ncias ainda mais elevadas em Cuba (24,6%) e M&#233;xico (13,3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Mulheres com diabetes gestacional apresentam maior incid&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares nos anos ap&#243;s o parto. Seus filhos tamb&#233;m enfrentam riscos aumentados de obesidade, pr&#233;-diabetes e diabetes tipo 2 desde a inf&#226;ncia e ao longo de toda a vida (20%). Mulheres com diabetes gestacional t&#234;m probabilidade substancialmente maior de desenvolver diabetes tipo 2 e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (20&#8211;70%), al&#233;m de um risco duas vezes maior de eventos cardiovasculares maiores nos anos ap&#243;s o parto, em compara&#231;&#227;o com mulheres sem a condi&#231;&#227;o. Portanto, ap&#243;s o parto, toda mulher diagnosticada com diabetes gestacional deve receber orienta&#231;&#227;o sobre mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida e sobre os riscos de longo prazo de desenvolver essas condi&#231;&#245;es, incluindo o risco elevado de eventos cardiovasculares mais de 10 anos ap&#243;s o parto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos da gravidez est&#227;o entre as principais causas de morbidade e mortalidade materna e fetal. Eles englobam v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es com progn&#243;sticos e abordagens terap&#234;uticas distintas, incluindo hipertens&#227;o gestacional, pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia, ecl&#226;mpsia e pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia sobreposta &#224; hipertens&#227;o cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> H&#225; um aumento exponencial no risco de desenvolver DCV ap&#243;s uma gesta&#231;&#227;o complicada por pr&#233;-ecl&#226;mpsia, e esse risco cresce com a idade: uma mulher de 20 anos, com risco basal de 0,6%, v&#234; esse risco aumentar para 1,2%, enquanto em uma mulher de 40 anos o risco sobe de 5,6% para 11,2%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> A incid&#234;ncia global de hipertens&#227;o na gravidez aumentou de 16,30 milh&#245;es (IC 95%: 13,56&#8211;19,42 milh&#245;es) em 1990 para 18,08 milh&#245;es (IC 95%: 15,26&#8211;21,11 milh&#245;es) em 2019, representando um aumento de 10,92%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Em 2019, a incid&#234;ncia por 100.000 mulheres variou substancialmente na ALC. Conforme mostrado na Ilustra&#231;&#227;o Central, as maiores taxas ocorreram nas sub-regi&#245;es Central e Tropical (4,87; IC 95%: 4,27&#8211;5,54) e as menores no Caribe (0,86; IC 95%: 0,69&#8211;1,04).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> O risco elevado de DCV persiste por 10 a 20 anos ap&#243;s a gesta&#231;&#227;o, ressaltando a import&#226;ncia do monitoramento da press&#227;o arterial e da ado&#231;&#227;o precoce de mudan&#231;as no estilo de vida ap&#243;s uma gravidez hipertensiva.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O parto prematuro, definido como aquele que ocorre antes de 37 semanas de gesta&#231;&#227;o, tamb&#233;m est&#225; associado ao aumento da mortalidade cardiovascular. Os mecanismos que relacionam o parto prematuro &#224; DCV envolvem fatores de risco cardiovasculares pr&#233;-existentes, inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica e subsequente disfun&#231;&#227;o vascular. A incid&#234;ncia relatada varia globalmente, com as menores taxas (&lt;5%) na Europa e as maiores na &#193;frica (18%). Aproximadamente 60% dos partos prematuros no mundo ocorrem na &#193;frica Subsaariana e no Sul da &#193;sia. A ALC ocupa uma posi&#231;&#227;o intermedi&#225;ria, com varia&#231;&#245;es importantes entre sub-regi&#245;es (25&#8211;30%, ver Ilustra&#231;&#227;o Central). Estima-se que entre 5,8% e 7,1% das gestantes no mundo tenham tido pelo menos um parto prematuro. As tecnologias de reprodu&#231;&#227;o assistida tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associadas a maiores riscos de parto prematuro e de parto no in&#237;cio do termo, e seu uso tem aumentado na Am&#233;rica Latina, especialmente entre mulheres com gesta&#231;&#227;o &#250;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A doen&#231;a card&#237;aca reum&#225;tica causa 0,7 mortes por 100 000 habitantes na regi&#227;o das Am&#233;ricas. A doen&#231;a valvar card&#237;aca &#233; um importante contribuinte para a perda de capacidade funcional, qualidade de vida e longevidade da popula&#231;&#227;o. A doen&#231;a reum&#225;tica permanece, de longe, a manifesta&#231;&#227;o mais comum da doen&#231;a prim&#225;ria em todo o mundo e afeta aproximadamente 40,5 milh&#245;es de pessoas, com uma incid&#234;ncia anual de 2,8 milh&#245;es, sendo respons&#225;vel por 306.000 mortes globais em 2019, com idade mediana de 28,7 anos em pa&#237;ses de baixa e m&#233;dia renda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> A epidemiologia desse dist&#250;rbio foi analisada com foco na distribui&#231;&#227;o geogr&#225;fica e nas diferen&#231;as entre os sexos nas Am&#233;ricas.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; contribui&#231;&#227;o para a mortalidade cardiovascular total na regi&#227;o, os pa&#237;ses com as maiores taxas entre mulheres em 2019 foram Haiti, Bol&#237;via e Santa L&#250;cia. As mulheres apresentaram 50,9 milh&#245;es de DALYs por ano no Brasil, Costa Rica, Nicar&#225;gua e Santa L&#250;cia, com n&#237;veis mais baixos na Venezuela, Col&#244;mbia, Uruguai e Chile (2,0 milh&#245;es de DALYs por ano) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>). Entre os homens, observaram-se 9,2 milh&#245;es de DALYs na Costa Rica, Nicar&#225;gua, Santa L&#250;cia, Granada e Brasil, com n&#237;veis mais baixos na Venezuela, Col&#244;mbia, Chile e Uruguai (1,4; 1,5; 2,6 e 2,7 milh&#245;es, respectivamente). Existe uma variabilidade substancial dentro da regi&#227;o, tanto nacional quanto subnacional, nos DALYs atribu&#237;dos &#224; doen&#231;a card&#237;aca reum&#225;tica &#8212; com valores significativamente mais elevados no Brasil, Costa Rica e Nicar&#225;gua em compara&#231;&#227;o com o restante da ALC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nossa an&#225;lise das DCV em mulheres na ALC destaca v&#225;rias reflex&#245;es importantes. Primeiro, as DCV continuam altamente prevalentes, com a DIC entre as principais causas de mortalidade em mulheres em toda a regi&#227;o. Segundo, os fatores de risco cardiovascular tradicionais apresentam marcada heterogeneidade entre os sexos. Terceiro, os fatores de risco espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino s&#227;o ao mesmo tempo altamente prevalentes e frequentemente negligenciados. Condi&#231;&#245;es como gravidez na adolesc&#234;ncia, parto prematuro, diabetes gestacional e dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos da gravidez s&#227;o fortemente influenciadas por determinantes socioecon&#244;micos e permanecem sub-reconhecidas, apesar de sua contribui&#231;&#227;o bem estabelecida para o risco cardiovascular ao longo da vida. Em conjunto, esses achados refor&#231;am a necessidade urgente de estrat&#233;gias adaptadas para promover a sa&#250;de cardiovascular das mulheres na regi&#227;o, integrando determinantes biol&#243;gicos, culturais e sociais.</p>
      <p>Ao examinar os fatores de risco convencionais, a maioria dos pa&#237;ses da ALC apresenta taxas mais elevadas de colesterol, hiperglicemia, atividade f&#237;sica insuficiente e sobrepeso/obesidade entre mulheres, enquanto o tabagismo permanece o &#250;nico fator consistentemente mais prevalente entre homens. Esse desequil&#237;brio &#233; preocupante, considerando que os programas de sa&#250;de da mulher na regi&#227;o historicamente enfatizaram a preven&#231;&#227;o de c&#226;nceres (por exemplo, mama, colo do &#250;tero, ov&#225;rio), dedicando menos aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; preven&#231;&#227;o de DCV &#8212; embora as DCVs sejam a principal causa de morte entre mulheres fora dos anos da pandemia de COVID-19. De fato, em 2021, a COVID-19 emergiu como a principal causa de mortalidade nas Am&#233;ricas (176,7 mortes por 100.000 habitantes), superando a DIC (114,0/100.000) e o AVC (48,4/100.000). Embora esse aumento represente uma circunst&#226;ncia excepcional, ele complicou ainda mais as prioridades de preven&#231;&#227;o e sobrecarregou os sistemas de sa&#250;de, evidenciando a vulnerabilidade de mulheres com fatores de risco cardiometab&#243;licos pr&#233;-existentes.</p>
      <p>O estudo <italic>Global Use of Strategies to Open Occluded Coronary Arteries in Acute Coronary Syndromes</italic> (GUSTO IIb), publicado h&#225; duas d&#233;cadas, j&#225; havia documentado diferen&#231;as entre os sexos nos fatores de risco cardiovascular e na apresenta&#231;&#227;o das s&#237;ndromes coronarianas agudas: as mulheres eram mais velhas que os homens e apresentavam hipertens&#227;o e diabetes com maior frequ&#234;ncia, al&#233;m de n&#237;veis mais elevados de colesterol e maior preval&#234;ncia de hist&#243;rico de angina, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e doen&#231;a cerebrovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Achados semelhantes t&#234;m sido consistentemente relatados, refor&#231;ando a necessidade de incluir adequadamente as mulheres em estudos cl&#237;nicos e evitar a extrapola&#231;&#227;o de dados de DCV obtidos em homens para mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A pesquisa da <italic>American Heart Association</italic> de 2019 mostrou uma queda na conscientiza&#231;&#227;o das mulheres sobre as DCV como sua principal causa de morte, passando de 65% em 2009 para 44% em 2019. As quedas mais acentuadas ocorreram entre mulheres jovens, hisp&#226;nicas e negras, com um n&#250;mero crescente identificando incorretamente o c&#226;ncer como a principal causa de morte. Esses achados ressaltam a necessidade urgente de renovar campanhas de educa&#231;&#227;o e conscientiza&#231;&#227;o voltadas especificamente para a sa&#250;de cardiovascular das mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Em alguns pa&#237;ses da ALC, pesquisas semelhantes foram conduzidas, revelando que menos de 20% das entrevistadas reconhecem as DCV como a principal causa de morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Quando desagregados por sexo, os &#243;bitos globais anuais e os DALYs entre mulheres foram aproximadamente 13% menores do que entre homens; no entanto, as mulheres passaram cerca de 26% mais anos vivendo com incapacidade (YLDs, do ingl&#234;s <italic>years living with disability</italic>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> As diretrizes atuais de sa&#250;de da mulher tradicionalmente enfatizam a preven&#231;&#227;o dos c&#226;nceres de mama, colo do &#250;tero e ov&#225;rio, enquanto dedicam relativamente menos aten&#231;&#227;o &#224;s DCVs &#8211; a principal causa de morte entre mulheres, exceto durante a pandemia de COVID-19. As estrat&#233;gias de cuidado preventivo frequentemente priorizam a sa&#250;de reprodutiva e o rastreamento de c&#226;ncer, mas as evid&#234;ncias mostram que as mulheres enfrentam uma carga desproporcionalmente alta de fatores de risco cardiometab&#243;licos, incluindo obesidade, hipertens&#227;o, diabetes e dislipidemia, que aumentam significativamente o risco cardiovascular ao longo da vida. Apesar disso, o rastreamento e o aconselhamento voltados &#224; sa&#250;de cardiovascular permanecem subutilizados em compara&#231;&#227;o com interven&#231;&#245;es focadas em c&#226;ncer. Esse desequil&#237;brio precisa ser corrigido, pois tanto as DCVs quanto o c&#226;ncer exigem estrat&#233;gias preventivas dedicadas devido &#224; sua elevada carga e fatores de risco sobrepostos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Em alinhamento com os Objetivos de Desenvolvimento Sustent&#225;vel das Na&#231;&#245;es Unidas, a meta para 2030 &#233; reduzir em um ter&#231;o a mortalidade prematura por doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas n&#227;o transmiss&#237;veis por meio da preven&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Os dados de mortalidade prematura refor&#231;am ainda mais o impacto desigual das DCVs entre os pa&#237;ses. Entre as mulheres, a probabilidade de morrer por DCV entre 30 e 70 anos foi mais alta no Haiti (21,9%) e na Guiana (15,2%). No Haiti, a hipertens&#227;o se destaca como o principal fator de risco (47,8%), enquanto as taxas de diabetes e tabagismo s&#227;o relativamente baixas, sugerindo que defici&#234;ncias no diagn&#243;stico, tratamento ou manejo da hipertens&#227;o podem estar impulsionando a elevada mortalidade prematura no pa&#237;s. J&#225; a Guiana apresentou alguns dos n&#237;veis mais altos de colesterol entre mulheres na regi&#227;o, juntamente com preval&#234;ncias acima da m&#233;dia de outros fatores de risco cardiometab&#243;licos, ampliando ainda mais a carga geral de risco.</p>
      <p>No extremo oposto do espectro, o Canad&#225; apresentou a menor mortalidade prematura por DCV entre mulheres (1,7%). Esse perfil favor&#225;vel provavelmente reflete as vantagens de um pa&#237;s de alta renda, com infraestrutura de sa&#250;de mais robusta, melhor acesso ao cuidado preventivo e manejo mais eficaz dos fatores de risco. De fato, as preval&#234;ncias de hiperglicemia, hipertens&#227;o, sedentarismo e sobrepeso/obesidade no Canad&#225; estavam todas abaixo das m&#233;dias regionais. Curiosamente, a preval&#234;ncia de tabagismo entre as mulheres canadenses (10,5%) era cerca de tr&#234;s vezes maior do que no Haiti (3,4%), mas a mortalidade geral permaneceu substancialmente menor. Esse achado refor&#231;a a no&#231;&#227;o de que o agrupamento e a coexist&#234;ncia de m&#250;ltiplos fatores de risco &#8211; e n&#227;o exposi&#231;&#245;es isoladas &#8211; desempenham um papel decisivo na carga de doen&#231;a. Compreender essas intera&#231;&#245;es &#233; fundamental para desenvolver estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o mais eficazes e espec&#237;ficas ao contexto na ALC.</p>
      <p>Embora nossos achados estejam alinhados com padr&#245;es previamente descritos &#8211; como a predomin&#226;ncia da DIC e a elevada carga de fatores de risco metab&#243;licos &#8211; nossa an&#225;lise amplia refer&#234;ncias anteriores ao focar especificamente na mortalidade prematura por DCV em mulheres (30&#8211;70 anos) e ao destacar a marcada heterogeneidade entre pa&#237;ses da ALC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Tamb&#233;m integramos fatores cardiometab&#243;licos tradicionais com determinantes espec&#237;ficos do curso de vida feminino, incluindo gravidez na adolesc&#234;ncia e dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos da gravidez, dentro de um arcabou&#231;o unificado. Al&#233;m disso, situar nossos resultados no contexto da mortalidade p&#243;s-COVID-19 evidencia como a vulnerabilidade cardiometab&#243;lica subjacente ampliou as disparidades regionais, oferecendo uma interpreta&#231;&#227;o mais abrangente e relevante para pol&#237;ticas de risco cardiovascular em mulheres.</p>
      <p>Nossos achados ressaltam a necessidade de estrat&#233;gias cardiovasculares coordenadas e espec&#237;ficas por sexo na ALC. As autoridades de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica devem ampliar as agendas de sa&#250;de da mulher para al&#233;m da preven&#231;&#227;o de c&#226;ncer, incorporando uma avalia&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica do risco cardiovascular ao longo do curso de vida, com foco especial no controle da hipertens&#227;o, rastreamento do diabetes, manejo de lip&#237;dios e combate &#224; inatividade f&#237;sica. O acompanhamento estruturado de mulheres com desfechos adversos na gesta&#231;&#227;o &#8211; como dist&#250;rbios hipertensivos da gravidez e diabetes gestacional &#8211; deve ser incorporado aos fluxos de cuidado da aten&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria. Os sistemas de sa&#250;de tamb&#233;m precisam otimizar os processos de diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da DIC em mulheres, garantir acesso equitativo &#224;s terapias recomendadas por diretrizes e fortalecer o encaminhamento para reabilita&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
      <p>Dada a marcada heterogeneidade na mortalidade prematura por DCV entre mulheres nos diferentes pa&#237;ses, as interven&#231;&#245;es devem priorizar medidas escal&#225;veis e custo-efetivas &#8211; especialmente o controle da press&#227;o arterial &#8211; ao mesmo tempo em que implementam indicadores mensur&#225;veis, incluindo taxas de rastreamento desagregadas por sexo, controle de fatores de risco e mortalidade prematura (30&#8211;70 anos), para monitorar o progresso ao longo do tempo.</p>
      <p>Achados recentes de estudos de 2024 e 2025 sobre doen&#231;as card&#237;acas em mulheres na Am&#233;rica Latina indicam que disparidades socioecon&#244;micas, urbaniza&#231;&#227;o e determinantes sociais da sa&#250;de s&#227;o importantes impulsionadores de risco e desfechos, com mulheres rurais enfrentando maiores barreiras de acesso ao cuidado e taxas mais elevadas de mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> H&#225; uma necessidade cr&#237;tica de interven&#231;&#245;es adaptadas que considerem as varia&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas de cada pa&#237;s em infraestrutura de sa&#250;de, acesso e estabilidade pol&#237;tica.</p>
      <p>Reconhecemos que o uso de diferentes anos de refer&#234;ncia para distintos fatores de risco cardiovascular pode introduzir heterogeneidade temporal e potencialmente afetar a comparabilidade direta entre os indicadores. Portanto, os achados devem ser interpretados &#224; luz dessa caracter&#237;stica inerente aos bancos de dados internacionais de acesso aberto.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em resumo, as DCVs continuam sendo a principal causa de morte entre mulheres na ALC, impulsionadas por uma intera&#231;&#227;o complexa entre fatores de risco tradicionais e espec&#237;ficos do sexo feminino, muitos dos quais s&#227;o sub-reconhecidos e insuficientemente abordados nas agendas atuais de sa&#250;de. As marcantes disparidades entre os pa&#237;ses destacam a influ&#234;ncia do contexto socioecon&#244;mico, do acesso aos servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de e do agrupamento de fatores de risco nos desfechos. Esses achados refor&#231;am a necessidade urgente de estrat&#233;gias sens&#237;veis ao contexto e espec&#237;ficas por sexo para aprimorar a preven&#231;&#227;o, a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce e o manejo das DCV em mulheres, bem como uma integra&#231;&#227;o mais robusta da sa&#250;de cardiovascular nos programas j&#225; existentes de sa&#250;de da mulher em toda a regi&#227;o.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica:</label>
        <p> N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#201;tica e Consentimento Informado:</label>
        <p> Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial:</label>
        <p> Durante a prepara&#231;&#227;o deste trabalho, o(s) autor(es) usaram ChatGPT version 5 para traduzir textos para ingl&#234;s e corrigir erros de gram&#225;tica, pontua&#231;&#227;o e estilo. Ap&#243;s o uso desta ferramenta/servi&#231;o, o(s) autor(es) revisaram e editaram o conte&#250;do conforme necess&#225;rio e assumem total responsabilidade pelo conte&#250;do do artigo publicado.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available">
        <label>Disponibilidade de Dados:</label>
        <p> Os conte&#250;dos est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis no link [<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.paho.org/en/enlace">https://www.paho.org/en/enlace</ext-link>]</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <label>Fontes de Financiamento:</label>
        <p> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250655i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Factors in Women in Latin America and the Caribbean</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio T.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5805-1810</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Peix</surname>
            <given-names>Amalia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2243-1269</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rodr&#237;guez</surname>
            <given-names>Diana I.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7528-9011</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Due&#241;as-Criado</surname>
            <given-names>Karen A.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3748-7356</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Guti&#233;rrez-Villamil</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5334-1429</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Puente</surname>
            <given-names>Adriana</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2464-3188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Massardo</surname>
            <given-names>Teresa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7130-4608</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Berrocal</surname>
            <given-names>Isabel</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7001">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2953-9803</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Astesiano</surname>
            <given-names>Andrea</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8001">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7372-0912</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ag&#252;ero</surname>
            <given-names>Roberto N.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9001">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7897-9648</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ba&#241;olas</surname>
            <given-names>Ryenne</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8584-5234</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hiplan</surname>
            <given-names>Enrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10001">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7214-9491</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>S&#225;nchez</surname>
            <given-names>Mayra</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11001">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1519-4755</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barreda</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Ma.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3133-0358</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>G&#243;mez</surname>
            <given-names>Vanessa V.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12001">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fern&#225;ndez</surname>
            <given-names>Cynthia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13001">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Portillo</surname>
            <given-names>Silvia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14001">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-6863-611X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Herrera</surname>
            <given-names>Yariela</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15001">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8091-5179</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mendoza</surname>
            <given-names>Aurelio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16001">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0011-3158</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Kapitan</surname>
            <given-names>Miguel</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17001">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-1620-0314</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Castellanos</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18001">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2597-8609</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Estrada-Lobato</surname>
            <given-names>Enrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9268-0979</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paez</surname>
            <given-names>Diana</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <role>The authors contributed equally to the work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01001">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-1083-2332</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo Junior</surname>
            <given-names>Giovane L.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <role>The authors contributed equally to the work</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01001">
            <sup>*</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Antonio Pedro-Ebeserh (UFF), Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="CU">Cuba</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiolog&#237;a y Cirug&#237;a Cardiovascular, La Habana &#8211; Cuba </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="AT">Austria</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Nuclear Medicine and Diagnostic Imaging Section, Division of Human Health, International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna &#8211; Austria</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="CO">Colombia</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fundaci&#243;n Cardioinfantil-Instituto de Cardiolog&#237;a, Bogot&#225; &#8211; Colombia</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="MX">Mexico</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro M&#233;dico Nacional &#8216;20 de Noviembre&#8217;, ISSSTE, Ciudad de M&#233;xico &#8211; Mexico</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="CL">Chile</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidad de Chile - Hospital Cl&#237;nico, Santiago &#8211; Chile</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff7001">
        <label>7</label>
        <country country="CR">Costa Rica</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital San Juan de Dios - Caja Costarricense de Seguro Social, San Jos&#233; &#8211; Costa Rica</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff8001">
        <label>8</label>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fundaci&#243;n Escuela Medicina Nuclear (FUESMEN), Mendoza &#8211; Argentina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff9001">
        <label>9</label>
        <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Fundaci&#243;n Centro Diagn&#243;stico Nuclear (FCDN), Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff10001">
        <label>10</label>
        <country country="CL">Chile</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Base, Valdivia &#8211; Chile</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff11001">
        <label>11</label>
        <country country="EC">Ecuador</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Especialidades &#8216;Carlos Andrade Mar&#237;n&#8217;, Quito &#8211; Ecuador </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff12001">
        <label>12</label>
        <country country="SV">El Salvador</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Oncol&#243;gico del ISSS, San Salvador &#8211; El Salvador</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff13001">
        <label>13</label>
        <country country="HN">Honduras</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Mar&#237;a de Especialidades Pedi&#225;tricas, Tegucigalpa &#8211; Honduras </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff14001">
        <label>14</label>
        <country country="HN">Honduras</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional Cardiopulmonar, Tegucigalpa &#8211; Honduras </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff15001">
        <label>15</label>
        <country country="PA">Panama</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santo Tom&#225;s, Ciudad de Panam&#225; &#8211; Panama </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff16001">
        <label>16</label>
        <country country="PE">Peru</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional Cardiovascular INCOR, Lima &#8211; Peru </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff17001">
        <label>17</label>
        <country country="UY">Uruguay</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Italiano, Montevideo &#8211; Uruguay </institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff18001">
        <label>18</label>
        <country country="VE">Venezuela</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Hospital Dr. Carlos Arvelo, Caracas &#8211; Venezuela</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Amalia Peix Institute of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Surgery - 17 #702, Vedado, PO 10 400, La Habana - Cuba Email: atpeix@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p> Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential Conflict of Interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the leading cause of death among women in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), with ischemic heart disease as the primary contributor. Despite this burden, women&#8217;s health programs in the region have traditionally prioritized cancer prevention, often neglecting CVD.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objective</title>
          <p> To analyze the burden of CVD and the distribution of cardiovascular risk factors among women in LAC, highlighting sex-related differences and regional disparities.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> This study analyzed epidemiological data on CVD mortality and cardiovascular risk factors across LAC countries, including behavioral, metabolic, and female-specific risk factors, and conducted comparisons with selected countries outside the region.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> Women in LAC showed a higher prevalence of sedentary lifestyle, dyslipidemia, elevated fasting blood glucose, and overweight/obesity, whereas smoking was more frequent among men. Female-specific risk factors &#8211; such as teenage pregnancy, preterm birth, gestational diabetes, and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy &#8211; were highly prevalent yet under-recognized, largely shaped by socioeconomic determinants. In 2021, COVID-19 temporarily surpassed ischemic heart disease and stroke as the leading cause of death in the Americas (176.7 deaths per 100,000 population), highlighting the vulnerability of women with underlying cardiometabolic risk. Premature CVD mortality varied widely, with the highest female probabilities of death between ages 30 and 70 observed in Haiti (21.9%) and Guyana (15.2%), associated with poorly controlled hypertension and elevated cholesterol, respectively. In contrast, Canada showed the lowest premature mortality (1.7%), reflecting stronger healthcare systems and lower prevalence of metabolic risk factors.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p> CVD remains the leading cause of mortality among women in LAC, marked by substantial regional disparities and a significant burden of both traditional and female-specific risk factors. These findings highlight the urgent need for sex-specific, context-sensitive strategies that integrate cardiovascular prevention into comprehensive women&#8217;s health policies, moving beyond cancer-centered approaches.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Cardiovascular Disease and Risk Factors in Women in Latin America and the Caribbean</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Latin America</kwd>
        <kwd>Women</kwd>
        <kwd>Multimodal Imaging</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>In 2019, the top 10 causes of death accounted for 55% of global mortality, with ischemic heart disease (IHD) remaining the leading cause, responsible for 16% of all deaths. Notably, IHD has shown the steepest rise over recent decades, increasing from just over 2 million deaths in 2000 to 8.9 million in 2019.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC), cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death, with cause-specific mortality rates of 184 per 100,000 among adult men and 108 per 100,000 among adult women &#8211; substantially higher than the averages reported in Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries (104 and 53 per 100,000, respectively).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Moreover, in younger women, mortality from acute myocardial infarction has been reported as higher than in men across several regions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Since then, new epidemiological data have emerged, and the COVID-19 pandemic has substantially reshaped mortality trends worldwide, including in LAC, where it temporarily surpassed CVD as the leading cause of death. These shifts underscore the need for updated analyses and new review papers to reassess the evolving burden of CVD, particularly in women.</p>
        <p>Although CVDs are the leading cause of mortality among women in LAC, awareness of cardiovascular disease in women remains low across the region.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Some studies show that LAC women are more likely than men to present with increased adiposity indicators and with three or more cardiovascular risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Overall, most CVD cases and premature deaths in LAC could be prevented through effective control of metabolic risk factors and tobacco use, which remain the most common and powerful drivers of both outcomes in the region.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Women continue to be underrepresented in key sectors such as the economy, education, and scientific research, perpetuating structural disparities. Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right but also a critical driver of global health, equity, and sustainability. Recent health crises, including the COVID-19 pandemic, along with the ongoing effects of climate change, have further influenced cardiovascular mortality and the prevalence of risk factors, amplifying existing gender gaps.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Addressing these challenges requires the generation of reliable, up-to-date data capable of guiding health policies aligned with the Sustainable Development Goals &#8211; particularly SDG 3: Good Health and Well-Being &#8211; by monitoring risk factors and their impact on communities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>To have an updated overview and understand the mechanisms that contribute to the increase in CVD in women, the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) initiated a regional project aiming to improve awareness of CVD by identifying gaps in education and training. The IAEA provides technical cooperation support to 31 countries in LAC. The program helps Member States to address key developmental priorities in areas such as health, environment, and industrial applications.</p>
        <p>This paper aims to describe the current situation of the CVD in the region of the Americas, as a tipping point for the implementation of initiatives, as part of the IAEA-supported ARCAL 6086 project &#8220;Integrating Nuclear Medicine Techniques in a multimodality approach in cardiology for early diagnosis and risk stratification of cardiovascular disease in Latin American women&#8221;. This study provides a regionally grounded, and sex-specific analysis of CVD in women in LAC. By integrating cross-country mortality data, premature CVD risk (ages 30&#8211;70), traditional cardiometabolic factors, female-specific life-course determinants, and the impact of COVID-19 within a unified framework, we aim to move beyond descriptive burden estimates and offer a context-sensitive, policy-oriented perspective tailored to the realities of LAC health systems.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>This study was designed as a descriptive ecological analysis based exclusively on secondary data retrieved from the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) ENLACE data portal for noncommunicable diseases and mental health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> The objective was to characterize the burden of CVD and associated risk factors in women across countries in LAC, within the broader region of the Americas.</p>
        <p>We analyzed the most recent available data from PAHO, including mortality rates and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 2021. In addition, we examined the prevalence of major atherosclerotic risk factors using 2022 data for diabetes, insufficient physical activity, overweight, and obesity; 2019 data for hypertension prevalence; and 2018 data for tobacco smoking rates and mean total cholesterol levels.</p>
        <p>The study reports standardized epidemiological indicators as provided by PAHO, including incidence, prevalence, mortality rates, and DALYs. Data were examined for all age groups and stratified by sex (females, males, and both sexes combined). Emphasis was placed on female-specific mortality patterns and premature CVD mortality (ages 30&#8211;70 years), when available.</p>
        <p>The 36 countries included in the analysis were: Antigua and Barbuda, Argentina, Bahamas, Barbados, Belize, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), Brazil, Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, El Salvador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Puerto Rico, Saint Kitts and Nevis, Saint Lucia, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, United States of America, Uruguay, and Venezuela (Bolivarian Republic of). Although the United States and Canada are not LAC countries, they were included for comparative purposes, consistent with PAHO regional classification of the Americas.</p>
        <p>ENLACE functions as a comprehensive regional repository that integrates primary data from national vital statistics systems officially reported by Member States, population-based health surveys, and harmonized global health estimates from the World Health Organization (WHO) and the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study. These integration procedures are designed by PAHO to enhance data standardization and cross-country comparability.</p>
        <p>The analysis focused on describing and comparing standardized epidemiological indicators across countries and sexes. All results are presented as descriptive estimates derived from PAHO-reported data, and interpretations are limited to population-level patterns without implying causal associations.</p>
        <p>This study used publicly available, aggregated secondary data from the PAHO ENLACE platform; therefore, ethics committee approval and informed consent were not required. All data are accessible through the PAHO portal, and no primary datasets or analytical code were generated.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Global burden of cardiovascular disease in LAC countries</title>
          <p>Cardiovascular diseases &#8211; principally IHD and cerebrovascular disease, mainly stroke &#8211; remain leading causes of mortality and major contributors to DALYs. In 2021, COVID-19 was the foremost cause of disease burden in the Region of the Americas for both sexes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>According to the latest PAHO estimates for 2021, the leading causes of death in the Americas were: COVID-19 (176.7 deaths per 100,000 population), IHD (114.0 per 100,000), and stroke (48.4 per 100,000), followed by Alzheimer&#8217;s disease and other dementias (38.1 per 100,000) and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) (34.6 per 100,000). When stratified by sex, the second and third leading causes of mortality remained IHD and stroke; however, the fourth cause differed: in men, interpersonal violence; in women, Alzheimer&#8217;s disease (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Leading causes of death and health loss in the Americas, 2021 (both sexes, male, and female). Modified from World Health Organization.47</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Premature mortality from CVDs &#8211; measured as the unconditional probability of dying between the exact ages of 30 and 69 years &#8211; is one of the indicators monitored by the World Health Organization. The higher this probability, the greater the impact of CVDs on mortality in a given country. Disaggregating these data by sex helps illuminate disparities in the CVD burden between men and women.</p>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref> shows the probability of dying from CVDs between ages 30 and 69, stratified by sex. The country with the lowest premature CVD mortality among women in the region is Canada (1.7%). This probability is more than 12 times higher in Haiti (21.9%). Among men, Peru (4.4%) and Guatemala (4.4%) had the lowest premature CVD mortality. At the opposite end, the highest probabilities were also observed in Haiti (20.1%) and Guyana (17.7%).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Probability of dying from cardiovascular diseases between exact ages 30 and 69 divided by sex (expressed in percentage). Modified from World Health Organization.48</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>The probability of dying from CVDs between ages 30 and 69 is higher in women only in Haiti (1.8 percentage points higher in women than in men). In all other countries in the Americas, premature CVD mortality is higher in men than in women. Suriname and Guyana showed the largest sex differences in this risk: 6.7 percentage points higher among men in Venezuela and 6.2 percentage points higher in the Dominican Republic.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Atherosclerotic risk factors</title>
          <p>Cardiovascular risk factors for women included in this clinical review are the ones traditionally known, such as: high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus, smoking habit, obesity, sedentary lifestyle. Additionally, sex-specific factors have been found for the feminine condition tied to their background.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> The following analysis evaluates which countries have a higher prevalence and the potential underlying causes. All the countries in the Americas Region were included in the analysis to facilitate comparison.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>Cholesterol levels</title>
            <p>Age-standardized mean total cholesterol across countries of the Americas in 2018 ranged from 164 mg/dL in Barbados to 185 mg/dL in Uruguay for men, and from approximately 173 mg/dL in Barbados to over 192 mg/dL in Guyana for women (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3a</xref>). In almost all countries, women showed higher cholesterol levels than men, except for Chile.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f04001">
                <label>Figure 3</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Main cardiovascular risk factors in countries of the America: Mean total cholesterol level (a); prevalence of diabetes in adults (b); Current tobacco smoking rates among people aged 15 years and older (age-standardized estimate) (c); prevalence of hypertension among adults aged 30-69 years (age-standardized estimate) (d). Modified from Pan American Health Organization49,50 and World Health Organization.51</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Prevalence of diabetes in adults</title>
            <p>The prevalence of diabetes in adults (fasting blood glucose &#8805;126 mg/dL, HbA1c &#8805;6.5% or currently taking medication) among adults aged 18 years and older is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3b</xref>. Prevalence varied widely across countries, ranging from about 7.7% in Canada to more than 33.7% in Trinidad and Tobago for women. Among men, the lowest prevalence was observed in Panama (7.8%) and the highest in Puerto Rico (27.2%). On average, prevalence in LAC countries was notably high &#8211; affecting one in five women (20%) and nearly one in six men (16%) &#8211; as illustrated in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>.</p>
            <p>The prevalence of diabetes in adults was generally higher among women than men across most countries, with exceptions in the United States, Canada, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Guatemala. The largest sex gaps were observed in Dominica, Jamaica, and Barbados, where women had a markedly higher prevalence than men.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Smoking</title>
            <p>In 2018, the prevalence of smoking was consistently higher among men than women across all countries of the Americas. Among women, prevalence was below 20% in nearly all countries, except in Chile, where 32.7% of women reported smoking (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3c</xref>). The countries with the highest female smoking prevalence were Chile (32.7%), the United States (17.3%), Argentina (16.6%), and Uruguay (16.0%). At the other end, the lowest prevalence among women was observed in Barbados (2%), Panama (2.1%), and El Salvador (2.2%).</p>
            <p>Among men, smoking prevalence was substantially higher, surpassing 30% in Chile and Cuba. The largest sex gaps were seen in Cuba, Guyana, and El Salvador, with Cuba showing the greatest disparity&#8212;smoking was 25.2 percentage points more prevalent in men. In contrast, the Dominican Republic displayed the narrowest gap between sexes, with only a 3.8 percentage point difference.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>High blood pressure (HBP)</title>
            <p>A heterogeneous prevalence of hypertension was identified among adults aged 30&#8211;79 years (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3d</xref>). Hypertension was defined as a systolic blood pressure &#8805; 130 mmHg, a diastolic blood pressure &#8805;80 mmHg, or the self-reported use of antihypertensive medication.</p>
            <p>The countries with the highest quintile of HBP were Paraguay (56.4%), Dominican Republic (49.1%), Dominica (47.7%), Argentina (47.5%), Grenada (46.6%), Jamaica (46.3%), Saint Kitts and Nevis (45.1%) and Brazil (45.0%). In comparison, Guatemala (32.2%), Mexico (32.1%), USA (31.6%), Colombia (31.0%), Bolivia (28.3%), Ecuador (27.2%), Canada (22.1%) and Peru (20.7%) were in the lowest quintile. Interestingly, the hypertension prevalence among sex were relatively lower among women in most countries. Argentina and Paraguay showed the higher differences between sexes concerning prevalence of HBP: 12.8pp higher among men in Argentina (54.0% vs 41.2%) and 10.7pp higher among men in Paraguay (61.6% vs 50.9%). On the opposite direction, Haiti demonstrated the highest prevalence of HBP among women in comparison to men, with 10.2pp higher in women. (37.6% vs 47.8%). The country with the highest prevalence of HBP among women was Paraguay (50.9%).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Insufficient physical activity</title>
            <p>Unlike arterial hypertension, insufficient physical activity is more prevalent among women than men across LAC. The proportion of sedentary women is highly heterogeneous across the region (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4a</xref>). Countries in the highest quintile of physical inactivity among women were Cuba (72%), Panama (66.9%), Costa Rica (57.8%), Suriname (55.1%), and Trinidad and Tobago (54.2%). In contrast, the lowest prevalence was observed in Saint Lucia (24.0%), Bolivia (26.6%), Ecuador (27.8%), Mexico (30.5%), and Haiti (35.8%).</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f05001">
                <label>Figure 4</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Prevalence of insufficient physical activity among adults 18+ years (age-standardized estimate) (a) and of overweight and obesity - body mass index &#8805; 25 kg/m2 (b) in countries of the Americas. Modified from World Health Organization.52</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-07-e20250655-50655-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>A sedentary lifestyle was consistently more common among women. The largest sex gaps were seen in Cuba, Guyana, and Bahamas, each showing more than 20 percentage points higher prevalence of inactivity among women compared to men. On average, in LAC countries, 44% of women and 31% of men reported insufficient physical activity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Overweight and obesity</title>
            <p>The prevalence of overweight and obesity (body mass index &#8805;25 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>) in countries of the Americas by sex is shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4b</xref>. Among women, prevalence was very high, ranging from 38.4% in Haiti to 81.9% in Saint Kitts and Nevis. Among men, the lowest prevalence was observed in Haiti (21.0%), while the highest was in the Chile (78.5%). Overall, overweight and obesity were more common in women than in men in nearly all countries, with exceptions in Canada, the United States, Argentina and Uruguay.</p>
            <p>The largest female&#8211;male differences were found in Dominica, Jamaica, Saint Vicent and the Grenadines and Saint Lucia, where prevalence among women exceeded that of men by more than 25 percentage points. On average, in LAC countries, 70% of women and 59% of men were overweight or obese (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>This study provides a regionally grounded analysis of CVD burden in LAC women highlighting that despite the exceptional impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, CVD remains the leading cause of death in the region. Our findings, derived from ENLACE database, demonstrate a concerning prevalence of traditional cardiometabolic risk factors that disproportionately affect LAC women compared to men. While these data underscore the magnitude of the problem at a population level, the transition from these epidemiological patterns to individual clinical risk is heavily influenced by sex-specific determinants. Biological factors and adverse pregnancy outcomes serve as powerful multipliers of risk that remain under-recognized in current regional health agendas.</p>
        <p>In this context, it is essential to discuss how female-specific conditions interact with the traditional risk profile observed in our analysis. It is well recognized that both genetic and environmental factors can significantly modify the cardiovascular risk profile in women. Some are directly influenced by sex hormones, particularly estrogens, which exert protective cardiovascular effects during the reproductive years, while others are shaped by genetic and epigenetic mechanisms, including pregnancy-related disorders, that impact risk throughout the life course. In the context of LAC, several of these determinants have been specifically studied, highlighting the need to consider women&#8217;s cardiovascular health from a life-course perspective, spanning reproductive, climacteric, and postmenopausal phases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Polycystic ovary syndrome affects 4-20% of women of reproductive age. Its reported prevalence in Latin-American women is variable: it is estimated a 6.6% (95% CI: 2.3 to 10.9%) in Mexican women, and around 8.5% in Central and South America (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). The diagnosis is established by suspecting two of the following criteria: 1) hyperandrogenism, 2) polycystic ovaries, and c) ovarian dysfunction. It is associated with a higher risk (5-10 times) of cardiometabolic risk factors, such as obesity, metabolic syndrome, type 2 diabetes mellitus, high blood pressure and dyslipidemia, which increase the risk of CVD compared to normal population (OR 1.5, 95% CI 1-1.2); therefore, lifestyle care is important in the control of overweight, obesity and the development of diabetes mellitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Pregnancy-related disorders are increasingly recognized as important sex-specific cardiovascular risk factors. Conditions such as hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (e.g., preeclampsia, eclampsia), gestational diabetes, and preterm delivery significantly increase the risk of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality both during pregnancy and later in life. In LAC, these complications are particularly concerning due to structural inequalities: many women face barriers to healthcare access, limited screening opportunities, and low awareness among physicians of their long-term cardiovascular implications. Addressing these gaps requires greater education of healthcare providers, systematic inclusion of pregnancy history in cardiovascular risk assessment, and the integration of these variables into electronic health records and national prevention guidelines. Expanding access to postpartum follow-up and targeted prevention programs in low- and middle-income countries will also be essential to reduce the long-term burden of CVD among women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The reported global prevalence of gestational diabetes varies widely, ranging from 1% to 28%, and is approximately 8.5% (95% CI: 3.9%&#8211;14.7%) in LAC (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). Specifically, the International Diabetes Federation reports a prevalence of 20.7% in North America and the Caribbean, 15.8% in Central and South America, and 8.1%, 10.6%, and 9.8% in Argentina, Brazil, and Chile, respectively, with even higher prevalence in Cuba (24.6%) and Mexico (13.3%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Women with gestational diabetes have a higher incidence of cardiovascular events in the years following childbirth. Their children also face increased risks of obesity, prediabetes, and type 2 diabetes from early childhood and throughout life (20%). Women with gestational diabetes have a substantially increased likelihood of developing type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome (20&#8211;70%), as well as a two-fold higher risk of major cardiovascular events in the years after delivery compared with women without the condition. Therefore, after childbirth, every woman diagnosed with gestational diabetes should receive counseling on lifestyle modification and on the long-term risks of developing these conditions, including the elevated risk of cardiovascular events more than 10 years after delivery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are among the leading causes of maternal and fetal morbidity and mortality. They encompass several conditions with distinct prognoses and management approaches, including gestational hypertension, preeclampsia, eclampsia, and preeclampsia superimposed on chronic hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> There is an exponential increase in the risk of developing CVD after a pregnancy complicated by preeclampsia, and this risk rises with age: a 20-year-old woman with a baseline risk of 0.6% sees it increase to 1.2%, whereas a 40-year-old woman&#8217;s risk increases from 5.6% to 11.2%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> The global incidence of hypertension in pregnancy rose from 16.30 million (95% CI: 13.56&#8211;19.42 million) in 1990 to 18.08 million (95% CI: 15.26&#8211;21.11 million) in 2019, representing a 10.92% increase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> In 2019, incidence per 100,000 women varied substantially across LAC. As shown in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>, rates were highest in Central and Tropical subregions (4.87, 95% CI: 4.27&#8211;5.54) and lowest in the Caribbean (0.86, 95% CI: 0.69&#8211;1.04).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup> The elevated risk of CVD persists for 10 to 20 years after pregnancy, underscoring the importance of blood pressure monitoring and early lifestyle modification following a hypertensive pregnancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Preterm birth, defined as delivery before 37 weeks of gestation, is also associated with increased cardiovascular mortality. The mechanisms linking preterm birth to CVD involve preexisting cardiovascular risk factors, systemic inflammation, and subsequent vascular dysfunction. Reported incidence varies globally, with the lowest rates (&lt;5%) in Europe and the highest in Africa (18%). Approximately 60% of preterm births worldwide occur in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. LAC occupies an intermediate position, with notable variation across subregions (25&#8211;30%, see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). It is estimated that 5.8% to 7.1% of pregnant women worldwide have experienced at least one preterm birth. Assisted reproductive technologies are also associated with higher risks of preterm and early-term birth, and their use has increased in Latin America, particularly among women with singleton pregnancies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Rheumatic heart disease causes 0.7 deaths per 100 000 inhabitants in the region of the Americas. Valvular heart disease is a major contributor to loss of physical function, quality of life and longevity in the population. Rheumatic disease remains by far the most common manifestation of primary disease worldwide and affects approximately 40.5 million people, with an incidence of 2.8 million per year, and accounted for 306,000 global deaths in 2019, at a median age of 28.7 years in low-income and middle-income countries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> The epidemiology of this disorder was analyzed with a focus on geographical distribution and sex differences in the Americas.</p>
        <p>Regarding the contribution to overall CVD mortality in the region, the countries with the highest rates among women in 2019 were: Haiti, Bolivia, and Saint Lucia. Women experienced 50.9 million DALYs each year in Brazil, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Saint Lucia, with lower levels in Venezuela, Colombia, Uruguay, and Chile (2.0 million DALYs each year) (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). Men had 9.2 million DALYs in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Saint Lucia, Granada, and Brazil, with lower levels in Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, and Uruguay (1.4, 1.5, 2.6 and 2.7, respectively). There is a substantial within-region national and sub national variability in rheumatic heart disease DALYs, some examples of which include substantially higher in Brazil, Costa Rica and Nicaragua compared to the rest of LAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Our analysis of CVD in women across LAC highlights several key reflections. First, CVD remains highly prevalent, with IHD among the leading causes of mortality in women throughout the region. Second, traditional cardiovascular risk factors show marked heterogeneity between sexes. Third, female-specific risk factors are both highly prevalent and frequently overlooked. Conditions such as teenage pregnancy, preterm birth, gestational diabetes, and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are strongly shaped by socioeconomic determinants and remain under-recognized despite their well-established contribution to lifelong cardiovascular risk. Taken together, these findings underscore the urgent need for tailored strategies to promote cardiovascular health in women in the region, integrating biological, cultural, and social determinants.</p>
        <p>When examining conventional risk factors, most LAC countries show higher rates of cholesterol, hyperglycemia, insufficient physical activity, and overweight/obesity among women, whereas smoking remains the only risk factor consistently higher in men. This imbalance is concerning given that women&#8217;s health programs in the region have historically emphasized cancer prevention (e.g., breast, cervical, ovarian), while dedicating less attention to CVD prevention&#8212;even though CVD is the leading cause of death in women outside of the COVID-19 pandemic years. Indeed, in 2021, COVID-19 emerged as the foremost cause of mortality in the Americas (176.7 deaths per 100,000 population), surpassing IHD (114.0/100,000) and stroke (48.4/100,000). While this surge represents an exceptional circumstance, it further complicated prevention priorities and strained healthcare systems, highlighting the vulnerability of women with pre-existing cardiometabolic risk factors.</p>
        <p>The Global Use of Strategies to Open Occluded Coronary Arteries in Acute Coronary Syndromes (GUSTO IIb) study, published two decades ago, had already documented sex differences in cardiovascular risk factors and in the presentation of acute coronary syndromes: women were older than men and more frequently hypertensive and diabetic, with higher cholesterol levels and a more common history of angina, heart failure, and cerebrovascular disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Similar findings have been consistently reported, reinforcing the need to adequately include women in clinical studies and to avoid extrapolating CVD data from men to women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The 2019 American Heart Association survey showed a decline in women&#8217;s awareness of CVD as their leading cause of death, dropping from 65% in 2009 to 44% in 2019. The steepest declines occurred among younger, Hispanic, and Black women, with many more incorrectly identifying cancer as the primary cause of death. These findings underscore the urgent need for renewed education and awareness campaigns tailored to women&#8217;s cardiovascular health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> In some LAC countries, similar surveys have been conducted, revealing that fewer than 20% of respondents recognize CVD as the main cause of death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>When disaggregated by sex, annual global deaths and DALYs among women were approximately 13% lower than among men; however, women spent about 26% more years living with disability (YLDs).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Current women&#8217;s health guidelines have traditionally emphasized the prevention of breast, cervical, and ovarian cancers, while giving comparatively less attention to CVDs &#8211; the leading cause of death among women, except during the COVID-19 pandemic. Preventive care strategies often prioritize reproductive health and cancer screening, yet evidence shows that women face a disproportionately high burden of cardiometabolic risk factors, including obesity, hypertension, diabetes, and dyslipidemia, which significantly increase their lifetime risk of CVD. Despite this, screening and counseling for cardiovascular health remain underutilized compared with cancer-focused interventions. This imbalance must change, as both CVD and cancer warrant dedicated preventive strategies due to their high burden and overlapping risk factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> In alignment with the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals, the target for 2030 is to reduce premature mortality from non-communicable diseases by one-third through prevention.</p>
        <p>Premature mortality data further underscore the uneven impact of CVD across countries. Among women, the probability of dying from CVD between ages 30 and 70 was highest in Haiti (21.9%) and Guyana (15.2%). In Haiti, hypertension stands out as the dominant risk factor (47.8%), while diabetes and smoking rates are relatively low, suggesting that deficiencies in the diagnosis, treatment, or management of hypertension may be driving the country&#8217;s elevated premature mortality. Guyana, conversely, showed some of the highest cholesterol levels among women in the region, along with above-average prevalence of other cardiometabolic risk factors, compounding the overall risk burden.</p>
        <p>At the opposite end of the spectrum, Canada presented the lowest female premature mortality from CVD (1.7%). This favorable profile likely reflects the advantages of a high-income setting with stronger healthcare infrastructure, better access to preventive care, and more effective management of risk factors. Indeed, Canada&#8217;s prevalence of hyperglycemia, hypertension, sedentary lifestyle, and overweight/obesity were all below regional averages. Interestingly, smoking prevalence among Canadian women (10.5%) was about three times higher than in Haiti (3.4%), yet overall mortality remained substantially lower. This finding reinforces the notion that the clustering and coexistence of multiple risk factors &#8211; rather than isolated exposures &#8211; play a decisive role in driving disease burden. Understanding these interactions is crucial for designing more effective and context-specific prevention strategies in LAC.</p>
        <p>Although our findings align with previously reported patterns &#8211; such as the predominance of IHD and the high burden of metabolic risk factors &#8211; our analysis extends prior benchmarks by focusing specifically on premature female CVD mortality (ages 30&#8211;70) and highlighting the marked cross-country heterogeneity across LAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> We also integrate traditional cardiometabolic factors with female-specific life-course determinants, including teenage pregnancy and hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, within a unified framework. Additionally, situating our results within the post-COVID-19 mortality context underscores how underlying cardiometabolic vulnerability amplified regional disparities, providing a more comprehensive and policy-relevant interpretation of cardiovascular risk in women.</p>
        <p>Our findings underscore the need for coordinated, sex-specific cardiovascular strategies in LAC. Public health authorities should expand women&#8217;s health agendas beyond cancer prevention to include systematic cardiovascular risk assessment across the life course, particularly targeting hypertension control, diabetes screening, lipid management, and physical inactivity. Structured follow-up of women with adverse pregnancy outcomes &#8211; such as hypertensive disorders of pregnancy and gestational diabetes &#8211; should be incorporated into primary care pathways. Health systems must also optimize diagnostic and treatment pathways for IHD in women, ensure equitable access to guideline-directed therapies, and strengthen referral to cardiac rehabilitation.</p>
        <p>Given the marked heterogeneity in premature female CVD mortality across countries, interventions should prioritize scalable, cost-effective measures &#8211; especially blood pressure control &#8211; while implementing measurable indicators, including sex-disaggregated screening rates, risk factor control, and premature mortality (ages 30&#8211;70), to monitor progress over time.</p>
        <p>Key findings from the most recent 2024 and 2025 studies on heart disease in women in Latin America indicate that socioeconomic disparities, urbanization, and social determinants of health are major drivers of risk and outcomes, with rural women facing greater barriers to care and higher mortality rates.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> There is a critical need for tailored interventions that address country-specific variations in healthcare infrastructure, access, and political stability.</p>
        <p>We acknowledge that the use of different reference years for distinct cardiovascular risk factors may introduce temporal heterogeneity and potentially affect direct comparability between indicators. The findings should therefore be interpreted in light of this inherent characteristic of international open-access databases.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In summary, CVD remains the leading cause of death among women in LAC, driven by a complex interplay of traditional and female-specific risk factors, many of which are under-recognized and insufficiently addressed in current health agendas. The marked disparities between countries highlight the influence of socioeconomic context, healthcare access, and clustering of risk factors on outcomes. These findings underscore the urgent need for sex-specific, context-sensitive strategies to improve prevention, early detection, and management of CVD in women, as well as stronger integration of cardiovascular health into existing women&#8217;s health programs across the region.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study Association:</label>
          <p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate:</label>
          <p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used ChatGPT version 5 for translating texts into English and correcting grammar, punctuation, and style errors. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available">
          <label>Availability of Research Data:</label>
          <p> The content is available at the link [<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.paho.org/en/enlace">https://www.paho.org/en/enlace</ext-link>].</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of Funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
