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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">gVwCr448dnwHpqmFNc6znvL</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2026000500201</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00201</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20260145</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Funcionalidade da HDL, Inibidores de CETP e Treinamento F&#237;sico: Onde Estamos?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6690-6345</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Raul D.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Gabriel Senger</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica Pr&#243;-Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica Pr&#243;-Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Cardio-Oncologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardio-Oncologia &#8211; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Pedro Gabriel Senger Braga</bold> &#8226; Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo Av. Dr. En&#233;as Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. CEP <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, Cerqueira C&#233;sar, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>pedro.senger@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Declara&#231;&#227;o de conflitos de interesse</label>
          <p>RDS &#233; consultor da AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Esperion, MSD, Novartis, Novo Nordisk e Ultragenyx. Ele recebeu honor&#225;rios como palestrante da Amgen, Adium, Axon Pharma, Novo Nordisk, Novartis, Eli Lilly, Daiichi Sankyo, Torrent, Libbs e Chiesi. Ele participou de ensaios cl&#237;nicos patrocinados pela Amgen, Arrowhead, AstraZeneca, Ionis, MSD, Novartis e Sanofi/Regeneron.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>123</volume>
      <issue>5</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20260145</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>HDL-Colesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Prote&#237;nas de Transfer&#234;ncia de &#201;steres de Colesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Exerc&#237;cio F&#237;sico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico</funding-source>
          <award-id>303771/2023-2</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>PGSB</funding-source>
          <award-id>88887.102383/2025-00</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>RDS recebe apoio financeiro do Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico, Brasil (CNPq, bolsa n&#250;mero 303771/2023-2). PGSB recebe uma bolsa de p&#243;sdoutorado (CNPq, bolsa n&#250;mero 88887.102383/2025-00).</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="4"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="18"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title/>
      <p>O treinamento f&#237;sico &#233; bem consolidado como uma estrat&#233;gia eficaz para aumentar as concentra&#231;&#245;es de colesterol da lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C), especialmente em pessoas com triglicer&#237;deos elevados e excesso de adiposidade visceral, sendo consistentemente associado a menor risco de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No entanto, a estratifica&#231;&#227;o tradicional do risco de DCV baseada exclusivamente nos n&#237;veis de HDL-C tem sido cada vez mais questionada por evid&#234;ncias que destacam a import&#226;ncia de avaliar a funcionalidade da HDL, e n&#227;o apenas os n&#237;veis de HDL-C. Essa mudan&#231;a de paradigma ganhou particular aten&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s os ensaios cl&#237;nicos com inibidores da prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de &#233;steres de colesterol (CETP), nos quais aumentos substanciais de HDL-C mediados farmacologicamente n&#227;o se traduziram em melhores desfechos cardiovasculares. Os ensaios com inibidores de CETP relataram eleva&#231;&#245;es acentuadas de HDL-C, variando de aproximadamente 31% a 133%, enquanto o treinamento f&#237;sico normalmente induz um aumento mais modesto, da ordem de 2% a 5%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Apesar dessas diferen&#231;as quantitativas, ambas as interven&#231;&#245;es demonstraram melhorar aspectos da funcionalidade das part&#237;culas de HDL. Em interven&#231;&#245;es baseadas em treinamento f&#237;sico, os aumentos de HDL-C s&#227;o acompanhados por melhorias na capta&#231;&#227;o de colesterol mediada pela HDL, comumente avaliada pela capacidade de efluxo de colesterol (CEC), uma m&#233;trica que reflete com mais precis&#227;o o transporte reverso de colesterol e o risco de DCV, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a concentra&#231;&#227;o de HDL-C isoladamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Mecanisticamente, a inibi&#231;&#227;o da CETP tamb&#233;m aumenta a CEC da HDL, indicando que as part&#237;culas de HDL farmacologicamente aumentadas podem reter propriedades funcionais. No entanto, efeitos adversos fora do alvo e a modula&#231;&#227;o artificial do metabolismo das lipoprote&#237;nas podem explicar parcialmente os desfechos cardiovasculares neutros ou desfavor&#225;veis observados em diversos ensaios com inibidores de CETP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Em conjunto, esses achados ressaltam que, embora tanto o treinamento f&#237;sico quanto a inibi&#231;&#227;o de CETP aumentem substancialmente o HDL-C em circula&#231;&#227;o, o contexto biol&#243;gico, os efeitos qualitativos nas part&#237;culas de HDL e as implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas diferem fundamentalmente entre essas interven&#231;&#245;es, refor&#231;ando a necessidade de ir al&#233;m da quantidade de HDL-C ao avaliar o risco cardiovascular e as estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade e treinamento f&#237;sico</title>
        <p>O treinamento f&#237;sico est&#225; associado a um aumento modesto, por&#233;m consistente, do HDL-C, tipicamente de aproximadamente 2 a 5 mg/dL, conforme demonstrado em ensaios randomizados e meta-an&#225;lises.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Embora quantitativamente limitado em compara&#231;&#227;o com abordagens farmacol&#243;gicas, esse aumento &#233; fortemente influenciado pela dose, intensidade e dura&#231;&#227;o do treinamento, com volumes maiores e exerc&#237;cios aer&#243;bicos de alta intensidade produzindo efeitos mais pronunciados, incluindo redu&#231;&#227;o do peso corporal e dos n&#237;veis de triglicer&#237;deos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Mecanisticamente, o exerc&#237;cio aumenta a atividade da lipase lipoproteica no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, aumenta a produ&#231;&#227;o de apolipoprote&#237;na A-I e melhora o fluxo de transporte reverso de colesterol, em vez de simplesmente aumentar o conte&#250;do de colesterol dentro das part&#237;culas de HDL. V&#225;rios estudos cl&#237;nicos demonstraram que os aumentos do HDL-C induzidos pelo exerc&#237;cio s&#227;o frequentemente acompanhados por melhorias na funcionalidade da HDL, especialmente na CEC. Nos ensaios STRRIDE-PD e E-MECHANIC, apenas o treinamento de alta dose ou de intensidade vigorosa melhorou significativamente a CEC radiomarcada, sugerindo um efeito limiar para o benef&#237;cio funcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Outras interven&#231;&#245;es relataram melhorias no efluxo mediado pelo transportador de cassete de liga&#231;&#227;o ao ATP A1 (ABCA1), propriedades anti-inflamat&#243;rias endoteliais e capacidade antioxidante da HDL, embora os resultados tenham variado de acordo com as caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o e os ensaios experimentais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um estudo de coorte prospectivo dentro do Henry Ford Exercise Testing Project (FIT Project) investigou a rela&#231;&#227;o entre HDL-C baixo isolado, aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria e mortalidade a longo prazo em adultos. Nesta an&#225;lise, indiv&#237;duos com apenas HDL-C baixo (definido como HDL-C &lt; 40 mg/dL para homens e &lt; 50 mg/dL para mulheres) e LDL-C e triglicer&#237;deos &lt; 100 mg/dL apresentaram aptid&#227;o m&#233;dia significativamente menor e mortalidade maior durante um acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 10,3 &#177; 5 anos em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles com perfis lip&#237;dicos otimizados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A mortalidade foi particularmente elevada entre os participantes com HDL-C baixo isolado que atingiram menos de 6 equivalentes metab&#243;licos (METs) durante o teste de exerc&#237;cio, com raz&#245;es de risco ajustadas de 1,73 (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% 1,18&#8211;2,54) e 1,90 (intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% 1,19&#8211;3,04) para as categorias &lt; 6 e 6&#8211;10 METs, respectivamente. N&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a significativa entre aqueles que atingiram &#8805; 10 METs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Esses resultados ressaltam que, embora o HDL-C baixo isolado esteja associado a um risco aumentado de mortalidade, uma melhor aptid&#227;o cardiorrespirat&#243;ria atenua esse risco, destacando a intera&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica entre aptid&#227;o f&#237;sica e fen&#243;tipos lip&#237;dicos na estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Esses achados sugerem que o exerc&#237;cio melhora tanto a quantidade quanto a qualidade da HDL, mesmo quando as mudan&#231;as absolutas no HDL-C s&#227;o modestas, conforme mostrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. &#201; importante ressaltar que essas adapta&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas da HDL ocorrem juntamente com melhorias cardiometab&#243;licas mais amplas, incluindo maior sensibilidade &#224; insulina, redu&#231;&#227;o dos triglicer&#237;deos, diminui&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial e redu&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Estudos cl&#237;nicos de treinamento f&#237;sico que avaliaram a funcionalidade da HDL em seres humanos</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Estudo (ano)</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Popula&#231;&#227;o e delineamento</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Principais achados funcionais</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Principais implica&#231;&#245;es</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sarzynski et al., ATVB (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ensaios randomizados de exerc&#237;cio; adultos com pr&#233;-diabetes/sobrepeso (STRRIDE-PD) e adultos com sobrepeso/obesidade (E-MECHANIC); 6 meses; dose e intensidade vari&#225;veis</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">STRRIDE-PD: O efluxo radiomarcado global aumentou ~6,2% apenas no grupo de alta quantidade/intensidade vigorosa.<break/> E-MECHANIC: O efluxo n&#227;o mediado por ABCA1 aumentou ~5,7% no grupo de dose mais alta (20 kcal/kg/semana) versus controle; nenhuma altera&#231;&#227;o consistente no efluxo mediado por ABCA1.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sugere um limiar de dose/intensidade: treinamento de resist&#234;ncia prolongado e vigoroso/ de alta dose melhoram as medidas de efluxo.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Stanton et al., JAHA (2022)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Homens jovens e saud&#225;veis; treinamento sequencial supervisionado de intensidade moderada e, em seguida, de alta intensidade (desenho intraindividual).</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O efluxo mediado por ABCA1 aumentou 13,5% ap&#243;s o treinamento de intensidade moderada e permaneceu elevado em 17,3% ap&#243;s o treinamento subsequente de alta intensidade.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O exerc&#237;cio pode melhorar o efluxo espec&#237;fico de ABCA1, com benef&#237;cios mantidos ap&#243;s maior intensidade.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Boyer et al., Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Homens com obesidade abdominal e dislipidemia; programa de estilo de vida de 1 ano (dieta saud&#225;vel + aumento da atividade f&#237;sica/exerc&#237;cio) versus controle</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">J774-HDL-CEC aumentou 14,1%; HepG2-HDL-CEC aumentou 3,4%; sem altera&#231;&#245;es no grupo controle; as melhorias foram acompanhadas por altera&#231;&#245;es na apolipoprote&#237;na A-I.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mudan&#231;as sustentadas no estilo de vida (incluindo exerc&#237;cios) melhoram a capacidade de efluxo de HDL na obesidade abdominal dislipid&#234;mica.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Woudberg et al., Lipids in Health and Disease (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Mulheres obesas; interven&#231;&#227;o com exerc&#237;cios versus controle</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O exerc&#237;cio n&#227;o alterou a capacidade de efluxo celular da HDL.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O exerc&#237;cio n&#227;o afetou o efluxo da HDL.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Zhu et al., Frontiers in Physiology (2024)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Adultos magros, obesos n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos e obesos com DM2; programa HIIT de curta dura&#231;&#227;o (15 dias)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">A capacidade de efluxo melhorou apenas nos indiv&#237;duos magros.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">As altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o da HDL relacionadas ao HIIT parecem depender do contexto metab&#243;lico.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>ABCA1: transportador de cassete de liga&#231;&#227;o ao ATP A1; CEC: capacidade de efluxo de colesterol; DM2: diabetes mellitus tipo 2; HIIT: treinamento intervalado de alta intensidade; J774: linhagem celular de macr&#243;fagos; J774-HDL-CEC: ensaio laboratorial que mede a capacidade de efluxo de colesterol.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade e inibi&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na de transfer&#234;ncia de &#233;steres de colesterol</title>
        <p>Em contraste, os inibidores de CETP produzem eleva&#231;&#245;es acentuadas no HDL-C, muito maiores do que as alcan&#231;adas com interven&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Torcetrapib, dalcetrapib, evacetrapib e anacetrapib aumentam o HDL-C principalmente pela inibi&#231;&#227;o da transfer&#234;ncia de &#233;steres de colesterol da HDL para lipoprote&#237;nas contendo apolipoprote&#237;na B, resultando em part&#237;culas de HDL maiores e enriquecidas em colesterol. Estudos mecan&#237;sticos em seres humanos demonstraram que a inibi&#231;&#227;o de CETP geralmente melhora as m&#233;tricas funcionais da HDL, incluindo a CEC total e a CEC mediada por ABCA1, e aumenta as concentra&#231;&#245;es de HDL pr&#233;-&#946;1, um importante receptor inicial de colesterol celular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Esses achados mitigaram as preocupa&#231;&#245;es iniciais de que a HDL induzida pela inibi&#231;&#227;o de CETP pudesse ser disfuncional. No entanto, apesar da CEC preservada ou aumentada, a maioria dos inibidores da CETP n&#227;o conseguiu reduzir eventos cardiovasculares em grandes ensaios cl&#237;nicos. O torcetrapib aumentou os eventos cardiovasculares e a mortalidade por todas as causas devido a efeitos colaterais, incluindo a ativa&#231;&#227;o da aldosterona e a eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O dalcetrapib e o evacetrapib foram clinicamente neutros, apesar dos aumentos substanciais no HDL-C e das capacidades funcionais favor&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Conforme resumido na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>, apenas o anacetrapib demonstrou uma redu&#231;&#227;o modesta nos principais eventos coron&#225;rios, um efeito atribu&#237;do principalmente &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o HDL, e n&#227;o &#224; magnitude da eleva&#231;&#227;o do HDL-C em si. Atualmente, o obicetrapib, um novo inibidor de CETP, est&#225; sendo testado em pacientes com LDL-C que permanece elevado, apesar da terapia hipolipemiante, com o objetivo de prevenir eventos cardiovasculares n&#227;o pelo aumento do HDL-C, mas pela redu&#231;&#227;o das lipoprote&#237;nas pr&#243;-aterog&#234;nicas que cont&#234;m apolipoprote&#237;na B (Estudo PREVAIL, ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05202509).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Inibidores de CETP e funcionalidade da HDL em humanos</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Medicamento (estudo)</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Popula&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Principais achados funcionais</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Principais implica&#231;&#245;es</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Torcetrapib &#8211; estudos mecan&#237;sticos em seres humanos (Yvan-Charvet et al.)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Indiv&#237;duos com hipercolesterolemia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento moderado da CEC com 60 mg; aumento maior com 120 mg</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">A funcionalidade da HDL melhorou, mas isso n&#227;o se traduziu em benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico devido a efeitos adversos.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dalcetrapib &#8211; dal-ACUTE</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes p&#243;s-SCA</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento do HDL-C e da apolipoprote&#237;na A-I com melhora no efluxo de colesterol</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Foi observada melhora funcional da HDL em contexto inflamat&#243;rio.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dalcetrapib &#8211; an&#225;lise de gen&#243;tipo (Tardif et al.)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes p&#243;s-SCA estratificados por gen&#243;tipo</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Melhora da capacidade de efluxo apenas em gen&#243;tipos espec&#237;ficos</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">A resposta da funcionalidade da HDL &#233; geneticamente determinada.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Evacetrapib &#8211; subestudo mecan&#237;stico</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com dislipidemia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento significativo do efluxo total e espec&#237;fico para ABCA1</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Houve melhora significativa da funcionalidade da HDL apesar de desfechos cl&#237;nicos neutros.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Anacetrapib &#8211; DEFINE subestudo mecan&#237;stico</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento consistente da CEC.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">A melhora funcional da HDL foi associada a um benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico modesto.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>CEC: capacidade de efluxo de colesterol; SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Quantidade versus qualidade</title>
        <p>Em conjunto, esses dados refor&#231;am o conceito de que altera&#231;&#245;es na concentra&#231;&#227;o de HDL-C, por si s&#243; s&#227;o um biomarcador substituto inadequado para prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular. O exerc&#237;cio induz aumentos menores no HDL-C, mas promove uma melhora integrada da funcionalidade da HDL e na sa&#250;de cardiometab&#243;lica sist&#234;mica, enquanto a inibi&#231;&#227;o de CETP produz grandes aumentos no HDL-C com benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico inconsistente. Notavelmente, as melhorias na fun&#231;&#227;o da HDL observadas com o exerc&#237;cio ocorrem em um ambiente fisiol&#243;gico caracterizado por inflama&#231;&#227;o reduzida e melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o endotelial, enquanto a inibi&#231;&#227;o de CETP tem como alvo uma &#250;nica via metab&#243;lica. Essa distin&#231;&#227;o pode explicar por que os aumentos no HDL-C associados ao exerc&#237;cio est&#227;o consistentemente ligados a benef&#237;cios cardiovasculares, enquanto as eleva&#231;&#245;es no HDL-C induzidas farmacologicamente n&#227;o est&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas</title>
        <p>A partir de uma perspectiva cl&#237;nica e translacional, esses achados sugerem que aumentar o HDL-C por si s&#243; n&#227;o deve ser um objetivo terap&#234;utico prim&#225;rio, a menos que seja acompanhado por melhorias demonstr&#225;veis na funcionalidade da HDL e no risco cardiovascular geral. O exerc&#237;cio continua sendo uma interven&#231;&#227;o singularmente eficaz, pois melhora a fun&#231;&#227;o da HDL de maneira biologicamente integrada, mesmo quando as altera&#231;&#245;es no HDL-C s&#227;o modestas. Por outro lado, a experi&#234;ncia com os inibidores de CETP destaca as limita&#231;&#245;es de se visar os n&#237;veis de HDL-C sem compreender completamente seus pap&#233;is funcionais e sist&#234;micos. Em resumo, o exerc&#237;cio produz efeitos menores, por&#233;m mais coerentes fisiologicamente e clinicamente significativos, enquanto os inibidores de CETP evidenciam uma dissocia&#231;&#227;o entre a eleva&#231;&#227;o do HDL-C, a funcionalidade da HDL e os desfechos cardiovasculares. Embora o veredito final sobre os inibidores de CETP ainda esteja pendente, o exerc&#237;cio deve ser prescrito como um pilar da preven&#231;&#227;o de DCV, devido aos seus efeitos ben&#233;ficos sobre a press&#227;o arterial e o metabolismo da glicose, reduzindo assim o risco cardiovascular.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>RDS recebe apoio financeiro do Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Cient&#237;fico e Tecnol&#243;gico, Brasil (CNPq, bolsa n&#250;mero 303771/2023-2). PGSB recebe uma bolsa de p&#243;s-doutorado (CNPq, bolsa n&#250;mero 88887.102383/2025-00).</p>
    </ack>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20260145i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>HDL Functionality, CETP Inhibitors, and Exercise Training: Where are We?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6690-6345</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Raul D.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Braga</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Gabriel Senger</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica Pr&#243;-Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cardio-Oncologia &#8211; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Pedro Gabriel Senger Braga</bold> &#8226; Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. En&#233;as Carvalho de Aguiar, 44. Postal Code 05403-900, Cerqueira C&#233;sar, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>pedro.senger@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Conflicts of interest declaration</label>
          <p>RDS is a consultant for AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo, Eli Lilly, Esperion, MSD, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, and Ultragenyx. He has received speaker honoraria from Amgen, Adium, Axon Pharma, Novo Nordisk, Novartis, Eli Lilly, Daiichi Sankyo, Torrent, Libbs, and Chiesi. He has participated in trials sponsored by Amgen, Arrowhead, AstraZeneca, Ionis, MSD, Novartis, and Sanofi/Regeneron.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>HDL Cholesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Cholesterol Ester Transfer Proteins</kwd>
        <kwd>Exercise</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, Brazil</funding-source>
          <award-id>303771/2023-2</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>PGSB</funding-source>
          <award-id>88887.102383/2025-00</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>RDS is supported by a grant from the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, Brazil (CNPq, grant number 303771/2023-2). PGSB receives a postdoctoral fellowship (CNPq, grant number 88887.102383/2025-00).</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title/>
        <p>Exercise training is well established as an effective strategy to increase high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) concentrations, especially in people with high triglycerides and excess visceral adiposity, and is consistently associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> However, the traditional stratification of CVD risk based solely on HDL-C levels has been increasingly challenged by evidence highlighting the importance of assessing HDL particle functionality rather than HDL-C levels alone. This paradigm shift gained particular attention following clinical trials of cholesteryl ester transfer protein (CETP) inhibitors, in which substantial pharmacologically mediated increases in HDL-C failed to translate into improved cardiovascular outcomes. CETP inhibitor trials reported marked elevations in HDL-C, ranging from approximately 31% to 133%, whereas exercise training typically induces a much more modest increase, on the order of 2% to 5%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Despite these quantitative differences, both interventions have been shown to enhance aspects of HDL functionality. In exercise-based interventions, increases in HDL-C are accompanied by improvements in HDL-mediated cholesterol uptake, commonly assessed by cholesterol efflux capacity (CEC), a metric that more accurately reflects reverse cholesterol transport and CVD risk than HDL-C concentration alone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Mechanistically, CETP inhibition also enhances HDL cholesterol efflux capacity, indicating that pharmacologically enlarged HDL particles may retain functional properties. Nevertheless, adverse off-target effects and the artificial modulation of lipoprotein metabolism may partly explain the neutral or unfavorable cardiovascular outcomes observed in several CETP inhibitor trials.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Together, these findings underscore that, although both exercise training and CETP inhibition substantially increase circulating HDL-C, the biological context, qualitative effects on HDL particles, and clinical implications differ fundamentally between these interventions, reinforcing the need to move beyond HDL-C quantity when evaluating cardiovascular risk and therapeutic strategies.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>High-density lipoprotein and exercise training</title>
          <p>Exercise training is associated with a modest but consistent increase in HDL-C, typically 2 to 5 mg/dL, as demonstrated in randomized trials and meta-analyses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Although quantitatively limited compared with pharmacological approaches, this increase is strongly influenced by exercise dose, intensity, and duration, with higher volumes and vigorous-intensity aerobic exercise yielding more pronounced effects, including reduced body weight and triglyceride levels.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Mechanistically, exercise enhances skeletal muscle lipoprotein lipase activity, increases apolipoprotein A-I production, and improves reverse cholesterol transport flux rather than merely increasing cholesterol content within HDL particles. Several clinical studies have demonstrated that exercise-induced increases in HDL-C are often accompanied by improvements in HDL functionality, particularly CEC. In the STRRIDE-PD and E-MECHANIC trials, only high-dose or vigorous-intensity exercise significantly improved radiolabeled CEC, suggesting a threshold effect for functional benefit.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Other interventions have reported improvements in ATP-binding cassette transporter A1 (ABCA1)-mediated efflux, endothelial anti-inflammatory properties, and HDL antioxidant capacity, although results varied by population characteristics and experimental assays.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A prospective cohort study within the Henry Ford Exercise Testing Project (FIT Project) investigated the relationship between isolated low HDL-C, cardiorespiratory fitness, and long-term mortality in adults. In this analysis, individuals with isolated low HDL-C (defined as HDL-C &lt; 40 mg/dL for men and &lt; 50 mg/dL for women) and LDL-C and triglycerides &lt; 100 mg/dL exhibited significantly lower mean fitness and higher mortality over a mean follow-up of 10.3 &#177; 5 years compared with those with optimal lipid profiles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Mortality was particularly elevated among participants with isolated low HDL-C who achieved less than 6 metabolic equivalents (METs) during exercise testing, with adjusted hazard ratios of 1.73 (95% confidence interval 1.18&#8211;2.54) and 1.90 (95% confidence interval 1.19&#8211;3.04) for &lt; 6 and 6&#8211;10 MET categories, respectively; no significant difference was observed among those attaining &#8805; 10 METs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> These results underscore that, while isolated low HDL-C is associated with increased mortality risk, higher cardiorespiratory fitness attenuates this risk, highlighting the critical interplay between fitness and lipid phenotypes in cardiovascular risk stratification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These findings suggest that exercise improves both the quantity and quality of HDL, even when absolute changes in HDL-C are modest, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Table 1</xref>. Importantly, these HDL-specific adaptations occur alongside broader cardiometabolic improvements, including enhanced insulin sensitivity, reduced triglycerides, lower blood pressure, and decreased systemic inflammation.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Clinical exercise studies assessing HDL functionality in humans</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Study (year)</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Population and design</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Main functional results</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Key interpretation</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Sarzynski et al., ATVB (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Randomized exercise trials; prediabetes/overweight adults (STRRIDE-PD) and overweight/obese adults (E-MECHANIC); 6 months; varying dose/intensity</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">STRRIDE-PD: global radiolabeled efflux &#8593; ~6.2% only in the high-amount/vigorous-intensity group.<break/> E-MECHANIC: non-ABCA1 efflux &#8593; ~5.7% in the highest dose group (20 kcal/kg/week) versus control; no consistent change in ABCA1 efflux.</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Suggests a dose/intensity threshold: prolonged vigorous/high-dose endurance training improves efflux measures.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Stanton et al., JAHA (2022)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Healthy young men; supervised sequential moderate- then high-intensity training (within-subject design)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">ABCA1-mediated efflux &#8593; 13.5% after moderate-intensity training and remained &#8593; 17.3% after subsequent high-intensity training.</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Exercise can improve ABCA1-specific efflux, with benefits maintained after higher intensity</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Boyer et al., Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Men with abdominal obesity and dyslipidemia; 1-year lifestyle program (healthy diet + increased physical activity/exercise) versus control</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">J774-HDL-CEC &#8593; 14.1%; <break/>HepG2-HDL-CEC &#8593; 3.4%; <break/>no change in controls; improvements tracked with apolipoprotein A-I changes.</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Sustained lifestyle change (including exercise) improves HDL efflux capacity in dyslipidemic abdominal obesity.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Woudberg et al., Lipids in Health and Disease (2018)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Obese women; exercise intervention versus control</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Exercise did not change HDL cellular efflux capacity.</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Exercise did not affect HDL efflux.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Zhu et al., Frontiers in Physiology (2024)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Lean, obese nondiabetic, and obese T2DM adults; short-term HIIT program (15 days)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Efflux capacity improved only in lean subjects.</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HIIT-related changes in HDL function appear metabolically context-dependent.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>ABCA1: ATP-binding cassette transporter A1; CEC: cholesterol efflux capacity; T2DM: type 2 diabetes mellitus; HIIT: high-intensity interval training; J774: macrophages cell line; J774-HDL-CEC: laboratory assay that measures cholesterol efflux capacity.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>High-density lipoprotein and cholesteryl ester transfer protein inhibition</title>
          <p>In contrast, CETP inhibitors produce marked elevations in HDL-C far greater than those achieved with lifestyle interventions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Torcetrapib, dalcetrapib, evacetrapib, and anacetrapib increase HDL-C primarily by inhibiting the transfer of cholesteryl esters from HDL to apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins, resulting in cholesterol-enriched, larger HDL particles. Mechanistic studies in humans have demonstrated that CETP inhibition generally improves HDL functional metrics, including total and ABCA1-mediated CEC, and increases concentrations of pre-&#946;1 HDL, a key initial acceptor of cellular cholesterol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> These findings countered early concerns that CETP inhibitor-induced HDL might be dysfunctional. However, despite preserved or enhanced efflux capacity, most CETP inhibitors failed to reduce cardiovascular events in large outcome trials. Torcetrapib increased cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality due to off-target effects, including aldosterone activation and blood pressure elevation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Dalcetrapib and evacetrapib were clinically neutral despite substantial increases in HDL-C and favorable functional signals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> As shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 2</xref>, only anacetrapib demonstrated a modest reduction in major coronary events, an effect largely attributed to reductions in non-HDL cholesterol rather than the magnitude of HDL-C elevation itself. Currently, obicetrapib, a novel CETP inhibitor, is being tested in patients with still-elevated LDL-C despite lipid-lowering therapy, with the aim of preventing CVD events not by raising HDL-C but by reducing apolipoprotein B-containing pro-atherogenic lipoproteins (PREVAIL Study, ClinicalTrials.gov NCT05202509).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>ICETP inhibitors and HDL functionality in humans</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Drug (study)</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Population</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Main functional results</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Key interpretation</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Torcetrapib &#8211; mechanistic human studies (Yvan-Charvet et al.)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hypercholesterolemic subjects</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Modest increase in CEC at 60 mg; greater increase at 120 mg</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HDL functionality improved, but did not translate into clinical benefit due to off-target effects</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dalcetrapib &#8211; dal-ACUTE</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients after ACS</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Increase in HDL-C and apolipoprotein A-I with improved cholesterol efflux</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HDL functional improvement observed in inflammatory setting.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dalcetrapib &#8211; genotype analysis (Tardif et al.)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Post-ACS patients stratified by genotype</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Improved efflux capacity in specific genotypes only</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">HDL functionality response is genetically determined.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Evacetrapib &#8211; mechanistic substudy</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with dyslipidemia</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Significant increase in total and ABCA1-specific efflux</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Marked improvement in HDL functionality despite neutral clinical outcomes.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Anacetrapib &#8211; DEFINE mechanistic substudy</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with coronary artery disease</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Consistent increase in CEC</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Functional HDL improvement aligned with modest clinical benefit.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; CEC: cholesterol efflux capacity.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Quantity versus quality</title>
          <p>Collectively, these data reinforce the concept that changes in HDL-C concentration alone are an inadequate surrogate biomarker for cardiovascular protection. Exercise induces smaller increases in HDL-C but promotes a coordinated improvement in HDL functionality and systemic cardiometabolic health, whereas CETP inhibition produces large increases in HDL-C with inconsistent clinical benefit. Notably, the improvements in HDL function observed with exercise occur within a physiological milieu characterized by reduced inflammation and improved endothelial function, whereas CETP inhibition targets a single metabolic pathway. This distinction may explain why exercise-associated increases in HDL-C are consistently linked to cardiovascular benefits, whereas pharmacologically induced elevations in HDL-C are not.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical implications</title>
          <p>From a clinical and translational perspective, these findings suggest that raising HDL-C per se should not be a primary therapeutic goal unless accompanied by demonstrable improvements in HDL functionality and overall cardiovascular risk. Exercise remains a uniquely effective intervention, as it improves HDL function in a biologically integrated manner, even when HDL-C changes are modest. Conversely, the experience with CETP inhibitors underscores the limitations of targeting HDL-C levels without fully capturing its functional and systemic roles. In summary, exercise produces smaller but more physiologically coherent and clinically meaningful effects, whereas CETP inhibitors highlight a dissociation between HDL-C elevation, HDL functionality, and cardiovascular outcomes. While the final verdict on CETP inhibitors remains pending, exercise should be prescribed as a cornerstone of CVD prevention, owing to its favorable effects on blood pressure and glucose metabolism, thereby reducing cardiovascular risk.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgements</title>
        <p>RDS is supported by a grant from the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development, Brazil (CNPq, grant number 303771/2023-2). PGSB receives a postdoctoral fellowship (CNPq, grant number 88887.102383/2025-00).</p>
      </ack>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
