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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">FdsqZSwbpfGjkY4crcFSdSz</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2026000405005</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20260222</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">05005</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Posicionamento</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Posicionamento sobre o Uso do Ultrassom "Point of Care" (POCUS) na Medicina Cardiovascular &#8211; 2026</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1348-9074</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alcantara</surname>
            <given-names>Monica Luiza de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6900-4964</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bernardo</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Paulo Lacerda</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5903-987X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Beck</surname>
            <given-names>Adenalva Lima de Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3438-0526</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Simone Nascimento</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5531-9647</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Morhy</surname>
            <given-names>Samira Saady</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-0725-0761</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lira</surname>
            <given-names>Edgar Bezerra de</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7046-8707</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Felix</surname>
            <given-names>Alex dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Goldwasser</surname>
            <given-names>Daniel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2634-4632</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Otto</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Estef&#226;nia Bosco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-8253-7535</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Salgado</surname>
            <given-names>Angelo Antunes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5575-9354</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Siciliano</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula dos Reis Velloso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-9564-7435</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
            <suffix>Netto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2153-7301</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Freire</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia Maria Vilas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1622-6621</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Albricker</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1216-8316</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Modesto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8258-0584</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mancuso</surname>
            <given-names>Frederico Jos&#233; Neves</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>Dalton de Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3254-6820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aboumarie</surname>
            <given-names>Hatem Soliman</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3314-9712</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Miglioranza</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Haertel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-7287-9198</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Amaral</surname>
            <given-names>Salomon Israel do</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Dantas Tavares de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7900-6506</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Mendes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2535-4342</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paladin</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Tito</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4741-322X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moura</surname>
            <given-names>Lidia Ana Zytynski</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6186-3537</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3777-1947</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de Matos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7330-7674</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Montenegro</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo Lucena</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff33">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Danzmann</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Cl&#225;udio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff34">
            <sup>34</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff35">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0371-4060</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Ricardo Cordeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0711-7995</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barberato</surname>
            <given-names>Silvio Henrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff36">
            <sup>36</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or RDSL</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or RDSL, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto (HUPE) da Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Copa Star</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Copa Star, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto de Cardiologia e Transplantes do Distrito Federal</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia e Transplantes do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Sirio Liban&#234;s</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Sirio Liban&#234;s, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Eccos Diagn&#243;stico CardioVascular Avan&#231;ado</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Eccos Diagn&#243;stico CardioVascular Avan&#231;ado, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>7</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Einstein Hospital Istaelita</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Einstein Hospital Istaelita, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>8</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>9</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Complexo Hospitalar Americas</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar Americas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>10</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Copa D&#8217;Or</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Copa D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>11</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Bras&#237;lia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Bras&#237;lia, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>12</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Rede D&#8217;Or</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff13">
          <label>13</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital DF Star - Rede D&#8217;Or</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital DF Star - Rede D&#8217;Or, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff14">
          <label>14</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares (EBSERH), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff15">
          <label>15</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (HC-UFMC), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff16">
          <label>16</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio UniBh-Inspirali</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio UniBh-Inspirali, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff17">
          <label>17</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Alian&#231;a Rede D&#8217;Or</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alian&#231;a Rede D&#8217;Or, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff18">
          <label>18</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Escola Paulista de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Escola Paulista de Medicina (UNIFESP/EPM), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff19">
          <label>19</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Cardio Pulmonar</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Cardio Pulmonar, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff20">
          <label>20</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Royal Brompton and Harefield Hospitals</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Harefield Hospital</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Londres</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="GB">UK</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Harefield Hospital, Royal Brompton and Harefield Hospitals, Londres, UK &#8211; Inglaterra</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff21">
          <label>21</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Mae de Deus</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">EcoHaertel</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">EcoHaertel - Hospital Mae de Deus, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff22">
          <label>22</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Samaritano Botafogo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Samaritano Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff23">
          <label>23</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Para&#237;ba</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Para&#237;ba (UFPB), Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff24">
          <label>24</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">UDI Hospital Rede D'or S&#227;o Luiz</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Lu&#237;s</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">UDI Hospital Rede D'or S&#227;o Luiz, S&#227;o Lu&#237;s, MA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff25">
          <label>25</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff26">
          <label>26</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; (PUC-PR), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff27">
          <label>27</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff28">
          <label>28</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Brazilian Clinical Research Institute</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Brazilian Clinical Research Institute, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff29">
          <label>29</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff30">
          <label>30</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (InCor-HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff31">
          <label>31</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Pernambuco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Pernambuco (PROCAPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff32">
          <label>32</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff33">
          <label>33</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Brasil Hospital Esperan&#231;a Recife</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Brasil Hospital Esperan&#231;a Recife - Rede D'or, Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff34">
          <label>34</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Luterana do Brasil</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff35">
          <label>35</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Porto Alegre</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff36">
          <label>36</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro de Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Cardioeco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cardioeco - Centro de Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code>. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor Respons&#225;vel pela Revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Humberto Graner Moreira.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
        <day>15</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>123</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20260222</elocation-id>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="62"/>
        <table-count count="26"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="199"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <table-wrap id="t13">
      <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
        <colgroup width="50%">
          <col/>
          <col/>
        </colgroup>
        <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
          <tr>
            <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Posicionamento sobre o Uso do Ultrassom "Point of Care" (POCUS) na Medicina Cardiovascular &#8211; 2026</th>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">O relat&#243;rio abaixo lista as declara&#231;&#245;es de interesse conforme relatadas &#224; SBC pelos especialistas durante o per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento deste posicionamento, 2025/2026.</th>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <th align="left" valign="middle">Especialista</th>
            <th align="left" valign="middle">Tipo de relacionamento com a ind&#250;stria</th>
          </tr>
        </thead>
        <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Adenalva Lima de Souza Beck</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Alex dos Santos Felix</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Alexandre de Matos Soeiro</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Biomerieux.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Ana Cristina Lopes Albriker</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Ana Paula dos Reis Veloso Siciliano</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Angelo Salgado</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Antonio Tito Paladino Filho</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Eduardo Lucena Montenegro</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Bayer: Firialta (IC); Pfizer: Vyndaquel/ Vynkella (Amiloidose); Alnylan: Amvuttra (Amiloidose)<break/> Servier: Vastarel (DAC); Novartis: Entresto, Sybrava (IC, DLP); AstraZeneca: Forxiga, Lokelma, Breztri (IC, DRC, DPOC); Viatris: Inspra (IC); Merck: Concor (IC, DAC); Novo Nordisk: Wegovy (Obesidade, IC); EMS: Vynaxa (DAC).<break/> Outros relacionamentos<break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes,<break/> brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Novo Nordisk: Wegovy (Obesidade, IC).</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Claudia Maria Vilas Freire</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Dalton de Souza Barros</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Daniel Goldwasser</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Edgar Bezerra de Lira Filho</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Fernando Mello Netto</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - St. Jude &#8211; Abbott: MitraClip (TEER); Edwards Lifesciences: PASCAL (TEER); Abbott: Amplatzer (oclusor de FOP, oclusor de CIA); Amulet (oclus&#227;o do ap&#234;ndice atrial esquerdo &#8211; OAAE).</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Frederico Jos&#233; Neves Mancuso</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Hatem Soliman Aboumarie</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Jo&#227;o Ricardo Cordeiro Fernandes</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Lidia Ana Zytynski Moura</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Bayer, Merck, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Lilly, Viatris.<break/> Outros relacionamentos<break/> Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC:<break/> - Novo Nordisk, Astra.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Luiz Claudio Danzmann</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - AstraZeneca: Lokelma; Bristol Myers Squibb: Camzyos; Bayer: Firialta.<break/> Outros relacionamentos<break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Astra Zeneca: Lokelma.<break/> Possui qualquer outro interesse (financeiro ou a qualquer outro t&#237;tulo) que deva ser declarado tendo em vista o cargo ocupado na SBC, ainda que n&#227;o expressamente elencado anteriormente:<break/> - Area de sa&#250;de: ensino m&#233;dico.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcelo Haertel Miglioranza</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcio Mendes Pereira</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Abbott: MitraClip.<break/> Outros relacionamentos<break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Abbott: MitraClip</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcos Paulo Lacerda Bernardo</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Maria Estef&#226;nia Bosco Otto</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Monica Luiza de Alcantara</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Boston Medical: proctoria Watchman; Edwards Lifesciences: proctoria PASCAL; Vit&#243;ria Hospitalar: proctoria MitraClip (Abbott), Amplatzer (Abbott)</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Bayer, Novartis, Idorsia, Roche Diagnostics.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Rafael Modesto Fernandes</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Outros relacionamentos<break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Edwards</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Salomon Israel do Amaral</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Samira Saady Morhy</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Silvio Henrique Barberato</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira<break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Pfizer: Amiloidose; AstraZeneca: ICFEP.<break/> Outros relacionamentos<break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras:<break/> - Pfizer: Amiloidose.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Simone Nascimento Santos</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
        </tbody>
      </table>
    </table-wrap>
    <sec>
      <title>Sum&#225;rio</title>
      <list list-type="simple">
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>1. POCUS: Metodologia, Conceito, Treinamento e Certifica&#231;&#227;o</bold> 9</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.1. Metodologia</bold> 9</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.2. Conceito e &#193;rea de Abrang&#234;ncia</bold> 9</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.3. Equipamentos</bold> 10</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.4. Treinamento, Certifica&#231;&#227;o, Manuten&#231;&#227;o da Compet&#234;ncia</bold> 10</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.5. Aspectos &#201;tico-Legais do Uso do POCUS Cardiovascular no Brasil</bold> 10</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>2. POCUS Card&#237;aco</bold> 13</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>2.1. Principais Janelas no POCUS Card&#237;aco</bold> 13</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>2.2. An&#225;lise da Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica Global do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</bold> 15</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.2.1. Aspectos Gerais</bold> 15</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.2.2. Formas de Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</bold> 15</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.2.3. Outras T&#233;cnicas de Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</bold> 15</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>2.3. Pesquisa de Sobrecarga e Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica do Ventr&#237;culo Direito</bold> 15</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.3.1. Embolia Pulmonar</bold> 16</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.3.2. POCUS para Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Infarto do Ventr&#237;culo Direito</bold> 17</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.3.3. Outras Aplica&#231;&#245;es</bold> 17</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.3.4. Limita&#231;&#245;es</bold> 17</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>2.4. POCUS no Tamponamento Card&#237;aco</bold> 17</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>2.5. POCUS Avan&#231;ado</bold> 17</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.5.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Integral Velocidade-Tempo da Via de Sa&#237;da do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo, Determina&#231;&#227;o do Volume Sist&#243;lico e D&#233;bito Card&#237;aco</bold> 17</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>2.5.2. Rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; como Medida da Press&#227;o Atrial Esquerda e Fluido-Toler&#226;ncia</bold> 19</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>2.6. POCUS Card&#237;aco Pedi&#225;trico</bold> 20</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>3. Ultrassonografia Pulmonar</bold> 21</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 21</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.2. Aspectos T&#233;cnicos</bold> 21</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.2.1. Equipamentos e Transdutores</bold> 21</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.3. Protocolo de Estudo</bold> 21</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.4. Quantifica&#231;&#227;o de Linhas B</bold> 22</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.5. Principais Aplica&#231;&#245;es da Ultrassonografia Pulmonar</bold> 22</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.1. Congest&#227;o Pulmonar</bold> 22</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.2. Derrame Pleural</bold> 22</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.3. S&#237;ndromes Intersticiais</bold> 22</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.4. Consolida&#231;&#227;o Pneum&#244;nica</bold> 24</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.5. Atelectasia</bold> 24</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.6. Pneumot&#243;rax</bold> 25</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.7. Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</bold> 25</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.6. Conclus&#227;o e Perspectivas Futuras</bold> 25</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>4. Ultrassom Focado na Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Congest&#227;o Venosa Sist&#234;mica - VExUS</bold> 25</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 25</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.2. Estudos Cl&#237;nicos e Evid&#234;ncias Cient&#237;ficas</bold> 25</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.3. Componentes do VExUS</bold> 26</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.4. Gradua&#231;&#227;o do VExUS</bold> 29</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.5. Aplica&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</bold> 29</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.6. Limita&#231;&#245;es e Armadilhas</bold> 29</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.7. Conclus&#227;o</bold> 30</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>5. POCUS na Trombose Venosa Profunda</bold> 30</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 30</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>5.2. Evid&#234;ncias Cient&#237;ficas do POCUS na Pesquisa de Trombose Venosa Profunda</bold> 31</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>5.3. T&#233;cnica do Protocolo de Ultrassonografia Focado para Pesquisa de Trombose Venosa Profunda</bold> 31</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>6. POCUS no Paciente em Choque Circulat&#243;rio</bold> 35</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 35</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>6.2. Protocolos Diagn&#243;sticos</bold> 35</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>6.3. Perguntas Chave para Identificar o Tipo de Choque</bold> 35</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>6.4. Fluido-Responsividade e Fluido-Toler&#226;ncia</bold> 37</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>6.4.1. Estimativa do D&#233;bito Card&#237;aco</bold> 37</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>6.4.2. Veia Cava Inferior/Superior</bold> 37</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>6.4.3. Manobra de Eleva&#231;&#227;o Passiva dos Membros &#8211; Passive Leg Raising</bold> 37</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>6.4.4. Manobra da Pausa Expirat&#243;ria e Inspirat&#243;ria</bold> 38</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>7. POCUS no Suporte Circulat&#243;rio Mec&#226;nico de Curto Prazo</bold> 40</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 40</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.2. O Papel do POCUS no Suporte Circulat&#243;rio Mec&#226;nico de Curto Prazo</bold> 40</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Inicial do Paciente</bold> 40</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.4. Coloca&#231;&#227;o e Confirma&#231;&#227;o da Posi&#231;&#227;o do Dispositivo</bold> 40</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.5. Bal&#227;o Intra-A&#243;rtico</bold> 40</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 40</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.5.2. Sequ&#234;ncia de Exames de Ecocardiografia Transesof&#225;gica para Orientar a Inser&#231;&#227;o do Bal&#227;o Intra-A&#243;rtico</bold> 40</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.5.3. Lista de Verifica&#231;&#227;o P&#243;s-Implanta&#231;&#227;o</bold> 41</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.6. Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea Venoarterial (ECMO-VA)</bold> 41</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 41</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.6.2. Sele&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes para ECMO</bold> 41</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.6.3. Orienta&#231;&#227;o para Canula&#231;&#227;o</bold> 41</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.6.4. Efeitos Imediatos da ECMO-VA Perif&#233;rica Observados pela Ecocardiografia &#224; Beira do Leito</bold> 43</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.6.5. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Al&#237;vio e Desmame</bold> 44</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>7.6.6. Monitoramento Durante Testes de Desmame</bold> 45</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.7. Desafios e Dire&#231;&#245;es Futuras</bold> 45</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>7.8. Conclus&#227;o</bold> 45</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>8. POCUS na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia</bold> 46</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>8.1. POCUS na Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 46</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>8.1.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Pericardiopatias na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia</bold> 46</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>8.1.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Pleura e Pulm&#227;o na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia</bold> 46</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>8.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente com Dispneia</bold> 46</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>8.2.1. Congest&#227;o Pulmonar, Pleuropatias e Outros Diagn&#243;sticos Avaliados pela Ultrassonografia Pulmonar</bold> 46</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>8.2.2. Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</bold> 47</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>8.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente com Instabilidade Hemodin&#226;mica e/ou Disfun&#231;&#227;o Org&#226;nica</bold> 47</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>8.4. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente com Edema Perif&#233;rico</bold> 48</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>9. POCUS na Parada Cardiorrespirat&#243;ria</bold> 49</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>9.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 49</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>9.2. Aspectos T&#233;cnicos</bold> 49</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>9.3. Execu&#231;&#227;o do POCUS-PCR</bold> 50</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>9.4. Confirma&#231;&#227;o da Parada Cardiorrespirat&#243;ria, Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Efic&#225;cia das Compress&#245;es Tor&#225;cicas e da Fun&#231;&#227;o Progn&#243;stica da Presen&#231;a da Atividade Card&#237;aca na Atividade El&#233;trica sem Pulso</bold> 50</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>9.5. Diagn&#243;sticos de Causas Revers&#237;veis pelo POCUS-PCR</bold> 50</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>9.5.1. Tamponamento Card&#237;aco</bold> 50</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>9.5.2. Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</bold> 50</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>9.5.3. Pneumot&#243;rax Hipertensivo</bold> 50</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>9.5.4. Hipovolemia</bold> 50</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>10. Procedimentos Guiados pela Ultrassonografia</bold> 50</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>10.1. Acesso Vascular Guiado pelo Ultrassom</bold> 50</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.1.1. T&#233;cnica de Pun&#231;&#227;o</bold> 52</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.1.2. Passo a Passo da Pun&#231;&#227;o (Utilizar Material Est&#233;ril)</bold> 52</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.1.3. Pun&#231;&#227;o em Corte Transversal (Eixo Curto)</bold> 52</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.1.4. Pun&#231;&#227;o em Corte Longitudinal (Eixo Longo)</bold> 53</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.1.5. Locais de Pun&#231;&#227;o Guiada por Ultrassonografia</bold> 53</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.1.6. Outras Pun&#231;&#245;es Vasculares Guiadas por Ultrassonografia</bold> 54</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>10.2. Pericardiocentese Guiada por Ultrassom</bold> 54</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.2.1. T&#233;cnica de Pun&#231;&#227;o Guiada por Ultrassonografia</bold> 54</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.2.2. Contraindica&#231;&#245;es</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.2.3. Complica&#231;&#245;es</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>10.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Est&#244;mago Cheio</bold> 55</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.3.1. T&#233;cnica de Avalia&#231;&#227;o</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>10.3.2. Achados Sonogr&#225;ficos</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>11. Considera&#231;&#245;es Finais sobre este Posicionamento</bold> 56</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>11.1. Realidade Atual e Perspectivas Futuras</bold> 56</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>11.2. Contextualiza&#231;&#227;o do POCUS Cardiovascular no &#194;mbito da Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica no Brasil</bold> 56</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold> 57</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Suplemento 1</bold> 63</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Suplemento 2</bold> 64</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>1. POCUS: Metodologia, Conceito, Treinamento e Certifica&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>1.1. Metodologia</title>
        <p>Este posicionamento foi elaborado a partir de reuni&#245;es <italic>online</italic> com um grupo multidisciplinar de especialistas. Cada participante redigiu sua se&#231;&#227;o com base em sua experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica e na revis&#227;o da literatura relevante. As discuss&#245;es em grupo permitiram a consolida&#231;&#227;o das recomenda&#231;&#245;es apresentadas neste documento.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.2. Conceito e &#193;rea de Abrang&#234;ncia</title>
        <p>O termo POCUS, do ingl&#234;s <italic>point of care ultrasound</italic> (ultrassonografia no ponto de atendimento), se refere ao uso da ultrassonografia como m&#233;todo auxiliar ao exame cl&#237;nico, focado em responder uma quest&#227;o cl&#237;nica urgente. Neste documento, o termo "POCUS" &#233; aplicado &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e funcional do cora&#231;&#227;o, pulm&#227;o e vasos, &#224; beira do leito, para auxiliar o diagn&#243;stico e a tomada de decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas, em pacientes internados ou em ambiente ambulatorial (desde neonatos at&#233; adultos).</p>
        <p>O POCUS &#233; importante devido &#224; sua portabilidade, baixo custo e acessibilidade. Pode ser usado por m&#233;dicos da linha de frente, cardiologistas e n&#227;o cardiologistas, em salas de pronto atendimento, unidades de terapia intensiva, centros cir&#250;rgicos e ambientes de dif&#237;cil acesso, onde exames de imagem nem sempre est&#227;o prontamente dispon&#237;veis. Por outro lado, a ado&#231;&#227;o do POCUS exige o cumprimento de diversos pr&#233;-requisitos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Pr&#233;-requisitos para o uso do POCUS em um servi&#231;o. *Altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas nessa faixa et&#225;ria devem alertar para a possibilidade de cardiopatia cong&#234;nita, e um ecocardiografista pedi&#225;trico deve realizar um exame completo assim que poss&#237;vel. DIC: Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular; POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound; SBC: Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f31">
          <caption>
            <title>ECMO-VA: Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venoarterial; ECMO-VV: Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venovenosa; ETE: Ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica; ETT: Ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica; POCUS: Point-of-care ultrasound; US: Ultrassonografia; TEP: Tromboembolismo pulmonar; VExUS: Venous excess ultrasound.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.3. Equipamentos</title>
        <p>Apesar de poder ser realizado em diversos equipamentos, o ideal &#233; que o POCUS permita a aquisi&#231;&#227;o de imagens nas modalidades uni e bidimensional, Doppler espectral e mapeamento de fluxo em cores. Tamb&#233;m deve contar com transdutores de frequ&#234;ncias vari&#225;veis (para o cora&#231;&#227;o de adultos e crian&#231;as, pulm&#227;o e vasos), ajuste de imagem padronizado ou modific&#225;vel de acordo com a estrutura a ser examinada (<italic>preset</italic>) e por fim, a capacidade de armazenar imagens em formato compat&#237;vel com os padr&#245;es DICOM (<italic>Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine</italic>). A miniaturiza&#231;&#227;o dos equipamentos, que hoje possuem telas do mesmo tamanho das de um <italic>smartphone</italic>, e a intelig&#234;ncia artificial (IA) (para guiar o posicionamento do transdutor) desempenham um importante papel no uso crescente do POCUS.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.4. Treinamento, Certifica&#231;&#227;o, Manuten&#231;&#227;o da Compet&#234;ncia</title>
        <p>A metodologia de ensino do POCUS &#233; bastante variada, mas seus principais objetivos, de acordo com o n&#237;vel desejado, est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e um acr&#244;nimo &#233; proposto na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> O tempo de treinamento e o n&#250;mero de exames necess&#225;rios podem variar de acordo com a experi&#234;ncia pregressa, o n&#237;vel de capacita&#231;&#227;o desejado e a avalia&#231;&#227;o do supervisor. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref> apresenta uma sugest&#227;o de protocolo que, idealmente, deve ser testado, validado e endossado por sociedades de especialidades afins. As etapas de treinamento propostas pelo grupo est&#227;o descritas na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> e incluem, ao final do processo, uma avalia&#231;&#227;o e certifica&#231;&#227;o interna da compet&#234;ncia (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="suppl1">Suplemento 1</xref>). Por fim, para minimizar os riscos e superar os desafios envolvidos na realiza&#231;&#227;o do POCUS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref>), &#233; necess&#225;rio atentar para os aspectos legais e para os cuidados apresentados na sequ&#234;ncia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Principais objetivos do treinamento em POCUS para aquisi&#231;&#227;o, interpreta&#231;&#227;o e documenta&#231;&#227;o dos resultados de acordo com o n&#237;vel desejado (1, 2 e 3)</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Habilidades</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel 1</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel 2</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel 3</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#A2B9E0;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="4">
                  <bold>Aquisi&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>1.</bold> Saber identificar as principais estruturas card&#237;acas ao ultrassom (peric&#225;rdio, c&#226;maras card&#237;acas, valvas, aorta e veia cava inferior).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#EFF3FA;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>2.</bold> Aprender conceitos b&#225;sicos de ultrassom, princ&#237;pios f&#237;sicos, gera&#231;&#227;o de imagens e ajuste dos equipamentos (ganho, foco e profundidade) com o objetivo de melhorar a resolu&#231;&#227;o da imagem ao mudar de janela.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN1">
                    <bold>(1)</bold>
                  </xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>3.</bold> Adquirir as janelas do POCUS card&#237;aco (paraesternal longitudinal eeixo curto, apical quatro c&#226;maras, subsostal e veia cava inferior longitudinal e transversa), pulm&#227;o (t&#243;rax anterior e posterior), aorta transversa abdominal em toda sua extens&#227;o, veias femoral e popl&#237;tea, e veias viscerais (hep&#225;tica, porta e renais).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN2">
                    <bold>(2)</bold>
                  </xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#FDE0D0;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="4" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <bold>Interpreta&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>4.</bold> Supervis&#227;o assistida de um profissional treinado e revis&#227;o.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>5.</bold> Reconhecer a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de patologias de acordo com a suspeita cl&#237;nica visando responder a quest&#245;es b&#225;sicas: tamanho das c&#226;maras, espessamento das paredes, disfun&#231;&#227;o de VE, disfun&#231;&#227;o de VD, derrame peric&#225;rdico, hipovolemia, congest&#227;o pulmonar (linhas B), congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica, trombose venosa profunda, pneumot&#243;rax ou derrame pleural.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN3">
                    <bold>(3)</bold>
                  </xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN5">
                    <bold>(5)</bold>
                  </xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN6">
                    <bold>(6)</bold>
                  </xref>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>6.</bold> Conhecer os protocolos de aplica&#231;&#227;o do POCUS cardiovascular no diagn&#243;stico diferencial do choque, insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria e PCR (SHOCK, RUSH, EGLS).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>7.</bold> Avaliar responsividade a fluidos e congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>8.</bold> Saber realizar avalia&#231;&#227;o b&#225;sica de valvas, d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e press&#227;o de enchimento.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>9.</bold> Em neonatos, identificar a pat&#234;ncia do forame oval, persist&#234;ncia do canal arterial e estimar press&#227;o sist&#243;lica pulmonar.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>10.</bold> Utilizar o POCUS na pun&#231;&#227;o ecoguiada, drenagem peric&#225;rdica, entuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal, avalia&#231;&#227;o do volume vesical e res&#237;duo g&#225;strico. Reconhecer as limita&#231;&#245;es do POCUS, riscos envolvidos e cuidados.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#B5DBAE;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="4" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <bold>Resultados</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>11.</bold> Saber arquivar as imagens no equipamento e relatar os achados do ultrassom em prontu&#225;rio, assim como integrar os achados do ultrassom com a cl&#237;nica do paciente.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN4">
                    <bold>(4)</bold>
                  </xref>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>12.</bold> Desenvolver a habilidade de interpretar criticamente os achados do ultrassom no contexto das situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas de emerg&#234;ncia.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>13.</bold> Registrar a tomada de decis&#227;o no cuidado direto ao paciente baseado na an&#225;lise integrada.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>14.</bold> Arquivar as imagens no equipamento e enviar em DICOM para o sistema PACS do hospital.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>15.</bold> Saber reconhecer se a patologia sugerida pelo POCUS &#233; compat&#237;vel com o quadro cl&#237;nico e indicar, sem demora, exame completo, se d&#250;vida. Da mesma forma, se a suspeita cl&#237;nica permanece a despeito da aus&#234;ncia de achados ao POCUS.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                </td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <label>(1)</label>
              <p>Aprender apenas o posicionamento adequado do paciente, escolha do transdutor, escolha do presente e orienta&#231;&#227;o correta do transdutor.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <label>(2)</label>
              <p>Apenas janela subcostal e ao menos mais uma janela card&#237;aca, veia cava inferior (longitudinal), janelas pleurais anteriores, aorta transversa at&#233; regi&#227;o proximal da abdominal, veias femoral e popl&#237;tea e FAST.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <label>(3)</label>
              <p>Apenas reconhecer a presen&#231;a ou aus&#234;ncia de sinais ultrassonogr&#225;ficos de anormalidades card&#237;acas (avalia&#231;&#227;o visual do tamanho das c&#226;maras, linhas B, derrame pleural e peric&#225;rdico).</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN4">
              <label>(4)</label>
              <p>Apenas relatar os achados do ultrassom em conjunto com o exame f&#237;sico.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <label>(5)</label>
              <p>Exceto avalia&#231;&#227;o de congest&#227;o venosa visceral, todas com avalia&#231;&#227;o qualitativa do tipo SIM ou N&#195;O.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN6">
              <label>(6)</label>
              <p>Com avalia&#231;&#227;o semiquantitativa em discreta, moderada ou acentuada, quando aplic&#225;vel.</p>
            </fn>
            <fn id="TFN7">
              <p>DICOM: Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine; FAST: Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma; PACS: Picture Archiving and Communication System; POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Etapas do treinamento em POCUS. O teste online n&#227;o tem car&#225;ter eliminat&#243;rio, mas deve ser pr&#233;-requisito obrigat&#243;rio para a participa&#231;&#227;o na pr&#243;xima etapa, uma vez que permite ajustar o plano de ensino para a necessidade do treinando.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Ao menos 25% da casu&#237;stica deve ser de casos patol&#243;gicos, a qual pode ser complementada com v&#237;deos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Ver Figuras 2 e 3.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> O ideal &#233; que as imagens do POCUS sejam enviadas em formato DICOM para o sistema de imagens do hospital (m&#233;dia de 10 imagens din&#226;micas), mas n&#227;o obrigatoriamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Esses v&#237;deos devem ser disponibilizados no site da institui&#231;&#227;o, com quest&#245;es de m&#250;ltipla escolha, gabarito e coment&#225;rios, mas tamb&#233;m os treinandos tamb&#233;m devem acessar v&#237;deos educacionais de sociedades especializadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f3">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Protocolo de treinamento em POCUS por n&#237;veis, com n&#250;mero de exames e tempo de treinamento minimamente desej&#225;vel de cada n&#237;vel. Para o n&#237;vel 1, por exemplo, &#233; preciso adquirir as habilidades de AQUisi&#231;&#227;o, Interpreta&#231;&#227;o e documenta&#231;&#227;o dos REsultados (AcQUIRE), descritos nos itens 1, 4, 5 e 11 da <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. N: n&#250;mero m&#237;nimo de exames; &#916;T: semanas de treinamento.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f4">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Riscos e desafios envolvidos no POCUS. O campo de a&#231;&#227;o do POCUS vai al&#233;m da avalia&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e pode exigir parcerias com outros especialistas, al&#233;m do ecocardiografista, tais como angiologista, radiologista, intensivista ou cardiologista pedi&#225;trico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> At&#233; o momento, n&#227;o h&#225; previs&#227;o de reembolso para o POCUS nem verbas de fomento financeiro do centro formador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.5. Aspectos &#201;tico-Legais do Uso do POCUS Cardiovascular no Brasil</title>
        <p>O POCUS cardiovascular deve ser entendido como um ato m&#233;dico realizado &#224; beira do leito, com a finalidade de responder a perguntas cl&#237;nicas espec&#237;ficas e apoiar decis&#245;es imediatas. Ele n&#227;o substitui, quando indicado, o exame ecocardiogr&#225;fico diagn&#243;stico completo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, o m&#233;dico que utiliza o POCUS assume responsabilidade civil direta pelos atos praticados, incluindo a indica&#231;&#227;o do exame, a execu&#231;&#227;o t&#233;cnica adequada, a interpreta&#231;&#227;o correta dos achados e o devido registro em prontu&#225;rio, conforme os princ&#237;pios estabelecidos no C&#243;digo de &#201;tica M&#233;dica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A responsabiliza&#231;&#227;o profissional decorre n&#227;o apenas de eventuais erros t&#233;cnicos, mas tamb&#233;m do uso do m&#233;todo fora do escopo de compet&#234;ncia do profissional, sem capacita&#231;&#227;o adequada ou em desacordo com protocolos institucionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No Brasil, a forma&#231;&#227;o em POCUS ainda apresenta inser&#231;&#227;o limitada nos curr&#237;culos de gradua&#231;&#227;o e resid&#234;ncia m&#233;dica, o que faz com que os profissionais dependam de cursos extracurriculares e leva &#224; heterogeneidade na qualifica&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> A implanta&#231;&#227;o de programas estruturados de POCUS cardiovascular exige investimentos em equipamentos, infraestrutura digital, treinamento supervisionado e mecanismos de governan&#231;a cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Apesar dos custos iniciais, estudos nacionais demonstram impacto positivo na efici&#234;ncia diagn&#243;stica e na racionaliza&#231;&#227;o do uso de exames complementares. Isso sugere uma rela&#231;&#227;o custo-efetividade favor&#225;vel, especialmente em cen&#225;rios de urg&#234;ncia, terapia intensiva e em regi&#245;es com acesso restrito &#224; ecocardiografia convencional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Nesse contexto, a integra&#231;&#227;o com estrat&#233;gias de telessa&#250;de fortalece o uso do Tele-POCUS como ferramenta para ampliar o acesso &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular especializada no &#226;mbito do Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS), promovendo maior equidade assistencial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Entretanto, ainda h&#225; desafios estruturais relevantes, como a aus&#234;ncia de codifica&#231;&#227;o padronizada e de pol&#237;ticas claras de reembolso para o POCUS cardiovascular, tanto no SUS quanto na sa&#250;de suplementar. Isso compromete a sustentabilidade financeira de programas institucionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Soma-se a isso a necessidade de aten&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica &#224; cobertura por seguros de responsabilidade profissional, dada a inexist&#234;ncia de regulamenta&#231;&#227;o formal que defina o escopo de atua&#231;&#227;o, os crit&#233;rios m&#237;nimos de capacita&#231;&#227;o e a certifica&#231;&#227;o de compet&#234;ncia, o que gera inseguran&#231;a jur&#237;dica em contextos de judicializa&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Assim, ainda que institui&#231;&#245;es de sa&#250;de possam estabelecer normas internas de treinamento, supervis&#227;o e documenta&#231;&#227;o, &#233; priorit&#225;ria a regulamenta&#231;&#227;o do uso do POCUS pelo Conselho Federal de Medicina, em articula&#231;&#227;o com as sociedades m&#233;dicas de especialidade. &#201; preciso uma defini&#231;&#227;o clara do escopo de atua&#231;&#227;o, dos requisitos m&#237;nimos de capacita&#231;&#227;o e certifica&#231;&#227;o e da diferencia&#231;&#227;o em rela&#231;&#227;o aos exames ecocardiogr&#225;ficos diagn&#243;sticos completos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Tal regulamenta&#231;&#227;o &#233; fundamental para garantir seguran&#231;a jur&#237;dica aos profissionais, prote&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes, padroniza&#231;&#227;o da pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica e incorpora&#231;&#227;o respons&#225;vel e sustent&#225;vel do POCUS cardiovascular no sistema de sa&#250;de brasileiro.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>2. POCUS Card&#237;aco</title>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Principais Janelas no POCUS Card&#237;aco</title>
        <p>Ao contr&#225;rio da ecocardiografia tradicional, o POCUS card&#237;aco utiliza imagens geralmente de f&#225;cil obten&#231;&#227;o e an&#225;lise, funcionando como extens&#227;o ao exame f&#237;sico. O POCUS card&#237;aco &#233; usado para o aux&#237;lio no diagn&#243;stico e na conduta de diversas situa&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia, como a investiga&#231;&#227;o do choque circulat&#243;rio e o manejo vol&#234;mico de pacientes cr&#237;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>S&#227;o utilizadas cinco janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas principais utilizadas no POCUS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref>):<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Janela paraesternal longitudinal (ou eixo longo do cora&#231;&#227;o), obtida com o transdutor posicionado ao lado da linha paraesternal esquerda, entre o 3&#176; e o 4&#176; espa&#231;os intercostais, com o &#237;ndice apontado para o ombro direito do paciente;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Janela paraesternal transversal (ou eixo curto do cora&#231;&#227;o), obtida no mesmo local da janela paraesternal longitudinal, por&#233;m com rota&#231;&#227;o de 90&#176; do transdutor, que passa a apontar para o ombro esquerdo do paciente. Angula&#231;&#245;es discretas do transdutor permitem mudar o plano de corte bidimensional e obter imagens "tomogr&#225;ficas" ao n&#237;vel dos vasos da base, dos m&#250;sculos papilares e dos segmentos apicais do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Janela apical 4 c&#226;maras (A4C), obtida com o transdutor posicionado na linha m&#233;dio-clavicular esquerda, entre o 4&#176; e 5&#176; espa&#231;o intercostal, abaixo do mamilo ou da linha infra mam&#225;ria, ao n&#237;vel do <italic>ictus cordis</italic> (ponto de maior impulso apical), com o &#237;ndice apontado para a esquerda do paciente;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Janela subcostal, obtida com o transdutor posicionado na linha m&#233;dia, abaixo do processo xifoide, formando um &#226;ngulo agudo com a parede abdominal e com o &#237;ndice apontado para a esquerda do paciente;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Janela subcostal com foco na veia cava inferior (VCI), obtida no mesmo local da janela subcostal, mas com o transdutor perpendicular &#224; parede abdominal e o &#237;ndice apontado para a cabe&#231;a do paciente.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <fig id="f5">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Principais janelas utilizadas no POCUS card&#237;aco, com respectivos posicionamentos da sonda e estruturas avaliadas.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.2. An&#225;lise da Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica Global do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2.1. Aspectos Gerais</title>
          <p>A fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (FEVE) &#233; a medida mais validada e comumente utilizada para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> A disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) pode causar condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas agudas ou agrav&#225;-las gravemente. Em casos de choque indiferenciado, a avalia&#231;&#227;o focada da fun&#231;&#227;o do VE tem apresentado aumento na acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e melhor orienta&#231;&#227;o das decis&#245;es de tratamento com base em uma abordagem qualitativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Neste documento, recomenda-se uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais simplificada e objetiva, com impacto na tomada de decis&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2.2. Formas de Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do VE deve ser realizada em todas as janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas dispon&#237;veis no paciente (conforme descrito no t&#243;pico 2.1. Principais janelas no POCUS card&#237;aco).</p>
          <p>M&#233;todos tradicionais de determina&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do VE, como o Simpson biplanar ou Teicholz, geralmente n&#227;o s&#227;o utilizados no POCUS card&#237;aco. Esses m&#233;todos requerem treinamento adicional, consomem mais tempo, est&#227;o sujeitos a erros e n&#227;o resultam necessariamente em maior acur&#225;cia. Assim, o POCUS card&#237;aco adota uma abordagem qualitativa.</p>
          <p>Unl&#252;er et al.<italic>,</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> bem como outros autores, demonstraram uma boa correla&#231;&#227;o entre a avalia&#231;&#227;o visual do emergencista em compara&#231;&#227;o com o exame realizado por especialistas.</p>
          <p>Nessa avalia&#231;&#227;o qualitativa, &#233; preciso considerar a excurs&#227;o do endoc&#225;rdio (movimento das paredes em dire&#231;&#227;o ao centro do VE) e o espessamento mioc&#225;rdico (aumento da espessura a cada contra&#231;&#227;o). Isso permite uma classifica&#231;&#227;o mais ampla da fun&#231;&#227;o do VE em 4 categorias: 1) normal, 2) hiperdin&#226;mico, 3) fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica reduzida, 4) disfun&#231;&#227;o grave (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>). A classifica&#231;&#227;o de fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica reduzida inclui os pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o leve ou moderada ao ecocardiograma.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o qualitativa da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Normal</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Espessamento da maior parte dos segmentos do VE, com deslocamento do endoc&#225;rdio em dire&#231;&#227;o ao centro do VE.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Hiperdin&#226;mico</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Excurs&#227;o endoc&#225;rdica e espessamento mioc&#225;rdico aumentado, levando a uma oblitera&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE parcial ou total.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica reduzida</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Redu&#231;&#227;o da excurs&#227;o endoc&#225;rdica e espessamento mioc&#225;rdico.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Disfun&#231;&#227;o grave</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Grave redu&#231;&#227;o da excurs&#227;o endoc&#225;rdica e espessamento mioc&#225;rdico.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN8">
                <p>Veja exemplos nos v&#237;deos 1 a 13 no Suplemento 2.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>O objetivo dessa classifica&#231;&#227;o &#233; ser mais intuitiva e clinicamente relevante na assist&#234;ncia ao paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2.3. Outras T&#233;cnicas de Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</title>
          <p>Outras formas semiquantitativas, como MAPSE (<italic>mitral annular plane systolic excursion</italic>) e EPSS (<italic>E-point septal separation</italic>), podem ser utilizadas, mas cada uma possui limita&#231;&#245;es inerentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Para informa&#231;&#245;es mais detalhadas sobre cada um desses itens, consulte as refer&#234;ncias bibliogr&#225;ficas.</p>
          <p>Estudos demonstram uma boa correla&#231;&#227;o da medida automatizada da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o feita por IA, desde que haja boa aquisi&#231;&#227;o das imagens. A IA representa uma ferramenta promissora nesse campo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.3. Pesquisa de Sobrecarga e Fun&#231;&#227;o Sist&#243;lica do Ventr&#237;culo Direito</title>
        <p>Os achados ao POCUS card&#237;aco podem auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico r&#225;pido de condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas que acometem de forma prim&#225;ria ou secund&#225;ria o ventr&#237;culo direito (VD). Esses dados s&#227;o valiosos para a institui&#231;&#227;o de terapia de suporte hemodin&#226;mico adequado e/ou tratamentos espec&#237;ficos mais rapidamente.</p>
        <p>Na abordagem de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica e/ou dispneia aguda, sobretudo na presen&#231;a de sinais de instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), &#233; importante afastar diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais como hipovolemia, disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica grave do VE, tamponamento card&#237;aco, disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar aguda ou mesmo dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em um paciente inst&#225;vel com sobrecarga aguda e/ou disfun&#231;&#227;o do VD, os seguintes diagn&#243;sticos devem ser considerados: (1) tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP) agudo; (2) infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) de VD; e (3) disfun&#231;&#227;o do VD em pacientes com IC aguda causada por etiologias diversas, como IAM, miocardite, sepse, cardiomiopatia periparto, valvopatia aguda e cardiomiopatia adren&#233;rgica (Takotsubo).</p>
        <p>O aumento do VD pode ser evidenciado no corte paraesternal longitudinal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6a</xref>) ou na janela A4C (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6b</xref>). Na janela apical, a &#225;rea do VD normalmente corresponde a &#8804; 2/3 da &#225;rea VE; quando essa rela&#231;&#227;o ultrapassa 1,0, o achado &#233; sugestivo de importante aumento e sobrecarga do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f6">
          <label>Figura 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>a e b: Pesquisa da sobrecarga por meio da rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE; c e d: fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD por meio da excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica do anel tric&#250;spide lateral (TAPSE) medida ao modo-M. VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD &#233; bastante complexa, o que limita a acur&#225;cia da an&#225;lise subjetiva. Isso ocorre devido &#224; geometria singular da cavidade, em forma de crescente triangular, com vias de entrada e de sa&#237;da dispostas em diferentes planos, al&#233;m de importante influ&#234;ncia de pr&#233; e p&#243;s-carga e de interdepend&#234;ncia ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da an&#225;lise subjetiva, recomenda-se avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD com medidas objetivas simples, como a excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica do anel tric&#250;spide lateral (parede livre do VD) (TAPSE). A TAPSE se encontra reduzida em pacientes com TEP agudo com sobrecarga hemodin&#226;mica e possui valor progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> A TAPSE &#233; medida a partir de janela A4C, sendo considerada anormal quando &lt;1,7 cm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figuras 6c</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">6d</xref>).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.1. Embolia Pulmonar</title>
          <p>A utiliza&#231;&#227;o do POCUS card&#237;aco na suspeita de TEP agudo &#233; valiosa devido &#224; agilidade na obten&#231;&#227;o de informa&#231;&#245;es relevantes para o diagn&#243;stico e avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica desses pacientes. Isso &#233; especialmente importante para os pacientes que apresentam instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, com dificuldade de deslocamento para angiotomografia (angio-TC) pulmonar ou que n&#227;o podem aguardar a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um exame ecocardiogr&#225;fico completo. &#201; importante ressaltar que os achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos indicativos de poss&#237;vel embolia pulmonar est&#227;o presentes apenas quando h&#225; sinais de sobrecarga aguda do VD. Isso geralmente ocorre em casos de embolia pulmonar com repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica (maci&#231;a ou submaci&#231;a). Assim, o POCUS contribui para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o e auxilia na defini&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A evid&#234;ncia de dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD, com aplainamento septal (septo em "D") (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figuras 7a</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">7b</xref>) e, em alguns casos, com altera&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til evidente, mais proeminente nos segmentos m&#233;dio e basal e com preserva&#231;&#227;o da contratilidade apical (sinal de McConnell), pode auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico. Apesar de ser um achado cl&#225;ssico, o sinal de <italic>McConnell</italic> est&#225; presente em apenas 12-20% dos pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Em pacientes com TEP agudo, a presen&#231;a de congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica por insufici&#234;ncia ventricular direita tamb&#233;m &#233; um achado comum. Com frequ&#234;ncia, a VCI encontra-se dilatada, associada a din&#226;mica respirat&#243;ria reduzida, refletindo o aumento da press&#227;o estimada do &#225;trio direito.</p>
          <fig id="f7">
            <label>Figura 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD com aplainamento septal (septo em "D"). VD: ventr&#237;culo direito.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Cerca de 5% dos casos de pacientes admitidos em parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria nos servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia podem ter TEP agudo como causa subjacente. Nesses casos, o diagn&#243;stico r&#225;pido pode proporcionar um melhor progn&#243;stico, com indica&#231;&#227;o mais precoce de terapia trombol&#237;tica ou tromboendarterectomia pulmonar percut&#226;nea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em casos de TEP agudo, raramente (&lt;5%) &#233; poss&#237;vel identificar trombos no interior das cavidades direitas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> ou impactados "em sela" na bifurca&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Al&#233;m de confirmar o diagn&#243;stico, esses achados tamb&#233;m est&#227;o associados a progn&#243;stico pior, sobretudo nos pacientes que evoluem com disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A ecocardiografia tem sensibilidade reportada em torno de 60-70%, de modo que um teste negativo n&#227;o exclui o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> O uso combinado de POCUS card&#237;aco, ultrassonografia (US) venosa de membros inferiores e US pulmonar (USP), tamb&#233;m denominado "triplo POCUS", aumenta a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica para a detec&#231;&#227;o de embolia pulmonar. Em um estudo multic&#234;ntrico com 357 pacientes com suspeita cl&#237;nica de embolia pulmonar, Nazerian et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> compararam a acur&#225;cia do triplo POCUS com os achados da angio-TC. O triplo POCUS demonstrou sensibilidade (Sen) de 90% e especificidade (Esp) de 86%, muito superior ao uso isolado das t&#233;cnicas (USP &#8211; Sen: 61% / Esp: 96%, POCUS card&#237;aco &#8211; Sen: 33% / Esp: 91% e US venoso de membros inferiores &#8211; Sen: 53% /Esp: 98%).</p>
          <p>Em pacientes hemodinamicamente inst&#225;veis, o uso de POCUS card&#237;aco e US venoso de membros inferiores, antes mesmo da angio-TC, pode reduzir o tempo de diagn&#243;stico e melhorar a resposta ao tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> A Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia recomenda que, em pacientes com quadro cl&#237;nico suspeito e evid&#234;ncias ecocardiogr&#225;ficas sugestivas de embolia pulmonar aguda, a terapia trombol&#237;tica pode ser justificada de imediato quando outros testes n&#227;o est&#227;o prontamente dispon&#237;veis ou quando o atraso no tratamento pode significar um risco maior para o paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.2. POCUS para Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Infarto do Ventr&#237;culo Direito</title>
          <p>O infarto do VD pode ocorrer em 30-50% dos pacientes com IAM de parede inferior e pode complicar o manejo hemodin&#226;mico desses pacientes. O infarto do VD pode evoluir com bradicardia, necessidade de implante de marcapasso, hipotens&#227;o e morte. A presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es segmentares na parede inferior inferolateral e um padr&#227;o de altera&#231;&#227;o segmentar do VD sustentam a suspeita de infarto do VD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup> Os principais diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais s&#227;o: 1) cardiomiopatias adren&#233;rgicas (Takotsubo), que tamb&#233;m podem causar altera&#231;&#227;o segmentar do VD, geralmente com acinesia apical, acompanhando a altera&#231;&#227;o similar de "balonamento apical" em regi&#227;o an&#225;loga no VE; 2) altera&#231;&#245;es contr&#225;teis segmentares conhecidas como sinal de McConell, com contratilidade apical preservada e altera&#231;&#245;es dos segmentos m&#233;dio e basal, descritas no TEP.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.3. Outras Aplica&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>Em pacientes cr&#237;ticos, o POCUS card&#237;aco pode ser &#250;til para avaliar a evolu&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD e facilitar o manejo hemodin&#226;mico dos pacientes. Por exemplo: (1) quando submetidos a recrutamento pulmonar como estrat&#233;gia de ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica (acoplamento ventr&#237;culo-arterial),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> (2) em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia ventricular direita para avalia&#231;&#227;o evolutiva de dimens&#245;es cavit&#225;rias e de d&#233;bito card&#237;aco; ou (3) no acompanhamento de pacientes em uso de suporte circulat&#243;rio com oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea (ECMO) e sinais de instabilidade, em cujo caso auxilia a avaliar a descompress&#227;o de cavidade, o posicionamento das c&#226;nulas e a possibilidade de obstru&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3.4. Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>O uso de POCUS card&#237;aco para a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos di&#226;metros e fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD tem limita&#231;&#245;es. A obten&#231;&#227;o de uma janela adequada pode ser desafiadora, com grande variabilidade de acordo com a experi&#234;ncia e habilidade<italic/> do examinador. Al&#233;m disso, o VD &#233; extremamente sens&#237;vel &#224; pr&#233; e p&#243;s-carga e &#224; interdepend&#234;ncia com o a fun&#231;&#227;o do VE, fatores que devem ser considerados em cada an&#225;lise evolutiva.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.4. POCUS no Tamponamento Card&#237;aco</title>
        <p>Embora raro, o tamponamento card&#237;aco, condi&#231;&#227;o na qual o ac&#250;mulo de l&#237;quido no espa&#231;o peric&#225;rdico comprime o cora&#231;&#227;o e impede seu enchimento adequado, configura uma emerg&#234;ncia m&#233;dica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> Em seus est&#225;gios mais avan&#231;ados, essa restri&#231;&#227;o leva &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o substancial do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e da perfus&#227;o sist&#234;mica e coronariana e pode culminar em queda abrupta da press&#227;o arterial e da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os sinais cl&#237;nicos cl&#225;ssicos do tamponamento card&#237;aco, conhecidos como tr&#237;ade de Beck (hipotens&#227;o arterial, hipofonese de bulhas card&#237;acas e turg&#234;ncia jugular) nem sempre est&#227;o presentes, ou surgem tardiamente, de modo que o POCUS &#233; uma ferramenta valiosa para a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da condi&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A quantifica&#231;&#227;o do volume peric&#225;rdico com base na dist&#226;ncia entre o peric&#225;rdio parietal e o visceral ao fim da di&#225;stole (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>), embora simples de realizar pelas janelas paraesternal e subcostal, n&#227;o permite o diagn&#243;stico de tamponamento card&#237;aco, uma vez que demais fatores, como velocidade de instala&#231;&#227;o e natureza do fluido (transudato, exsudato, sangue) podem levar ao aumento r&#225;pido da press&#227;o intraperic&#225;rdica mesmo com pequenos volumes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Semiquantifica&#231;&#227;o do derrame peric&#225;rdico de acordo com a medida telediast&#243;lica e volume do l&#237;quido</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Medida telediast&#243;lica</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Volume aproximado de l&#237;quido</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">5-10 mm</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">100-250 mL (pequeno)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">10-20 mm</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">250-500 mL (moderado)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;20 mm</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;500 mL (importante)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;25 mm</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Muito importante</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN9">
              <p>Adaptado de Klein et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A distens&#227;o da VCI e o colabamento das cavidades direitas na presen&#231;a de derrame peric&#225;rdico s&#227;o achados fundamentais para a confirma&#231;&#227;o da fisiologia do tamponamento card&#237;aco quando h&#225; suspeita cl&#237;nica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 8</xref>), embora variem substancialmente em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; sensibilidade e &#224; especificidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> A distens&#227;o da VCI e das veias supra-hep&#225;ticas e o colabamento do &#225;trio direito na s&#237;stole ventricular s&#227;o achados com alta sensibilidade, enquanto o colabamento diast&#243;lico do VD &#233; o achado mais espec&#237;fico de restri&#231;&#227;o ao enchimento diast&#243;lico ao POCUS.</p>
        <fig id="f8">
          <label>Figura 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Achados fundamentais de tamponamento card&#237;aco ao POCUS. *A distens&#227;o da VCI pode estar ausente no tamponamento card&#237;aco com hipovolemia acentuada. Outros achados podem contribuir para o diagn&#243;stico, como o desvio do septo interventricular para a esquerda durante a inspira&#231;&#227;o (parte da fisiologia do pulso paradoxal).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>A diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre derrame peric&#225;rdico e derrame pleural n&#227;o &#233; sempre simples e merece aten&#231;&#227;o durante o POCUS. Na janela paraesternal longitudinal, derrames anteriores &#224; aorta descendente normalmente s&#227;o peric&#225;rdicos, enquanto os posteriores ao vaso s&#227;o de origem pleural (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 9</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f9">
          <label>Figura 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre derrame pleural (posterior &#224; aorta) e peric&#225;rdico (anterior &#224; aorta).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.5. POCUS Avan&#231;ado</title>
        <p>O POCUS avan&#231;ado abrange o desenvolvimento de habilidades progressivas durante o treinamento na t&#233;cnica, envolvendo a avalia&#231;&#227;o de par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos obtidos por ultrassonografia. &#201; importante ressaltar que cada uma dessas habilidades possui uma curva de aprendizado. Recomenda-se que essa curva seja seguida para que o POCUS possa ser aplicado com a maior acur&#225;cia poss&#237;vel. Neste t&#243;pico, s&#227;o abordadas a avalia&#231;&#227;o da TVI (integral velocidade-tempo) da via de sa&#237;da do VE (VSVE), a determina&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico e do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco e a avalia&#231;&#227;o da rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; e seu papel na determina&#231;&#227;o da fluido-toler&#226;ncia.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>2.5.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Integral Velocidade-Tempo da Via de Sa&#237;da do Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo, Determina&#231;&#227;o do Volume Sist&#243;lico e D&#233;bito Card&#237;aco</title>
          <p>O volume sist&#243;lico &#233; calculado pelo produto da TVI da VSVE pela &#225;rea da VSVE. A &#225;rea da VSVE &#233; derivada do seu di&#226;metro medido na janela paraesternal longitudinal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 10</xref>). Em geral, a TVI da VSVE &#233; obtida na janela apical de 5 c&#226;maras (ap&#243;s adquirir a janela A4C, realiza-se uma anterioriza&#231;&#227;o do transdutor para obten&#231;&#227;o da imagem). Para essa medida, utiliza-se o Doppler puls&#225;til (PW), com volume da amostra na VSVE. Ap&#243;s o registro espectral, o envelopamento desse fluxo gera um valor em cent&#237;metros. Entendendo a VSVE como um cilindro, a integral velocidade-tempo representa a dist&#226;ncia que o sangue percorre da VSVE at&#233; a aorta a cada contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 10</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f10">
            <label>Figura 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>C&#225;lculo do volume sist&#243;lico pelo produto da &#225;rea da VSVE obtida na janela paraesternal pela integral do fluxo da VSVE obtido pela janela apical 5 c&#226;maras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> VSVE: via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>O uso da &#225;rea da VSVE tem desvantagens. Como o c&#225;lculo segue a f&#243;rmula D<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> &#215; 0,785, onde D &#233; o di&#226;metro, qualquer erro de medi&#231;&#227;o &#233; elevado ao quadrado, resultando em um erro significativo no c&#225;lculo do volume sist&#243;lico. Infelizmente, erros nessa medida n&#227;o s&#227;o incomuns. Logo, &#233; necess&#225;ria uma alternativa ao volume sist&#243;lico em situa&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia.</p>
          <p>Dado que o di&#226;metro da VSVE (e, logo, a &#225;rea) tende a permanecer constante, varia&#231;&#245;es no volume sist&#243;lico refletem mudan&#231;as da TVI da VSVE. Dessa forma, a TVI da VSVE &#233; um poss&#237;vel substituto para o volume sist&#243;lico e um par&#226;metro hemodin&#226;mico importante para a monitoriza&#231;&#227;o das respostas e orienta&#231;&#227;o das terapias durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial e ao longo do tratamento.</p>
          <p>Para calcular o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco, multiplica-se o volume sist&#243;lico pela frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, a TVI da VSVE normalmente varia entre 18 e 22 cm, com FC entre 55 e 95 bpm. Quando a FC &#233; inferior a 55 bpm, a TVI obtida deve ser maior que 18 cm. De forma semelhante, em pacientes com FC acima de 95 bpm, a TVI da VSVE deve ser inferior a 22 cm, ou ent&#227;o deve-se supor um estado de alto d&#233;bito. A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica funcional, no qual as mudan&#231;as na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca em resposta aos tratamentos s&#227;o mais importantes que medidas est&#225;ticas, se baseia no conceito de "seguir tend&#234;ncias".<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> A aplica&#231;&#227;o da TVI dentro de um algoritmo de diagn&#243;stico e tratamento &#233; abordada no t&#243;pico 6 (POCUS no paciente em choque).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.5.2. Rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; como Medida da Press&#227;o Atrial Esquerda e Fluido-Toler&#226;ncia</title>
          <p>O aumento da press&#227;o atrial esquerda (PAE) tem consequ&#234;ncias importantes nas trocas gasosas, na p&#243;s-carga da hemodin&#226;mica pulmonar e no desempenho do ventr&#237;culo direito.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o da PAE pode ser causada por condi&#231;&#245;es pr&#233;-existentes, como disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica do VE e valvopatias mitrais e a&#243;rticas; entretanto o aumento agudo da PAE pode ser observado em pacientes cr&#237;ticos com sepse, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, cardiomiopatia induzida por estresse e sobrecarga vol&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A rela&#231;&#227;o entre a onda E do fluxo transmitral e a onda e&#8217; obtida no anel mitral medial e lateral (rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; m&#233;dia) tem sido amplamente estudada na cardiologia e ganhou interesse na literatura sobre terapia intensiva. A rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; &#233; menos dependente de carga e pode ser usada para estimar o aumento da PAE em diversos cen&#225;rios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11">Figura 11</xref>). Embora um valor normal de E/e&#8217; n&#227;o exclua a eleva&#231;&#227;o da PAE, um valor m&#233;dio &gt;14 tem alta especificidade para aumento da PAE. Essa informa&#231;&#227;o &#233; &#250;til na tomada de decis&#245;es sobre mais ressuscita&#231;&#227;o com fluidos &#224; beira do leito: nesse cen&#225;rio, E/e&#8242; &gt;14 favorece fortemente um paciente com "fluido-intoler&#226;ncia". No outro extremo, E/e&#8217; &lt;8 tem boa acur&#225;cia para predizer PAE &lt;18 mmHg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f11">
            <label>Figura 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>C&#225;lculo da rela&#231;&#227;o E/e&#8217; obtido pela rela&#231;&#227;o entre a onda E do fluxo mitral e a m&#233;dia da onda e&#8217; obtida ao Doppler tecidual do anel mitral medial e lateral.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2.6. POCUS Card&#237;aco Pedi&#225;trico</title>
        <p>Assim como nos pacientes adultos, o POCUS card&#237;aco na pediatria (&#8804; 18 anos) &#233; uma extens&#227;o do exame cl&#237;nico, realizado &#224; beira do leito para auxiliar na conduta e manejo do paciente com agilidade. As principais indica&#231;&#245;es para o exame est&#227;o listadas no <xref ref-type="table" rid="t11">Quadro 1</xref>.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t11">
          <label>Quadro 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es principais do POCUS pedi&#225;trico</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>1.</bold> Avalia&#231;&#227;o qualitativa da fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica dos ventr&#237;culos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>2.</bold> Avalia&#231;&#227;o de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>3.</bold> Avalia&#231;&#227;o de derrame peric&#225;rdico e orienta&#231;&#227;o para pericardiocentese</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>4.</bold> Avalia&#231;&#227;o de volemia e da responsividade &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o de fluidos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>5.</bold> Avalia&#231;&#227;o da pat&#234;ncia do canal arterial em neonatos</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>O POCUS card&#237;aco n&#227;o inclui a avalia&#231;&#227;o da anatomia card&#237;aca nem o diagn&#243;stico de cardiopatias cong&#234;nitas. Tamb&#233;m &#233; diferente da chamada "<italic>targeted neonatal echocardiography</italic>" ou ecocardiografia neonatal direcionada, exame que utiliza m&#250;ltiplos par&#226;metros ecocardiogr&#225;ficos para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica e a volemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Ultrassonografia Pulmonar</title>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>3.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A USP, descrita mais tardiamente em rela&#231;&#227;o a outras aplica&#231;&#245;es da ultrassonografia no POCUS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> tornou-se essencial para a avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, &#224; beira do leito e em tempo real de pacientes com queixa de dispneia. Quando associada &#224; hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e ao exame f&#237;sico, a USP permite acelerar o diagn&#243;stico e o tratamento adequado do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> A USP detecta facilmente a presen&#231;a de l&#237;quido extravascular pulmonar na congest&#227;o pulmonar. Seu desempenho diagn&#243;stico &#233; equivalente &#224; dosagem de BNP e superior &#224; da radiografia de t&#243;rax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> A USP tamb&#233;m auxilia em outros diagn&#243;sticos associados a comprometimento pulmonar, como derrame pleural, s&#237;ndromes intersticiais, pneumonia, atelectasias, pneumot&#243;rax e tromboembolismo pulmonar. Essas condi&#231;&#245;es ser&#227;o discutidas a seguir.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A USP se baseia em artefatos gerados da pleura, estrutura facilmente vis&#237;vel ao ultrassom. Em condi&#231;&#245;es normais, o pulm&#227;o aerado reflete a energia ultrass&#244;nica e reverbera&#231;&#245;es da linha pleural s&#227;o projetadas em pontos equidistantes no campo ultrass&#244;nico, conhecidas como linhas A. O espessamento dos espa&#231;os interalveolares ou o preenchimento dos alv&#233;olos por l&#237;quido ou processo inflamat&#243;rio causa o borramento progressivo das linhas A e o surgimento de linhas B, que s&#227;o perpendiculares e acompanham o deslizamento pleural. As linhas B se propagam por todo o campo ultrass&#244;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.2. Aspectos T&#233;cnicos</title>
        <p>Os aspectos t&#233;cnicos do POCUS foram descritos anteriormente neste documento. No entanto, algumas observa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas &#224; USP se fazem necess&#225;rias.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2.1. Equipamentos e Transdutores</title>
          <p>Equipamentos de US simples e at&#233; mesmo os chamados dispositivos <italic>handheld</italic> obt&#234;m imagens adequadas de USP. Caso o equipamento n&#227;o tenha um <italic>preset</italic> pulmonar, o <italic>preset</italic> abdominal &#233; considerado o mais apropriado para a obten&#231;&#227;o de imagens devido &#224; sua persist&#234;ncia mais elevada. Embora tenha persist&#234;ncia reduzida, o <italic>preset</italic> card&#237;aco adulto pode ser utilizado, sem preju&#237;zo substancial das informa&#231;&#245;es obtidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Quatro tipos de transdutores podem ser utilizados na USP: convexo de 5 MHz, setorial de 3-5 MHz, microconvexo 5-8 MHz e linear de 5-12 MHz. O &#250;ltimo &#233; especialmente &#250;til para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da linha pleural e do deslizamento pleural.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3. Protocolo de Estudo</title>
        <p>Entre os diversos protocolos de exame na literatura, recomenda-se tr&#234;s (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12</xref>) que podem ser escolhidos de acordo com o contexto cl&#237;nico. O protocolo mais utilizado &#233; o BLUE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12a</xref>), sigla de <italic>Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency</italic>. Nesse protocolo, cada hemit&#243;rax &#233; dividido em tr&#234;s quadrantes: dois na face anterior de cada hemit&#243;rax, com foco na busca por linhas B e presen&#231;a de pneumot&#243;rax, e o terceiro quadrante na regi&#227;o posterolateral basal, no qual se avalia a presen&#231;a de derrame pleural e consolida&#231;&#245;es pulmonares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f12">
          <label>Figura 12</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Protocolos de ultrassonografia pulmonar recomendados. A. BLUE (ref 56). B. 8 quadrantes (ref 60). C. 12 quadrantes (ref 62). Obs.: para maior detalhamento, utilizar as refer&#234;ncias. BLUE: Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>Com profundidade da imagem em torno de 15-18 cm, a sonda deve ser posicionada no plano sagital, com o &#237;ndex em posi&#231;&#227;o cranial. Com o paciente em dec&#250;bito dorsal, s&#227;o realizadas varreduras cuidadosas em todo o territ&#243;rio do quadrante, respeitando o ciclo respirat&#243;rio completo e buscando o ponto com maior concentra&#231;&#227;o de linhas B. Os quadrantes anteriores do t&#243;rax s&#227;o chamados de pontos BLUE superior e inferior e, para fins de identifica&#231;&#227;o, podem ser identificados no sentido craniocaudal como D1 e D2 no hemit&#243;rax direito e E1 e E2 no esquerdo. S&#227;o nesses pontos que se busca identificar o perfil B, indicativo de congest&#227;o pulmonar, com sensibilidade de 97% e especificidade de 95%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> O perfil B &#233; caracterizado obrigatoriamente pela presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ou mais linhas B por quadrante na regi&#227;o anterior de cada hemit&#243;rax e deslizamento pleural preservado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O terceiro quadrante, conhecido como ponto PLAPS (<italic>posterolateral alveolar and/or pleural syndrome)</italic>, pode ser de dif&#237;cil obten&#231;&#227;o em pacientes impossibilitados de assumir o dec&#250;bito semilateral. A posi&#231;&#227;o ideal permite a visualiza&#231;&#227;o do recesso costofr&#234;nico, do diafragma e do f&#237;gado ou ba&#231;o. Nesse quadrante, o objetivo principal &#233; a avalia&#231;&#227;o de derrame pleural e de poss&#237;veis consolida&#231;&#245;es pulmonares pneum&#244;nicas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13f</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f13">
          <label>Figura 13</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Achados &#224; ultrassonografia pulmonar, descri&#231;&#227;o detalhada na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref>. a. linhas A, b. linhas B, c. linhas B coalescentes com zonas poupadas, d. linhas B coalescentes, e. consolida&#231;&#227;o subpleural, f. consolida&#231;&#227;o translobar, g. atelectasia compressiva, h. sinal do retalho, i. sinal do pl&#226;ncton, j. derrame septado, k. consolida&#231;&#227;o subpleural triangular com sonda linear (tromboembolismo pulmonar), l. c&#243;digo de barras (pneumot&#243;rax em pulm&#227;o esquerdo). DIR: direita; ESQ: esquerda.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>Embora seja muito valorizado no POCUS, o protocolo BLUE tem car&#225;ter qualitativo e se limita &#224; regi&#227;o anterior do t&#243;rax. Mais recentemente, com o objetivo de permitir uma abordagem mais quantitativa e o acompanhamento longitudinal, principalmente para pacientes com IC, seja ela com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFEr) ou preservada (ICFEp), recomenda-se o protocolo com 8 quadrantes (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12b</xref>)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> sem preju&#237;zo no tempo ou na acur&#225;cia do exame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> Nas patologias que acometem a regi&#227;o posterior do t&#243;rax, como as s&#237;ndromes intersticiais, incluindo a pneumonia por SARS-CoV-2, podem ser utilizados protocolos que incluem a regi&#227;o posterior (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12c</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.4. Quantifica&#231;&#227;o de Linhas B</title>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; um consenso em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; melhor metodologia para a quantifica&#231;&#227;o das linhas B. A tend&#234;ncia atual &#233; a contagem autom&#225;tica e em tempo real do n&#250;mero de linhas B pelo uso de software espec&#237;fico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na maioria dos casos, duas abordagens s&#227;o utilizadas para quantificar as linhas B, com reprodutibilidade satisfat&#243;ria:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Escore de positividade por segmento, no qual a presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ou mais linhas B caracteriza uma zona positiva;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Contagem do n&#250;mero total de linhas B, individualmente ou pelo percentual da faixa que ocupam na tela, dividido por 10. O m&#233;todo &#233; bastante &#250;til no caso de linhas B coalescentes (por exemplo, se 80% da tela &#233; ocupada por linhas B, considera-se a presen&#231;a de 8 linhas B) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13b</xref>);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Embora ainda sem valida&#231;&#227;o na literatura, para reduzir a variabilidade intra e interobservador e n&#227;o prejudicar o tempo de exame, recomenda-se como terceira alternativa, no acompanhamento longitudinal do paciente, o uso de faixas de n&#250;mero de linhas B (por exemplo: 0, &lt;3, 3-5, 5-7 e &#8805;8 linhas B). Atribui-se a cada faixa um escore de 0-4 para cada quadrante estudado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Ao final, soma-se o escore de todos os quadrantes para obter a pontua&#231;&#227;o total (por exemplo: escore 20 de um m&#225;ximo de 32 em um protocolo com 8 quadrantes). Dessa forma, obt&#233;m-se uma an&#225;lise semiquantitativa das linhas B que pode ser utilizada para fins de compara&#231;&#227;o durante o processo de descongest&#227;o do paciente.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.5. Principais Aplica&#231;&#245;es da Ultrassonografia Pulmonar</title>
        <p>Para facilitar a compreens&#227;o ao longo do texto, a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref> apresenta os termos mais utilizados na USP. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13</xref> apresenta exemplos.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Descri&#231;&#227;o dos achados mais frequentes &#224; ultrassonografia pulmonar e seu significado. As letras em negrito se correlacionam com a Figura 13</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Achado</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Descri&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Significado</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Linha pleural</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Linha curvil&#237;nea hiperecoica abaixo das costelas.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Interface entre as pleuras parietal e visceral.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Deslizamento pleural</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Deslizamento da pleural visceral sobre a parietal com a respira&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Exclui pneumot&#243;rax e ader&#234;ncia pleural.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Linhas A <bold>(a)</bold></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Artefatos horizontais de reverbera&#231;&#227;o a partir da linha pleural.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulm&#227;o aerado (normal) ou DPOC ou pneumot&#243;rax (com perda do deslizamento pleural).</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Linhas B <bold>(b)</bold></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Artefatos verticais a partir da linha pleural que se estendem ao longo de todo o campo ultrass&#244;nico.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ac&#250;mulo de l&#237;quido hidrost&#225;tico e/ou inflamat&#243;rio ou fibrose nos septos interlobulares e alv&#233;olos.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Linhas Z</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Artefatos verticais est&#225;ticos que n&#227;o se estendem at&#233; o final do campo.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sem significado patol&#243;gico. Devem ser diferenciadas das linhas B.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ponto pulmonar</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ponto de transi&#231;&#227;o entre o deslizamento pleural e a perda de seu movimento.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Patognom&#244;nico de pneumot&#243;rax. Quanto mais lateral o ponto pulmonar, maior o pneumot&#243;rax.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulso pulmonar</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Movimento r&#237;tmico da pleura sincronizado com os batimentos card&#237;acos.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Exclui pneumot&#243;rax na aus&#234;ncia de deslizamento pleural.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">C&#243;digo de barras<break/> (sinal da estratosfera)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Linhas horizontais em todo o campo ultrass&#244;nico ao modo M.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Indicativo de pneumot&#243;rax.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sinal do pl&#226;ncton</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecos puntiformes m&#243;veis no interior do l&#237;quido.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Podem indicar infec&#231;&#227;o, hemot&#243;rax ou estar presente ap&#243;s terapia agressiva com diur&#233;ticos.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Derrame septado (loculado)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><italic>Debris</italic>, fibrinas e septa&#231;&#245;es.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Derrame complexo, sugestivo de infec&#231;&#227;o, abcesso, empiema ou fibrose, dificultando a drenagem pleural.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Broncograma a&#233;reo <bold>(f)</bold></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ecos puntiformes hiperecog&#234;nicos represados em br&#244;nquios e circundados por consolida&#231;&#227;o.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Quando m&#243;veis (din&#226;micos), sugerem consolida&#231;&#227;o pneum&#244;nica; quando est&#225;ticos, sugerem atelectasia.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sinal do retalho <bold>(h)</bold></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Linha hiperecoica, irregular, subpleural e profunda que divide a zona consolidada da zona parcialmente aerada.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Presente nas consolida&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o translobares mais frequentemente associadas a pneumonia.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sinal da cortina</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de pulm&#227;o aerado durante a respira&#231;&#227;o, apagando a imagem do f&#237;gado ou ba&#231;o.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Bases pulmonares areadas no ponto de an&#225;lise.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Sinal da medusa <bold>(g)</bold></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Segmento de pulm&#227;o colapsado com movimento ondulat&#243;rio em meio a derrame pleural volumoso.</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Atelectasia compressiva.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Consolida&#231;&#227;o subpleural <bold>(e) (k)</bold></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pequena &#225;rea hipoecoica subpleural (triangular, circular ou poligonal).</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Embolia pulmonar, atelectasia, infec&#231;&#227;o, hemorragia ou neoplasia.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Consolida&#231;&#227;o translobar <bold>(f)</bold></td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aus&#234;ncia de ar no pulm&#227;o, que apresenta textura de &#243;rg&#227;o s&#243;lido (hepatiza&#231;&#227;o).</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pneumonia ou atelectasia.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN10">
              <p>DPOC: doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.1. Congest&#227;o Pulmonar</title>
          <p>A congest&#227;o pulmonar de origem cardiog&#234;nica s&#243; pode considerada quando associada ao quadro cl&#237;nico de ICFEp ou ICFEr em forma aguda ou cr&#244;nica. Nessa &#250;ltima, a congest&#227;o pode ser subcl&#237;nica, dada a possibilidade de mecanismos adaptativos como o espessamento da membrana alv&#233;olo-capilar, o aumento da drenagem linf&#225;tica e a hipertens&#227;o pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> Na IC descompensada, os sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar &#224; USP costumam anteceder os sinais cl&#237;nicos em dias, como aparecimento de estertores, terceira bulha, edema perif&#233;rico, turg&#234;ncia jugular e dispneia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> A Diretriz Brasileira de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca (2018) recomenda como classe I e n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia C, o uso integrado da USP e da ecocardiografia para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da congest&#227;o pulmonar em pacientes admitidos com IC aguda. Esse procedimento acrescenta poucos minutos ao tempo de exame, com ganho substancial de informa&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Pela sua simplicidade e n&#237;vel de valida&#231;&#227;o, recomenda-se utilizar o protocolo BLUE no servi&#231;o de emerg&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> A identifica&#231;&#227;o do perfil B indica a presen&#231;a de l&#237;quido extravascular. Quando agregado ao quadro de IC (ICFEr ou ICFEp) e com evid&#234;ncias ecocardiogr&#225;ficas de congest&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica, confirma o diagn&#243;stico de congest&#227;o pulmonar cardiog&#234;nica. Quando o objetivo &#233; graduar e acompanhar evolutivamente a congest&#227;o, recomenda-se o protocolo de 8 quadrantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> No terceiro quadrante (ponto PLAPS), verifica-se a presen&#231;a de derrame pleural e eventual consolida&#231;&#227;o pneum&#244;nica associada como poss&#237;vel causa da descompensa&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.2. Derrame Pleural</title>
          <p>A USP apresenta alta acur&#225;cia para detec&#231;&#227;o de derrame pleural (93%) em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224; radiografia de t&#243;rax (47%),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> possibilitando o diagn&#243;stico de pequenos derrames a partir de 20 mL. A t&#233;cnica ideal consiste em posicionar o paciente em dec&#250;bito semilateral, discretamente elevado (45&#176;) ou sentado em caso de pun&#231;&#227;o ou drenagem, com a insona&#231;&#227;o no ponto PLAPS.</p>
          <p>O derrame pleural est&#225; presente em 56-90% dos casos de IC descompensada e em cerca de 25% dos casos de IC direita isolada e pode persistir em at&#233; 60% dos casos na fase pr&#233;-alta<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> sem que isso implique pior progn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> Na IC esquerda, o derrame pleural decorre do aumento das press&#245;es no &#225;trio esquerdo e somente ap&#243;s o aparecimento da congest&#227;o pulmonar. Na IC direita, decorre da transfer&#234;ncia do aumento da press&#227;o atrial direita para o ducto tor&#225;cico, dificultando a drenagem linf&#225;tica do espa&#231;o pleural para a veia cava superior (VCS),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> sendo mais prevalente a direita quando unilateral. Diversos m&#233;todos de quantifica&#231;&#227;o do derrame pleural foram descritos, sendo o mais utilizado aquele proposto por Balik<italic/> et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> no qual, durante a expira&#231;&#227;o, a maior dist&#226;ncia do derrame entre a c&#250;pula pleural e o tecido pulmonar em cent&#237;metros &#233; multiplicada por 200, resultando em uma estimativa do volume do derrame em mililitros (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 14</xref>). Com base na ecogenicidade do l&#237;quido, a USP permite uma an&#225;lise qualitativa da probabilidade de ser transudato, exsudato (sinal do pl&#226;ncton, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13i</xref>) ou hemorr&#225;gico. A presen&#231;a de <italic>debris</italic> e septa&#231;&#245;es indica derrame complexo de origem infecciosa, devendo levar &#224; continuidade da investiga&#231;&#227;o<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13j</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f14">
            <label>Figura 14</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Exemplo de estimativa do volume de derrame pleural obtido pela estimativa da dist&#226;ncia entre a c&#250;pula diafragm&#225;tica e o tecido pulmonar na expira&#231;&#227;o.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.3. S&#237;ndromes Intersticiais</title>
          <p>A s&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo (SDRA) &#233; uma forma de edema pulmonar de origem inflamat&#243;ria, secund&#225;ria a diversas doen&#231;as pulmonares ou sist&#234;micas. As causas mais frequentes s&#227;o pneumonia viral ou bacteriana, sepse, broncoaspira&#231;&#227;o e trauma grave, incluindo barotrauma secund&#225;rio a ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica. A SDRA pode coexistir com IC, o que dificulta ainda mais a an&#225;lise da USP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Alguns achados ultrassonogr&#225;ficos diferenciam o edema cardiog&#234;nico do inflamat&#243;rio: distribui&#231;&#227;o heterog&#234;nea e assim&#233;trica das linhas B, &#225;reas poupadas de linhas B no mesmo campo ultrass&#244;nico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13c</xref>), espessamento e irregularidade da linha pleural e consolida&#231;&#245;es subpleurais (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13e</xref>) ou translobares, todos presentes, por exemplo, na pneumonia associada &#224; infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A fibrose pulmonar idiop&#225;tica ou secund&#225;ria a toxinas, poeiras org&#226;nicas, medicamentos ou doen&#231;as do col&#225;geno se caracteriza pelo espessamento e fibrose progressiva do tecido pulmonar. Nas formas mais brandas, observa-se espessamento da linha pleural. Com a evolu&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a, verifica-se aumento progressivo do espessamento pleural, redu&#231;&#227;o do deslizamento pleural e surgimento de linhas B (algumas coalescentes) e cistos subpleurais que, &#224; USP, se assemelham a consolida&#231;&#245;es subpleurais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.4. Consolida&#231;&#227;o Pneum&#244;nica</title>
          <p>A pneumonia bacteriana &#233; caracterizada pela perda da aera&#231;&#227;o do tecido pulmonar, que &#233; preenchido por fluido infeccioso e desenvolve um aspecto de estrutura s&#243;lida (hepatiza&#231;&#227;o). A consolida&#231;&#227;o pode variar em extens&#227;o, sendo caracterizada como translobar quando se estende por todo campo ultrass&#244;nico e n&#227;o translobar, ou mesmo subpleural, quando observa-se uma linha hiperecoica e irregular que divide o segmento consolidado do parcialmente aerado<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> (sinal do retalho) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13h</xref>).</p>
          <p>As consolida&#231;&#245;es localizam-se preferencialmente nas bases pulmonares (ponto PLAPS) com pequeno derrame pleural restrito ao seio costofr&#234;nico, linhas B de origem inflamat&#243;ria e eventuais broncogramas din&#226;micos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13f</xref>). A pleura se apresenta espessada, irregular e com perda do deslizamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.5. Atelectasia</title>
          <p>A atelectasia &#233; a perda de volume e de aera&#231;&#227;o pulmonar por obstru&#231;&#227;o br&#244;nquica por tamp&#227;o mucoso ou por compress&#227;o do par&#234;nquima por derrames pleurais volumosos. Atelectasias extensas causam dist&#250;rbio de ventila&#231;&#227;o-perfus&#227;o, com <italic>shunt</italic> intrapulmonar, aumento da resist&#234;ncia pulmonar e hipoxemia. O diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre atelectasia e consolida&#231;&#227;o pneum&#244;nica por USP &#233; desafiador e deve considerar o quadro cl&#237;nico. Achados como broncogramas a&#233;reos est&#225;ticos e linhas B localizadas e n&#227;o difusas<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> ajudam na diferencia&#231;&#227;o. Nos casos de atelectasia compressiva do pulm&#227;o, observa-se uma l&#226;mina de tecido pulmonar consolidado com movimentos sinusoides (sinal da medusa) em meio ao l&#237;quido pleural (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13g</xref>). Vale ressaltar que a atelectasia e a consolida&#231;&#227;o pneum&#244;nica podem coexistir em um mesmo paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.6. Pneumot&#243;rax</title>
          <p>A USP apresenta sensibilidade de 90% e especificidade de 98% para o diagn&#243;stico de pneumot&#243;rax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> O ac&#250;mulo de ar entre a pleura parietal e a visceral ocorre principalmente no t&#243;rax anterior. Dessa forma, em caso de suspeita cl&#237;nica de pneumot&#243;rax (por trauma ou por ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica com press&#227;o positiva elevada), recomenda-se iniciar a avalia&#231;&#227;o pela face anterior do t&#243;rax.</p>
          <p>Nesta regi&#227;o, o achado de maior sensibilidade diagn&#243;stica &#233; a aus&#234;ncia de deslizamento pleural (lung sliding). &#192; ultrassonografia em Modo M, esta condi&#231;&#227;o manifesta-se como o sinal do c&#243;digo de barras (ou sinal da estratosfera), caracterizado por m&#250;ltiplas linhas horizontais paralelas que percorrem toda a profundidade da imagem. Tal padr&#227;o contrasta com o sinal da beira-mar fisiol&#243;gico, no qual a granulosidade do par&#234;nquima pulmonar (areia) se distingue das linhas horizontais est&#225;ticas da parede tor&#225;cica (mar) (at&#233; a linha pleural)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13l</xref>).</p>
          <p>A aus&#234;ncia do deslizamento pleural, contudo, n&#227;o &#233; exclusiva de pneumot&#243;rax, e tamb&#233;m &#233; evidenciada na entuba&#231;&#227;o seletiva, na pleurodese, em contus&#245;es pulmonares e na fibrose pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Embora possa ser dif&#237;cil de demonstrar, o ponto pulmonar &#233; o &#250;nico achado espec&#237;fico para pneumot&#243;rax. Ele indica o local exato da transi&#231;&#227;o entre pulm&#227;o colapsado (deslizamento abolido) e pulm&#227;o normal (deslizamento presente). Quanto mais lateral for sua localiza&#231;&#227;o no t&#243;rax, maior o pneumot&#243;rax.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.7. Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</title>
          <p>Apesar de n&#227;o ser considerada m&#233;todo de escolha para a investiga&#231;&#227;o de TEP,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> a USP &#233; uma boa alternativa quando a angiotomografia pulmonar &#233; contraindicada ou est&#225; indispon&#237;vel. A an&#225;lise integrada da USP com o POCUS card&#237;aco e venoso, em busca de sinais de sobrecarga de cavidades direitas e/ou trombose venosa profunda, pode aumentar a sensibilidade e a especificidade do m&#233;todo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> Mais frequente nas regi&#245;es posterobasais do t&#243;rax, onde o paciente costuma referir dor pleur&#237;tica, o achado sugestivo &#224; USP &#233; a consolida&#231;&#227;o subpleural triangular (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13k</xref>), que pode tamb&#233;m ser circular ou poligonal. Essas consolida&#231;&#245;es se devem a necrose do par&#234;nquima ou atelectasia devido &#224; perda de integridade do surfactante com extravasamento sangu&#237;neo local.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.6. Conclus&#227;o e Perspectivas Futuras</title>
          <p>A USP antes subutilizada, tornou-se recentemente uma ferramenta essencial para o acompanhamento ambulatorial e para o manejo de pacientes com dispneia em unidades de terapia intensiva e servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia. A US &#233; um m&#233;todo de imagem r&#225;pido, simples e altamente informativo, capaz de fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas cruciais. Al&#233;m disso, &#233; custo-efetiva e adequada para aplica&#231;&#227;o &#224; beira do leito.</p>
          <p>Com o advento da IA para a interpreta&#231;&#227;o de imagens, a contagem autom&#225;tica de linhas B e o desenvolvimento de algoritmos integrados, sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o ganhar&#225; mais espa&#231;o na medicina de urg&#234;ncia, terapia intensiva, cardiologia e outras especialidades em que o modelo agrega valor &#224; tomada de decis&#227;o. Contudo, &#233; preciso mencionar que a USP n&#227;o substitui uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica criteriosa e deve sempre ser interpretada &#224; luz do hist&#243;rico do paciente.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Ultrassom Focado na Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Congest&#227;o Venosa Sist&#234;mica &#8211; VExUS</title>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>4.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Historicamente, o tratamento de pacientes cr&#237;ticos se concentra em assegurar uma press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o adequada, com forte foco no lado arterial do sistema vascular e na resposta do organismo &#224; fluidoterapia. No entanto, o sistema venoso, muitas vezes negligenciado, desempenha um papel crucial. Os pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia ventricular direita, hipertens&#227;o pulmonar ou sobrecarga h&#237;drica s&#227;o propensos a desenvolver de congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica, o que leva a redu&#231;&#227;o do gradiente arteriovenoso, eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica capilar e edema intersticial, muitas vezes exacerbado por disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> Esses fatores causam impactos adversos na perfus&#227;o tecidual e levam &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica, especialmente &#224; renal. A les&#227;o renal, por sua vez, acentua a reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica, perpetuando um ciclo vicioso e causando um forte aumento da morbimortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Assim, a detec&#231;&#227;o precoce da congest&#227;o venosa &#233; de extrema import&#226;ncia no desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias adequadas para o acompanhamento cl&#237;nico do paciente. Contudo, o exame f&#237;sico e o balan&#231;o h&#237;drico acumulado apresentam limita&#231;&#245;es importantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> Ademais, medidas da press&#227;o venosa central (PVC), al&#233;m de invasivas, s&#227;o propensas a erros e nem sempre refletem diretamente a pr&#233;-carga, como em pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Dada a escassez de sinais confi&#225;veis, informa&#231;&#245;es adicionais mais precisas e objetivas s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para orientar as decis&#245;es terap&#234;uticas. Nesse contexto, o POCUS tem se mostrado uma ferramenta &#250;til e eficaz para avaliar o estado vol&#234;mico e quantificar a congest&#227;o venosa.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Estudos Cl&#237;nicos e Evid&#234;ncias Cient&#237;ficas</title>
        <p>Os marcadores ultrassonogr&#225;ficos de congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica n&#227;o s&#227;o novos. A pulsatilidade da veia porta foi descrita no contexto de IC h&#225; mais de 20 anos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> embora nunca tenha sido totalmente incorporada &#224; pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
        <p>Recentemente, o VExUS (<italic>venous excess ultrasound</italic>) tem demonstrado ser um m&#233;todo confi&#225;vel e reprodut&#237;vel, com boa concord&#226;ncia entre observadores treinados e correla&#231;&#227;o com outras medidas do estado vol&#234;mico, como a PVC. A t&#233;cnica tem despertado interesse crescente na literatura, e alguns estudos exploram a sua aplica&#231;&#227;o em diferentes contextos cl&#237;nicos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 5</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t5">
          <label>Tabela 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Estudos que avaliaram o escore VExUS em diferentes contextos cl&#237;nicos</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Estudo</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Objetivo</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Resultado</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Beaubien-Souligny et al. (2020)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup><break/> Estudo prospectivo unic&#234;ntrico;<break/> 145 pacientes submetidos a<break/> cirurgia card&#237;aca</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Modelo inicial do sistema de gradua&#231;&#227;o VExUS, analisando associa&#231;&#227;o do desenvolvimento de LRA na popula&#231;&#227;o de cirurgia card&#237;aca</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Associa&#231;&#227;o com LRA subsequente: HR = 3,69; IC95% 1,65&#8211;8,24; p = 0,001; +LR: 6,37 (IC95% 2,19&#8211;18,50) quando detectado &#224; admiss&#227;o na UTI, superando as medidas de PVC</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Bhardwaj et al. (2020)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup><break/> Estudo coorte prospectivo em UTI;<break/> 30 pacientes</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Estudo prospectivo sobre aplica&#231;&#227;o do escore VExUS no estadiamento da LRA em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">A resolu&#231;&#227;o da LRA estava significativamente correlacionada com a melhora no grau VExUS<break/> (p = 0,003).<break/> Houve associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre altera&#231;&#245;es no grau VExUS e balan&#231;o h&#237;drico (p = 0,006).</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Varudo et al. (2022)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup><break/> Relato de caso de paciente em UTI com hiponatremia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aplica&#231;&#227;o do escore VExUS em relato de caso como ferramenta r&#225;pida para auxiliar na avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado vol&#234;mico em paciente com hiponatremia complexa</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS geral grau 2, orientando estrat&#233;gia diur&#233;tica com melhora cl&#237;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Rolston et al. (2022)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup><break/> Estudo observacional unic&#234;ntrico;<break/> 150 pacientes s&#233;pticos</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Escore VExUS de pacientes s&#233;pticos no pronto-socorro antes de fluidoterapia (revis&#227;o de prontu&#225;rios para determinar associa&#231;&#227;o com piores desfechos)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Desfecho composto (mortalidade,<break/> admiss&#227;o em UTI ou ativa&#231;&#227;o de resposta r&#225;pida):<break/> VExUS grau 0: 31,6% dos pacientes<break/> VExUS grau 1: 47,6% dos pacientes<break/> VExUS grau &gt; 1: 67,7% dos pacientes<break/> (p = 0,0015)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Guinot et al. (2022)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup><break/> Estudo observacional prospectivo em UTI;<break/> 81 pacientes que iniciaram terapia com diur&#233;tico de al&#231;a</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de m&#250;ltiplos escores<break/> (&#237;ndice de pulsatilidade portal, &#237;ndice de imped&#226;ncia venosa renal, VExUS) para predizer a deple&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica adequada induzida por diur&#233;ticos</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O &#237;ndice basal de pulsatilidade portal e o &#237;ndice de imped&#226;ncia venosa renal foram considerados preditores superiores ao VExUS. O escore VExUS basal (AUC 0,66; IC95% 0,53&#8211;0,79; p = 0,012) n&#227;o foi um bom preditor de resposta apropriada &#224; deple&#231;&#227;o de l&#237;quidos induzida por diur&#233;ticos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Men&#233;ndez-Suso et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup><break/> Estudo piloto transversal em UTI pedi&#225;trica; 33 crian&#231;as</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Associa&#231;&#227;o do escore VExUS com<break/> PVC em UTI pedi&#225;trica</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre a gravidade do escore VExUS e a PVC (p&lt;0,001) em crian&#231;as gravemente enfermas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Longino et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup><break/> Estudo prospectivo unic&#234;ntrico;<break/> 81 pacientes submetidos a cateterismo direito</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Valida&#231;&#227;o de associa&#231;&#227;o do grau<break/> VExUS com a press&#227;o atrial direita</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS teve &#225;rea abaixo da curva favor&#225;vel para predi&#231;&#227;o de PAD &gt; 10 mmHg (AUC 0,90; IC95% 0,83-0,97)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Torres-Arrese et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup><break/> Estudo prospectivo multic&#234;ntrico;<break/> 74 pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca aguda</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de diferentes par&#226;metros ultrassonogr&#225;ficos (incluindo o escore VExUS) como preditores de desfechos cl&#237;nicos (morte ou reinterna&#231;&#227;o relacionadas a insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS grau 3 foi preditor de mortalidade durante a interna&#231;&#227;o (AUC 0,885, Sn 80%, Sp 75%, VPP 33 % e VPN 96%)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Magin et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup><break/> Estudo piloto observacional prospectivo unic&#234;ntrico;<break/> 69 pacientes submetidos a<break/> cirurgia n&#227;o card&#237;aca</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da obten&#231;&#227;o de janelas VExUS no per&#237;odo perioperat&#243;rio ap&#243;s cirurgias abdominais e avalia&#231;&#227;o da congest&#227;o venosa quanto &#224; incid&#234;ncia de sobrecarga de volume</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS &#233; vi&#225;vel e pode ser realizado para avaliar congest&#227;o venosa em cirurgias n&#227;o card&#237;acas, incluindo cirurgias abdominais.<break/> Tend&#234;ncia de aumento da congest&#227;o venosa ap&#243;s cirurgia abdominal</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Viana-Rojas et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref></sup><break/> Estudo prospectivo;<break/> 77 pacientes com SCA</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o da associa&#231;&#227;o entre<break/> VExUS e LRA em pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de SCA</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS &#8805; 1 foi associado a LRA (OR: 6,15; IC95% 1,26 &#8211; 29,94; p = 0,02).<break/> VExUS &#8805; 1 mais prevalente em IAM inferior quando comparado a IAM anterior ou SCASSST (48,3% vs. 25,8% e 22,5%, respectivamente; p = 0,031)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN11">
              <p>AUC: <italic>area under the curve</italic>; HR: <italic>hazard ratio</italic>; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; IC95%: intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%; +LR: positive likelihood ratio; LRA: les&#227;o renal aguda; OR: odds ratio; PAD: press&#227;o atrial direita; PVC: press&#227;o venosa central; SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; SCASSST: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda sem supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST; Sn: sensibilidade; Sp: especificidade; UTI: unidade de terapia intensiva; VCI: veia cava inferior; VExUS: venous excess ultrasound; VPN: valor preditivo negativo; VPP: valor preditivo positivo.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. Componentes do VExUS</title>
        <p>Para a an&#225;lise do VExUS, pode-se utilizar o transdutor setorial ou o convexo. &#201; necess&#225;rio reduzir o filtro e adequar a escala de velocidade para fluxos venosos. A sequ&#234;ncia passo a passo a seguir &#233; recomendada para cada um dos vasos estudados. Ela apresenta a melhor forma de obter as curvas de fluxo e mitigar poss&#237;veis erros de interpreta&#231;&#227;o. A gradua&#231;&#227;o final da congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica deve seguir o modelo proposto na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 15</xref>.</p>
        <fig id="f15">
          <label>Figura 15</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Gradua&#231;&#227;o do VExUS: quando o di&#226;metro da VCI &#233; maior do que 2 cm, tr&#234;s graus de congest&#227;o venosa s&#227;o definidos com base na gravidade das altera&#231;&#245;es encontradas no fluxo das veias supra-hep&#225;tica, porta e interlobar renal, que idealmente devem ser registrados em apneia expirat&#243;ria. VCI: veia cava inferior; VExUS: venous excess ultrasound. Adaptado de Koratala et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <sec>
          <title>Passo 1: An&#225;lise da veia cava inferior</title>
          <p>A an&#225;lise da VCI &#233; realizada preferencialmente pela janela subcostal, com o transdutor com &#237;ndex direcionado para as 12 horas. Nessa proje&#231;&#227;o, a VCI des&#225;gua no &#225;trio direito (AD) longitudinalmente. Uma alternativa menos ideal &#233; realizar a an&#225;lise da VCI pela linha axilar m&#233;dia, com o &#237;ndex tamb&#233;m direcionado &#224;s 12 horas (janela trans-hep&#225;tica). Essa &#250;ltima janela superestima, com alguma frequ&#234;ncia, as dimens&#245;es da VCI e, portanto, deve ser evitada.</p>
          <p>A medi&#231;&#227;o da VCI &#233; feita 2 cm antes da sua desembocadura no AD, com o paciente em apneia expirat&#243;ria. A veia supra-hep&#225;tica esquerda geralmente des&#225;gua pr&#243;ximo ao local da medi&#231;&#227;o, ent&#227;o &#233; preciso tomar cuidado para n&#227;o a incluir na medi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Caso a VCI tenha menos de 2 cm, considera-se que n&#227;o h&#225; congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica, o VExUS &#233; classificado em grau 0 (sem congest&#227;o) e n&#227;o h&#225; necessidade de analisar os demais componentes (veia supra-hep&#225;tica, veia porta e veia interlobar renal). Caso a VCI seja igual ou maior a 2 cm, pode haver evid&#234;ncia de congest&#227;o e deve-se prosseguir com a an&#225;lise dos demais componentes. A utiliza&#231;&#227;o desse par&#226;metro ajuda a eliminar poss&#237;veis falso-positivos de congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Passo 2: An&#225;lise da veia supra-hep&#225;tica ao Doppler pulsado</title>
          <p>A veia supra-hep&#225;tica pode ser avaliada pela janela subcostal ou pela via trans-hep&#225;tica (linha axilar m&#233;dia, com anterioriza&#231;&#227;o do transdutor para melhor visualiza&#231;&#227;o da imagem, caso necess&#225;rio). O Doppler colorido deve ser ajustado para velocidades de 30-40 cm/s. A veia analisada deve ser aquela mais alinhada verticalmente em rela&#231;&#227;o ao transdutor para facilitar a obten&#231;&#227;o dos fluxos.</p>
          <p>A veia supra-hep&#225;tica, por estar diretamente conectada a uma veia central (VCI), transmite toda a sua pulsatilidade por meio de quatro ondas ao Doppler pulsado:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup> a <bold>onda S</bold>, de padr&#227;o negativo e dominante, ocorre pelo relaxamento atrial direito e repuxamento do anel tric&#250;spide em dire&#231;&#227;o ao &#225;pice card&#237;aco durante a s&#237;stole ventricular; a <bold>onda V</bold>, nem sempre presente, em geral apresenta padr&#227;o positivo e ocorre quando o anel tric&#250;spide volta &#224; sua posi&#231;&#227;o inicial diast&#243;lica; a <bold>onda D</bold>, de padr&#227;o negativo, menos ampla que a onda S, corresponde &#224; abertura da valva tric&#250;spide e ao influxo do sangue do AD para o ventr&#237;culo direito; e a <bold>onda A</bold>, de padr&#227;o positivo, resulta da contratilidade atrial.</p>
          <p>A onda S ocorre imediatamente ap&#243;s a onda R do eletrocardiograma (ECG), a onda D ocorre ap&#243;s a onda T e a onda A tem correla&#231;&#227;o direta com a onda P do ECG, ausente em casos de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> Dessa maneira, &#233; de extrema import&#226;ncia utilizar o ECG para diferenciar os tipos de ondas venosas.</p>
          <p>A morfologia das ondas pode ser dividida em tr&#234;s tipos, de acordo com a PAD:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Normal (tipo 1): quando a onda S &#233; maior que a onda D.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>PAD aumentada (tipo 2): a onda S se torna menor que a onda D, j&#225; que o esvaziamento atrial ocorre predominantemente na di&#225;stole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>PAD muito aumentada (tipo 3): ocorre invers&#227;o da onda S, que adquire um padr&#227;o positivo, enquanto a onda D mant&#233;m um padr&#227;o negativo.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Passo 3: An&#225;lise da veia porta ao Doppler pulsado</title>
          <p>A an&#225;lise da veia porta &#233; realizada preferencialmente pela janela trans-hep&#225;tica (linha axilar m&#233;dia), com o &#237;ndex posicionado &#224;s 12 horas. A velocidade do Doppler colorido &#233; ajustada para 20-30 cm/s. Pode tamb&#233;m ser visualizada pela janela subcostal. Dessa maneira, a veia porta apresenta fluxo ascendente, cor vermelha ao Doppler colorido e padr&#227;o cont&#237;nuo ou levemente puls&#225;til. A veia porta tem paredes mais espessas e hiperecog&#234;nicas (e, portanto, mais brilhosas), o que a torna f&#225;cil de diferenciar das veias supra-hep&#225;ticas, que n&#227;o apresentam paredes vis&#237;veis, t&#234;m fluxo direcionado &#224; VCI e, portanto, s&#227;o visualizadas com colora&#231;&#227;o azulada.</p>
          <p>Por estar isolada da circula&#231;&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica central pelos vasos sinusoidais hep&#225;ticos, seu fluxo &#233; cont&#237;nuo ou levemente puls&#225;til, de car&#225;ter positivo associado &#224; contra&#231;&#227;o atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup> &#192; medida que a press&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica aumenta, os vasos sinusoidais se dilatam pela congest&#227;o e a pulsatilidade venosa passa a ser transmitida de forma mais intensa para a veia porta. Assim, quanto maior a congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica, maior &#233; a dilata&#231;&#227;o sinusoidal e, portanto, maior a pulsatilidade, cuja varia&#231;&#227;o &#233; dada pela fra&#231;&#227;o de pulsatilidade (fra&#231;&#227;o de pulsatilidade = velocidade de pico &#8211; velocidade m&#237;nima / velocidade de pico &#215; 100).</p>
          <p>Assim como nas veias supra-hep&#225;ticas, a PAD modifica a morfologia das ondas da veia porta ao Doppler pulsado, que podem ser classificadas em tr&#234;s tipos:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Normal (tipo 1): os vasos sinusoidais est&#227;o preservados, com oscila&#231;&#227;o do fluxo abaixo de 30%.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>PAD aumentada (tipo 2): ocorre dilata&#231;&#227;o dos vasos sinusoidais, com oscila&#231;&#227;o do fluxo entre 31 e 50%.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>PAD muito aumentada (tipo 3): h&#225; dilata&#231;&#227;o acentuada dos vasos sinusoidais, com importante transmissibilidade da pulsa&#231;&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica para a veia porta, com oscila&#231;&#227;o acima de 50%. A velocidade pode estar at&#233; mesmo abaixo da linha de base (negativa).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Passo 4: An&#225;lise da veia interlobar renal ao Doppler pulsado</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da veia interlobar renal &#233; de extrema import&#226;ncia na gradua&#231;&#227;o do VExUS, pois, de forma isolada, apresenta a maior correla&#231;&#227;o com a evolu&#231;&#227;o para insufici&#234;ncia renal em pacientes com congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica acentuada.</p>
          <p>Por ser um &#243;rg&#227;o encapsulado, o rim n&#227;o transmite a pulsatilidade das veias centrais, ent&#227;o o fluxo venoso observado geralmente &#233; cont&#237;nuo. Por&#233;m, &#224; medida que a congest&#227;o sist&#234;mica aumenta (nefropatia congestiva), ocorre edema intersticial, a complac&#234;ncia venosa diminui e o padr&#227;o do fluxo se torna bif&#225;sico ou, em casos mais acentuados, monof&#225;sico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Pela proximidade entre art&#233;rias e veias, o fluxo arterial parenquimatoso &#233; visualizado acima da linha de base, enquanto o fluxo venoso &#233; visualizado abaixo dela.</p>
          <p>&#201; importante n&#227;o confundir a veia renal, presente na regi&#227;o do hilo renal, com as veias intrarrenais, presentes na regi&#227;o cortical; a veia renal &#233; semelhante a uma veia central e, portanto, tem fluxo puls&#225;til. Esta &#233; uma causa frequente de erro.</p>
          <p>Para a identificar corretamente a veia interlobar, diminua a velocidade do Doppler colorido para 20 cm/s de modo visualizar melhor o fluxo e, assim, registr&#225;-lo na &#225;rea cortical renal.</p>
          <p>De acordo com a press&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica, o fluxo das veias interlobares pode dividido entre tr&#234;s tipos:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Normal (tipo 1): fluxo venoso cont&#237;nuo durante todo o ciclo card&#237;aco.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>PAD aumentada (tipo 2): fluxo venoso bif&#225;sico, com 1 pico sist&#243;lico e 1 pico diast&#243;lico.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>PAD muito aumentada (tipo 3): com o aumento da press&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica e consequente edema renal, apenas o pico diast&#243;lico &#233; observado, resultando em fluxo monof&#225;sico.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Para a obten&#231;&#227;o adequada dos fluxos no protocolo VExUS, recomenda-se a realiza&#231;&#227;o de apneia respirat&#243;ria sempre que poss&#237;vel.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Passo 5: Integra&#231;&#227;o dos dados e gradua&#231;&#227;o do VExUS</title>
          <p>Uma vez realizada a an&#225;lise passo a passo como descrito, os dados devem ser integrados para adequada gradua&#231;&#227;o do grau de congest&#227;o venosa visceral.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.4. Gradua&#231;&#227;o do VExUS</title>
        <p>A quantifica&#231;&#227;o do grau de congest&#227;o venosa visceral se baseia no estudo de Beaubien-Souligny et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> no qual foram validados cinco prot&#243;tipos de um sistema de grada&#231;&#227;o, denominado escore VExUS, em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de 145 pacientes no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca com rela&#231;&#227;o ao risco de desenvolver insufici&#234;ncia renal. Uma an&#225;lise <italic>post hoc</italic> desse estudo prospectivo unic&#234;ntrico identificou o prot&#243;tipo com melhor desempenho diagn&#243;stico. Isso levou &#224; proposta da classifica&#231;&#227;o em quatro graus de congest&#227;o venosa, baseada nas altera&#231;&#245;es encontradas nos componentes do VExUS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 15</xref>).</p>
        <p>O estudo incluiu pacientes em ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, o que expandiu a aplicabilidade pr&#225;tica do escore VExUS. &#201; importante ressaltar que, por si s&#243;, esse sistema de grada&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; capaz de diferenciar a congest&#227;o venosa visceral causada por sobrecarga vol&#234;mica da sobrecarga press&#243;rica. Os achados devem ser interpretados de forma conjunta, considerando o contexto cl&#237;nico e os demais achados do POCUS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.5. Aplica&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</title>
        <p>De modo geral, o escore VExUS n&#227;o deve ser interpretado de forma isolada ou considerado um substituto de uma anamnese cuidadosa e de um exame f&#237;sico convencional. Ainda assim, ele pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas para o manejo do paciente cr&#237;tico, sobretudo em patologias ou estados associados &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o venosa, que aumentam os riscos de congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica substancial, m&#225; perfus&#227;o tecidual e consequente disfun&#231;&#227;o renal.</p>
        <p>O VExUS desempenha um papel relevante no equil&#237;brio de fluidos. Embora n&#227;o apresente dados a respeito da necessidade de reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica, &#233; indicador fundamental de toler&#226;ncia &#224; fluidoterapia, identificando os casos em que a descontinuidade de ressuscita&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica ou a remo&#231;&#227;o de fluidos provavelmente ser&#225; ben&#233;fica, especialmente em abordagens complexas associadas &#224; les&#227;o renal aguda (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 16</xref>).</p>
        <fig id="f16">
          <label>Figura 16</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Algoritmo incorporando o POCUS ao manejo do paciente cr&#237;tico. LRA: les&#227;o renal aguda; VExUS: volume excess ultrasound. Adaptado de Bhardwaj et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> e Argaiz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>Em diversos contextos cl&#237;nicos, ensaios recentes t&#234;m demonstrado resultados promissores para o uso dessa ferramenta (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 5</xref>): predi&#231;&#227;o de risco de les&#227;o renal aguda no perioperat&#243;rio de cirurgias card&#237;acas; monitoramento de terapia descongestiva em pacientes com s&#237;ndrome cardiorrenal; avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado vol&#234;mico em hiponatremia complexa; avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de les&#227;o renal aguda em s&#237;ndromes coronarianas isqu&#234;micas; estimativa de PVC em crian&#231;as gravemente enfermas; avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado vol&#234;mico em quadros de hipertens&#227;o pulmonar, IC direita ou pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica (casos em que a PVC n&#227;o reflete adequadamente a pr&#233;-carga).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.6. Limita&#231;&#245;es e Armadilhas</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da congest&#227;o deve sempre iniciar com o estudo da VCI. No entanto, a avalia&#231;&#227;o isolada da VCI apresenta in&#250;meras limita&#231;&#245;es, a come&#231;ar pela correla&#231;&#227;o modesta com a PAD aferida em estudos de cateterismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a avalia&#231;&#227;o de sua colapsibilidade depende da capacidade inspirat&#243;ria do paciente e pode variar bastante com as condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas. Atletas e indiv&#237;duos jovens podem apresentar uma VCI persistentemente dilatada sem aumento da PAD, enquanto pacientes com press&#227;o intra-abdominal elevada podem ter a VCI colabada a despeito da PAD elevada. Al&#233;m disso, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da VCI apenas no eixo longo est&#225; sujeita ao efeito cilindro, que ocorre quando um feixe de ultrassom 2D atravessa uma estrutura 3D na periferia e n&#227;o no eixo central, o que pode levar &#224; subestima&#231;&#227;o do calibre.</p>
        <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o da veia supra-hep&#225;tica, a aus&#234;ncia do tra&#231;ado simult&#226;neo de ECG pode levar a erros de interpreta&#231;&#227;o importantes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> especialmente nas arritmias. O ritmo de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial pode causar uma redu&#231;&#227;o da onda S em pacientes com PAD normal, uma vez que a onda depende em parte do relaxamento atrial. Em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide ou hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar, pode-se observar a presen&#231;a cr&#244;nica do padr&#227;o com onda S menor que onda D ou onda S reversa, independentemente do status vol&#234;mico. A disfun&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito, causada pela redu&#231;&#227;o do rebaixamento do anel tric&#250;spide durante a s&#237;stole ventricular, tamb&#233;m pode reduzir ou at&#233; abolir a onda S.</p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o da veia porta tamb&#233;m apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> Indiv&#237;duos magros e com baixo &#237;ndice de massa corporal podem apresentar pulsatilidade elevada, mesmo com PAD normal. Em pacientes com hepatopatia cr&#244;nica, a curva espectral reflete altera&#231;&#245;es de press&#227;o locais mais do que as press&#245;es centrais, de modo que se observa fluxo puls&#225;til mesmo em pacientes euvol&#234;micos devido &#224; presen&#231;a de <italic>shunts</italic> porto-arteriais. Indiv&#237;duos com hipertens&#227;o portal podem apresentar fluxo reverso (hepatofugal), enquanto naqueles com cirrose hep&#225;tica, a curva pode permanecer aparentemente normal, a despeito de insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide (IT) e PAD elevada, devido ao aumento da resist&#234;ncia sinusoidal causado pela fibrose hep&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>Por fim, a principal limita&#231;&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o da veia interlobar renal &#233; a dificuldade t&#233;cnica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup> Os vasos intrarrenais t&#234;m calibres pequenos e frequentemente saem do plano de insona&#231;&#227;o &#224; medida que o rim se movimenta com a respira&#231;&#227;o. A realiza&#231;&#227;o da apneia ajuda, mas nem sempre &#233; poss&#237;vel, pois depende das condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas. Obesidade e dispneia podem impedir a obten&#231;&#227;o do tra&#231;ado ao Doppler. Al&#233;m disso, fatores que n&#227;o a PAD, como anormalidades renais estruturais e doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica, podem alterar a curva de fluxo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.7. Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>O escore VExUS tem demonstrado alta especificidade para o diagn&#243;stico de congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica e valor progn&#243;stico para les&#227;o renal aguda ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca. &#201; um m&#233;todo de f&#225;cil execu&#231;&#227;o por profissionais treinados e pode ser &#250;til no manejo cl&#237;nico de pacientes cr&#237;ticos.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. POCUS na Trombose Venosa Profunda</title>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A trombose venosa profunda (TVP) &#233; uma patologia vascular comum, podendo ocorrer em cerca de 30% dos pacientes hospitalizados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup> O TEP &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o da TVP e representa a terceira causa mais frequente de s&#237;ndrome cardiovascular aguda, atr&#225;s apenas do IAM e do acidente vascular encef&#225;lico. No Brasil, entre 2016 e 2020, ocorreram mais de 34.000 &#243;bitos por tromboembolismo venoso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> Na aus&#234;ncia de tratamento adequado, a mortalidade por TEP pode atingir 30%, sendo um dos achados insuspeitos de aut&#243;psias mais frequentes em pacientes cr&#237;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico r&#225;pido e acurado &#233; fundamental para o tratamento oportuno da TVP e a preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es. A Diretriz Conjunta sobre Tromboembolismo Venoso, publicada em 2022, foi uma for&#231;a-tarefa de sociedades m&#233;dicas brasileiras (DIC/SBC, CBR, SBACV e SBM) com o intuito de orientar o diagn&#243;stico de TVP e TEP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Na TVP ocorre a forma&#231;&#227;o de trombos em &#225;reas de fluxo venoso mais lento, com subsequente propaga&#231;&#227;o ao longo do l&#250;men do vaso. Na fase aguda ocorre uma resposta inflamat&#243;ria da parede venosa, com preenchimento total ou parcial do l&#250;men, acompanhado de sintomas cl&#237;nicos associados, como dor, edema e rubor do membro afetado. Por&#233;m, em cerca de 50% dos casos, os sinais cl&#237;nicos de TVP s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos, o que dificulta o diagn&#243;stico. Torna-se necess&#225;rio a realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames complementares para confirmar ou excluir o diagn&#243;stico de TVP. Em caso de suspeita de TVP, a Diretriz Brasileira de 2022 orienta a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do escore de Wells simplificado como modelo de predi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, associado &#224; dosagem do D-d&#237;mero e &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o da ultrassonografia vascular (USV).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A USV &#233; o exame de escolha na suspeita de TVP, pois fornece informa&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas e funcionais do sistema venoso, com as vantagens de n&#227;o ser invasivo, n&#227;o usar contraste nefrot&#243;xico, ser reprodut&#237;vel e ter baixo custo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Este cap&#237;tulo apresenta os diversos protocolos de POCUS para a investiga&#231;&#227;o de TVP. Com base nas orienta&#231;&#245;es da Diretriz Brasileira de 2022, recomenda-se a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do protocolo de compress&#227;o estendido, tamb&#233;m chamado de protocolo de compress&#227;o em tr&#234;s pontos (ultrassonografia de compress&#227;o [USC]).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup> Essa orienta&#231;&#227;o &#233; corroborada pelo &#250;ltimo Consenso Europeu da Sociedade de Medicina Intensiva e pela &#250;ltima Diretriz de Ultrassonografia em Emerg&#234;ncia do Col&#233;gio Americano de Emergencistas, sendo inclu&#237;da tamb&#233;m nos crit&#233;rios de certifica&#231;&#227;o em ultrassonografia em medicina intensiva do CHEST (<italic>Critical Care Ultrasonography Certificate of Completion Certificate of Completion Program - American College of Chest Physicians [chestnet.org</italic>]).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Evid&#234;ncias Cient&#237;ficas do POCUS na Pesquisa de Trombose Venosa Profunda</title>
        <p>Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; acur&#225;cia da USC &#224; beira do leito realizada por m&#233;dicos emergencistas, uma meta-an&#225;lise de Pomero et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> revelou sensibilidade de 96,1% (IC95%: 90,6&#8211;98,5%), e especificidade de 96,8% (IC95% 94,6&#8211;98,1%). Entretanto, os estudos inclu&#237;dos apresentaram grande heterogeneidade, provavelmente devido &#224; varia&#231;&#227;o no treinamento de alguns m&#233;dicos, &#224; presen&#231;a de tromboses distais ou intra-abdominais e &#224; inclus&#227;o de pacientes com biotipos dif&#237;ceis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No estudo de Garcia et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> a acur&#225;cia da USC no diagn&#243;stico de TVP em pacientes com suspeita cl&#237;nica elevada realizada na emerg&#234;ncia foi de 91,7% em compara&#231;&#227;o com o exame completo realizado por especialistas em at&#233; 48 horas. Com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; investiga&#231;&#227;o de TVP realizada por m&#233;dicos intensivistas com menos de 2 anos de experi&#234;ncia de US, o estudo de Kory et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup> encontrou acur&#225;cia de 95%. Al&#233;m disso, os autores relataram que o diagn&#243;stico foi estabelecido em m&#233;dia 13 horas antes daquele obtido por m&#233;dicos especialistas. Um estudo multic&#234;ntrico que avaliou a acur&#225;cia da USC realizada por m&#233;dicos emergencistas em pacientes com alta suspeita de TEP/TVP mostrou um valor preditivo negativo elevado (100%) e um valor preditivo positivo moderado (61,5%), com sensibilidade de 100% e especificidade de 95,8%, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o exame formal realizado por especialistas. Observou-se ainda uma redu&#231;&#227;o de cerca de 50% no tempo entre o POCUS e a US formal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Esses estudos demonstram, em diversos cen&#225;rios, a utilidade da USC no manejo de pacientes com suspeita de TVP em servi&#231;os de e em unidades de terapia intensiva. Al&#233;m disso, a rapidez com a qual esses exames s&#227;o realizados, em menos de 5 minutos, pode evitar ou reduzir exames completos desnecess&#225;rios, atrasos diagn&#243;sticos (especialmente em exames fora do hor&#225;rio comercial) e a indisponibilidade de profissionais especializados. Na compara&#231;&#227;o entre a USC de 2 e de 3 pontos em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; acur&#225;cia, em uma meta-an&#225;lise recente que incluiu 17 estudos, ambos os protocolos apresentaram &#243;timo desempenho, com sensibilidades e especificidades de cerca de 90% e taxas de falsos positivos e negativos de cerca de 4%. A acur&#225;cia foi maior quando os exames eram realizados pelos m&#233;dicos emergencistas em compara&#231;&#227;o com residentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por ser uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o menos frequente, as publica&#231;&#245;es que analisaram o POCUS para a investiga&#231;&#227;o de trombose em membros superiores nos servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia s&#227;o muito escassas e utilizam protocolos menos definidos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.3. T&#233;cnica do Protocolo de Ultrassonografia Focado para Pesquisa de Trombose Venosa Profunda</title>
        <p>A aplica&#231;&#227;o de protocolos mais concisos &#224; beira do leito, em contraste com o protocolo completo, apresenta vantagens em servi&#231;os de urg&#234;ncia e emerg&#234;ncia. A rapidez no diagn&#243;stico possibilita o in&#237;cio precoce do tratamento, o monitoramento cont&#237;nuo ajusta terapias conforme necess&#225;rio e a redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o resulta em recupera&#231;&#227;o mais r&#225;pida, o que beneficia os pacientes e os servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de.</p>
        <p>No entanto, &#233; preciso observar que, embora o POCUS proporcione benef&#237;cios substanciais, sua aplica&#231;&#227;o deve ser integrada ao contexto cl&#237;nico de forma adequada, levando em considera&#231;&#227;o as necessidades espec&#237;ficas de cada paciente e assegurando a confiabilidade dos resultados.</p>
        <p>Existem diversos tipos de equipamentos de ultrassonografia, desde dispositivos port&#225;teis at&#233; m&#225;quinas mais complexas e sofisticadas, com diferentes n&#237;veis de custo. O <xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Quadro 2</xref> resume as principais orienta&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do protocolo POCUS na investiga&#231;&#227;o de TVP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t12">
          <label>Quadro 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Sequ&#234;ncia de orienta&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do protocolo POCUS na investiga&#231;&#227;o de TVP</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Orienta&#231;&#245;es para o protocolo de exame POCUS na investiga&#231;&#227;o de TVP</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Conhe&#231;a previamente o equipamento dispon&#237;vel no setor.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Escolha o transdutor: (1) linear entre 5-10 MHz; (2) convexo entre 2-5 MHz (pode ser necess&#225;rio em pacientes obesos ou edemaciados)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Escolha o preset para exames venosos, quando dispon&#237;vel.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Aprenda o ajuste b&#225;sico da imagem bidimensional, como os controles de ganho, profundidade e foco.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Observe o &#237;ndex do transdutor, posicionando-o sempre relacionado ao marcador da tela do equipamento.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Tenha gel de acoplamento &#224; m&#227;o.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Registre as imagens para compara&#231;&#245;es evolutivas.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>O paciente deve ser posicionado, preferencialmente, em dec&#250;bito no pr&#243;prio leito, com a cabeceira elevada a 30&#176; se poss&#237;vel. A posi&#231;&#227;o mais adequada para o exame do membro inferior &#233; a rota&#231;&#227;o externa com leve flex&#227;o do joelho, o que possibilita a avalia&#231;&#227;o da regi&#227;o inguinal e da fossa popl&#237;tea sem a necessidade de reposicionar o membro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Tanto no protocolo de USC de dois quanto no de tr&#234;s pontos, deve-se avaliar, no modo de escala de cinzas, a presen&#231;a de material ecog&#234;nico intraluminal indicativo de trombo. &#201; fundamental realizar a t&#233;cnica de compress&#227;o com o transdutor posicionado de transversalmente sobre a veia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 17</xref> apresenta esquematicamente os protocolos de USC.</p>
        <fig id="f17">
          <label>Figura 17</label>
          <caption>
            <title>A: protocolo de exame de ultrassonografia de compress&#227;o estendido (tr&#234;s pontos); B: protocolo de exame de ultrassonografia de compress&#227;o (dois pontos).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>O protocolo de dois pontos consiste na avalia&#231;&#227;o da veia femoral comum e da veia popl&#237;tea. O exame inicia na regi&#227;o inguinal, abrangendo o segmento localizado de 1 a 2 cm acima e abaixo da jun&#231;&#227;o safenofemoral. Em seguida, realiza-se a avalia&#231;&#227;o na fossa popl&#237;tea, onde a veia corre paralela &#224; art&#233;ria popl&#237;tea, at&#233; a conflu&#234;ncia das veias da perna. O protocolo de tr&#234;s pontos avalia as veias femoral comum e popl&#237;tea da mesma maneira que no protocolo de dois pontos, mas incorpora a compress&#227;o da veia femoral nos segmentos proximal e m&#233;dio-distal da coxa.</p>
        <p>Independentemente do protocolo empregado, no &#226;mbito do POCUS, o diagn&#243;stico da TVP &#233; feito pela visualiza&#231;&#227;o do trombo (material ecog&#234;nico intraluminal) ou pela identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma &#225;rea de incompressibilidade na parede da veia. Na presen&#231;a de trombose aguda, &#233; comum que a incompressibilidade do vaso ocorra antes que o trombo esteja vis&#237;vel. Portanto, a fim de evitar resultados falsos negativos, &#233; crucial que a press&#227;o do transdutor para colabar a parede venosa n&#227;o seja excessivamente suave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f18">Figura 18</xref> apresenta a sequ&#234;ncia dos cortes ultrassonogr&#225;ficos no protocolo de compress&#227;o de tr&#234;s pontos (estendido).</p>
        <fig id="f18">
          <label>Figura 18</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Sequ&#234;ncia de cortes para o protocolo de ultrassonografia de compress&#227;o de tr&#234;s pontos (estendido).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">Figura 19</xref> exemplifica os achados ultrassonogr&#225;ficos em veias normais e em veias com sinais de trombose aguda, em rela&#231;&#227;o ao calibre venoso, &#224; compressibilidade venosa, &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas do l&#250;men venoso e &#224; ecogenicidade do trombo.</p>
        <fig id="f19">
          <label>Figura 19</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Achados ultrassonogr&#225;ficos nas veias normais e nas veias com sinais de trombose aguda.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>Os sinais e sintomas cl&#237;nicos associados ao evento tromb&#243;tico podem ser comuns a diversas outras condi&#231;&#245;es agudas ou cr&#244;nicas. Portanto, &#233; importante conhecer os diversos diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais, como cistos sinoviais (rotos ou n&#227;o), insufici&#234;ncia venosa cr&#244;nica, roturas e hematomas musculares, abscessos, linfadenomegalias, tumores e cisto de Baker, entre outros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
        <p>&#201; essencial que os profissionais de sa&#250;de se familiarizem com os dispositivos e t&#233;cnicas espec&#237;ficos empregados nos protocolos de POCUS que utilizam, garantindo a precis&#227;o e confiabilidade dos resultados obtidos no local de atendimento. Al&#233;m disso, a colabora&#231;&#227;o interdisciplinar e a forma&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua representam elementos fundamentais para a implementa&#231;&#227;o bem-sucedida desses protocolos de investiga&#231;&#227;o da TVP.</p>
        <p>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o: O POCUS para a investiga&#231;&#227;o de TVP proximal, realizado por profissionais devidamente treinados, em situa&#231;&#245;es de urg&#234;ncia e emerg&#234;ncia, possui Grau de recomenda&#231;&#227;o I e N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>6. POCUS no Paciente em Choque Circulat&#243;rio</title>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O choque &#233; um estado de insufici&#234;ncia circulat&#243;ria generalizada grave que leva &#224; oferta inadequada de oxig&#234;nio aos tecidos. Os perfis hemodin&#226;micos b&#225;sicos do choque podem ser divididos em: hipovol&#234;mico, cardiog&#234;nico, obstrutivo e distributivo. Os perfis possuem tratamentos diversos e, portanto, exigem rapidez diagn&#243;stica e terap&#234;utica. O POCUS &#233; o m&#233;todo de escolha na avalia&#231;&#227;o e monitoriza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica inicial do paciente em choque circulat&#243;rio. A t&#233;cnica permite o diagn&#243;stico do perfil hemodin&#226;mico do choque em at&#233; 2 minutos, mesmo quando realizado por n&#227;o especialistas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O foco principal de quem ainda se encontra na fase inicial do treinamento deve ser a avalia&#231;&#227;o qualitativa das imagens. A tomada de decis&#245;es com base em medidas objetivas, sem profici&#234;ncia suficiente para tal, pode comprometer o manejo diagn&#243;stico e terap&#234;utico do paciente.</p>
        <p>Alguns autores propuseram protocolos para ultrassonografia &#224; beira do leito em casos de parada card&#237;aca (protocolo FEER, PEA, CASA),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> choque (protocolos UHP, Trinity, RUSH, FATE, EGLS)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> ou insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria (protocolo BLUE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O objetivo deste cap&#237;tulo &#233; apresentar um algoritmo diagn&#243;stico para o choque circulat&#243;rio baseado no POCUS, semelhante ao protocolo EGLS (adaptado), que possa ser realizado &#224; beira do leito por profissionais n&#227;o especialistas em imagem, atuantes em servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia e/ou medicina intensiva.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.2. Protocolos Diagn&#243;sticos</title>
        <p>Este cap&#237;tulo apresenta uma abordagem que integra os conceitos do protocolo BLUE, do POCUS card&#237;aco e dos protocolos EFAST<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> e EGLS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Dada a rela&#231;&#227;o estreita entre a &#225;gua extravascular pulmonar, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e status vol&#234;mico em estados de choque, a combina&#231;&#227;o da ultrassonografia pulmonar e card&#237;aca com o exame EFAST oferece uma vantagem adicional em rela&#231;&#227;o ao uso isolado do POCUS card&#237;aco ou do EFAST em pacientes com choque indiferenciado.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.3. Perguntas Chave para Identificar o Tipo de Choque</title>
        <p>Prop&#245;e-se, em conjunto com os achados ultrassonogr&#225;ficos correspondentes e com o tratamento impl&#237;cito, uma sequ&#234;ncia de cinco perguntas com o objetivo de identificar e tratar rapidamente patologias que apresentam uma "assinatura ultrassonogr&#225;fica" caracter&#237;stica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figura 20</xref>):</p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>H&#225; tamponamento?</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>O paciente est&#225; hipovol&#234;mico?</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Em caso de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda deficiente, ela &#233; a principal causa do choque?</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>H&#225; sinais de distens&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito?</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>H&#225; pneumot&#243;rax?</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <fig id="f20">
          <label>Figura 20</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Protocolo EGLS adaptado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> DHE: dist&#250;rbio hidroeletrol&#237;tico; CATE: cateterismo card&#237;aco.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>Discutiremos abaixo cada uma das perguntas sugeridas.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>a. H&#225; tamponamento?</title>
          <p>Deve-se investigar a presen&#231;a de derrame peric&#225;rdico moderado a importante, VCI dilatada e com m&#237;nima varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria em di&#226;metro, colapso diast&#243;lico das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas e <italic>swinging heart.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A fisiologia do tamponamento &#233; sugerida por um derrame peric&#225;rdico que causa colapso atrial ou ventricular direito durante a di&#225;stole. Observa-se um movimento pendular do cora&#231;&#227;o na presen&#231;a de um derrame maci&#231;o (um <italic>swinging heart</italic> ou "cora&#231;&#227;o oscilante"). O tamponamento &#233; associado a uma press&#227;o venosa central elevada, demonstrada na janela subcostal por uma VCI plet&#243;rica (20 mm) e sem varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria.</p>
          <p>Esses achados s&#227;o discutidos em mais detalhes na Se&#231;&#227;o 4 do Cap&#237;tulo 2 (POCUS no tamponamento card&#237;aco).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>b. O paciente est&#225; hipovol&#234;mico?</title>
          <p>Deve-se investigar o ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com padr&#227;o hiperdin&#226;mico/hipovol&#234;mico (<italic>kissing walls</italic>) ou VCI fina (&#8804;10 mm) ou com colabamento ao longo do ciclo respirat&#243;rio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em casos de choque hipovol&#234;mico, espera-se encontrar pulm&#245;es limpos (ou seja, sem linhas B) associados a um VE hiperdin&#226;mico e a uma VCI colaps&#225;vel. Al&#233;m disso, &#233; importante investigar as poss&#237;veis etiologias do choque hipovol&#234;mico, de modo que o exame EFAST deve ser considerado.</p>
          <p>Estudos demonstram que uma VCI pequena (di&#226;metro inferior a 10 mm) est&#225; correlacionada com hipovolemia em pacientes com trauma. Logo, varia&#231;&#245;es respirat&#243;rias substanciais ou colapso da VCI em pacientes em choque s&#227;o sempre indicativos de poss&#237;vel hipovolemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> especialmente quando associados a um VE hiperdin&#226;mico.</p>
          <p>&#201; importante lembrar que, nas fases iniciais da sepse, o paciente pode apresentar com esse perfil hiperdin&#226;mico. Assim, &#233; preciso considerar a sepse como etiologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>c. Em caso de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda deficiente, ela &#233; a principal causa do choque?</title>
          <p>Deve-se investigar a presen&#231;a de disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica importante do VE e sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar e venosa sist&#234;mica.</p>
          <p>Para que a etiologia do choque seja cardiog&#234;nica pura, &#233; necess&#225;rio que haja uma disfun&#231;&#227;o importante do VE. Normalmente, esses pacientes tamb&#233;m apresentam sinais de congest&#227;o pulmonar (padr&#227;o B na USP) e/ou venosa sist&#234;mica (dilata&#231;&#227;o da VCI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A s&#237;ndrome intersticial pulmonar &#233; definida pela presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ou mais linhas B na largura de um &#250;nico espa&#231;o intercostal, o chamado perfil B. Esse padr&#227;o pode representar edema pulmonar cardiog&#234;nico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> mas n&#227;o &#233; espec&#237;fico para essa patologia. Tamb&#233;m est&#225; presente em outras doen&#231;as intersticiais,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> como fibrose pulmonar, SDRA e contus&#245;es pulmonares. O perfil B sugere origem cardiog&#234;nica quando apresenta distribui&#231;&#227;o homog&#234;nea, bilateral e dependente da gravidade, ou seja, &#233; mais acentuado nas regi&#245;es basais do que nas superiores do pulm&#227;o.</p>
          <p>&#201; improv&#225;vel que um choque cardiog&#234;nico puro seja a causa prim&#225;ria da instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica na presen&#231;a de um padr&#227;o pulmonar normal &#224; ultrassonografia. Isso sugere que a administra&#231;&#227;o de fluidos provavelmente &#233; segura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O conhecimento pr&#233;vio do padr&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fico e pulmonar tamb&#233;m pode auxiliar na interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos achados subsequentes, pois um VE com disfun&#231;&#227;o associado a um padr&#227;o pulmonar normal sugere a presen&#231;a de comorbidades card&#237;acas (ou seja, fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda cronicamente deprimida) e n&#227;o choque cardiog&#234;nico puro, principalmente na presen&#231;a de uma VCI pequena.</p>
          <p>Por outro lado, em casos de choque misto (cardiog&#234;nico e distributivo) em um paciente com disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica associada &#224; sepse, pode haver uma disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca aparentemente discreta associada a um estado vasopl&#233;gico ou hipovol&#234;mico, o que explica a ocorr&#234;ncia do choque na aus&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o importante do VE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> &#201; preciso lembrar que um cora&#231;&#227;o normal se apresenta discretamente hiperdin&#226;mico em um quadro de choque s&#233;ptico, dada a redu&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica. Caso um ventr&#237;culo tenha fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica lim&#237;trofe durante o choque s&#233;ptico, deve-se considerar a possibilidade de disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica preexistente ou nova por disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica da sepse, que pode estar mascarada pela baixa resist&#234;ncia vascular. Nesses pacientes, a disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica pode se tornar mais evidente ap&#243;s o aumento da dose de vasopressor.</p>
          <p>Uma condi&#231;&#227;o que pode cursar com choque e VE hiperdin&#226;mico &#233; a regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral aguda grave, como observado na ruptura de uma corda tend&#237;nea. Profissionais n&#227;o especialistas e com experi&#234;ncia limitada na t&#233;cnica Doppler podem interpretar essa condi&#231;&#227;o erroneamente como hipovolemia. No entanto, em contraste com a hipovolemia, a regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral aguda grave provavelmente estaria associada a um perfil B e a uma VCI menos complacente (pois associada a press&#245;es de enchimento mais elevadas). Nesse exemplo, como mencionado anteriormente, os achados da USP podem influenciar a interpreta&#231;&#227;o do POCUS card&#237;aco. Sugere-se que, na presen&#231;a dessa suspeita, seja solicitada avalia&#231;&#227;o por um especialista em imagem (ecocardiografista).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>d. H&#225; sinais de distens&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo direito?</title>
          <p>Deve-se investigar sinais de dilata&#231;&#227;o moderada a importante das c&#226;maras direitas e aplainamento do septo interventricular (<italic>D-shape</italic>).</p>
          <p>Em caso de choque obstrutivo, a VCI encontra-se dilatada. A dilata&#231;&#227;o (superior a 20 mm) e a perda da variabilidade respirat&#243;ria na VCI sugerem press&#227;o venosa central elevada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Se a causa do choque obstrutivo for <italic>cor pulmonale</italic> agudo, &#233; obrigat&#243;ria a presen&#231;a de sinais de dilata&#231;&#227;o das c&#226;maras direitas e aplainamento do septo interventricular (<italic>D-shape</italic>). Nessa condi&#231;&#227;o, o VE adquire o formato em "D" na janela paraesternal transversal (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> A janela A4C &#233; a melhor forma de avaliar a propor&#231;&#227;o VD/VE, o que permite estimar a gravidade do <italic>cor pulmonale</italic>:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><italic>Cor pulmonale</italic> leve: VD &gt; 60% do VE;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><italic>Cor pulmonale</italic> moderado: VD = VE;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><italic>Cor pulmonale</italic> grave: VD &gt; VE.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>e. H&#225; pneumot&#243;rax?<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></title>
          <p>Deve-se investigar a aus&#234;ncia de deslizamento pleural e a presen&#231;a de <italic>lung point</italic> (ponto pulmonar).A presen&#231;a de deslizamento pulmonar exclui o pneumot&#243;rax na regi&#227;o examinada e requer treinamento m&#237;nimo para ser reconhecido. Embora n&#227;o seja espec&#237;fica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f20">Figura 20</xref>), a aus&#234;ncia do deslizamento pleural, no contexto apropriado, pode ser altamente sugestiva de pneumot&#243;rax. O ponto pulmonar, descrito no cap&#237;tulo sobre USP, representa o achado mais espec&#237;fico para esse diagn&#243;stico.</p>
          <p>A aus&#234;ncia de ponto pulmonar n&#227;o exclui a presen&#231;a de pneumot&#243;rax. Na presen&#231;a de pneumot&#243;rax circunferencial, esse sinal n&#227;o est&#225; presente. A presen&#231;a de padr&#227;o B exclui a possibilidade de pneumot&#243;rax na regi&#227;o examinada.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6.4. Fluido-Responsividade e Fluido-Toler&#226;ncia</title>
        <p>Dependendo do tipo de choque prov&#225;vel, outras informa&#231;&#245;es complementares podem ser realizadas. Estas dependem do grau de experi&#234;ncia do examinador e da causa prov&#225;vel do choque.</p>
        <p>Apesar das diferentes metodologias e defini&#231;&#245;es presentes na literatura, a concep&#231;&#227;o mais aceita de fluido-responsividade (FR) &#233; o aumento do d&#233;bito card&#237;aco (DC) maior que 10-15% induzido pelo aumento da pr&#233;-carga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4.1. Estimativa do D&#233;bito Card&#237;aco</title>
          <p>O principal componente da estimativa de DC pelo POCUS card&#237;aco &#233; a TVI da VSVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> O conceito &#233; abordado na Se&#231;&#227;o 2 do cap&#237;tulo sobre POCUS card&#237;aco avan&#231;ado. O valor normal da TVI da VSVE situa-se em torno de 18 a 22 cm para pacientes com frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca entre 55 e 95 bpm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> Se o paciente apresenta fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica normal e TVI baixa, deve-se suspeitar choque hipovol&#234;mico. Caso o paciente apresente fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica normal e TVI elevada, deve-se considerar o choque distributivo. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da TVI da VSVE tamb&#233;m &#233; descrita na se&#231;&#227;o sobre avalia&#231;&#227;o da FR, a seguir.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4.2. Veia Cava Inferior/Superior</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o do di&#226;metro m&#225;ximo e da variabilidade da VCI pode ser utilizada para a estimativa da PAD e de FR. Para a estimativa da PAD, a VCI tem maior acur&#225;cia nos pacientes em ventila&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Para a estimativa de FR, os &#237;ndices baseados na variabilidade da VCI em pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica controlada, sem esfor&#231;o respirat&#243;rio, com volumes correntes e PEEP pr&#243;ximos do normal, apresentaram boa acur&#225;cia nos estudos iniciais (90%). Contudo, esse desempenho n&#227;o se confirmou nas publica&#231;&#245;es posteriores (acur&#225;cia de 65%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> A acur&#225;cia da VCS (acur&#225;cia de 75%) teve desempenho superior ao da VCI na predi&#231;&#227;o da FR. Contudo, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da VCS exige a realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiografia esof&#225;gica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> Em pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea, estudos mostram que a acur&#225;cia da VCI tamb&#233;m tem baixa acur&#225;cia, com especificidade maior do que sensibilidade.</p>
          <p>Assim, &#233; poss&#237;vel afirmar que a avalia&#231;&#227;o da VCI pode contribuir para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado vol&#234;mico e da FR, sobretudo nos casos mais extremos:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Muito fina (&#8804;10 mm) ou em colabamento &#10132; prov&#225;vel fluido-responsividade e fluido-toler&#226;ncia;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Dilatada (&gt;25 mm) e com varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria m&#237;nima &#10132; prov&#225;vel n&#227;o fluido-responsividade e n&#227;o fluido-toler&#226;ncia.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>A varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria da VCI &#233; frequentemente alterada em pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, portadores de cirrose e em doen&#231;as pulmonares cr&#244;nicas, e deve ser interpretada com cautela. Embora a varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria da VCI possa ser um bom preditor de FR em pacientes hipotensos sob ventila&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica, uma VCI plet&#243;rica sem varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria, por si s&#243;, n&#227;o contraindica a administra&#231;&#227;o de fluidos. A aus&#234;ncia de varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria deve ser interpretada com cuidado e considerada &#224; luz do contexto cl&#237;nico, pois, assim como valores elevados de PVC, n&#227;o implica necessariamente falta de fluido-responsividade.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4.3. Manobra de Eleva&#231;&#227;o Passiva dos Membros &#8211; Passive Leg Raising</title>
          <p>Entre os par&#226;metros de avalia&#231;&#227;o da FR com POCUS, o <italic>passive leg raising</italic> (PLR &#8211; eleva&#231;&#227;o passiva dos membros) &#233; o mais estudado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> A manobra consiste em medir a TVI da VSVE com o paciente em dec&#250;bito com o tronco elevado a 45&#176; e as pernas estendidas sobre o leito. Em seguida, abaixa-se a cabeceira do paciente para 0&#176;, eleva-se os membros inferiores a 45&#176; e mede-se a TVI cerca de 1 minuto ap&#243;s a eleva&#231;&#227;o dos membros inferiores. Essas manobras devem ser realizadas de forma passiva, por meio do ajuste da inclina&#231;&#227;o da maca e n&#227;o pela movimenta&#231;&#227;o ativa do paciente. Um aumento maior ou igual a 10% da TVI provocado pelo PLR &#233; capaz de prever o aumento do DC ap&#243;s infus&#227;o vol&#234;mica com acur&#225;cia de 84%, conforme estudos mais recentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Contudo, a estimativa da TVI da VSVE est&#225; sujeita a variabilidade intraobservador e interobservador. Um estudo recente em pacientes de UTI mostrou que para um mesmo avaliador, duas medidas realizadas em tempos diferentes, sem deslocar o transdutor do ponto de insona&#231;&#227;o no t&#243;rax do paciente, a variabilidade na medida da TVI da VSVE foi de cerca de 11% (5 a 18%). Quando as duas medidas foram realizadas por profissionais diferentes, a variabilidade aumentou para 14% (8 a 26%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> Assim, &#233; preciso muita cautela na tomada de decis&#245;es terap&#234;utica baseadas nesse par&#226;metro como estimativa de FR. Uma diferen&#231;a entre as estimativas antes e ap&#243;s a manobra que esteja pr&#243;xima do valor de variabilidade intraobservador (11%) pode representar um falso positivo. Logo, quando ocorre uma varia&#231;&#227;o mais significativa da TVI induzida pela manobra (&gt;20%), &#233; mais prov&#225;vel que o paciente realmente seja fluido-responsivo.</p>
          <p>Uma vantagem do PLR &#233; que pode ser realizado em pacientes sob ventila&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea ou mec&#226;nica, com ou sem esfor&#231;o respirat&#243;rio, mesmo com volume corrente baixo. Todavia, a manobra requer maior experi&#234;ncia por parte do examinador para que as medidas da TVI tenham rapidez e precis&#227;o. Recomenda-se calcular a m&#233;dia de tr&#234;s ou mais medidas obtidas ao final da expira&#231;&#227;o em pacientes em ritmo sinusal e a m&#233;dia de cinco ou mais medidas em pacientes com fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> Alguns fatores prejudicam a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do PLR: hipertens&#227;o intra-abdominal, impossibilidade de mobiliza&#231;&#227;o dos membros inferiores (por exemplo, devido a fraturas), trombose dos membros inferiores e hipertens&#227;o intracraniana.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4.4. Manobra da Pausa Expirat&#243;ria e Inspirat&#243;ria</title>
          <p>Estudos identificaram que uma pausa expirat&#243;ria de 12 a 15 segundos est&#225; associada a um aumento da TVI ou do DC em pacientes fluido-responsivos, enquanto uma pausa inspirat&#243;ria de 12 a 15 segundos est&#225; associada &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o da TVI ou do DC no mesmo tipo de paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Essa avalia&#231;&#227;o pode ser realizada por ultrassonografia ou com o uso de outro equipamento de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do DC. Todavia, como a margem de varia&#231;&#227;o do DC para detectar a resposta &#224; manobra est&#225; pr&#243;xima da margem da variabilidade intraobservador das medidas realizadas com POCUS, sugere-se utilizar uma estrat&#233;gia integrada que combine a pausa expirat&#243;ria e a inspirat&#243;ria.</p>
          <p>A soma da varia&#231;&#227;o absoluta de 13% ou mais da TVI da VSVE, com as manobras combinadas de teste de oclus&#227;o expirat&#243;ria final (TOEF) e teste de oclus&#227;o inspirat&#243;ria final (TOIF), com dura&#231;&#227;o aproximada de 12 a 15 segundos cada, apresentou acur&#225;cia de 93% para a predi&#231;&#227;o de FR. Contudo, essa avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o deve ser realizada por profissionais com pouca experi&#234;ncia.</p>
          <p>&#201; importante refor&#231;ar que nenhum par&#226;metro de estimativa de FR &#233; perfeito. Diversos fatores podem interferir na sua acur&#225;cia, sejam eles relacionados ao paciente, ao equipamento ou ao operador.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, nem todo paciente fluido-responsivo &#233; fluido-tolerante. A decis&#227;o de ofertar fluidos deve sempre considerar s riscos individualizados do choque e da hipoxemia e congest&#227;o para o paciente espec&#237;fico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A fluido-toler&#226;ncia (FT) &#233; a capacidade do organismo de receber uma infus&#227;o de fluidos sem evoluir com disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica. A FT pode ser avaliada por meio de USP para a pesquisa de linhas B (congest&#227;o pulmonar) e do protocolo VExUS (congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica). O protocolo VExUS, sua metodologia e sua interpreta&#231;&#227;o est&#227;o descritos na Se&#231;&#227;o 4 deste posicionamento. Para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de FT, pode-se utilizar esse protocolo da seguinte forma:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>VExUS 0 e 1 (sem congest&#227;o significativa): fluido-tolerantes;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>VExUS 2 e 3 (congest&#227;o significativa): fluido-intolerantes.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Uma vez que o paciente &#233; identificado como fluido-responsivo, &#233; poss&#237;vel prosseguir com a infus&#227;o de fluidos, monitorando a resposta pela USP e o protocolo VExUS, conforme o fluxograma a seguir (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figura 21</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f21">
            <label>Figura 21</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Abordagem integrada de fluido-responsividade e fluido-toler&#226;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>O m&#233;dico que atende o paciente &#224; beira do leito deve sempre utilizar as informa&#231;&#245;es obtidas pelo POCUS para auxiliar seu racioc&#237;nio e integr&#225;-las &#224;s informa&#231;&#245;es colhidas com a anamnese, exame f&#237;sico e demais exames.</p>
          <p>Considerando todos os t&#243;picos discutidos neste cap&#237;tulo, recomenda-se o uso de um algoritmo inicial para a abordagem do choque circulat&#243;rio, com base nas informa&#231;&#245;es obtidas pelo POCUS, que podem ser complementadas de acordo com o grau de experi&#234;ncia do observador (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f22">Figura 22</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f22">
            <label>Figura 22</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Algoritmo diagn&#243;stico inicial do choque circulat&#243;rio baseado no POCUS. VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; VCI: veia cava inferior; VTI; integral da velocidade no tempo; VCI: veia cava inferior; Eco TT: ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico; Rx: radiografia; MNM: marcador de necrose mioc&#225;rdica; PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica de art&#233;ria pulmonar; TAC: tempo de acelera&#231;&#227;o pulmonar; PAPm: press&#227;o m&#233;dia de art&#233;ria pulmonar; TAPSE: excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica do plano do anel tric&#250;spide; FAC: varia&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea fracional; TC: tomografia computadorizada; VExUS: <italic>venous excess ultrasound score</italic>; PLAPS: <italic>posterolateral alveolar and/or pleural syndrome</italic>. Adaptado dos protocolos EGLS, BLUE e EFAST.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>7. POCUS no Suporte Circulat&#243;rio Mec&#226;nico de Curto Prazo</title>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>7.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O choque cardiog&#234;nico (CC) &#233; caracterizado por disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca que leva &#224; hipoperfus&#227;o e &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o dos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo. A causa mais comum de CC &#233; o IAM. Apesar dos avan&#231;os na revasculariza&#231;&#227;o precoce, a incid&#234;ncia de CC associado a IAM permanece entre 6,5 e 10,1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref></sup> Outras causas comuns incluem a piora da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular pr&#233;via e a disfun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca. O CC est&#225; associado a mortalidade elevada, com uma taxa estimada de mortalidade hospitalar de 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup> A terapia cl&#237;nica isolada muitas vezes n&#227;o &#233; suficiente, tornando necess&#225;rio o uso de suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico de curto prazo (SCMCP).</p>
        <p>Os dispositivos de SCMCP podem fornecer suporte hemodin&#226;mico em dois cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos: (1) durante procedimentos card&#237;acos de alto risco em pacientes com baixo DC e (2) em CC decorrente de fal&#234;ncia ventricular esquerda ou direita. Dispositivos de SCMCP, incluindo bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico (BIA), oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venoarterial (ECMO-VA) e dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular percut&#226;nea (DAVP) Impella<sup>&#174;</sup>, oferecem suporte vital para pacientes com CC. Al&#233;m disso, os dispositivos Impella<sup>&#174;</sup> podem auxiliar na redu&#231;&#227;o da carga ventricular esquerda durante a ECMO-VA. Um estudo recente mostrou o benef&#237;cio do uso de Impella<sup>&#174;</sup> comparado &#224; terapia m&#233;dica padr&#227;o em pacientes com CC relacionado ao infarto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Os principais objetivos dos dispositivos de SCMCP s&#227;o fornecer suporte circulat&#243;rio e reduzir a disfun&#231;&#227;o dos &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo no contexto de DC inadequado.</p>
        <p>O POCUS revolucionou o diagn&#243;stico e o manejo &#224; beira do leito em diversos cen&#225;rios m&#233;dicos. Sua aplica&#231;&#227;o no SCMCP &#233; particularmente not&#225;vel devido &#224; natureza cr&#237;tica dos pacientes que necessitam desse tipo de interven&#231;&#227;o. A integra&#231;&#227;o do POCUS ao manejo desses pacientes fornece informa&#231;&#245;es em tempo real e n&#227;o invasivas que s&#227;o cruciais para a tomada de decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas oportunas e eficazes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.2. O Papel do POCUS no Suporte Circulat&#243;rio Mec&#226;nico de Curto Prazo</title>
        <p>O POCUS &#233; uma ferramenta inestim&#225;vel e seu uso &#233; recomendado para cl&#237;nicos que manejam pacientes em SCMCP. A t&#233;cnica fornece <italic>feedback</italic> visual imediato sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, o posicionamento do dispositivo e poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es. Seu papel abrange diversos aspectos, incluindo a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial do paciente, a coloca&#231;&#227;o do dispositivo e o monitoramento cont&#237;nuo.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Inicial do Paciente</title>
        <p>No contexto do SCMCP, a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial &#233; fundamental para determinar a adequa&#231;&#227;o do seu emprego e para planejar a interven&#231;&#227;o. O POCUS permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, do estado vol&#234;mico e de outros par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos. Por exemplo, em pacientes com CC, a ecocardiografia permite avaliar rapidamente a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e direita, anormalidades valvares e a presen&#231;a de derrame peric&#225;rdico. Essas informa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o essenciais para decidir o tipo e a urg&#234;ncia do suporte mec&#226;nico (SM) necess&#225;rio.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.4. Coloca&#231;&#227;o e Confirma&#231;&#227;o da Posi&#231;&#227;o do Dispositivo</title>
        <p>O posicionamento correto do dispositivo de SM &#233; essencial para a sua efic&#225;cia e para evitar complica&#231;&#245;es. O POCUS desempenha um papel importante na orienta&#231;&#227;o e na confirma&#231;&#227;o do posicionamento de dispositivos como BIA, c&#226;nulas de ECMO e DAVP.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.5. Bal&#227;o Intra-A&#243;rtico</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>7.5.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Embora diretrizes mais recentes da Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia (ESC) para IC n&#227;o recomendem o uso rotineiro de BIA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup> ele continua a ser o dispositivo de suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico percut&#226;neo de curto prazo mais utilizado, com mais de 60.000 implantes realizados por ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup> O cateter do BIA geralmente &#233; inserido atrav&#233;s da art&#233;ria femoral ou, com menos frequ&#234;ncia, pelas art&#233;rias axilar ou subcl&#225;via. Na abordagem femoral, o cateter &#233; avan&#231;ado retrogradamente pela aorta descendente at&#233; que a extremidade esteja posicionada logo distalmente &#224; art&#233;ria subcl&#225;via esquerda (ASCE). O BIA funciona por contrapulsa&#231;&#227;o na aorta tor&#225;cica descendente, com insufla&#231;&#227;o durante a di&#225;stole e desinsufla&#231;&#227;o durante a s&#237;stole. Esse mecanismo reduz a p&#243;s-carga do VE na s&#237;stole e melhora a perfus&#227;o coronariana na di&#225;stole. A ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica (ETE) apresenta vantagens em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; fluoroscopia, pois permite a visualiza&#231;&#227;o em tempo real das estruturas, &#233; port&#225;til, n&#227;o utiliza radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante e tamb&#233;m permite avaliar tanto as indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso do BIA quanto as suas poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es. Al&#233;m disso, a ETE permite excluir contraindica&#231;&#245;es prim&#225;rias antes da inser&#231;&#227;o, como regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica (RA) e dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica.</p>
          <p>A ecocardiografia tamb&#233;m pode ser utilizada para monitorar a resposta ao BIA. Ntalianis et al. demonstraram, por meio da ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica, que pacientes tratados com BIA apresentaram remodelamento reverso do VD e melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> Quando usado em conjunto com a ECMO-VA para CC, o BIA diminui marginalmente a p&#243;s-carga do VE, aumenta a pulsatilidade do fluxo na aorta, ajuda a prevenir a distens&#227;o do VE e pode reduz o edema pulmonar hidrost&#225;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup> O posicionamento adequado do BIA &#233; fundamental para a sua efic&#225;cia e para prevenir complica&#231;&#245;es, como isquemia de membros e dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.5.2. Sequ&#234;ncia de Exames de Ecocardiografia Transesof&#225;gica para Orientar a Inser&#231;&#227;o do Bal&#227;o Intra-A&#243;rtico</title>
          <p>Uma ETE abrangente deve ser realizada primeiro, seguida de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o direcionada da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica, raiz a&#243;rtica, aorta ascendente, arco a&#243;rtico e aorta descendente para excluir ateromas, dilata&#231;&#227;o aneurism&#225;tica e dissec&#231;&#227;o. A v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica deve ser avaliada nos planos do eixo longo e eixo curto ao n&#237;vel do es&#244;fago m&#233;dio e qualquer grau de RA deve ser documentado. Em seguida, confirma-se a presen&#231;a do fio-guia na aorta descendente e, por meio da visualiza&#231;&#227;o em eixo curto da aorta descendente, identifica-se a extremidade do bal&#227;o. Ainda nesse plano, pode-se estimar a dist&#226;ncia entre a extremidade do bal&#227;o e a origem da ASCE. Fixa-se a ponta dos dedos ao n&#237;vel dos dentes do paciente e, a partir desse ponto, retira-se gradualmente a sonda at&#233; o aparecimento da ASCE. A dist&#226;ncia entre os dedos do ecocardiografista e os dentes do paciente corresponde &#224; dist&#226;ncia entre a extremidade do bal&#227;o e a origem da ASCE. A seguir, o cateter pode ser avan&#231;ado para a dist&#226;ncia apropriada, garantindo que a extremidade do BIA seja visualizada cerca de 2 cm distal &#224; origem da ASCE.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.5.3. Lista de Verifica&#231;&#227;o P&#243;s-Implanta&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Determine a presen&#231;a de complica&#231;&#245;es como les&#227;o a&#243;rtica, ruptura de placa de ateroma, trombose ou tromboembolismo e ruptura do bal&#227;o;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avalie a efic&#225;cia do BIA: dimens&#245;es do VE, fun&#231;&#227;o, TVI da VSVE;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avalie a melhoria do fluxo coronariano usando Doppler colorido/PW, indicada por um aumento da velocidade diast&#243;lica com a insufla&#231;&#227;o do bal&#227;o.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.6. Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por Membrana Extracorp&#243;rea Venoarterial (ECMO-VA)</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>7.6.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>A ECMO &#233; uma forma cr&#237;tica de suporte &#224; vida utilizada em pacientes com IC e insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria grave. A ecocardiografia, e particularmente o POCUS, tem um papel multifacetado na ECMO, abrangendo sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes, orienta&#231;&#227;o da canula&#231;&#227;o, monitoramento hemodin&#226;mico e detec&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es. Esta se&#231;&#227;o explora cada um desses pap&#233;is, enfatizando a import&#226;ncia da ecocardiografia e do POCUS em otimizar a terapia com ECMO e potencialmente melhorar os resultados dos pacientes.</p>
          <p>A ecocardiografia &#233; &#250;til para identificar ou excluir condi&#231;&#245;es revers&#237;veis de decl&#237;nio hemodin&#226;mico, como tamponamento card&#237;aco, les&#245;es valvares n&#227;o diagnosticadas e disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE, o que elimina a necessidade de suporte com ECMO. Ela tamb&#233;m fornece informa&#231;&#245;es cr&#237;ticas sobre contraindica&#231;&#245;es; por exemplo, a ECMO n&#227;o deve ser utilizada em casos de dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica. A presen&#231;a de RA importante &#233; uma contraindica&#231;&#227;o relativa para ECMO-VA, pois aumenta a p&#243;s-carga do VE, o que pode exacerbar a RA. Al&#233;m disso, a ecocardiografia pode detectar a presen&#231;a de aterosclerose a&#243;rtica, o que informa a decis&#227;o sobre os locais (central versus perif&#233;rica) e m&#233;todos (cir&#250;rgico versus percut&#226;neo) de canula&#231;&#227;o. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da morfologia do cora&#231;&#227;o direito ajuda a identificar anormalidades estruturais que dificultariam a coloca&#231;&#227;o de uma c&#226;nula venosa para ECMO venovenosa (ECMO-VV) ou ECMO-VA. A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f23">Figura 23</xref> sintetiza os principais pontos de aten&#231;&#227;o relacionados &#224; ECMO-VV e ECMO-VA nas fases de pr&#233;-canula&#231;&#227;o, durante o per&#237;odo de ECMO e no processo de desmame, assim como poss&#237;veis causas de mal funcionamento.</p>
          <fig id="f23">
            <label>Figura 23</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Ecocardiografia &#224; beira do leito na ECMO-VV e VA. AD: &#225;trio direito; AP: art&#233;ria pulmonar; DS: d&#233;bito sist&#243;lico; FAC: altera&#231;&#227;o fracion&#225;ria da &#225;rea; FEVE: fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; IT: insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide; PAP: press&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar; PSVD: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo direito; RA: regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica; SIA: septo interatrial; SIV: septo interventricular; TAP: tempo de acelera&#231;&#227;o do fluxo pulmonar; TAPSE: excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica do plano do anel tric&#250;spide; TVI: integral tempo-velocidade; VAo: v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; VM: v&#225;lvula mitral; VS: volume sist&#243;lico; VSF: volume sist&#243;lico final; VT: v&#225;lvula tric&#250;spide. Observa&#231;&#227;o: A ETE deve ser realizada em todos os pacientes quando o tempo e a situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica permitirem. Alternativamente, a ETT pode oferecer informa&#231;&#245;es importantes durante a avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-ECMO e o processo de desmame e deve ser considerada como uma op&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.6.2. Sele&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes para ECMO</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial e a sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes para ECMO s&#227;o fundamentais para o sucesso da interven&#231;&#227;o. A ecocardiografia fornece informa&#231;&#245;es vitais sobre a estrutura e a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;acas, ajudando a determinar a adequa&#231;&#227;o da ECMO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup> Antes de iniciar a ECMO, &#233; essencial avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca do paciente para determinar a gravidade da IC e o poss&#237;vel benef&#237;cio do tratamento. A ecocardiografia oferece informa&#231;&#245;es detalhadas sobre a fun&#231;&#227;o do VE e do VD, a integridade valvar e a presen&#231;a de doen&#231;as card&#237;acas estruturais.</p>
          <p>A disfun&#231;&#227;o do VD pode complicar o manejo de pacientes em ECMO. A ecocardiografia permite avaliar o tamanho, a fun&#231;&#227;o e as press&#245;es do VD, cruciais para o planejamento da estrat&#233;gia de ECMO. A ecocardiografia &#233; essencial para identificar anomalias valvares, como regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral grave e estenose a&#243;rtica, que podem influenciar a decis&#227;o de iniciar a ECMO. A identifica&#231;&#227;o e o manejo adequados dessas condi&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o fundamentais para otimizar a terapia com ECMO.</p>
          <p>A instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica &#233; uma indica&#231;&#227;o frequente para ECMO. A ecocardiografia fornece informa&#231;&#245;es em tempo real sobre o estado hemodin&#226;mico, incluindo DC, press&#245;es de enchimento e status vol&#234;mico. A ecocardiografia pode estimar o d&#233;bito card&#237;aco pela medi&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico e da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Essas informa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o essenciais para determinar a necessidade de ECMO e monitorar a efic&#225;cia do suporte. Avaliar o status de volume intravascular por ecocardiografia ajuda a orientar o manejo de fluidos, o que &#233; essencial para estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica antes e durante a ECMO. Par&#226;metros como o di&#226;metro a varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria da VCI e s&#227;o indicadores &#250;teis do status vol&#234;mico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.6.3. Orienta&#231;&#227;o para Canula&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>A canula&#231;&#227;o precisa &#233; uma etapa fundamental para o in&#237;cio da ECMO, e a ecocardiografia &#233; de suma import&#226;ncia na orienta&#231;&#227;o e confirma&#231;&#227;o do posicionamento das c&#226;nulas de ECMO. Na ECMO-VA perif&#233;rica, as c&#226;nulas s&#227;o inseridas em uma veia (em geral, a veia femoral) e em uma art&#233;ria (em geral, a art&#233;ria femoral) para fornecer suporte circulat&#243;rio e respirat&#243;rio. A ETE &#233; o m&#233;todo de escolha, uma vez que a ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica (ETT) pode n&#227;o oferecer resolu&#231;&#227;o espacial suficiente. A comunica&#231;&#227;o eficaz entre o operador de ECMO e o ecocardiografista em rela&#231;&#227;o ao local pretendido para o posicionamento das c&#226;nulas &#233; fundamental. Por exemplo, na ECMO-VV, quando uma c&#226;nula &#233; usada para drenagem e outra para o retorno do sangue, a extremidade da c&#226;nula de drenagem deve ser posicionada na por&#231;&#227;o proximal da VCI, imediatamente antes de seu des&#225;gue no AD. J&#225; a c&#226;nula de retorno deve ser posicionada no meio do AD, afastada do septo interatrial e da v&#225;lvula tric&#250;spide.</p>
          <p>O uso da ecocardiografia para monitorar a ECMO &#233; particularmente importante para avaliar a hemodin&#226;mica e o status vol&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref></sup> Em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o grave do VE associado a regurgita&#231;&#227;o mitral grave, o VE pode se tornar substancialmente dilatado e a v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica pode n&#227;o se abrir devido &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o acentuada do DC. O resultado pode ser estase sangu&#237;nea e consequente trombose na aorta ascendente, nas cavidades esquerdas e nas veias pulmonares. Nessas situa&#231;&#245;es, o esvaziamento do VE ou uma atriosseptostomia percut&#226;nea por bal&#227;o podem ser ben&#233;ficos. A ETE &#233; o m&#233;todo ideal para guiar o posicionamento do cateter da septostomia e a insufla&#231;&#227;o do bal&#227;o.</p>
          <p>A aus&#234;ncia de abertura da v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica (VAo) durante o suporte perif&#233;rico da ECMO-VA representa um problema s&#233;rio. Nesses casos, deve-se aumentar a dose de medicamentos anticoagulantes e recorrer a inodilatadores para reduzir a p&#243;s-carga, otimizar o DC nativo do VE e, com isso, facilitar a abertura da VAo. Nesse cen&#225;rio, a transi&#231;&#227;o do circuito de ECMO para um dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular tamb&#233;m deve ser considerada.</p>
          <p>Na ECMO-VV, a hemodin&#226;mica &#233; mais simples e mais vantajosa para o paciente. Nesse modo de suporte, o sangue &#233; drenado e devolvido ao cora&#231;&#227;o direito, sem alterar substancialmente a pr&#233;-carga do VD e sem impacto negativo na hemodin&#226;mica do cora&#231;&#227;o esquerdo. A ECMO-VV tamb&#233;m aumenta a satura&#231;&#227;o de oxig&#234;nio venoso misto, o que contribui para uma diminui&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular pulmonar e, consequentemente, menor p&#243;s-carga do VD. A melhora da oxigena&#231;&#227;o sangu&#237;nea tamb&#233;m contribui indiretamente para a fun&#231;&#227;o do VE ao aumentar a oferta de oxig&#234;nio para as art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias.</p>
          <p>Na ECMO-VA, a canula&#231;&#227;o pode ser realizada &#224; beira do leito em situa&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia ou na sala de hemodin&#226;mica se as condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas do paciente o permitirem. Nesses casos, deve-se optar por uma avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica abrangente, incluindo ETT e/ou ETE associada a fluoroscopia, se necess&#225;rio.</p>
          <p>Nos casos de extrema urg&#234;ncia, em pacientes sem condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas para transporte, a canula&#231;&#227;o deve ser realizada &#224; beira do leito. Nesses casos, a ecocardiografia focada deve ser utilizada para guiar o procedimento, desde que realizada por um profissional experiente. As etapas da ultrassonografia focada para o procedimento incluem:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Acesso vascular guiado por US em tempo real;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Confirma&#231;&#227;o ultrassonogr&#225;fica das posi&#231;&#245;es dos fios-guia na VCI e na aorta por meio da janela trans-hep&#225;tica na linha m&#233;dio-axilar;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Monitoramento cont&#237;nuo para garantir que os fios permane&#231;am posicionados corretamente durante a troca das c&#226;nulas;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Verifica&#231;&#227;o de que o fio venoso n&#227;o migrou para o VD ou se estendeu at&#233; a VCS;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Confirma&#231;&#227;o do posicionamento da c&#226;nula venosa direcionada para a VCS;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Confirma&#231;&#227;o do posicionamento da c&#226;nula arterial na aorta;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Exclus&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es imediatas, como derrame peric&#225;rdico, dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica ou posicionamento incorreto das c&#226;nulas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f24">Figura 24</xref>).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f24">
            <label>Figura 24</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Exemplos de situa&#231;&#245;es que demonstram o papel da ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes em oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venoarterial (ECMO-VA). (a) Corte bicaval mostrando a c&#226;nula de drenagem venosa em posi&#231;&#227;o adequada com a extremidade na jun&#231;&#227;o da veia cava superior com o &#225;trio direito. (b) Corte bicaval modificado em paciente com dificuldade de oxigena&#231;&#227;o durante o processo de desmame. O Doppler colorido mostra a presen&#231;a de forame oval patente com um shunt da direita para a esquerda justificando a hip&#243;xia. (c) Corte transg&#225;strico da veia cava inferior com Doppler colorido mostrando sinais de recircula&#231;&#227;o da oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venovenosa (ECMO-VV), com fluxo turbulento devido &#224; curta dist&#226;ncia entre as extremidades das c&#226;nulas de drenagem e de retorno, o que faz com que a c&#226;nula de drenagem aspire sangue da extremidade da c&#226;nula de retorno). (d) Corte transg&#225;strico da veia cava superior no mesmo paciente em ECMO-VV ap&#243;s o reposicionamento da c&#226;nula de drenagem alguns cent&#237;metros abaixo. O Doppler colorido mostra um fluxo linear, indicando menor recircula&#231;&#227;o. (e) e (f) Corte bicaval ao n&#237;vel do es&#244;fago m&#233;dio em paciente em ECMO-VA, mostrando a c&#226;nula de drenagem atravessando o septo interatrial atrav&#233;s do t&#250;nel da fossa oval, gerando pequena comunica&#231;&#227;o interatrial iatrog&#234;nica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Deve-se enfatizar que n&#227;o se trata de uma ultrassonografia b&#225;sica e sim de uma ecocardiografia focada, a qual deve ser realizada por ecocardiografista, uma vez que requer um protocolo bem definido e preciso. Ela n&#227;o substitui uma avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica abrangente, que deve sempre ser realizada antes e depois da canula&#231;&#227;o. Se o tempo permitir, uma combina&#231;&#227;o de US, ETT e ETE &#233; a alternativa ideal, e recomenda-se uma ETE completa durante ou ap&#243;s a canula&#231;&#227;o para confirmar o posicionamento da c&#226;nula venosa e detectar poss&#237;veis patologias card&#237;acas n&#227;o diagnosticadas pela ETT.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.6.4. Efeitos Imediatos da ECMO-VA Perif&#233;rica Observados pela Ecocardiografia &#224; Beira do Leito</title>
          <p>Os efeitos imediatos da ECMO-VA podem incluir um aumento gradual do volume do VE. Se a fun&#231;&#227;o do VE estiver comprometida, a v&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica pode abrir de forma intermitente ou mesmo n&#227;o abrir, com aparecimento de contraste espont&#226;neo no interior do VE. Esses achados devem ser comunicados ao consultor de ECMO, pois podem exigir estrat&#233;gias adicionais para descompress&#227;o do VE. Embora a situa&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o represente uma emerg&#234;ncia, deve ser realizada uma avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica abrangente para confirmar o diagn&#243;stico e a patologia, avaliar as press&#245;es de enchimento e determinar a melhor estrat&#233;gia de al&#237;vio.</p>
          <p>Todo paciente em suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico (SCM) agudo deve ser submetido a uma ecocardiografia di&#225;ria. Em caso de deteriora&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica aguda ou falha no circuito, a equipe de cuidados intensivos pode solicitar um exame focado para identificar rapidamente ou excluir complica&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, como:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Efus&#227;o peric&#225;rdica: Pode ser grande sem repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica ou pequena com repercuss&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica se a drenagem card&#237;aca estiver prejudicada;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Deslocamento ou migra&#231;&#227;o da c&#226;nula (com ou sem obstru&#231;&#227;o);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Trombo relacionado &#224; c&#226;nula (com ou sem obstru&#231;&#227;o);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Descompress&#227;o ventricular excessiva;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Trombose valvar ou intracavit&#225;ria;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Agravamento da regurgita&#231;&#227;o valvar (volume e/ou dura&#231;&#227;o);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Al&#237;vio inadequado do VE caracterizado por contraste espont&#226;neo no VE, fluxo transmitral retr&#243;grado bif&#225;sico ou fluxo sist&#243;lico pulmonar retr&#243;grado;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Encurtamento do per&#237;odo p&#243;s-eje&#231;&#227;o (medido pelo TAPSE/MAPSE).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Esses achados devem ser identificados ou exclu&#237;dos por meio de protocolos de ecocardiografia focada, executados por um ecocardiografista experiente. Como em toda ecocardiografia de cuidados intensivos, os achados devem ser interpretados &#224; luz do contexto cl&#237;nico e debatidos com o m&#233;dico respons&#225;vel. Se as imagens de ETT forem inadequadas, e a menos que haja contraindica&#231;&#245;es, uma ETE deve ser realizada. O uso de contraste no lado esquerdo, com objetivo de melhorar a interpreta&#231;&#227;o das imagens em pacientes em SCM, deve ser feito apenas por profissionais experientes, pois a detec&#231;&#227;o de bolhas pode interromper imediatamente o funcionamento de alguns circuitos de SCM (por exemplo, Maquet<sup>&#174;</sup> ou Cardiohelp<sup>&#174;</sup>). Ap&#243;s qualquer interven&#231;&#227;o corretiva (por exemplo, ajustes no fluxo do SCM ou na posi&#231;&#227;o da c&#226;nula), o cora&#231;&#227;o e a circula&#231;&#227;o devem ser reavaliados em tempo real.</p>
          <p>Para pacientes em suporte univentricular, o impacto no ventr&#237;culo contralateral e poss&#237;veis deslocamentos do septo interventricular tamb&#233;m devem ser avaliados. Esse tipo de avalia&#231;&#227;o &#233; altamente especializada, exigindo um entendimento aprofundado de fisiologia card&#237;aca, SCM e t&#233;cnicas avan&#231;adas, como a deforma&#231;&#227;o longitudinal global, que est&#227;o al&#233;m do escopo do POCUS b&#225;sico.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.6.5. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Al&#237;vio e Desmame</title>
          <p>O desmame da ECMO-VA e do suporte percut&#226;neo do lado esquerdo envolve protocolos complexos, geralmente combinados com monitoramento hemodin&#226;mico invasivo e adaptados &#224; condi&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref></sup> Esse processo est&#225; al&#233;m do escopo dos protocolos de ultrassonografia focada e requer o uso de t&#233;cnicas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas avan&#231;adas. No entanto, &#224; medida que o conhecimento sobre o desmame do SCM agudo avan&#231;a, a imagem e os estudos focados podem se tornar mais padronizados e desempenhar um papel maior no futuro.</p>
          <p>O desmame da ECMO requer uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e respirat&#243;ria para garantir que o paciente consegue manter uma hemodin&#226;mica adequada sem suporte mec&#226;nico. A ecocardiografia &#233; essencial para esse processo. Ela avalia a recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca e fornece informa&#231;&#245;es essenciais para determinar o melhor momento para o desmame. A melhora da fun&#231;&#227;o global e da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE geral indica recupera&#231;&#227;o e o momento adequado para o desmame da ECMO-VA. Avalia&#231;&#245;es ecocardiogr&#225;ficas seriadas ajudam a monitorar essa evolu&#231;&#227;o. A recupera&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do VD &#233; igualmente importante. A ecocardiografia avalia o tamanho, a fun&#231;&#227;o e as press&#245;es do VD, orientando o processo de desmame. Em pacientes em ECMO-VV, a ecocardiografia auxilia na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o pulmonar e prontid&#227;o para o desmame.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> A USP, como complemento da ecocardiografia, ajuda a avaliar a congest&#227;o pulmonar e a orientar o manejo de fluidos. A presen&#231;a de linhas B &#224; USP indica edema intersticial, o que pode influenciar as decis&#245;es de manejo de fluidos. A melhora nos achados da USP apoia a decis&#227;o de desmame da ECMO-VA e VV.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.6.6. Monitoramento Durante Testes de Desmame</title>
          <p>A ecocardiografia permite monitoramento em tempo real durante os testes de desmame, o que ajuda a garantir que o paciente consiga manter uma hemodin&#226;mica adequada sem o suporte da ECMO. Tamb&#233;m desempenha um papel fundamental na detec&#231;&#227;o precoce e no manejo das complica&#231;&#245;es associadas &#224; ECMO:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Trombose: A trombose representa um risco grave em pacientes em ECMO devido &#224; presen&#231;a de materiais estranhos e &#224; hemodin&#226;mica alterada. A ecocardiografia pode detectar trombos intracard&#237;acos ou intravasculares e permitir uma interven&#231;&#227;o precoce. Ela pode identificar trombos dentro das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas, o que &#233; crucial para prevenir eventos emb&#243;licos. A detec&#231;&#227;o precoce orienta o in&#237;cio de terapia anticoagulante ou outras interven&#231;&#245;es. Trombos tamb&#233;m podem se formar nos locais de inser&#231;&#227;o das c&#226;nulas, o que cria um risco de emboliza&#231;&#227;o ou obstru&#231;&#227;o do fluxo. A ecocardiografia pode detectar esses trombos e orientar seu manejo;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Sangramentos e hematomas: O sangramento &#233; uma complica&#231;&#227;o comum em pacientes em ECMO, muitas vezes relacionado &#224; terapia anticoagulante. A ecocardiografia pode identificar derrames peric&#225;rdicos e hematomas, que exigem manejo imediato. Ela pode detectar derrames peric&#225;rdicos, que podem ocorrer devido a sangramentos ou inflama&#231;&#245;es. A detec&#231;&#227;o e drenagem r&#225;pidas de derrames substanciais s&#227;o cr&#237;ticos para a estabilidade do paciente. Hematomas ao redor dos locais de inser&#231;&#227;o das c&#226;nulas podem ser identificados por meio da ultrassonografia focada, possibilitando o manejo apropriado e a preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es adicionais;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Distens&#227;o ventricular: Em pacientes em ECMO-VA, a distens&#227;o ventricular pode ocorrer devido ao al&#237;vio inadequado do VE. A ecocardiografia permite avaliar as dimens&#245;es e a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e orienta interven&#231;&#245;es para aliviar a distens&#227;o. A ecocardiografia permite monitorar o grau de distens&#227;o do VE e orienta medidas terap&#234;uticas, como o uso de um BIA, Impella<sup>&#174;</sup> ou esvaziamento cir&#250;rgico do VE. A distens&#227;o do VD pode ser manejada pelo ajuste dos par&#226;metros da ECMO ou pela utiliza&#231;&#227;o de suporte mec&#226;nico adicional. O monitoramento ecocardiogr&#225;fico &#233; fundamental para detectar e manejar essa complica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7.7. Desafios e Dire&#231;&#245;es Futuras</title>
        <p>Embora ofere&#231;a in&#250;meros benef&#237;cios para o manejo do SCMCP, o POCUS tamb&#233;m apresenta desafios que precisam ser enfrentados. A precis&#227;o e a efic&#225;cia do POCUS dependem muito da habilidade e da experi&#234;ncia do operador. O treinamento inadequado ou a falta de experi&#234;ncia podem levar &#224; interpreta&#231;&#227;o equivocada das imagens e a decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas inadequadas. Para enfrentar esse problema, programas de treinamento padronizados e certifica&#231;&#245;es para cl&#237;nicos que usam POCUS no manejo da SCM s&#227;o essenciais para melhorar a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e os resultados cl&#237;nicos em ambientes de cuidados intensivos.</p>
        <p>Embora seja uma ferramenta poderosa, o POCUS deve ser integrado a outras modalidades de imagem, como a ecocardiografia, tomografia computadorizada e a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica, para uma avalia&#231;&#227;o abrangente do paciente. A combina&#231;&#227;o de POCUS com outras modalidades proporciona um entendimento mais detalhado de casos complexos, o que aprimora a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e o planejamento terap&#234;utico. O futuro do POCUS no SCMCP reside em avan&#231;os tecnol&#243;gicos que melhoram a qualidade da imagem, a portabilidade e a facilidade de uso. O desenvolvimento de dispositivos de ultrassonografia port&#225;teis de alta resolu&#231;&#227;o e o uso de IA na an&#225;lise de imagens prometem melhorar a acur&#225;cia e a efici&#234;ncia do POCUS.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>7.8. Conclus&#227;o</title>
        <p>O POCUS se tornou uma ferramenta cr&#237;tica para o manejo de pacientes que necessitam de SCMCP. Sua capacidade de fornecer avalia&#231;&#245;es em tempo real e n&#227;o invasivas da fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, do posicionamento de dispositivos e da ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es em potencial o torna extremamente valioso em ambientes de cuidados intensivos. Embora existam desafios, como a depend&#234;ncia do operador e a necessidade de integra&#231;&#227;o com outras modalidades, os avan&#231;os tecnol&#243;gicos e a capacita&#231;&#227;o profissional tendem a mitig&#225;-los. &#192; medida que o POCUS evolui, seu papel no aprimoramento dos cuidados e dos desfechos para pacientes em SCMCP deve se expandir, consolidando seu lugar na medicina intensiva moderna.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>8. POCUS na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia</title>
      <p>O POCUS se estabeleceu como ferramenta essencial para a tomada r&#225;pida de decis&#245;es na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de pacientes cr&#237;ticos nas unidades de emerg&#234;ncia. Apesar dos seus benef&#237;cios, recomenda-se que o POCUS n&#227;o seja interpretado isoladamente nem substitua a anamnese cuidadosa e o exame f&#237;sico convencional. O m&#233;todo pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas no manejo, especialmente de pacientes cr&#237;ticos e/ou com poss&#237;veis diagn&#243;sticos de doen&#231;as tempo-dependentes.</p>
      <p>A seguir, s&#227;o apresentadas as aplica&#231;&#245;es do POCUS em diferentes cen&#225;rios nas unidades de emerg&#234;ncia.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>8.1. POCUS na Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
        <p>A dor tor&#225;cica &#233; uma queixa comum no pronto-socorro e, muitas vezes, representa um desafio. O POCUS &#233; uma ferramenta valiosa para auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico diferencial de condi&#231;&#245;es potencialmente fatais, permitindo uma avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e &#224; beira do leito. Alguns diagn&#243;sticos que implicam risco para o paciente com dor tor&#225;cica podem ser confirmados ou exclu&#237;dos com o uso de POCUS, incluindo TEP, pneumot&#243;rax e pericardiopatias.</p>
        <p>&#201; fundamental enfatizar que a avalia&#231;&#227;o da aorta com suspeita de dissec&#231;&#227;o e a an&#225;lise da contratilidade segmentar do VE para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda s&#227;o t&#233;cnicas que demandam treinamento avan&#231;ado e experi&#234;ncia consider&#225;vel em ecocardiografia. Dada a complexidade e a import&#226;ncia desses diagn&#243;sticos, sugere-se que essas avalia&#231;&#245;es sejam realizadas por especialistas em imagem cardiovascular para garantir a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica e a seguran&#231;a do paciente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quando utilizado de forma apropriada e por profissionais devidamente treinados, o POCUS &#233; uma ferramenta poderosa para auxiliar na tomada de decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas.</p>
        <p>As se&#231;&#245;es a seguir resumem o papel do POCUS nos principais diagn&#243;sticos relacionados &#224; dor tor&#225;cica.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Pericardiopatias na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia</title>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o do peric&#225;rdio integra a an&#225;lise sistem&#225;tica do cora&#231;&#227;o pelo POCUS e &#233; muito &#250;til em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, dispneia e/ou dor tor&#225;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O exame tem grande valor na identifica&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e precisa de derrames peric&#225;rdicos e de sinais de restri&#231;&#227;o ao enchimento ventricular &#224; beira do leito (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">Figura 8</xref>), e &#233; muito &#250;til para guiar a pericardiocentese (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f25">Figuras 25</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">26</xref>), procedimento detalhado na Se&#231;&#227;o 10.2.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup> A identifica&#231;&#227;o de derrame peric&#225;rdico tem alta acur&#225;cia (acima de 95%), mesmo quando o POCUS &#233; realizado por emergencistas (n&#227;o cardiologistas), desde que tenham recebido treinamento adequado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f25">
            <label>Figura 25</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas utilizadas para pericardiocentese guiada por ultrassonografia e a frequ&#234;ncia de uso na s&#233;rie da Cl&#237;nica Mayo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <fig id="f26">
            <label>Figura 26</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Identifica&#231;&#227;o do ponto de maior ac&#250;mulo de l&#237;quido (linha azul) e do ponto com menor dist&#226;ncia entre a pele e o espa&#231;o peric&#225;rdico (linha verde).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>A medida do derrame peric&#225;rdico (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>) pode ser realizada nas janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas principais (paraesternal eixo longo, paraesternal eixo curto, A4C e subcostal) e permite classificar o derrame peric&#225;rdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Al&#233;m do volume de l&#237;quido anormal, a velocidade de progress&#227;o e a localiza&#231;&#227;o do derrame podem ultrapassar a capacidade de elasticidade do peric&#225;rdio em cont&#234;-lo e, por consequ&#234;ncia, levar ao aumento da press&#227;o intraperic&#225;rdica e &#224; restri&#231;&#227;o ao enchimento atrial e ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref></sup> Nesses casos, alguns achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos identificados ao POCUS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 6</xref>) podem corroborar o diagn&#243;stico de tamponamento card&#237;aco (na presen&#231;a de um quadro cl&#237;nico compat&#237;vel).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Achados de restri&#231;&#227;o ao enchimento das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas e seu significado cl&#237;nico<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Achado</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Significado</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Colapso diast&#243;lico tardio do &#225;trio direito</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Ocorre durante o relaxamento atrial (momento em que o volume do &#225;trio direito [AD] &#233; m&#237;nimo e a press&#227;o peric&#225;rdica atinge seu pico), levando &#224; invagina&#231;&#227;o da parede atrial para o interior da c&#226;mara. Tem maior valor quando persiste por mais de um ter&#231;o do ciclo card&#237;aco.<break/> &#201; um dos sinais mais precoces no tamponamento card&#237;aco. Apesar da alta sensibilidade, sua especificidade fica em torno de 82%, uma vez que colapsos breves do AD s&#227;o observados em outras situa&#231;&#245;es, como aumento da press&#227;o intrator&#225;cica (o colapso sustentado do AD, por outro lado, permanece como um forte indicativo de tamponamento card&#237;aco).</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Colapso diast&#243;lico do ventr&#237;culo direito</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Geralmente ocorre durante a di&#225;stole precoce, quando o volume ventricular ainda &#233; reduzido.<break/> Apresenta alta especificidade quando presente; entretanto, em determinadas situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas &#151; como nos casos de hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD) ou de eleva&#231;&#227;o importante da press&#227;o diast&#243;lica dessa c&#226;mara (por exemplo, em <italic>cor pulmonale</italic> aguda ou cr&#244;nica) &#151; o colapso das c&#226;maras direitas pode n&#227;o estar evidente, mesmo na presen&#231;a de tamponamento. Dessa forma, embora tenha sensibilidade &gt; 90%, esse sinal &#233; menos sens&#237;vel do que o colapso do AD para o diagn&#243;stico de tamponamento card&#237;aco.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Veia cava inferior (VCI) dilatada, com varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria m&#237;nima ou ausente</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">No tamponamento card&#237;aco, o AD sofre compress&#227;o externa (maior press&#227;o intraperic&#225;rdica) no in&#237;cio da di&#225;stole, o que gera limita a capacidade de acomodar a pr&#233;-carga. Dessa forma, a VCI permanece dilatada, com varia&#231;&#227;o respirat&#243;ria m&#237;nima (di&#226;metro &gt; 2,1 cm com redu&#231;&#227;o inspirat&#243;ria inferior a 50%).<break/> Esse sinal apresenta elevado valor preditivo negativo (ou seja, a aus&#234;ncia do sinal reduz substancialmente a probabilidade de tamponamento).<break/> Seu valor preditivo positivo &#233; baixo porque a condi&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m pode ser observada em outras condi&#231;&#245;es, como doen&#231;as pulmonares cr&#244;nicas, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide e outras cardiopatias.<break/> A visualiza&#231;&#227;o geralmente &#233; obtida no plano sagital, abaixo do processo xifoide, e a mensura&#231;&#227;o do di&#226;metro &#233; realizada aproximadamente 2&#8211;3 cm antes da jun&#231;&#227;o da VCI com o AD, ao n&#237;vel da conflu&#234;ncia da veia hep&#225;tica.<break/> Em alguns casos, pode-se utilizar o modo M para obter medidas espec&#237;ficas, posicionando o cursor nesse ponto anat&#244;mico.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Swinging heart</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Movimento oscilante do cora&#231;&#227;o.<break/> Presente em casos de derrames peric&#225;rdicos volumosos, muitas vezes associado &#224; varia&#231;&#227;o da amplitude do complexo QRS em batimentos alternados (altern&#226;ncia el&#233;trica)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Pleura e Pulm&#227;o na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia</title>
          <p>Entre as causas de dor tor&#225;cica que podem ser identificadas com o POCUS, h&#225; situa&#231;&#245;es relacionadas ao pulm&#227;o (pneumonia, embolia pulmonar) e &#224; pleura (pneumot&#243;rax, derrame pleural). O POCUS pulmonar permite a visualiza&#231;&#227;o direta da linha pleural e a avalia&#231;&#227;o da presen&#231;a do "sinal do deslizamento pulmonar" (<italic>lung sliding</italic>), ausente no pneumot&#243;rax. A aus&#234;ncia de linhas B e a presen&#231;a do "ponto pulmonar" (<italic>lung point</italic>) tamb&#233;m corroboram o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> A r&#225;pida exclus&#227;o ou confirma&#231;&#227;o do pneumot&#243;rax &#233; crucial para o manejo imediato.</p>
          <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o de achados sugestivos de TEP est&#225; descrita no t&#243;pico abaixo.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente com Dispneia</title>
        <p>A USP &#233; uma das principais aplica&#231;&#245;es do POCUS na avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida, &#224; beira do leito e em tempo real de pacientes com queixa de dispneia na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia. Seu uso sempre deve ser associado &#224; hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e ao exame f&#237;sico completo e tem o potencial de acelerar o diagn&#243;stico apropriado e, por consequ&#234;ncia, o tratamento adequado.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2.1. Congest&#227;o Pulmonar, Pleuropatias e Outros Diagn&#243;sticos Avaliados pela Ultrassonografia Pulmonar</title>
          <p>A USP &#233; uma ferramenta excelente para a avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e n&#227;o invasiva da congest&#227;o pulmonar. Ele se baseia na identifica&#231;&#227;o de artefatos ultrassonogr&#225;ficos chamados linhas B, que s&#227;o um forte indicativo de ac&#250;mulo de l&#237;quido nos septos interlobulares.</p>
          <p>As linhas B, tamb&#233;m chamadas de <italic>"comet tails"</italic> ou "linhas em cauda de cometa", s&#227;o artefatos verticais, hiperecog&#234;nicos, longos e bem definidos que se originam da linha pleural e se estendem at&#233; o final da tela e acompanham o deslizamento pulmonar (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13b</xref>). Elas se formam quando h&#225; espessamento dos septos interlobulares ou ac&#250;mulo de l&#237;quido, como na congest&#227;o pulmonar. A presen&#231;a de tr&#234;s ou mais linhas B em um &#250;nico espa&#231;o intercostal sugere congest&#227;o pulmonar importante. A quantidade e a distribui&#231;&#227;o das linhas B se correlacionam com a gravidade do quadro.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Na Se&#231;&#227;o 3, s&#227;o descritas as informa&#231;&#245;es essenciais sobre a aplica&#231;&#227;o da USP na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia, incluindo:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Informa&#231;&#245;es t&#233;cnicas da USP;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Achados mais frequentes e seus significados;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O papel do POCUS no diagn&#243;stico de congest&#227;o pulmonar, derrame pleural, s&#237;ndromes intersticiais, consolida&#231;&#227;o pneum&#244;nica, atelectasia, pneumot&#243;rax e TEP.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Considerando que os diversos achados no TEP v&#227;o al&#233;m da USP, esse diagn&#243;stico ser&#225; detalhado a seguir.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2.2. Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</title>
          <p>Assim como em outras causas potencialmente fatais de dor tor&#225;cica, o diagn&#243;stico precoce de TEP &#233; essencial. Entretanto, trata-se de um diagn&#243;stico desafiador, pois pode mimetizar diversas outras condi&#231;&#245;es. Nesse sentido, o POCUS &#233; uma ferramenta diagn&#243;stica de grande utilidade &#224; beira do leito, permitindo uma avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e integrada de achados card&#237;acos, pulmonares e vasculares (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 7</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t7">
            <label>Tabela 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>POCUS no aux&#237;lio ao diagn&#243;stico de tromboembolismo pulmonar<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Achado</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Significado</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Observa&#231;&#245;es</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Trombose venosa profunda (TVP) (</bold>
                    <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f19">
                      <bold>Figura 19</bold>
                    </xref>
                    <bold>)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Visualiza&#231;&#227;o de trombo n&#227;o compress&#237;vel em veias profundas (femoral, popl&#237;tea, etc.)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Achado altamente sugestivo de TEP se associado a sintomas respirat&#243;rios.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD</bold>
                    <break/>
                    <bold>(</bold>
                    <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">
                      <bold>Figura 6a e 6b</bold>
                    </xref>
                    <bold>)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Di&#226;metro do VD &gt; VE (VD/VE &gt; 1) em corte paraesternal ou apical</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Sugere sobrecarga de press&#227;o do VD (sinal de embolia maci&#231;a/submaci&#231;a).</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Sinal de McConnell</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipocinesia da por&#231;&#227;o basal e m&#233;dia da parede livre do VD com &#225;pice preservado</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Altamente sugestivo de embolismo pulmonar (especificidade ~94%).</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Septo achatado/aplainado (</bold>
                    <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">
                      <bold>Figura 7</bold>
                    </xref>
                    <bold>)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Desvio do septo interventricular para o VE<break/> em di&#225;stole</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Indica sobrecarga press&#243;rica do VD.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Hipertens&#227;o pulmonar</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Estimativa de PSAP</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pode ser calculada a partir do pico de regurgita&#231;&#227;o tric&#250;spide.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Trombo em tr&#226;nsito</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Visualiza&#231;&#227;o direta de trombo nas<break/> cavidades direitas</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Espec&#237;fico, mas de baixa sensibilidade. Diagn&#243;stico diferencial com massas embolig&#234;nicas, como tumores e vegeta&#231;&#245;es.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Trombo em art&#233;ria pulmonar</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Visualiza&#231;&#227;o direta de trombo no tronco da art&#233;ria pulmonar ou ramos (raro)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Espec&#237;fico, mas de baixa sensibilidade (mais comum em TEP central).</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Derrame pleural</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">L&#237;quido na cavidade pleural<break/> (geralmente pequeno a moderado)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Inespec&#237;fico, mas comum em TEP.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Consolida&#231;&#245;es subpleurais triangulares (</bold>
                    <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">
                      <bold>Figura 13k</bold>
                    </xref>
                    <bold>)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Sugerem infarto pulmonar</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com TEP sem infarto pulmonar podem ter um padr&#227;o normal &#224; USP</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN12">
                <p>PSAP: press&#227;o sist&#243;lica da art&#233;ria pulmonar; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; USP: ultrassonografia pulmonar; VD: Ventr&#237;culo direito; VE: Ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>A combina&#231;&#227;o desses tr&#234;s locais principais (cora&#231;&#227;o, pulm&#245;es e sistema venoso profundo dos membros inferiores) apresenta especificidade superior a 95%. Em pacientes hemodinamicamente inst&#225;veis, o POCUS card&#237;aco &#224; beira do leito deve ser a primeira ferramenta empregada, dado que a aus&#234;ncia de sinais de sobrecarga aguda e insufici&#234;ncia do VD podem excluir um TEP maci&#231;o como causa poss&#237;vel. Al&#233;m disso, a avalia&#231;&#227;o fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas sobre outras etiologias poss&#237;veis, como insufici&#234;ncia do VE, pericardiopatias e status vol&#234;mico.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente com Instabilidade Hemodin&#226;mica e/ou Disfun&#231;&#227;o Org&#226;nica</title>
        <p>Em pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e/ou disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica, &#233; fundamental assegurar uma press&#227;o de perfus&#227;o adequada. Nesse contexto, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da responsividade &#224; fluidoterapia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f21">Figura 21</xref>) representa uma informa&#231;&#227;o essencial para a defini&#231;&#227;o da etiologia do choque e para a escolha da melhor interven&#231;&#227;o de suporte hemodin&#226;mico.</p>
        <p>Por outro lado, pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia do VD, hipertens&#227;o pulmonar ou sobrecarga h&#237;drica s&#227;o propensos a desenvolver congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica importante, o que leva a redu&#231;&#227;o do gradiente arteriovenoso, eleva&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o hidrost&#225;tica capilar e edema intersticial. O resultado pode ser uma disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica (especialmente renal) e, por consequ&#234;ncia, uma maior reten&#231;&#227;o h&#237;drica, o que cria um ciclo vicioso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> A Se&#231;&#227;o 6 apresenta uma descri&#231;&#227;o completa do papel do POCUS no choque.</p>
        <p>Dado que a insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda (IRA) &#233; uma das primeiras manifesta&#231;&#245;es de disfun&#231;&#227;o org&#226;nica em pacientes hipo e hipervol&#234;micos, o POCUS &#233; &#250;til na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com IRA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 17</xref>), pois avalia&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da volemia est&#227;o sujeitas a limita&#231;&#245;es importantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> O uso do POCUS &#224; beira do leito representa uma ferramenta valiosa para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do estado vol&#234;mico e para a quantifica&#231;&#227;o da congest&#227;o venosa sist&#234;mica em servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia.</p>
        <p>Na Se&#231;&#227;o 4, s&#227;o descritas as principais informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a aplica&#231;&#227;o do VExUS em unidades de emerg&#234;ncia, incluindo:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 5</xref>);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Aspectos t&#233;cnicos do VExUS para a an&#225;lise da VCI e, quando necess&#225;rio, dos demais componentes do escore (veia supra-hep&#225;tica, veia porta e veia interlobar renal) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 15</xref>).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>&#201; importante frisar que o VExUS n&#227;o avalia a necessidade de reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica. Contudo, ele &#233; um par&#226;metro importante na defini&#231;&#227;o da toler&#226;ncia &#224; fluidoterapia, pois ajuda a identificar os casos em que a interrup&#231;&#227;o de reposi&#231;&#227;o vol&#234;mica (ou a remo&#231;&#227;o de fluidos) tende a ser ben&#233;fica.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8.4. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente com Edema Perif&#233;rico</title>
        <p>Al&#233;m da USP para avaliar congest&#227;o pulmonar e do VExUS para avaliar o estado vol&#234;mico e quantificar a congest&#227;o venosa, o POCUS pode ser &#250;til na investiga&#231;&#227;o de causas espec&#237;ficas de edema, como TVP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A Se&#231;&#227;o 5 apresenta as informa&#231;&#245;es essenciais relacionadas &#224; aplica&#231;&#227;o do POCUS na avalia&#231;&#227;o de TVP, incluindo:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Aspectos t&#233;cnicos (protocolos de compress&#227;o) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 16</xref>).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>9. POCUS na Parada Cardiorrespirat&#243;ria</title>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>9.1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>O POCUS durante a parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria (POCUS-PCR), quando realizado por um operador capacitado, possibilita verificar a qualidade das compress&#245;es tor&#225;cicas, diagnosticar prontamente causas trat&#225;veis de parada card&#237;aca com ritmos n&#227;o choc&#225;veis (hipovolemia, pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo, TEP e tamponamento card&#237;aco), monitorar interven&#231;&#245;es e avaliar a resposta ao tratamento (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f27">Figura 27</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup> O POCUS tamb&#233;m oferece dados progn&#243;sticos relevantes sobre a chance de retorno da circula&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea e as perspectivas de sobrevida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f27">
          <label>Figura 27</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Utilidade do POCUS durante uma parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria (POCUS-PCR). A ilustra&#231;&#227;o central representa a disposi&#231;&#227;o da equipe sugerida neste posicionamento durante a realiza&#231;&#227;o do POCUS-PCR. A janela subcostal permite a confirma&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida da PCR versus contra&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, de ritmo choc&#225;vel versus n&#227;o choc&#225;vel (painel 1) e da efic&#225;cia da compress&#227;o tor&#225;cica (painel 2B). &#201; poss&#237;vel identificar causas revers&#237;veis, como pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo (painel 3C), choque hipovol&#234;mico (painel 3D), tamponamento card&#237;aco (painel 3E) e sinais de tromboembolismo pulmonar (painel 3F). Ap&#243;s o retorno do ritmo card&#237;aco espont&#226;neo, &#233; poss&#237;vel realizar uma avalia&#231;&#227;o direcionada para investigar outras causas (painel 4). RCP: ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar; RCE: retorno da circula&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <p>O uso do POCUS durante a parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria (PCR) ainda &#233; cercado de incertezas, diferentemente de outros contextos em que seu uso est&#225; mais consolidado. A principal preocupa&#231;&#227;o &#233; que o exame poderia atrasar a retomada das compress&#245;es card&#237;acas, fundamentais na ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar, e que, at&#233; o momento, n&#227;o demonstrou um impacto significativo no progn&#243;stico dos pacientes. Essas incertezas se devem principalmente &#224; falta de um protocolo universal que possa incorporado de forma definitiva ao suporte avan&#231;ado de vida em cardiologia (ACLS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.2. Aspectos T&#233;cnicos</title>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f27">Figura 27</xref> ilustra a organiza&#231;&#227;o da equipe durante o atendimento da PCR, destacando a posi&#231;&#227;o do operador de POCUS &#224; esquerda do paciente.</p>
        <p>Recomenda-se que seja utilizado apenas o transdutor setorial (3,5-5 MHz), pois permite avaliar adequadamente o pulm&#227;o, cora&#231;&#227;o e o abdome, dependendo do contexto quadro cl&#237;nico. As imagens devem ser adquiridas durante os 10 segundos de pausa para checagem do ritmo e analisadas ao longo do ciclo de reanima&#231;&#227;o. Durante as compress&#245;es tor&#225;cicas, podem ser adquiridas pela janela subcostal para avaliar a efic&#225;cia da massagem card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> Embora existam diversos protocolos estabelecidos para POCUS-PCR, recomenda-se o CASA por ser o &#250;nico que reduz o tempo das interrup&#231;&#245;es para checagem do ritmo, que consiste em avaliar a atividade card&#237;aca e poss&#237;veis causas, como TEP e tamponamento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref></sup> Durante a PCR, o operador de POCUS pode investigar o diagn&#243;stico de pneumot&#243;rax e de hipovolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.3. Execu&#231;&#227;o do POCUS-PCR</title>
        <p>Caso o ritmo identificado na PCR seja n&#227;o desfibril&#225;vel, recomenda-se come&#231;ar o POCUS-PCR pela janela subcostal. As imagens devem ser analisadas posteriormente, no in&#237;cio do ciclo seguinte, para n&#227;o prejudicar a ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar (RCP). Durante o intervalo designado para a verifica&#231;&#227;o do pulso e an&#225;lise do ritmo card&#237;aco, &#233; poss&#237;vel examinar as outras janelas ecogr&#225;ficas, como a janela pulmonar para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do deslizamento pleural, a janela apical com visualiza&#231;&#227;o das quatro c&#226;maras, a janela paraesternal de eixo curto e, por fim, o eixo longo paraesternal. Dependendo do cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico, o protocolo FAST para pesquisa de l&#237;quido livre em cavidades pode ser incorporado ao POCUS-PCR, independentemente das manobras de RCP, e fornecer dados adicionais para o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup> O POCUS-PCR &#233; fundamental para identificar as causas revers&#237;veis de uma parada card&#237;aca e deve ser empregado em conjunto com a investiga&#231;&#227;o sistem&#225;tica de condi&#231;&#245;es como hipovolemia, tamponamento card&#237;aco, pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo e TEP (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f27">Figura 27</xref>, painel 3).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.4. Confirma&#231;&#227;o da Parada Cardiorrespirat&#243;ria, Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Efic&#225;cia das Compress&#245;es Tor&#225;cicas e da Fun&#231;&#227;o Progn&#243;stica da Presen&#231;a da Atividade Card&#237;aca na Atividade El&#233;trica sem Pulso</title>
        <p>Embora a distin&#231;&#227;o entre ritmos choc&#225;veis e n&#227;o choc&#225;veis dependa da eletrocardiografia, a US pode detectar uma falsa PCR porque permite o diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre assistolia e fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular fina com contra&#231;&#227;o demonstr&#225;vel, achado esse presente em 10 a 35% dos pacientes com suposta assistolia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outra fun&#231;&#227;o do POCUS-PCR &#233; avaliar a efic&#225;cia das compress&#245;es, proporcionando observa&#231;&#227;o direta e em tempo real da contra&#231;&#227;o e relaxamento das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas durante a massagem. Estudos mostram que a posi&#231;&#227;o inadequada da m&#227;o durante as manobras de ressuscita&#231;&#227;o pode resultar na compress&#227;o da aorta ascendente, da raiz da aorta ou da VSVE, excluindo o pr&#243;prio VE. O POCUS-PCR possibilita o ajuste da for&#231;a aplicada e da posi&#231;&#227;o das m&#227;os.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9.5. Diagn&#243;sticos de Causas Revers&#237;veis pelo POCUS-PCR</title>
        <sec>
          <title>9.5.1. Tamponamento Card&#237;aco</title>
          <p>O tamponamento card&#237;aco pode ocorrer devido tanto a eventos traum&#225;ticos quanto a causas n&#227;o traum&#225;ticas. Mesmo pequenos volumes de l&#237;quido acumulados de forma r&#225;pida no espa&#231;o peric&#225;rdico influenciam a hemodin&#226;mica cardiovascular (enchimento ventricular/d&#233;bito card&#237;aco) e podem desencadear o quadro de tamponamento card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre derrame peric&#225;rdico e pleural nem sempre &#233; simples. Na janela paraesternal eixo longo, o derrame peric&#225;rdico aparece na regi&#227;o anterior &#224; aorta descendente e acima da dobra posterior do peric&#225;rdio. O derrame pleural, por sua vez, se localiza atr&#225;s da aorta descendente e abaixo dessa dobra peric&#225;rdica (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 9</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>&#201; importante salientar que identificar um derrame peric&#225;rdico n&#227;o basta para diagnosticar o tamponamento card&#237;aco. E os sinais cl&#225;ssicos de tamponamento, como colapso sist&#243;lico do AD e colapso diast&#243;lico do VD, n&#227;o s&#227;o vis&#237;veis em pacientes j&#225; em PCR. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da VCI pode ajudar nessa defini&#231;&#227;o quando esta se encontra dilatada, indicando uma eleva&#231;&#227;o das press&#245;es no AD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A ecocardiografia tamb&#233;m desempenha um papel em guiar a pericardiocentese. V&#225;rias t&#233;cnicas t&#234;m &#237;ndice de sucesso pr&#243;ximo a 95% e de complica&#231;&#245;es em menos de 2% dos casos. D&#225;-se prefer&#234;ncia &#224; janela subcostal para orientar o trajeto da agulha durante o procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.5.2. Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</title>
          <p>O TEP pode ser identificado na ultrassonografia por evid&#234;ncias diretas ou indiretas. A evid&#234;ncia direta &#233; a visualiza&#231;&#227;o do pr&#243;prio trombo. Os sinais indiretos envolvem, por exemplo, a dilata&#231;&#227;o s&#250;bita do VD, que se torna maior do que o VE, com rela&#231;&#227;o VD/VE de pelo menos 1:1. Al&#233;m disso, a configura&#231;&#227;o em forma de "D" do VD (paraesternal de eixo curto) tamb&#233;m &#233; indicativa de dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figura 7</xref>).</p>
          <p>Diante da suspeita de TEP, o protocolo de US focada para a investiga&#231;&#227;o de TVP pode ser introduzido sem prejudicar a massagem card&#237;aca (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 17</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.5.3. Pneumot&#243;rax Hipertensivo</title>
          <p>O pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo, uma das principais causas de PCR, pode decorrer de doen&#231;as pulmonares preexistentes, ser uma complica&#231;&#227;o da ventila&#231;&#227;o com press&#227;o positiva e ocorrer ap&#243;s acidente de pun&#231;&#227;o venosa profunda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Os sinais de pneumot&#243;rax podem ser observados pela USP na regi&#227;o do 4&#176; ao 5&#176; espa&#231;o intercostal ao longo da linha m&#233;dio-clavicular. Os sinais incluem a aus&#234;ncia de deslizamento pleural, a presen&#231;a do sinal da estratosfera (ou c&#243;digo de barras; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f27">Figura 27</xref>, painel 3C) e a aus&#234;ncia de movimento pulmonar ou pulso pulmonar. O sinal mais espec&#237;fico &#233; o ponto de pulmonar, que, quando identificado, tem especificidade muito alta para a presen&#231;a de pneumot&#243;rax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.5.4. Hipovolemia</title>
          <p>Durante uma PCR, a ultrassonografia pode revelar o colabamento completo dos ventr&#237;culos e o colapso da VCI. Esses sinais, ao lado da evolu&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do paciente e outros dados, podem sugerir hipovolemia como causa subjacente da PCR (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f25">Figura 25</xref>, painel 3D). Em situa&#231;&#245;es de trauma, &#233; essencial que o m&#233;dico identifique imediatamente a presen&#231;a de sangue na cavidade abdominal ou no t&#243;rax, uma poss&#237;vel causa de choque hipovol&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>10. Procedimentos Guiados pela Ultrassonografia</title>
      <sec>
        <title>10.1. Acesso Vascular Guiado pelo Ultrassom</title>
        <p>A pr&#225;tica da pun&#231;&#227;o guiada por ultrassonografia tem se consolidado na maioria dos centros m&#233;dicos, sobretudo por sua superioridade comprovada em termos de seguran&#231;a. A efic&#225;cia do procedimento depende diretamente do dom&#237;nio da anatomia regional pelo operador, da sua experi&#234;ncia cl&#237;nica e da qualidade do equipamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es &#233; multifatorial e envolve aspectos como a experi&#234;ncia e habilidade do profissional, o biotipo e o estado cl&#237;nico do paciente (incluindo n&#237;vel de colabora&#231;&#227;o, agita&#231;&#227;o e status vol&#234;mico) e a complexidade anat&#244;mica da regi&#227;o a ser puncionada. Al&#233;m disso, o n&#250;mero de tentativas de pun&#231;&#227;o est&#225; diretamente associado a um maior risco de eventos adversos.</p>
        <p>Historicamente, esses procedimentos eram realizados "&#224;s cegas", com base apenas em refer&#234;ncias anat&#244;micas superficiais. Atualmente, h&#225; fortes evid&#234;ncias de que o posicionamento de cateteres guiado por US &#233; mais seguro, transformando-a em uma ferramenta extremamente &#250;til para a pun&#231;&#227;o e na monitorizar&#227;o de procedimentos intervencionistas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1.1. T&#233;cnica de Pun&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Seldinger descreveu a t&#233;cnica de pun&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea para a inser&#231;&#227;o de cateteres vasculares. Ela pode ser resumida como "cateter sobre fio-guia": ap&#243;s a pun&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea do vaso, introduz-se o fio-guia pela agulha. O fio-guia serve como um trilho e guia o cateter para dentro do vaso da forma mais eficaz e menos traum&#225;tica poss&#237;vel.</p>
          <p>Basicamente, existem duas t&#233;cnicas de pun&#231;&#227;o guiada por ultrassonografia:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>T&#233;cnica est&#225;tica</bold>: Consiste no mapeamento ultrassonogr&#225;fico pr&#233;vio da anatomia vascular e na marca&#231;&#227;o do local ideal de pun&#231;&#227;o na pele. Uma das principais vantagens &#233; que n&#227;o requer manuten&#231;&#227;o de um campo est&#233;ril durante o exame, sendo &#250;til em situa&#231;&#245;es de menor complexidade;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>T&#233;cnica din&#226;mica ou em "tempo real"</bold>: Permite a visualiza&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua em tempo real da estrutura vascular (veia ou art&#233;ria), da progress&#227;o da agulha atrav&#233;s dos tecidos e de sua entrada no l&#250;men do vaso. Recomenda-se o uso dessa t&#233;cnica sempre que poss&#237;vel, pois aumenta a precis&#227;o do procedimento, reduz o n&#250;mero de tentativas e est&#225; associada a uma menor taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es, especialmente em pacientes com anatomia complexa ou acesso venoso dif&#237;cil.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1.2. Passo a Passo da Pun&#231;&#227;o (Utilizar Material Est&#233;ril)</title>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Posicione o paciente em dec&#250;bito dorsal, preferencialmente em posi&#231;&#227;o de Trendelenburg reverso, para aumentar o calibre da veia e facilitar a pun&#231;&#227;o. A manobra de Valsalva tamb&#233;m ser &#250;til;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Avalie o vaso a ser puncionado e as estruturas vizinhas (vasculares ou n&#227;o); &#201; importante saber diferenciar entre art&#233;rias e veias, o que pode ser feito com base nas caracter&#237;sticas ultrassonogr&#225;ficas (ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 8</xref>);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Realize ampla assepsia do local com clorexidina a 2%;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Posicione os campos est&#233;reis;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Realize anestesia local com xiloca&#237;na a 2% ("bot&#227;o" anest&#233;sico com agulha de insulina);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Encape o transdutor com material est&#233;ril, colocando gel no interior da capa de modo que ele fique em contato com a face do transdutor. Fixe a capa com bandas el&#225;sticas para facilitar o manuseio do transdutor;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Ap&#243;s girar o rosto do paciente 45&#176; para o lado contralateral, visualize o vaso em corte transversal ou longitudinal e me&#231;a a dist&#226;ncia entre a parede anterior da veia e a pele (no ponto de entrada da agulha). Tome cuidado para n&#227;o pressionar demais o transdutor contra a pele, pois isso pode comprimir a veia.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Diferencia&#231;&#227;o ultrassonogr&#225;fica entre art&#233;rias e veias</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Art&#233;rias</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Veias</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Paredes mais grossas</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Paredes mais finas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">N&#227;o compress&#237;veis</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Compress&#237;veis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Puls&#225;teis</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">N&#227;o puls&#225;teis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dire&#231;&#227;o do fluxo ao Doppler colorido</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dire&#231;&#227;o do fluxo ao Doppler colorido</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1.3. Pun&#231;&#227;o em Corte Transversal (Eixo Curto)</title>
          <p>Nessa abordagem, a veia &#233; visualizada em uma se&#231;&#227;o transversal e posicionada no centro da tela do ultrassom. A agulha deve ser introduzida exatamente no plano m&#233;dio do transdutor, perpendicular &#224; pele (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f28">Figura 28</xref>). Esse m&#233;todo &#233; considerado mais acess&#237;vel do ponto de vista t&#233;cnico, pois permite a visualiza&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea da veia e da art&#233;ria no mesmo campo de imagem, o que favorece a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre estruturas vasculares e evita pun&#231;&#245;es inadvertidas.</p>
          <fig id="f28">
            <label>Figura 28</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Posicionamento do transdutor e da agulha na t&#233;cnica de pun&#231;&#227;o transversal. A agulha &#233; visualizada somente como um ponto ecog&#234;nico quando cruza o feixe ultrassonogr&#225;fico. A movimenta&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos ao redor da agulha ajuda a identificar a sua posi&#231;&#227;o, enquanto a indenta&#231;&#227;o da parede da veia confirma o posicionamento correto.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>No entanto, sua principal limita&#231;&#227;o &#233; a impossibilidade de visualizar continuamente a ponta da agulha. Como cruza obliquamente o feixe ultrassonogr&#225;fico, a agulha aparece como um ponto hiperecog&#234;nico (brilhante) intermitente, acompanhado de um artefato ecog&#234;nico distal. Esse artefato pode induzir interpreta&#231;&#245;es equivocadas, sendo confundido com a ponta da agulha.</p>
          <p>A posi&#231;&#227;o da agulha deve ser inferida pela movimenta&#231;&#227;o dos tecidos adjacentes durante a inser&#231;&#227;o, que pode ser facilitada por movimentos suaves e controlados de avan&#231;o e recuo. Como a visualiza&#231;&#227;o direta da ponta da agulha &#233; limitada, &#233; fundamental conhecer previamente a profundidade da parede anterior da veia &#151; medida no modo B da pele at&#233; o l&#250;men vascular. Essa dist&#226;ncia serve como refer&#234;ncia para evitar avan&#231;os excessivos, que aumentam o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es, como pun&#231;&#245;es da parede posterior, les&#245;es arteriais e hematomas.</p>
          <p>A confirma&#231;&#227;o do posicionamento correto da agulha dentro do vaso ocorre pela observa&#231;&#227;o da compress&#227;o da parede anterior e, posteriormente, o retorno de sangue pela seringa conectada. Essa etapa &#233; essencial antes da introdu&#231;&#227;o do fio-guia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1.4. Pun&#231;&#227;o em Corte Longitudinal (Eixo Longo)</title>
          <p>A abordagem longitudinal oferece ao operador uma visualiza&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua da trajet&#243;ria da agulha em tempo real, desde a entrada nos tecidos at&#233; a penetra&#231;&#227;o na luz do vaso. Isso proporciona um controle mais refinado do procedimento, com mais seguran&#231;a e precis&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f29">Figura 29</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f29">
            <label>Figura 29</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Posicionamento do transdutor e posi&#231;&#227;o da agulha na t&#233;cnica de pun&#231;&#227;o longitudinal. A agulha pode ser visualizada em toda sua extens&#227;o quando completamente dentro do feixe de ultrassom. A ponta da agulha pode ser reconhecida pelo seu aspecto em bisel.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Ao contr&#225;rio da pun&#231;&#227;o em eixo curto, a t&#233;cnica em corte longitudinal permite a visualiza&#231;&#227;o direta da ponta da agulha ao longo de todo o trajeto, inclusive no momento exato em que entra no vaso. Isso elimina a depend&#234;ncia do retorno sangu&#237;neo para confirmar o posicionamento correto, pois a agulha pode ser monitorada visualmente durante toda a pun&#231;&#227;o. Por consequ&#234;ncia, o fio-guia pode ser introduzido sob vis&#227;o ultrassonogr&#225;fica direta, o que reduz o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es, como les&#245;es da parede posterior do vaso e inser&#231;&#245;es inadequadas.</p>
          <p>Apesar dessas vantagens, a pun&#231;&#227;o em corte longitudinal &#233; mais desafiadora do ponto de vista t&#233;cnico, especialmente para iniciantes. Isso ocorre porque &#233; necess&#225;rio o plano do feixe de ultrassom precisamente com o eixo da agulha, o que exige destreza manual e familiaridade com a imagem ultrassonogr&#225;fica. Pequenos desvios no alinhamento podem fazer com que a agulha desapare&#231;a do campo de vis&#227;o, o que torna o procedimento frustrante em m&#227;os menos experientes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1.5. Locais de Pun&#231;&#227;o Guiada por Ultrassonografia</title>
          <p>Diversas veias centrais podem ser acessadas com aux&#237;lio da ultrassonografia. A escolha do local ideal depende de fatores anat&#244;micos e cl&#237;nicos e da experi&#234;ncia do operador. As principais abordagens s&#227;o descritas a seguir:</p>
          <sec>
            <title>a. Veia jugular interna</title>
            <p>Com frequ&#234;ncia, a veia jugular interna &#233; considerada o local de escolha para pun&#231;&#227;o guiada por ultrassonografia, principalmente devido &#224; sua acessibilidade e &#224; visibilidade favor&#225;vel com o transdutor. O ponto de pun&#231;&#227;o mais utilizado se situa entre as duas cabe&#231;as do m&#250;sculo esternocleidomastoideo, embora qualquer ponto onde com menor espessura de tecido mole entre a pele e o vaso possa ser adequado. A ultrassonografia permite a visualiza&#231;&#227;o clara da rela&#231;&#227;o entre a veia e a art&#233;ria car&#243;tida, o que reduz substancialmente o risco de pun&#231;&#227;o arterial inadvertida.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>b. Veia femoral</title>
            <p>A veia femoral &#233; uma alternativa segura, especialmente em situa&#231;&#245;es de emerg&#234;ncia. Para localiz&#225;-la, o transdutor deve ser posicionado imediatamente abaixo do ligamento inguinal. Na maioria dos pacientes, a veia se encontra medialmente &#224; art&#233;ria femoral, mas pode haver sobreposi&#231;&#227;o (<italic>overlap</italic>) entre os dois vasos em at&#233; 50% dos casos. Quando a art&#233;ria est&#225; completamente sobre a veia, recomenda-se avaliar o lado contralateral para minimizar o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>c. Veia subcl&#225;via</title>
            <p>O acesso ecoguiado &#224; veia subcl&#225;via tem se mostrado eficaz, com maior taxa de sucesso e menor incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es como pun&#231;&#227;o arterial e hematomas. Al&#233;m disso, a abordagem est&#225; associada a uma menor taxa de infec&#231;&#227;o e bacteremia, bem como menor variabilidade anat&#244;mica em compara&#231;&#227;o com a veia jugular interna.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Entretanto, o trajeto da veia subcl&#225;via sob a clav&#237;cula imp&#245;e desafios t&#233;cnicos. A insona&#231;&#227;o do vaso pode ser dif&#237;cil para profissionais pouco experientes, especialmente devido a varia&#231;&#245;es anat&#244;micas individuais e &#224; interfer&#234;ncia &#243;ssea.</p>
            <p>Para a pun&#231;&#227;o infraclavicular ecoguiada, recomenda-se:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Iniciar com a avalia&#231;&#227;o da regi&#227;o infraclavicular em corte transversal;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Identificar a veia e a art&#233;ria no tri&#226;ngulo clavipeitoral;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Centralizar a imagem da veia na tela;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Rotacionar o transdutor para obter a visualiza&#231;&#227;o longitudinal (eixo longo) da veia.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Essa orienta&#231;&#227;o permite:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Visualizar a ponta da agulha em tempo real;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Evitar a pun&#231;&#227;o da parede posterior do vaso;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Em alguns casos, identificar a pleura parietal, aumentando a seguran&#231;a do procedimento.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Por esses motivos, a pun&#231;&#227;o em eixo curto (corte transversal) n&#227;o &#233; recomendada nessa regi&#227;o, especialmente devido ao risco de pneumot&#243;rax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Embora meta-an&#225;lises n&#227;o tenham demonstrado diferen&#231;as significativas na taxa de sucesso da pun&#231;&#227;o da veia subcl&#225;via guiada por US em compara&#231;&#227;o com a t&#233;cnica baseada em refer&#234;ncias anat&#244;micas (insucesso de 9% vs. 13%, respectivamente), Caballero et al. recomendam o uso da ultrassonografia em situa&#231;&#245;es com maior risco de complica&#231;&#227;o ou dificuldade t&#233;cnica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup> Mesmo ap&#243;s a falha da t&#233;cnica baseada em marcos anat&#244;micos, a pun&#231;&#227;o guiada por ultrassonografia demonstra maior probabilidade de sucesso.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1.6. Outras Pun&#231;&#245;es Vasculares Guiadas por Ultrassonografia</title>
          <p>A ultrassonografia tamb&#233;m pode guiar a pun&#231;&#227;o das veias cef&#225;lica ou bas&#237;lica no bra&#231;o, locais comumente utilizados para a inser&#231;&#227;o de cateteres do tipo PICC.</p>
          <p>As pun&#231;&#245;es arteriais s&#227;o utilizadas para cateterismos diagn&#243;sticos e terap&#234;uticos e para medida da press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia (PAM). Quando guiados por ultrassonografia, esses procedimentos obedecem &#224;s mesmas regras aplicadas &#224;s veias, sendo a t&#233;cnica longitudinal utilizada com mais frequ&#234;ncia.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.2. Pericardiocentese Guiada por Ultrassom</title>
        <p>O ac&#250;mulo anormal de l&#237;quido entre as membranas peric&#225;rdicas &#233; uma condi&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca comum, com diversas etiologias poss&#237;veis. A pun&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica pode ser realizada de forma eletiva, para investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica do derrame peric&#225;rdico, ou de forma emergencial, para al&#237;vio imediato do tamponamento card&#237;aco. A ecocardiografia &#233; o m&#233;todo de escolha para o diagn&#243;stico, localiza&#231;&#227;o, quantifica&#231;&#227;o e avalia&#231;&#227;o dos efeitos hemodin&#226;micos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Tradicionalmente, a pericardiocentese era realizada pela via subxifoide, "&#224;s cegas", com morbidade em torno de 20% e mortalidade de 6%. Quando guiada por US e executada por profissionais experientes que receberam treinamento adequado, apresenta taxa de eventos maiores de 0,3 a 3,9% e de eventos menores de 0,4 a 20%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> As se&#231;&#245;es a seguir apresentam um guia passo a passo para a t&#233;cnica de pun&#231;&#227;o guiada por US recomendada por este posicionamento.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2.1. T&#233;cnica de Pun&#231;&#227;o Guiada por Ultrassonografia</title>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Normalmente, utiliza-se o transdutor setorial de baixa frequ&#234;ncia, usado na ecocardiografia. Quando &#233; necess&#225;rio maior detalhamento das estruturas, principalmente nas janelas paraesternais (avalia&#231;&#227;o do curso das art&#233;rias tor&#225;cicas internas) ou em janelas muito lateralizadas (proximidade &#224; pleura), utiliza-se o transdutor linear de alta frequ&#234;ncia;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f25">Figura 25</xref> ilustra as janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas utilizadas e a frequ&#234;ncia com que foram empregadas em uma s&#233;rie da Cl&#237;nica Mayo;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Deve se identificar onde o ac&#250;mulo de l&#237;quido &#233; maior. Apesar de ser circunferencial na maioria das vezes, a distribui&#231;&#227;o do l&#237;quido acumulado em torno do cora&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o &#233; uniforme;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Deve-se localizar o ponto em que a dist&#226;ncia entre a pele e o espa&#231;o peric&#225;rdico &#233; mais curta e identificar estruturas adjacentes ou no trajeto da agulha (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figura 26</xref>);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O paciente deve ser posicionado em dec&#250;bito dorsal, com cabeceira elevada entre 30&#176; e 60&#176;;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Deve-se realizar anestesia local, com seda&#231;&#227;o leve, utilizando o kit de canula&#231;&#227;o venosa central;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Na pun&#231;&#227;o, a agulha deve ser introduzida no local previamente marcado e sempre pelo bordo superior da costela (para evitar o risco de les&#227;o dos vasos intercostais). Nas janelas apicais e subcostal, deve-se verificar a poss&#237;vel interposi&#231;&#227;o de tecido hep&#225;tico;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Ap&#243;s alcan&#231;ar o espa&#231;o peric&#225;rdico (drenagem de l&#237;quido ou sangue), deve-se introduzir o cateter usando a t&#233;cnica de Seldinger e confirmar seu posicionamento por meio da inje&#231;&#227;o de 5 mL de solu&#231;&#227;o salina agitada. Em seguida, deve-se fixar o cateter e o curativo est&#233;ril conforme a rotina padr&#227;o.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2.2. Contraindica&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>Embora n&#227;o existam contraindica&#231;&#245;es absolutas &#224; pericardiocentese, algumas situa&#231;&#245;es exigem cautela. Quando o derrame peric&#225;rdico est&#225; associado &#224; dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda da aorta ou &#224; ruptura da parede ventricular esquerda, como pode ocorrer no IAM ou em traumas tor&#225;cicos, a drenagem peric&#225;rdica apenas deve ser considerada na aus&#234;ncia de acesso imediato &#224; cirurgia card&#237;aca. Nesses casos, a pun&#231;&#227;o deve ser realizada de maneira lenta e controlada, apenas o suficiente para estabilizar temporariamente a hemodin&#226;mica do paciente at&#233; a interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica.</p>
          <p>Outra contraindica&#231;&#227;o relativa &#233; a trombocitopenia importante, especialmente quando a contagem plaquet&#225;ria &#233; inferior a 50.000/mm&#179;, dado o maior risco de sangramento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2.3. Complica&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p>Embora seja um procedimento potencialmente salvador em situa&#231;&#245;es de tamponamento card&#237;aco, a pericardiocentese &#224; beira do leito n&#227;o est&#225; isenta de riscos. A realiza&#231;&#227;o segura exige conhecimento anat&#244;mico preciso, t&#233;cnica adequada e uso preferencial da orienta&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica. As complica&#231;&#245;es durante o procedimento variam em gravidade, desde efeitos vagais autolimitados at&#233; les&#245;es card&#237;acas ou vasculares graves. A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 9</xref> resume as poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es associadas ao procedimento.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t9">
            <label>Tabela 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es durante a pun&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Maiores</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Les&#227;o das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas<break/> Lacera&#231;&#227;o das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, intercostais ou tor&#225;cica interna<break/> Pun&#231;&#227;o visceral<break/> Pneumot&#243;rax<break/> Arritmias<break/> S&#237;ndrome da descompress&#227;o peric&#225;rdica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Menores</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipotens&#227;o e bradicardia vasovagal<break/> Arritmias supraventriculares<break/> F&#237;stula pleuroperic&#225;rdica</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10.3. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Est&#244;mago Cheio</title>
        <p>A ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica &#233; realizada sob seda&#231;&#227;o e, para a seguran&#231;a do procedimento, &#233; essencial avaliar o est&#244;mago cheio para evitar o risco broncoaspira&#231;&#227;o e suas consequ&#234;ncias. Na pr&#225;tica, isso se limita a perguntar ao paciente sobre o tempo de jejum em horas. Essa avalia&#231;&#227;o subjetiva pode criar um risco de broncoaspira&#231;&#227;o, principalmente em condi&#231;&#245;es que cursam com gastroparesia (gravidez, diabetes, obesidade, instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica, etc.). Neste posicionamento, adota-se a recomenda&#231;&#227;o da Sociedade Americana de Anestesiologia, que preconiza os tempos de jejum a seguir<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Tabela 10</xref>).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t10">
          <label>Tabela 10</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#227;o dos tempos de jejum de acordo com a &#250;ltima refei&#231;&#227;o<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Dieta</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Tempo jejum</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">L&#237;quida sem res&#237;duo</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">2 horas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Leite materno</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">4 horas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">L&#237;quida com res&#237;duo e f&#243;rmulas infantis</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">6 horas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Alimentos leves e baixo volume</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">6 horas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ingest&#227;o habitual de alimentos gordurosos</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">8 horas<break/> ou mais</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>O POCUS g&#225;strico permite avaliar de forma simples e direta a quantidade e a qualidade do res&#237;duo g&#225;strico antes do procedimento, aumentando a sua seguran&#231;a.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.1. T&#233;cnica de Avalia&#231;&#227;o</title>
          <p>Em geral, a avalia&#231;&#227;o do est&#244;mago por POCUS &#233; realizada com o paciente em posi&#231;&#227;o supina ou em dec&#250;bito lateral direito. Utiliza-se um transdutor curvil&#237;neo de baixa frequ&#234;ncia (2-5 MHz) para obter imagens da regi&#227;o epig&#225;strica e do antro g&#225;strico. A sonda &#233; posicionada longitudinalmente no plano sagital, logo abaixo do ap&#234;ndice xifoide e orientada para a esquerda do paciente. A identifica&#231;&#227;o do antro g&#225;strico &#233; essencial, pois &#233; o local mais sens&#237;vel para detectar a presen&#231;a de conte&#250;do g&#225;strico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f30">Figura 30a</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f30">
            <label>Figura 30</label>
            <caption>
              <title>a. Antro g&#225;strico com conte&#250;do anecoico, indicando est&#244;mago cheio (S) com conte&#250;do l&#237;quido. A: aorta; L: f&#237;gado b Est&#244;mago vazio com antro g&#225;strico colapsado (S) c. Est&#244;mago cheio com conte&#250;do s&#243;lido caracterizado por &#225;reas hiperecog&#234;nicas brancas (S).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3.2. Achados Sonogr&#225;ficos</title>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Est&#244;mago vazio:</bold> Um est&#244;mago vazio geralmente apresenta o antro g&#225;strico colapsado, com paredes finas e sem l&#237;quido ou conte&#250;do s&#243;lido discern&#237;vel. A mucosa g&#225;strica pode estar vis&#237;vel como uma linha hiperecog&#234;nica, enquanto o l&#250;men do est&#244;mago aparece praticamente sem conte&#250;do (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f30">Figura 30b</xref>);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Est&#244;mago com conte&#250;do l&#237;quido:</bold> Quando o est&#244;mago est&#225; cheio de l&#237;quido, o antro g&#225;strico se expande e apresenta uma apar&#234;ncia anecoica (preta) &#224; ultrassonografia. Essa caracter&#237;stica se deve &#224; presen&#231;a de l&#237;quido que n&#227;o reflete o som, o que cria uma &#225;rea escura na imagem. Em alguns casos, &#233; poss&#237;vel observar movimentos perist&#225;lticos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f30">Figura 30a</xref>);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Est&#244;mago com conte&#250;do s&#243;lido:</bold> Um est&#244;mago com conte&#250;do s&#243;lido ou espesso apresenta uma apar&#234;ncia mais complexa &#224; ultrassonografia. O antro g&#225;strico pode ter aspecto heterog&#234;neo, com &#225;reas hiperecog&#234;nicas (brancas) que indicam a presen&#231;a de part&#237;culas s&#243;lidas misturadas ao l&#237;quido. O padr&#227;o &#233; t&#237;pico ap&#243;s a ingest&#227;o de refei&#231;&#245;es s&#243;lidas ou alimentos de dif&#237;cil digest&#227;o (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f30">Figura 30c</xref>).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>A quantifica&#231;&#227;o do conte&#250;do g&#225;strico pelo POCUS emerge como ferramenta &#250;til agregando seguran&#231;a ao procedimento notadamente em cen&#225;rios onde o a hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica e o tempo de jejum n&#227;o podem ser bem definidos. Outra poss&#237;vel vantagem &#233; antecipar o procedimento uma vez que os achados ultrassonogr&#225;ficos indiquem um est&#244;mago vazio abordagem essa ainda sem valida&#231;&#227;o segura.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>11. Considera&#231;&#245;es Finais sobre este Posicionamento</title>
      <sec>
        <title>11.1. Realidade Atual e Perspectivas Futuras</title>
        <p>O uso do POCUS representa uma extens&#227;o natural do exame f&#237;sico moderno, oferecendo informa&#231;&#245;es em tempo real que impactam diretamente a tomada de decis&#245;es cl&#237;nicas. Sua aplica&#231;&#227;o estruturada permite a avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e eficaz de condi&#231;&#245;es cr&#237;ticas em ambientes de emerg&#234;ncia, terapia intensiva e at&#233; mesmo no &#226;mbito ambulatorial. No entanto, como vimos na Se&#231;&#227;o 1, seu uso seguro e eficiente depende da regulamenta&#231;&#227;o legal, do treinamento padronizado, da supervis&#227;o adequada e da atualiza&#231;&#227;o constante das habilidades t&#233;cnicas e interpretativas.</p>
        <p>A incorpora&#231;&#227;o do POCUS aos fluxos assistenciais deve ser acompanhada de programas de capacita&#231;&#227;o, certifica&#231;&#227;o de compet&#234;ncias e estrat&#233;gias de monitoramento cont&#237;nuo da qualidade. Dessa forma, o m&#233;todo pode concretizar seu potencial como ferramenta diagn&#243;stica complementar, promovendo cuidados mais precisos, &#225;geis e centrados no paciente.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>11.2. Contextualiza&#231;&#227;o do POCUS Cardiovascular no &#194;mbito da Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica no Brasil</title>
        <p>A incorpora&#231;&#227;o do POCUS cardiovascular no SUS ocorre em paralelo &#224; expans&#227;o da telessa&#250;de, especialmente ap&#243;s a consolida&#231;&#227;o do Programa Telessa&#250;de Brasil Redes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> e da A&#231;&#227;o Estrat&#233;gica SUS Digital,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> que busca reduzir as desigualdades de acesso e apoiar a qualifica&#231;&#227;o da aten&#231;&#227;o em sa&#250;de, embora ainda existam importantes assimetrias regionais de infraestrutura e conectividade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> A ado&#231;&#227;o do POCUS enfrenta barreiras como disponibilidade limitada de equipamentos, capacita&#231;&#227;o irregular, aus&#234;ncia de fluxos assistenciais padronizados e desafios log&#237;sticos relativos &#224; manuten&#231;&#227;o, ao suporte t&#233;cnico e &#224; integra&#231;&#227;o com sistemas de informa&#231;&#227;o. Esses aspectos s&#227;o discutidos em revis&#245;es nacionais sobre o tema.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> Equipamentos port&#225;teis de ultrassonografia, como dispositivos <italic>handheld</italic>, apresentam custo internacional de USD 4.000&#8211;6.000, conforme cat&#225;logos de fabricantes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> acrescido de despesas com assinaturas anuais de software e servi&#231;os. Como oportunidades de financiamento, destacam-se os programas federais vinculados ao SUS Digital,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> al&#233;m de linhas de apoio &#224; inova&#231;&#227;o da FINEP, como o Inova Sa&#250;de e o Apoio Direto &#224; Inova&#231;&#227;o,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup> al&#233;m de editais de fomento estaduais, como os da FAPERJ,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> voltados &#224; aquisi&#231;&#227;o de equipamentos, infraestrutura tecnol&#243;gica e pesquisa aplicada. Esses fatores sugerem um cen&#225;rio futuro desafiador, mas com boas perspectivas, para a aplica&#231;&#227;o dessa metodologia em larga escala, n&#227;o somente no &#226;mbito da sa&#250;de privada, mas tamb&#233;m no da sa&#250;de p&#250;blica.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
        <label>Realiza&#231;&#227;o:</label>
        <p>Departamento de Imagem Cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (DIC-SBC)</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes respons&#225;vel:</label>
        <p>Humberto Graner Moreira (Coordenador), F&#233;lix Jos&#233; Alvarez Ramires, Helena Cramer Veiga Rey, Jos&#233; Augusto Soares Barreto Filho, Nadine Oliveira Clausell.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Nota:</label>
        <p>Estes posicionamentos se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
      <title>Disponibilidade de Dados:</title>
      <p>os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto do Posicionamento est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
    </sec>
    <glossary>
      <def-list>
        <title>Lista de abreviaturas e siglas</title>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G1">+LR</term>
          <def>
            <p>Positive likelihood ratio</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G2">A4C</term>
          <def>
            <p>Apical 4 c&#226;maras</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G3">ACLS</term>
          <def>
            <p>Suporte avan&#231;ado de vida em cardiologia</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G4">AD</term>
          <def>
            <p>&#193;trio direito</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G5">angio-TC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Angiotomografia</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G6">AP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Art&#233;ria pulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G7">ASCE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Art&#233;ria subcl&#225;via esquerda</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G8">AUC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Area under the curve</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G9">BIA</term>
          <def>
            <p>Bal&#227;o intra-a&#243;rtico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G10">BLUE</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G11">CATE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Cateterismo card&#237;aco</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G12">CC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Choque cardiog&#234;nico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G13">CHEST</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Critical Care Ultrasonography Certificate of Completion Certificate of Completion Program - American College of Chest Physicians</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G14">DAVP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Dispositivo de assist&#234;ncia ventricular percut&#226;nea</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G15">DC</term>
          <def>
            <p>D&#233;bito card&#237;aco</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G16">DHE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Dist&#250;rbio hidroeletrol&#237;tico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G17">DICOM</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G18">DPer</term>
          <def>
            <p>Derrame Peric&#225;rdico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G19">DPOC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Doen&#231;a pulmonar obstrutiva cr&#244;nica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G20">DS</term>
          <def>
            <p>D&#233;bito sist&#243;lico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G21">ECG</term>
          <def>
            <p>Eletrocardiograma</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G22">ECMO</term>
          <def>
            <p>Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G23">ECMO-VA</term>
          <def>
            <p>Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venoarterial</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G24">ECMO-VV</term>
          <def>
            <p>Oxigena&#231;&#227;o por membrana extracorp&#243;rea venovenosa</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G25">EPSS</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>E-point septal separation</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G26">ESC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Sociedade Europeia de Cardiologia</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G27">Esp ou Sp</term>
          <def>
            <p>Especificidade</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G28">ETE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G29">ETT</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ecocardiografia transtor&#225;cica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G30">FAC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Altera&#231;&#227;o fracion&#225;ria da &#225;rea</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G31">FC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G32">FEVE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G33">FR</term>
          <def>
            <p>Fluido-responsividade</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G34">FS</term>
          <def>
            <p>Encurtamento fracional</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G35">FT</term>
          <def>
            <p>Fluido-toler&#226;ncia</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G36">HR</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Hazard ratio</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G37">IA</term>
          <def>
            <p>Intelig&#234;ncia artificial</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G38">IAM</term>
          <def>
            <p>Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G39">IC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G40">IC95%</term>
          <def>
            <p>Intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95%</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G41">ICFEp</term>
          <def>
            <p>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G42">ICFEr</term>
          <def>
            <p>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G43">IRA</term>
          <def>
            <p>Insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G44">IT</term>
          <def>
            <p>Insufici&#234;ncia tric&#250;spide</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G45">LRA</term>
          <def>
            <p>Les&#227;o renal aguda</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G46">MAPSE</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Mitral annular plane systolic excursion</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G47">OR</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Odds ratio</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G48">OSAUS</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Objective Structured Assessment of Ultrasound Skills</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G49">PAD</term>
          <def>
            <p>Press&#227;o atrial direita</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G50">PAE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Press&#227;o atrial esquerda</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G51">PAM</term>
          <def>
            <p>Press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G52">PAP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Press&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G53">PCR</term>
          <def>
            <p>Parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G54">PLAPS</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Posterolateral alveolar and/or pleural syndrome</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G55">PLAX</term>
          <def>
            <p>Paraesternal eixo longo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G56">PLR</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Passive leg raising</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G57">POCUS</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Point of care ultrasound</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G58">POCUS-PCR</term>
          <def>
            <p>POCUS durante a parada cardiorrespirat&#243;ria</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G59">PSAX</term>
          <def>
            <p>Paraesternal eixo curto</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G60">PSVD</term>
          <def>
            <p>Press&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo direito</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G61">PVC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Press&#227;o venosa central</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G62">RA</term>
          <def>
            <p>Regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G63">RCP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G64">SCA</term>
          <def>
            <p>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G65">SCASSST</term>
          <def>
            <p>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda sem supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G66">SCM</term>
          <def>
            <p>Suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G67">SCMCP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Suporte circulat&#243;rio mec&#226;nico de curto prazo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G68">SDRA</term>
          <def>
            <p>S&#237;ndrome do desconforto respirat&#243;rio agudo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G69">Sen ou Sn</term>
          <def>
            <p>Sensibilidade</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G70">SIA</term>
          <def>
            <p>Septo interatrial</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G71">SIV</term>
          <def>
            <p>Septo interventricular</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G72">SM</term>
          <def>
            <p>Suporte mec&#226;nico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G73">SUS</term>
          <def>
            <p>Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G74">TAP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Tempo de acelera&#231;&#227;o do fluxo pulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G75">TAPSE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Excurs&#227;o sist&#243;lica do anel tric&#250;spide lateral</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G76">TEP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Tromboembolismo pulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G77">TOEF</term>
          <def>
            <p>Teste de oclus&#227;o expirat&#243;ria final</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G78">TOIF</term>
          <def>
            <p>Teste de oclus&#227;o inspirat&#243;ria final</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G79">TVI</term>
          <def>
            <p>Integral velocidade-tempo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G80">TVP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Trombose venosa profunda</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G81">US</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ultrassonografia</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G82">USC</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ultrassonografia de compress&#227;o</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G83">USP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ultrassonografia pulmonar</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G84">USV</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ultrassonografia vascular</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G85">UTI</term>
          <def>
            <p>Unidade de terapia intensiva</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G86">VAo</term>
          <def>
            <p>V&#225;lvula a&#243;rtica</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G87">VCI</term>
          <def>
            <p>Veia cava inferior</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G88">VCS</term>
          <def>
            <p>Veia cava superior</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G89">VD</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ventr&#237;culo Direito</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G90">VE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Ventr&#237;culo Esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G91">VExUS</term>
          <def>
            <p>
              <italic>Venous excess ultrasound</italic>
            </p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G92">VM</term>
          <def>
            <p>V&#225;lvula mitral</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G93">VPN</term>
          <def>
            <p>Valor preditivo negativo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G94">VPP</term>
          <def>
            <p>Valor preditivo positivo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G95">VS</term>
          <def>
            <p>Volume sist&#243;lico</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G96">VSF</term>
          <def>
            <p>Volume sist&#243;lico final</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G97">VSVE</term>
          <def>
            <p>Via de sa&#237;da do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
        <def-item>
          <term id="G98">VT</term>
          <def>
            <p>V&#225;lvula tric&#250;spide</p>
          </def>
        </def-item>
      </def-list>
    </glossary>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Spencer</surname>
              <given-names>KT</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kimura</surname>
              <given-names>BJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Korcarz</surname>
              <given-names>CE</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pellikka</surname>
              <given-names>PA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rahko</surname>
              <given-names>PS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Siegel</surname>
              <given-names>RJ</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Focused Cardiac Ultrasound: Recommendations from the American Society of Echocardiography</article-title>
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    <sec sec-type="supplementary-material" id="sec1">
      <title>Suplemento</title>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20260222i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Statement</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Positioning Statement on the Use of Point-of-Care Ultrasound in Cardiovascular Medicine &#8211; 2026</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1348-9074</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alcantara</surname>
            <given-names>Monica Luiza de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff37">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6900-4964</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bernardo</surname>
            <given-names>Marcos Paulo Lacerda</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff38">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff39">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5903-987X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Beck</surname>
            <given-names>Adenalva Lima de Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff40">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3438-0526</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Simone Nascimento</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff42">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5531-9647</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Morhy</surname>
            <given-names>Samira Saady</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff43">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-0725-0761</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lira</surname>
            <given-names>Edgar Bezerra de</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff43">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7046-8707</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Felix</surname>
            <given-names>Alex dos Santos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff44">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff45">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Goldwasser</surname>
            <given-names>Daniel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff46">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2634-4632</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Otto</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Estef&#226;nia Bosco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff47">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-8253-7535</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Salgado</surname>
            <given-names>Angelo Antunes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff38">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5575-9354</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Siciliano</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Paula dos Reis Velloso</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff44">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff48">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0008-9564-7435</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Fernando</given-names>
            <suffix>Netto</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff49">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2153-7301</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Freire</surname>
            <given-names>Claudia Maria Vilas</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff50">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff51">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1622-6621</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Albricker</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Cristina Lopes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff52">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1216-8316</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Rafael Modesto</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff53">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8258-0584</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mancuso</surname>
            <given-names>Frederico Jos&#233; Neves</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff54">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>Dalton de Souza</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff55">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3254-6820</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aboumarie</surname>
            <given-names>Hatem Soliman</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff56">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3314-9712</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Miglioranza</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Haertel</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff57">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0000-7287-9198</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Amaral</surname>
            <given-names>Salomon Israel do</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff58">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8809-8783</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Melo</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Dantas Tavares de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff59">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7900-6506</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Marcio Mendes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff60">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2535-4342</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paladin</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Tito</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff61">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4741-322X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moura</surname>
            <given-names>Lidia Ana Zytynski</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff62">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6186-3537</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff63">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff64">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff65">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3777-1947</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de Matos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff66">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7330-7674</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Montenegro</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo Lucena</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff67">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff68">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff69">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5774-2780</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Danzmann</surname>
            <given-names>Luiz Cl&#225;udio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff70">
            <sup>34</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff71">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0371-4060</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fernandes</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Ricardo Cordeiro</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff66">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0711-7995</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barberato</surname>
            <given-names>Silvio Henrique</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff72">
            <sup>36</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff37">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or RDSL, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff38">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto (HUPE) da Universidade Estadual do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff39">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Copa Star, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff40">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto de Cardiologia e Transplantes do Distrito Federal, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff41">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Sirio Liban&#234;s, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff42">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Eccos Diagn&#243;stico CardioVascular Avan&#231;ado, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff43">
          <label>7</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Einstein Hospital Istaelita, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff44">
          <label>8</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Nacional de Cardiologia, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff45">
          <label>9</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar Americas, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff46">
          <label>10</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Copa D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff47">
          <label>11</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Bras&#237;lia, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff48">
          <label>12</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Rede D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff49">
          <label>13</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Bras&#237;lia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">DF</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital DF Star - Rede D&#8217;Or, Bras&#237;lia, DF &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff50">
          <label>14</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Empresa Brasileira de Servi&#231;os Hospitalares (EBSERH), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff51">
          <label>15</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais (HC-UFMC), Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff52">
          <label>16</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio UniBh-Inspirali, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff53">
          <label>17</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Alian&#231;a Rede D&#8217;Or, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff54">
          <label>18</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo - Escola Paulista de Medicina (UNIFESP/EPM), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff55">
          <label>19</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Cardio Pulmonar, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff56">
          <label>20</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Londres</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="GB">UK</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Harefield Hospital, Royal Brompton and Harefield Hospitals, Londres, UK &#8211; England</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff57">
          <label>21</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">EcoHaertel - Hospital Mae de Deus, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff58">
          <label>22</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Samaritano Botafogo, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff59">
          <label>23</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Jo&#227;o Pessoa</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PB</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal da Para&#237;ba (UFPB), Jo&#227;o Pessoa, PB &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff60">
          <label>24</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Lu&#237;s</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">UDI Hospital Rede D'or S&#227;o Luiz, S&#227;o Lu&#237;s, MA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff61">
          <label>25</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff62">
          <label>26</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pontif&#237;cia Universidade Cat&#243;lica do Paran&#225; (PUC-PR), Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff63">
          <label>27</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff64">
          <label>28</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Brazilian Clinical Research Institute, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff65">
          <label>29</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff66">
          <label>30</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (InCor-HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff67">
          <label>31</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o de Pernambuco (PROCAPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff68">
          <label>32</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff69">
          <label>33</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Brasil Hospital Esperan&#231;a Recife - Rede D'or, Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff70">
          <label>34</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Luterana do Brasil, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff71">
          <label>35</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff72">
          <label>36</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cardioeco - Centro de Diagn&#243;stico Cardiovascular, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondence:</label> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro, Brazil &#8211; Postal Code: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code>. E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email></corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Reviewing Editor:</label>
          <p>Humberto Graner Moreira.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <table-wrap id="t26">
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Positioning Statement on the Use of Point-of-Care Ultrasound in Cardiovascular Medicine &#8211; 2026</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">The report below lists declarations of interest as reported to the SBC by the experts during the period of the development of these statement, 2025/2026.</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Expert</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Type of relationship with industry</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Adenalva Lima de Souza Beck</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Alex dos Santos Felix</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Alexandre de Matos Soeiro</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Biomerieux.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ana Cristina Lopes Albriker</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ana Paula dos Reis Veloso Siciliano</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Angelo Salgado</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Antonio Tito Paladino Filho</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Eduardo Lucena Montenegro</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Bayer: Firialta (HF); Pfizer: Vyndaquel/Vynkella (Amyloidosis); Alnylan: Amvuttra (Amyloidosis)<break/> Servier: Vastarel (CAD); Novartis: Entresto, Sybrava (HF, DLP); AstraZeneca: Forxiga, Lokelma, Breztri (HF, CKD, COPD); Viatris: Inspra (HF); Merck: Concor HF, CAD); Novo Nordisk: Wegovy (Obesity, CAD); EMS: Vynaxa (CAD).<break/> Other relationships<break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: - Novo Nordisk: Wegovy (Obesity, HF).</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Claudia Maria Vilas Freire</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Dalton de Souza Barros</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Daniel Goldwasser</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Edgar Bezerra de Lira Filho</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Fernando Mello Netto</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - St. Jude &#8211; Abbott: MitraClip (TEER); Edwards Lifesciences: PASCAL (TEER); Abbott: Amplatzer (PFO occluder, ASD occluder); Amulet (left atrial appendage occlusion &#8211; LAAO).</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Frederico Jos&#233; Neves Mancuso</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Hatem Soliman Aboumarie</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Jo&#227;o Ricardo Cordeiro Fernandes</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Lidia Ana Zytynski Moura</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other<break/> person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Bayer, Merck, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Lilly, Viatris.<break/> Other relationships<break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Novo Nordisk, Astra.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Luiz Claudio Danzmann</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - AstraZeneca: Lokelma; Bristol Myers Squibb: Camzyos; Bayer: Firialta.<break/> Other relationships<break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - AstraZeneca: Lokelma.<break/> Any other interest &#151; financial or other &#151; that should be declared considering the position taken in SBC that has not been expressly listed above:<break/> - Health area; medical education.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcelo Dantas Tavares de Melo</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcelo Haertel Miglioranza</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcio Mendes Pereira</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Abbott: MitraClip.<break/> Other relationships<break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Abbott: MitraClip.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Marcos Paulo Lacerda Bernardo</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Maria Estef&#226;nia Bosco Otto</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Monica Luiza de Alcantara</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Boston Medical: proctoria Watchman; Edwards Lifesciences: proctoria PASCAL; Vit&#243;ria Hospitalar: proctoria MitraClip (Abbott), Amplatzer (Abbott)</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> B - Funding for research under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthetic, equipment, and implant industries, Brazilian or foreign:<break/> - Bayer, Novartis, Idorsia, Roche Diagnostics</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Rafael Modesto Fernandes</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Other relationships<break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Edwards.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Salomon Israel do Amaral</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Samira Saady Morhy</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Silvio Henrique Barberato</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration<break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Pfizer: Amyloidosis; AstraZeneca: HFpEF.<break/> Other relationships<break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry:<break/> - Pfizer: Amyloidosis.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Simone Nascimento Santos</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <sec>
        <title>Table of contents</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>1. POCUS: Methodology, Concept, Training, and Certification</bold> 8</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.1. Methodology</bold> 8</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.2. Concept and Scope of Application</bold> 8</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.3. Equipment</bold> 8</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.4. Training, Certification, and Maintenance of Competence</bold> 9</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.5. Ethical and Legal Aspects of Cardiovascular POCUS use in Brazil</bold> 9</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>2. Cardiac POCUS</bold> 12</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>2.1. Main Windows in Cardiac POCUS</bold> 12</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>2.2. Assessment of Global Left Ventricular Systolic Function</bold> 13</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.2.1. General Considerations</bold> 13</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.2.2. Methods for Assessing Left Ventricular Systolic Function</bold> 14</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.2.3. Other Techniques for Assessing Left Ventricular Systolic Function</bold> 14</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>2.3. Assessment of Right Ventricular Overload and Right Ventricular Systolic Function</bold> 14</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.3.1. Pulmonary Embolism</bold> 14</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.3.2. POCUS for Assessing Right Ventricular Myocardial Infarction</bold> 15</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.3.3. Other Applications</bold> 16</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.3.4. Limitations</bold> 16</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>2.4. POCUS in Cardiac Tamponade</bold> 16</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>2.5. Advanced POCUS</bold> 16</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.5.1. Assessment of Left Ventricular Outflow Tract Velocity-Time Integral and Determination of Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output</bold> 16</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>2.5.2. E/e&#8242; ratio as a measure of left atrial pressure and fluid tolerance</bold> 18</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>2.6. Pediatric cardiac POCUS</bold> 19</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>3. Lung Ultrasound</bold> 20</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.1. Introduction</bold> 20</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.2. Technical Aspects</bold> 20</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.2.1. Equipment and Transducers</bold> 20</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.3. Examination Protocols</bold> 20</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.4. Quantification of B-Lines</bold> 21</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.5. Main Applications of Lung Ultrasound</bold> 21</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.1. Pulmonary Congestion</bold> 21</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.2. Pleural Effusion</bold> 21</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.3. Interstitial Syndromes</bold> 21</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.4. Pneumonic Consolidation</bold> 23</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.5. Atelectasis</bold> 23</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.6. Pneumothorax</bold> 24</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.7. Pulmonary Embolism</bold> 24</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives</bold> 24</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>4. Ultrasound Focused on the Assessment of Systemic Venous Congestion - VExUS</bold> 24</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.1. Introduction</bold> 24</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.2. Clinical Studies and Scientific Evidence</bold> 24</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.3. Venous Excess Ultrasound Components</bold> 25</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.4. Venous Excess Ultrasound Grading</bold> 28</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.5. Clinical Applications</bold> 28</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.6. Limitations and Pitfalls</bold> 28</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.7. Conclusion</bold> 29</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>5. POCUS in Deep Vein Thrombosis</bold> 29</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>5.1. Introduction</bold> 29</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>5.2. Scientific Evidence for POCUS in Assessment of Deep Vein Thrombosis</bold> 30</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>5.3. Technique of the Focused Ultrasound Protocol for Assessment of Deep Vein Thrombosis</bold> 30</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>6. POCUS in the Patient with Circulatory Shock</bold> 31</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>6.1. Introduction</bold> 31</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>6.2. Diagnostic Protocols</bold> 31</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>6.3. Key Questions to Identify the Type of Shock</bold> 34</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>6.4. Fluid Responsiveness and Fluid Tolerance</bold> 36</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>6.4.1. Estimation of Cardiac Output</bold> 36</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>6.4.2. Inferior and Superior Vena Cava</bold> 36</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>6.4.3. Passive Leg Raising Maneuver</bold> 36</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>6.4.4. Expiratory and Inspiratory Occlusion Maneuvers</bold> 36</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>7. POCUS in Short-Term Mechanical Circulatory Support</bold> 37</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.1. Introduction</bold> 37</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.2. The Role of POCUS in Short-Term Mechanical Circulatory Support</bold> 37</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.3. Initial Patient Assessment</bold> 37</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.4. Device Placement and Position Confirmation</bold> 39</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.5. Intra-Aortic Balloon Pump</bold> 39</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.5.1. Introduction</bold> 39</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.5.2. Transesophageal Echocardiography Examination Sequence to Guide Intra-Aortic Balloon Pump Insertion</bold> 39</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.5.3. Post-Implantation Checklist</bold> 39</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.6. Veno-Arterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation</bold> 39</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.6.1. Introduction</bold> 39</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.6.2. Patient Selection for Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation</bold> 40</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.6.3. Cannulation Guidance</bold> 41</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.6.4. Immediate Effects of Peripheral Venoarterial Extracorporea Membrane Oxygenation Observed by Bedside Echocardiography</bold> 41</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.6.5. Assessment of Unloading and Weaning</bold> 43</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>7.6.6. Monitoring During Weaning Trials</bold> 43</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.7. Challenges and Future Directions</bold> 44</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>7.8. Conclusion</bold> 44</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>8. POCUS in the Emergency Department</bold> 44</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>8.1. POCUS in Chest Pain</bold> 44</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>8.1.1. Evaluation of Pericardial Diseases in the Emergency Department</bold> 44</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>8.1.2. Pleural and Pulmonary Evaluation in the Emergency Department</bold> 44</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>8.2. Evaluation of the Patient with Dyspnea</bold> 45</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>8.2.1 Pulmonary Congestion, Pleural Diseases, and Other Diagnoses Assessed by Lung Ultrasound</bold> 45</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>8.2.2. Pulmonary Embolism</bold> 46</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>8.3. Evaluation of the Patient with Hemodynamic Instability or Organ Dysfunction</bold> 46</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>8.4. Evaluation of the Patient with Peripheral Edema</bold> 47</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>9. POCUS in Cardiac Arrest</bold> 47</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>9.1. Introduction</bold> 47</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>9.2. Technical Aspects</bold> 48</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>9.3. Performance of POCUS in Cardiac Arrest</bold> 48</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>9.4. Confirmation of Cardiac Arrest, Assessment of Chest Compression Effectiveness, and Prognostic Role of Cardiac Activity in Pulseless Electrical Activity</bold> 48</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>9.5. Diagnosis of Reversible Causes Using POCUS in Cardiac Arrest</bold> 48</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>9.5.1. Cardiac Tamponade</bold> 48</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>9.5.2. Pulmonary Embolism</bold> 48</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>9.5.3. Tension Pneumothorax</bold> 50</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>9.5.4. Hypovolemia</bold> 50</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>10. Ultrasound-Guided Procedures</bold> 50</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>10.1. Ultrasound-Guided Vascular Access</bold> 50</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.1.1. Cannulation Technique</bold> 50</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.1.2. Step-by-Step Cannulation (Use Sterile Supplies)</bold> 50</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.1.3. Transverse (Short-Axis) Cannulation</bold> 51</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.1.4. Longitudinal (Long-Axis) Cannulation</bold> 51</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.1.5. Ultrasound-Guided Cannulation Sites</bold> 51</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.1.6. Other Ultrasound-Guided Vascular Punctures</bold> 52</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>10.2. Ultrasound-Guided Pericardiocentesis</bold> 53</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.2.1. Ultrasound-Guided Puncture Technique</bold> 53</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.2.2. Contraindications</bold> 53</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.2.3. Complications</bold> 53</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>10.3. Evaluation of Gastric Fullness</bold> 53</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.3.1. Assessment Technique</bold> 53</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>10.3.2. Sonographic Findings</bold> 54</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>11. Final Considerations of this Positioning Statement</bold> 54</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>11.1. Current Reality and Future Perspectives</bold> 54</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>11.2. Contextualization of Cardiovascular Point-of-Care Ultrasound within Public Health in Brazil</bold> 54</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>References</bold> 55</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Suplement 1</bold> 62</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Suplement 2</bold> 63</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>1. POCUS: Methodology, Concept, Training, and Certification</title>
        <sec sec-type="methods">
          <title>1.1. Methodology</title>
          <p>This positioning statement was developed through online meetings involving a multidisciplinary group of specialists. Each participant prepared their respective section based on clinical experience and a review of relevant research. Collective discussions enabled the consolidation of the recommendations presented in this document.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2. Concept and Scope of Application</title>
          <p>The term point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) refers to the use of ultrasound as an adjunct to the physical examination, focused on answering a specific, urgent clinical question. In this positioning statement, POCUS is applied to the anatomical and functional assessment of heart, lungs, and blood vessels at the bedside, supporting diagnosis and therapeutic decision-making in hospitalized and outpatient settings, ranging from neonates to adults.</p>
          <p>The clinical relevance of POCUS lies in its portability, relatively low cost, and accessibility. It can be performed by frontline physicians, including cardiologists and non-cardiologists, in emergency departments, intensive care units (ICUs), operating rooms, and in remote or resource-limited environments where conventional imaging examinations are not readily available. However, several prerequisites must be fulfilled before a POCUS is adopted in clinical practice (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f32">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f32">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Prerequisites for POCUS implementation in a health care service. *Cardiac abnormalities identified in this age group should raise suspicion of congenital heart disease, and a comprehensive examination by a pediatric echocardiographer should be performed as soon as possible. DCI: Department of Cardiovascular Imaging; POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound; SBC: Brazilian Society of Cardiology.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <fig id="f62">
            <caption>
              <title>PE: Pulmonary embolism; POCUS: Point-of-care ultrasound; TEE: Transesophageal echocardiography; TTE: Transthoracic echocardiography; US: Ultrasound; VA-ECMO: Venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; VExUS: Venous Excess Ultrasound Score; VV-ECMO: Venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.3. Equipment</title>
          <p>Although POCUS can be performed using different ultrasound systems, the ideal equipment should be capable of acquiring one- and two-dimensional images, spectral Doppler, and color flow mapping. It should include transducers with variable frequencies suitable for adult and pediatric cardiac imaging as well as for assessment of lungs and vessels. Image settings should be standardized or adjustable according to the structure being examined (presets), and the system should allow image storage in a format compatible with Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine (DICOM) standards. Equipment miniaturization, with devices featuring screens as small as those of smartphones, along with the incorporation of artificial intelligence (AI) tools, such as transducer positioning guidance, has played a significant role in the expanding use of POCUS.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.4. Training, Certification, and Maintenance of Competence</title>
          <p>Training methodologies for POCUS are highly variable. However, the primary objectives of training, according to the desired level of competence, are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Table 1</xref>,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and an acronym is proposed in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f33">Figure 2</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> The required training duration and number of supervised examinations may vary depending on prior experience, the targeted level of proficiency, and supervisor assessment.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t14">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Main objectives of POCUS training for image acquisition, interpretation, and documentation of results according to the desired level (1, 2, and 3)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Skills</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level 1</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level 2</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level 3</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#A2B9E0;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="4">
                    <bold>Acquisition</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>1.</bold> Ability to identify the main cardiac structures on ultrasound (pericardium, cardiac chambers, valves, aorta, and inferior vena cava).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#EFF3FA;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>2.</bold> Understanding basic ultrasound concepts, including physical principles, image generation, and equipment adjustment (gain, focus, and depth), with the aim of improving image resolution when changing acoustic windows.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">
                      <bold>(1)</bold>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>3.</bold> Acquire the cardiac POCUS windows (parasternal long-axis and short-axis, apical four-chamber, subcostal, and inferior vena cava in longitudinal and transverse views); the lung windows (anterior and posterior chest); the abdominal aorta in transverse view along its entire course; the femoral and popliteal veins; and the visceral veins (hepatic, portal, and renal veins).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN14">
                      <bold>(2)</bold>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#FDE0D0;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="4" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <bold>Interpretation</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>4.</bold> Supervised practice under the guidance of a trained professional, with subsequent review.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>5.</bold> Ability to recognize the presence or absence of pathology according to the clinical suspicion, in order to answer basic clinical questions, including chamber size, wall thickening, left ventricular dysfunction, right ventricular dysfunction, pericardial effusion, hypovolemia, pulmonary congestion (B-lines), systemic venous congestion, deep vein thrombosis, pneumothorax, or pleural effusion.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN15">
                      <bold>(3)</bold>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN17">
                      <bold>(5)</bold>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN18">
                      <bold>(6)</bold>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>6.</bold> Knowledge of cardiovascular POCUS application protocols for the differential diagnosis of shock, respiratory failure, and cardiac arrest (SHOCK, RUSH, EGLS).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>7.</bold> Assessment of fluid responsiveness and systemic congestion.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>8.</bold> Ability to perform a basic evaluation of cardiac valves, cardiac output, and filling pressures.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>9.</bold> In neonates, identification of patent foramen ovale, patent ductus arteriosus, and estimation of pulmonary systolic pressure.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>10.</bold> Use of POCUS for ultrasound-guided vascular access, pericardial drainage, orotracheal intubation, assessment of bladder volume, and gastric residual volume.<break/> Recognition of POCUS limitations, associated risks, and required precautions.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#B5DBAE;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" colspan="4" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <bold>Outcomes</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>11.</bold> Ability to store images on the ultrasound system and document ultrasound findings in the medical record as well as to integrate ultrasound findings with the patient's clinical presentation.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                    <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN16">
                      <bold>(4)</bold>
                    </xref>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>12.</bold> Development of the ability to critically interpret ultrasound findings in the context of emergency clinical scenarios.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>13.</bold> Documentation of clinical decision-making in direct patient care based on integrated analysis.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#FFFAF8;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>14.</bold> Storage of images on the ultrasound system and transmission in DICOM format to the hospital PACS.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>15.</bold> Ability to recognize whether the pathology suggested by POCUS is compatible with the clinical scenario and, in case of uncertainty, promptly indicate a comprehensive diagnostic examination. Likewise, to pursue further investigation when clinical suspicion persists despite the absence of POCUS findings.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <inline-graphic xlink:href=""/>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN13">
                <label>(1)</label>
                <p>Learning limited to appropriate patient positioning, transducer selection, preset selection, and correct transducer orientation.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN14">
                <label>(2)</label>
                <p>Limited to the subcostal window and at least one additional cardiac window, longitudinal inferior vena cava view, anterior pleural windows, transverse aortic view up to the proximal abdominal segment, femoral and popliteal veins, and FAST examination.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN15">
                <label>(3)</label>
                <p>Limited to recognizing the presence or absence of ultrasonographic signs of cardiac abnormalities (visual assessment of chamber size, B-lines, pleural effusion, and pericardial effusion).</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN16">
                <label>(4)</label>
                <p>Limited to reporting ultrasound findings in conjunction with the physical examination.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN17">
                <label>(5)</label>
                <p>Except for assessment of visceral venous congestion, all evaluations performed qualitatively as YES or NO.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN18">
                <label>(6)</label>
                <p>With semiquantitative assessment categorized as mild, moderate, or severe, when applicable.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN19">
                <p>DICOM: Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine; FAST: Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma; PACS: Picture Archiving and Communication System; POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <fig id="f33">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Stages of POCUS training. The online test is not exclusionary but should be a mandatory prerequisite for participation in the next stage, as it allows the teaching plan to be tailored to the trainee's needs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> At least 25% of the case mix should consist of pathological cases, which may be supplemented with videos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> See Figures 2 and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f34">3</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Ideally, though not mandatory, POCUS images should be uploaded in DICOM format to the hospital imaging system, with an average of 10 dynamic clips.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> These videos should be made available on the institution's website, accompanied by multiple-choice questions, answer keys, and comments; access to educational videos from specialized societies is also recommended.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f34">Figure 3</xref> presents a suggested training protocol that should ideally be tested, validated, and endorsed by relevant specialty societies. The training stages proposed by this group are described in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f33">Figure 2</xref> and include, at the conclusion of training, an internal assessment and certification of competence (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="suppl3">Supplement 1</xref>). To minimize risks and overcome the challenges associated with POCUS performance (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f35">Figure 4</xref>), attention must also be given to the legal considerations and safeguards outlined below (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f32">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f34">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Level-based POCUS training protocol, including the minimum recommended number of examinations and training duration for each level. For example, Level 1 is expected to acquire skills in image AcQUIsition, Interpretation, and documentation of REsults (AcQUIRE), corresponding to items 1, 4, 5, and 11 described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Table 1</xref>. N: minimum number of examinations; &#916;T: training weeks.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <fig id="f35">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Risks and challenges involved in POCUS. The scope of POCUS extends beyond cardiac assessment and may require collaboration with other specialists, in addition to echocardiographers, such as vascular specialists, radiologists, intensivists, and pediatric cardiologists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> At present, no reimbursement mechanisms for POCUS have been established, and dedicated funding from training centers remains unavailable.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.5. Ethical and Legal Aspects of Cardiovascular POCUS Use in Brazil</title>
          <p>Cardiovascular POCUS should be understood as a medical act performed at the bedside with the purpose of answering specific clinical questions and supporting immediate decision-making. It does not replace a comprehensive diagnostic echocardiographic examination when such an examination is indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Within this context, the physician performing POCUS assumes direct civil liability for the acts undertaken, including test indication, appropriate technical execution, accurate interpretation of findings, and proper documentation in the medical record, in accordance with the principles established by the Brazilian Code of Medical Ethics.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Professional accountability arises not only from potential technical errors but also from the use of POCUS outside the practitioner's scope of competence, without adequate training, or in disagreement with institutional protocols.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In Brazil, formal training in POCUS remains limited within undergraduate medical curricula and residency programs. As a result, professional qualification often depends on extracurricular courses, which leads to heterogeneity in training quality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> The implementation of structured cardiovascular POCUS programs requires investments in equipment, digital infrastructure, supervised training, and clinical governance mechanisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Despite initial costs, national studies have demonstrated a positive impact on diagnostic efficiency and more rational use of complementary examinations, suggesting favorable cost-effectiveness, particularly in emergency care, intensive care settings, and regions with limited access to conventional echocardiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In this context, integration with telehealth strategies strengthens Tele-POCUS as a tool to expand access to specialized cardiovascular assessment within the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS), promoting greater equity in health care delivery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Nevertheless, significant structural challenges remain. These include the absence of standardized coding and clear reimbursement policies for cardiovascular POCUS in both the public health care system and the supplementary private sector, which compromises the financial sustainability of institutional programs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Additionally, specific attention must be given to professional liability insurance coverage since the lack of formal regulation defining scope of practice, minimum training requirements, and certification criteria. This regulatory gap contributes to legal uncertainty, particularly in increasingly judicialized health care environments.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although health care institutions may establish internal policies for training, supervision, and documentation, regulation on the use of POCUS by the Brazilian Federal Council of Medicine, in collaboration with medical specialty societies, is a priority. Such regulation should clearly define scope of practice, minimum training and certification requirements, and differentiation from comprehensive diagnostic echocardiographic examinations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> This regulatory framework is essential to ensure legal security for professionals, patient safety, standardization of clinical practice, and the responsible and sustainable incorporation of cardiovascular POCUS into the Brazilian health care system.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>2. Cardiac POCUS</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Main Windows in Cardiac POCUS</title>
          <p>Unlike conventional echocardiography, cardiac POCUS relies on images that are generally easy to obtain and interpret. It is used as an extension of the physical examination to support diagnosis and clinical decision-making in several emergency situations, such as the evaluation of circulatory shock and volume management in critically ill patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Five main echocardiographic windows are used in cardiac POCUS (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f36">Figure 5</xref>), as follows:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f36">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Main windows used in cardiac POCUS, with corresponding transducer positioning and assessed structures.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Parasternal long-axis window (long-axis view of the heart), obtained with the transducer positioned along the left parasternal line, between the 3rd and 4th intercostal spaces, with the transducer marker oriented toward the patient's right shoulder;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Parasternal short-axis window (short-axis view of the heart), obtained at the same location as the parasternal long-axis window, but with a 90&#176; rotation of the transducer, such that the marker points toward the patient's left shoulder. With slight angulation of the transducer, the two-dimensional imaging plane can be modified, allowing "tomographic" views at the level of the great vessels, papillary muscles, and apical segments of the left ventricle (LV);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Apical 4-chamber window (A4C): obtained with the transducer positioned along the left midclavicular line, between the 4th and 5th intercostal spaces, below the nipple or inframammary line, at the level of the apical impulse (point of maximal impulse), with the transducer marker oriented toward the patient's left side;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Subcostal window, obtained with the transducer positioned on the midline, just below the xiphoid process, forming an acute angle with the abdominal wall, and with the transducer marker oriented toward the patient's left side;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Subcostal window focused on the inferior vena cava (IVC), obtained at the same location as the subcostal window, but with the transducer positioned perpendicular to the abdominal wall and the marker oriented toward the patient's head.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.2. Assessment of Global Left Ventricular Systolic Function</title>
          <sec>
            <title>2.2.1. General Considerations</title>
            <p>LV ejection fraction (LVEF) is the most validated and most commonly used measure for the assessment of systolic function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> LV dysfunction may cause or significantly complicate acute clinical conditions. In undifferentiated shock, focused assessment of LV function has been shown to improve diagnostic accuracy and guide treatment decisions when a qualitative approach is used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In this document, a simplified and objective assessment is recommended since it has a direct impact on clinical decision-making.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec sec-type="methods">
            <title>2.2.2. Methods for Assessing Left Ventricular Systolic Function</title>
            <p>Assessment of LV function should be performed using all cardiac windows available in the individual patient, as described in the section on cardiac POCUS windows.</p>
            <p>Traditional methods for determining LV function, including biplane Simpson's method and the Teichholz method, are not commonly used in cardiac POCUS. These techniques require additional training, are time-consuming, are prone to measurement errors, and do not necessarily provide greater accuracy in this setting. Therefore, cardiac POCUS has adopted a qualitative approach.</p>
            <p>Unl&#252;er et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> as well as other authors, have demonstrated good correlation between visual assessment performed by emergency physicians and examinations conducted by specialists.</p>
            <p>In this qualitative assessment, attention should be given to endocardial excursion (inward movement of the ventricular walls toward the center of the LV) and myocardial thickening (increase in wall thickness during contraction). These parameters allow classification of LV systolic function into four broad categories: i) normal, ii) hyperdynamic, iii) reduced systolic function, and iv) severe dysfunction (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t15">Table 2</xref>). The category of reduced systolic function includes patients with mild to moderate dysfunction on formal echocardiography.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t15">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Qualitative assessment of LV systolic function</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Normal</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Myocardial thickening of most LV segments, with endocardial displacement toward the center of the LV.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Hyperdynamic</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Increased endocardial excursion and myocardial thickening, resulting in partial or complete systolic obliteration of the LV cavity.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Reduced systolic function</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Reduced endocardial excursion and myocardial thickening.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Severe dysfunction</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Severely reduced endocardial excursion and myocardial thickening.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN20">
                  <p>See examples in Videos 1 to 13 in Supplement 2.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>This classification is intended to be intuitive and clinically relevant in patient care.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.2.3. Other Techniques for Assessing Left Ventricular Systolic Function</title>
            <p>Other semiquantitative methods, such as mitral annular plane systolic excursion (MAPSE) and E-point septal separation, may be used; however, each has inherent limitations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> For more detailed information on these parameters, the relevant bibliographic references should be consulted.</p>
            <p>Recent studies have demonstrated good correlation between automated ejection fraction measurements obtained using AI and conventional assessments, provided that image acquisition quality is adequate. This approach represents a promising tool in this field.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.3. Assessment of Right Ventricular Overload and Right Ventricular Systolic Function</title>
          <p>Findings from cardiac POCUS may assist in the rapid diagnosis of pathological conditions that primarily or secondarily affect the right ventricle (RV), providing valuable information for the early initiation of appropriate hemodynamic support and/or specific therapies.</p>
          <p>In the evaluation of patients presenting with chest pain and/or acute dyspnea, particularly when accompanied by signs of hemodynamic instability or heart failure (HF), it is essential to exclude potential differential diagnoses such as hypovolemia, severe LV systolic dysfunction, cardiac tamponade, acute valvular dysfunction, or aortic dissection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In unstable patients with acute RV overload and/or dysfunction, the following diagnoses should be considered: i) acute pulmonary embolism (PE); ii) acute RV acute myocardial infarction (AMI); or iii) RV dysfunction in the context of acute HF due to various etiologies, including AMI, myocarditis, sepsis, peripartum cardiomyopathy, acute valvular heart disease, and stress-induced cardiomyopathy (Takotsubo syndrome).</p>
          <p>RV enlargement may be identified in the parasternal long-axis view (PLAX; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f37">Figure 6A</xref>) or in the A4C view (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f37">Figure 6B</xref>). In the apical view, the RV area is normally &#8804; two-thirds of the LV area; a ratio exceeding 1.0 is suggestive of significant RV enlargement and overload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f37">
            <label>Figure 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Assessment of RV overload using the RV/LV ratio (A and B); assessment of RV systolic function using lateral tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion measured in M-mode (C and D). LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Assessment of RV systolic function is inherently complex, limiting the accuracy of subjective analysis due to the RV's unique crescent-shaped geometry, with inflow and outflow tracts located in different planes as well as the significant influence of preload, afterload, and ventricular interdependence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> In addition to subjective evaluation, we recommend the use of simple objective measures to assess RV systolic function, such as tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion (TAPSE), measured at the lateral tricuspid annulus (RV free wall). TAPSE is reduced in patients with acute pulmonary embolism and hemodynamic overload and has prognostic value.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> TAPSE is obtained from the A4C view and is considered abnormal when &lt;1.7 cm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f37">Figures 6C</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f37">6D</xref>).</p>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.1. Pulmonary Embolism</title>
            <p>The use of cardiac POCUS in suspected acute pulmonary embolism provides substantial added value due to the rapid acquisition of clinically relevant diagnostic and prognostic information. This is particularly important in hemodynamically unstable patients who cannot be easily transported for computed tomography pulmonary angiography (CTPA) or who cannot await a comprehensive echocardiographic examination. Echocardiographic findings suggestive of pulmonary embolism are typically present only when there are signs of acute RV overload, which usually occurs in hemodynamically significant pulmonary embolism (massive or submassive). In this context, cardiac POCUS is useful for risk stratification and for guiding therapeutic strategy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Findings such as RV dilation with septal flattening (the "D-shaped" septum) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">Figures 7A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">7B</xref>) and, in some cases, regional RV wall motion abnormalities characterized by preserved apical contractility with hypokinesia of the mid and basal segments (McConnell sign) may support the diagnosis. Although classically described, the McConnell sign is present in only 12%-20% of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> In patients with acute pulmonary embolism, systemic venous congestion due to RV failure is also common, frequently manifested by a dilated IVC with reduced respiratory variation, reflecting elevated estimated right atrial pressure.</p>
            <fig id="f38">
              <label>Figure 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Right ventricular dilation with septal flattening (D-shaped septum).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>Approximately 5% of patients admitted with cardiac arrest in the emergency department may have acute pulmonary embolism as the underlying cause. Rapid diagnosis may improve prognosis by enabling earlier thrombolytic therapy or percutaneous pulmonary thromboendarterectomy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In acute pulmonary embolism, intracardiac thrombi within the right-sided chambers<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> or saddle thrombi at the pulmonary artery bifurcation are rarely visualized (&lt; 5%). When present, these findings not only confirm the diagnosis but are also associated with poor prognosis, particularly in patients who develop RV systolic dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Echocardiography has a reported sensitivity of approximately 60%-70%; therefore, a negative examination does not exclude the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> The combined use of cardiac POCUS, lower-extremity venous ultrasound, and lung ultrasound (LUS), referred to as "triple POCUS," increases diagnostic accuracy for pulmonary embolism detection.</p>
            <p>In a multicenter study by Nazerian et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> involving 357 patients with clinical suspicion of pulmonary embolism, the diagnostic accuracy of triple POCUS was compared with CTPA findings. Triple POCUS demonstrated a sensitivity of 90% and a specificity of 86%, markedly higher than the use of individual modalities alone (LUS: sensitivity 61%, specificity 96%; cardiac POCUS: sensitivity 33%, specificity 91%; lower-extremity venous ultrasound: sensitivity 53%, specificity 98%).</p>
            <p>In hemodynamically unstable patients, the use of cardiac POCUS combined with lower-extremity venous ultrasound, even before CTPA, is capable of reducing diagnostic time and improving therapeutic outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> The European Society of Cardiology recommends that in patients with a high clinical suspicion of acute pulmonary embolism and echocardiographic evidence suggestive of the diagnosis, immediate thrombolytic therapy may be justified when additional diagnostic tests are not readily available or when delays may increase patient risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.2. POCUS for Assessing Right Ventricular Myocardial Infarction</title>
            <p>RV AMI may occur in up to 30%-50% of patients with inferior AMI and can complicate hemodynamic management, potentially leading to bradycardia, need for pacemaker implantation, hypotension, and death. The presence of segmental wall motion abnormalities in the inferior and inferolateral walls, along with a characteristic pattern of RV segmental dysfunction, supports this diagnostic possibility.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Important differential diagnoses include i) stress-induced cardiomyopathy (Takotsubo syndrome), which may also cause RV segmental dysfunction, typically presenting as apical akinesia accompanied by a similar pattern of apical ballooning in the LV; and ii) segmental contractile abnormalities known as the McConnell sign, characterized by preserved apical contractility with mid and basal dysfunction, as described in acute pulmonary embolism.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.3. Other Applications</title>
            <p>The use of cardiac POCUS may be helpful in critically ill patients as a tool for serial assessment of RV systolic function and to facilitate hemodynamic management. Examples include i) patients undergoing pulmonary recruitment maneuvers as part of mechanical ventilation strategies, in whom ventriculo-arterial coupling may be affected<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup>; ii) patients with RV failure, for serial evaluation of chamber dimensions and cardiac output; and iii) monitoring of patients receiving extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) support who present with signs of instability, allowing assessment of chamber decompression, cannula positioning, and potential obstruction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.3.4. Limitations</title>
            <p>The use of cardiac POCUS for assessing RV dimensions and systolic function has important limitations. Obtaining an adequate acoustic window can be challenging and is highly dependent on examiner expertise. In addition, the RV is extremely sensitive to changes in preload and afterload as well as to ventricular interdependence with LV function. These factors must be considered in the context of serial and longitudinal assessments.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.4. POCUS in Cardiac Tamponade</title>
          <p>Although uncommon, cardiac tamponade, a condition in which the accumulation of fluid within the pericardial space compresses the heart and impairs adequate filling, constitutes a medical emergency.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup> In advanced stages, restriction of diastolic filling leads to a marked reduction in cardiac output and systemic and coronary perfusion, ultimately resulting in abrupt hypotension and bradycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Because the classic clinical signs of cardiac tamponade, known as Beck's triad (arterial hypotension, muffled heart sounds, and jugular venous distension), are not always present or may appear only in advanced stages, POCUS becomes a valuable tool for early detection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Quantification of pericardial fluid volume based on the distance between the parietal and visceral pericardium at end-diastole (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t16">Table 3</xref>), although easily performed using parasternal and subcostal windows, does not allow definitive diagnosis of cardiac tamponade. Other factors, such as the rate of fluid accumulation and the nature of the fluid (transudate, exudate, or blood), may result in a rapid increase in intrapericardial pressure even with relatively small effusion volumes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t16">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Semiquantitative assessment of pericardial effusion according to end-diastolic measurement and estimated fluid volume</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">End-diastolic measurement</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Estimated fluid volume</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">5-10 mm</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">100-250 mL (small)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">10-20 mm</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">250-500 mL (moderate)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;20 mm</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt; 500 mL (large)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt;25 mm</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Very large</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN21">
                <p>Adapted from Klein et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Distension of the IVC and collapse of the right-sided cardiac chambers in the presence of pericardial effusion are key findings for confirming the physiology of cardiac tamponade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f39">Figure 8</xref>) when there is clinical suspicion, although their sensitivity and specificity vary considerably.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> IVC and hepatic vein dilation, as well as right atrial collapse during ventricular systole, are findings with high sensitivity, whereas diastolic right ventricular collapse is the most specific finding of diastolic restriction on POCUS.</p>
          <fig id="f39">
            <label>Figure 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Key POCUS findings in cardiac tamponade. *Inferior vena cava dilation may be absent in cardiac tamponade associated with marked hypovolemia. Other findings, such as leftward interventricular septal shift during inspiration (part of the physiology of pulsus paradoxus), may also be observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Differentiation between pericardial effusion and pleural effusion may be challenging and requires careful attention during POCUS examination. In the PLAX view, effusions located anterior to the descending aorta are typically pericardial, whereas those located posterior to the vessel are of pleural origin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f40">Figure 9</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f40">
            <label>Figure 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Differentiation between pleural effusion (posterior to the aorta) and pericardial effusion (anterior to the aorta).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.5. Advanced POCUS</title>
          <p>The concept of advanced POCUS encompasses progressive skills acquired throughout POCUS training, involving the assessment of hemodynamic parameters obtained by ultrasound. Each of such skills has a learning curve, which should be followed to ensure the highest possible accuracy in clinical application. In this section, we address the assessment of LV outflow tract velocity-time integral (LVOT VTI), determination of stroke volume and cardiac output, as well as evaluation of the E/e&#8242; ratio and its role in determining fluid tolerance (FT).</p>
          <sec>
            <title>2.5.1. Assessment of Left Ventricular Outflow Tract Velocity-Time Integral and Determination of Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output</title>
            <p>Stroke volume is calculated as the product of the LVOT VTI and the LVOT cross-sectional area. The LVOT area is derived from its diameter, which is measured in the PLAX view, as illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f41">Figure 10</xref>. The LVOT VTI is typically obtained from the apical five-chamber view. After acquiring the A4C view, slight anterior angulation of the transducer is required to obtain this window.</p>
            <fig id="f41">
              <label>Figure 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Calculation of stroke volume by multiplying the area of the left ventricular outflow tract obtained from the parasternal window by the left ventricular outflow tract flow integral obtained from the apical five-chamber view.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> A: area; D: diameter; SV: stroke volume; VTI: velocity time integral.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>For this measurement, pulsed-wave Doppler is used, with the sample volume positioned within the LVOT. After spectral Doppler acquisition, the flow envelope is traced, yielding a value expressed in centimeters. When the LVOT is considered a cylindrical structure, the VTI corresponds to the distance traveled by blood from the LVOT into the aorta during each cardiac cycle (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f41">Figure 10</xref>).</p>
            <p>The use of LVOT area has potential drawbacks. Because this calculation is derived from the formula D<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> &#215; 0.785, where D represents the LVOT diameter, any measurement error is squared, resulting in a significant error in the calculated stroke volume. Unfortunately, measurement errors at this step are not uncommon. For these reasons, an alternative to stroke volume measurement is required in emergency settings.</p>
            <p>Since the LVOT diameter (and consequently the LVOT area) is essentially constant, any change in stroke volume reflects a change in LVOT VTI. Therefore, LVOT VTI represents a potential surrogate for stroke volume and an important hemodynamic parameter for both initial assessment and serial monitoring during treatment, allowing evaluation of therapeutic responses and guidance of clinical management.</p>
            <p>Cardiac output is calculated by multiplying stroke volume by the patient's heart rate.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In healthy individuals, LVOT VTI typically ranges from 18 to 22 cm at a heart rate between 55 and 95 beats per minute (bpm). When heart rate is below 55 bpm, the expected LVOT VTI should be greater than 18 cm. Similarly, in patients with heart rates exceeding 95 bpm, LVOT VTI should be less than 22 cm; otherwise, a high&#8211;cardiac output state should be considered. The concept of "trend tracking" underlies functional hemodynamic monitoring, in which changes in cardiac function in response to therapy are more informative than isolated static measurements.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> The application of LVOT VTI within a diagnostic and therapeutic algorithm will be addressed in the section on POCUS in the patient with shock.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>2.5.2. E/e&#8242; Ratio as a Measure of Left Atrial Pressure and Fluid Tolerance</title>
            <p>An increase in left atrial pressure (LAP) has important consequences for gas exchange, pulmonary hemodynamic afterload, and right ventricular performance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Increased LAP may result from pre-existing conditions such as LV systolic and diastolic dysfunction as well as mitral and aortic valve disease. However, acute increases in LAP may also be observed in critically ill patients with sepsis, myocardial ischemia, stress-induced cardiomyopathy, and volume overload states.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The relationship between the transmitral E-wave and the e&#8242; wave obtained at the medial and lateral mitral annulus (mean E/e&#8242; ratio) has been extensively studied in cardiology populations and has gained increasing interest in the critical care literature. The E/e&#8242; ratio is less load dependent and may be used to assess elevated LAP across various clinical scenarios (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f42">Figure 11</xref>). Although a normal E/e&#8242; ratio does not exclude elevated LAP, a mean E/e&#8242; value &gt; 14 has high specificity for increased LAP. This finding may be particularly useful in pragmatic bedside decision-making when further fluid resuscitation is being considered: in this context, an E/e&#8242; &gt; 14 strongly supports the presence of "fluid intolerance." At the other end of the spectrum, an E/e&#8242; &lt; 8 has good accuracy for predicting LAP &lt; 18 mm Hg.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f42">
              <label>Figure 11</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Calculation of the E/e&#8242; ratio derived from the relationship between the transmitral E-wave and the average e&#8242; wave obtained by tissue PWD imaging at the medial and lateral mitral annulus. PWD: pulsed-wave Doppler.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>2.6. Pediatric Cardiac POCUS</title>
          <p>As defined for adult patients, cardiac POCUS in the pediatric population (&#8804; 18 years) is an extension of the physical examination, performed at the bedside to rapidly support clinical decision-making and patient management. The main indications are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t24">Chart 1</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t24">
            <label>Chart 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Main indications for pediatric POCUS</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>1.</bold> Assessment of ventricular systolic function</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>2.</bold> Assessment of pulmonary hypertension</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>3.</bold> Assessment of pericardial effusion and guidance for pericardiocentesis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>4.</bold> Assessment of volume status and fluid responsiveness</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>5.</bold> Assessment of patent ductus arteriosus in neonates</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Cardiac POCUS does not include detailed assessment of cardiac anatomy nor the diagnosis of congenital heart disease. It is also distinct from so-called targeted neonatal echocardiography, which is an examination that uses multiple echocardiographic parameters to assess systolic and diastolic function and intravascular volume status.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Lung Ultrasound</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>3.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>LUS, which was described later than other POCUS applications,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref></sup> has become essential for rapid, bedside, real-time assessment of patients presenting with dyspnea. When combined with clinical history and physical examination, LUS can accelerate accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B59">59</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref></sup> The presence of extravascular lung water in pulmonary congestion is readily detected by LUS, with diagnostic performance comparable to B-type natriuretic peptide (BNP) measurement and superior to chest radiography.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref></sup> Other conditions associated with pulmonary involvement, such as pleural effusion, interstitial syndromes, pneumonia, atelectasis, pneumothorax, and pulmonary embolism, can also be assessed with LUS and are addressed below.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
          <p>LUS is based on pleural artifacts, as the pleura is easily visualized. Under normal conditions, the aerated lung reflects ultrasound energy, resulting in reverberation artifacts of the pleural line projected at regular intervals in the ultrasound field, known as A-lines. Thickening of the interalveolar spaces or alveolar filling by fluid or inflammatory processes causes progressive blurring of A-lines and the appearance of B-lines, which are vertical artifacts that move synchronously with pleural sliding and propagate throughout the ultrasound field.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2. Technical Aspects</title>
          <p>A comprehensive description of technical aspects of POCUS has been provided earlier in this document. However, some specific considerations related to LUS deserve emphasis.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.1. Equipment and Transducers</title>
            <p>Basic ultrasound systems, including handheld devices, are capable of obtaining adequate LUS images. When a lung preset is not available, the abdominal preset is considered the most appropriate due to its higher persistence. However, the adult cardiac preset, despite lower persistence, may also be used without loss of diagnostic information.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Four types of transducers may be used for LUS: a 5-MHz convex transducer, a 3-5-MHz phased-array transducer, a 5-8-MHz microconvex transducer, and a 5-12-MHz linear transducer. The latter is particularly useful for detailed assessment of the pleural line and pleural sliding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3. Examination Protocols</title>
            <p>Among the various examination protocols described in the literature, we recommend three protocols (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f43">Figure 12</xref>), which may be selected according to the clinical scenario. The most commonly used protocol is the Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency (BLUE) protocol (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f43">Figure 12A</xref>). BLUE divides each hemithorax into three quadrants: two anterior quadrants, focused on the detection of B-lines and pneumothorax, and a third posterolateral basal quadrant, aimed at identifying pleural effusion and pulmonary consolidations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f43">
              <label>Figure 12</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Lung ultrasound protocols recommended in this position statement. (A) BLUE protocol (ref. 56); (B) 8-quadrant protocol (ref. 60); (C) 12-quadrant protocol (ref. 62). For detailed descriptions of each protocol, please refer to the cited references. BLUE: Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>With imaging depth set at approximately 15-18 cm, the transducer should be positioned sagittally with the marker oriented cranially. With the patient in the supine position, careful scanning of each quadrant should be performed throughout the full respiratory cycle, identifying the point with the highest concentration of B-lines. The anterior chest quadrants are referred to as the upper and lower BLUE points and, for identification purposes, may be labeled cranio-caudally as R1 and R2 for the right hemithorax and L1 and L2 for the left hemithorax. At these points, the objective is to identify a B-profile indicative of pulmonary congestion, with a reported sensitivity of 97% and specificity of 95%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> A B-profile is defined by the presence of three or more B-lines per anterior quadrant in each hemithorax, with preserved pleural sliding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The third quadrant, known as the postero-lateral alveolar and/or pleural syndrome (PLAPS) point, may be difficult to obtain in patients unable to assume a semilateral position. Optimal positioning allows visualization of the costophrenic recess, diaphragm, and liver or spleen. In this quadrant, the primary goal is the assessment of pleural effusion and possible pneumonic consolidations (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13F</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f44">
              <label>Figure 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Lung ultrasound findings (detailed descriptions in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Table 4</xref>): (a) A-lines; (b) B-lines; (c) coalescent B-lines with spared areas; (d) coalescent B-lines; (e) subpleural consolidation; (f) translobar consolidation; (g) compressive atelectasis; (h) shred sign; (i) plankton sign; (j) septated effusion; (k) triangular subpleural consolidation on linear probe (pulmonary embolism); (l) barcode sign (left lung pneumothorax).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>Although the BLUE protocol is widely used in POCUS, it is qualitative in nature and limited to the anterior chest. More recently, aiming for a quantitative approach and longitudinal follow-up, particularly in the context of HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF) or HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF), an 8-quadrant protocol has been recommended (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f43">Figure 12B</xref>), without compromising examination time or diagnostic accuracy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup> without compromising examination time or diagnostic accuracy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> For conditions involving posterior lung regions, such as interstitial syndromes, including SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia, protocols incorporating posterior lung zones may be used (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f43">Figure 12C</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4. Quantification of B-Lines</title>
          <p>There is no consensus regarding the optimal method for B-line quantification. A growing trend involves automated, real-time counting of B-lines using dedicated software.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Currently, two main approaches with satisfactory reproducibility are commonly used:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Binary scoring by zone, in which the presence of three or more B-lines defines a positive zone;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Total B-line count, performed either by counting individual B-lines or by estimating the percentage of the screen occupied by B-lines and dividing by 10. This method is particularly useful for coalescent B-lines (for example, if 80% of the screen is occupied by B-lines, this corresponds to 8 B-lines) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13B</xref>);<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Although not yet validated in the literature, a third approach is suggested to reduce intra- and interobserver variability without increasing examination time. For longitudinal follow-up, B-lines may be categorized into ranges (e.g., 0, &lt; 3, 3-5, 5-7, and &#8805; 8 B-lines), assigning a score from 0 to 4 to each range for every quadrant examined.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> The scores from all quadrants are then summed to obtain a total score according to the number of quadrants assessed (e.g., a score of 20 out of a maximum of 32 in an 8-quadrant protocol). This method provides a semiquantitative assessment of B-lines that can be compared over the course of decongestive therapy.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5. Main Applications of Lung Ultrasound</title>
          <p>For better understanding throughout the text, <xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Table 4</xref> summarizes the terminology most commonly used in LUS, with selected findings illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13</xref>.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t17">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Description of the most frequent lung ultrasound findings and their clinical significance. Letters in bold correspond to Figure 13</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Finding</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Description</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical Significance</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pleural line</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Curvilinear hyperechoic line beneath the ribs</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Interface between parietal and visceral pleura</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pleural sliding</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Movement of the vis-ceral pleura over the parietal pleura during respiration</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Excludes pneumothorax and pleural adhesions</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">A-lines <bold>(a)</bold></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Horizontal reverberation artifacts arising from the pleural line</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Aerated lung (normal), COPD, or pneumothorax (when pleural sliding <break/> is absent)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">B-lines <bold>(b)</bold></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Vertical artifacts arising from the pleural line extending to the bot-tom of the ultrasound field</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Accumulation of hydrostatic and/or inflammatory fluid or fibro-sis in interlobular septa/alveoli</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Z-lines</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Static vertical artifacts that do not reach the bottom of the screen</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">No pathological significance; should be differentiated from B-lines</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Lung point</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Transition point between normal pleural sliding and loss of pleural movement</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pathognomonic for pneumothorax; the more lateral the lung point, the larger the pneumothorax</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Lung pulse</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Rhythmic pleural movement synchronized with cardiac activity</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Excludes pneumothorax in the presence of absent pleural sliding</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Barcode sign <break/> (strato-sphere sign)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Horizontal lines throughout the ultra-sound field on M-mode</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Suggestive of pneumothorax</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Plankton sign</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mobile punctate ech-oes within pleural fluid</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">May indicate infection, hemothorax, or <break/> post-aggressive diuretic therapy</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Septated (loculated) effusion</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Debris, fibrin strands, and septations</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Complex effusion suggesting infection, abscess, empyema, or fibrosis, potentially hindering pleural drainage</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Air bronchogram <bold>(f)</bold></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hyperechoic punctate echoes within bronchi surrounded by consolidation</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dynamic air bronchograms favor pneumonia; static air bronchograms favor atelectasis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Shred sign <bold>(h)</bold></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Irregular hyperechoic deep subpleural line separating consolidated from partially aerated lung</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Seen in nontranslobar consolidations, more commonly associated with pneumonia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Curtain sign</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Overlapping of aerated lung during respiration obscuring the liver or <break/> spleen image</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Aerated lung bases at the point of examination</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Jellyfish sign <bold>(g)</bold></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Collapsed lung seg-ment with undulating motion within a large pleural effusion</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Compressive atelectasis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Subpleural consolidation <bold>(e) (k)</bold></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Small hypoechoic subpleural collection (triangular, circular, or polygonal)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulmonary embolism, atelectasis, infection, hemorrhage, or neoplasm</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Translobar consolidation <bold>(f)</bold></td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Absence of air in the lung, giving it a solid organ-like (hepatization) appearance</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pneumonia or atelectasis</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN22">
                <p>COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1. Pulmonary congestion</title>
            <p>The diagnosis of cardiogenic pulmonary congestion can only be suggested when associated with a clinical picture of HFrEF or HFpEF, in its acute or chronic forms. The chronic form may at times be subclinical due to adaptive mechanisms such as thickening of the alveolar&#8211;capillary membrane, increased lymphatic drainage, and pulmonary hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> In the context of decompensated HF, LUS signs of pulmonary congestion often precede clinical findings, such as crackles, a third heart sound, peripheral edema, jugular venous distension, and dyspnea, by several days.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup> The Brazilian Guideline for Chronic and Acute Heart Failure &#8211; 2018 recommends, as a Class I, Level of Evidence C indication, the integrated use of LUS and echocardiography for the assessment of pulmonary congestion in patients admitted with acute HF, adding only a few minutes to the examination time while providing substantial additional diagnostic information.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref></sup></p>
            <p>We recommend using the BLUE protocol in emergencies because of its simplicity and level of validation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup> Identification of a B-profile indicates the presence of extravascular lung water. When combined with a diagnosis of HF (HFrEF or HFpEF) and echocardiographic evidence of hemodynamic congestion, it confirms the presence of cardiogenic pulmonary congestion. When the goal is grading and longitudinal follow-up of congestion, the 8-quadrant protocol is preferred.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref></sup> At the level of the third quadrant (PLAPS point), pleural effusion and possible associated pneumonic consolidation, as potential triggers of decompensation, should be assessed.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.2. Pleural Effusion</title>
            <p>LUS has high accuracy for the detection of pleural effusion (93%) compared with chest radiography (47%),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup> allowing identification of small effusions starting at volumes as low as 20 mL. The optimal technique involves positioning the patient in a semilateral decubitus position, slightly elevated (45 degrees), or seated when thoracentesis or drainage is planned, with insonation of the PLAPS point.</p>
            <p>Pleural effusion is present in 56%-90% of cases of decompensated HF and in approximately 25% of cases of isolated right-sided HF. It may persist in up to 60% of patients during the pre-discharge phase<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> without implying a worse prognosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> In left-sided HF, pleural effusion develops as a consequence of increased LAP and only after pulmonary congestion has occurred. In right-sided HF, effusion results from transmission of increased right atrial pressure to the thoracic duct, impairing lymphatic drainage from the pleural space to the superior vena cava (SVC),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup> and is more frequently right-sided when unilateral. Several methods for pleural effusion quantification have been described. The most commonly used is the method proposed by Balik et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup> in which, during expiration, the maximal distance (in centimeters) between the pleural dome and the lung tissue is multiplied by 200 to estimate effusion volume in milliliters (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f45">Figure 14</xref>). Based on fluid echogenicity, LUS allows qualitative assessment of the likelihood of transudative, exudative (plankton sign; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13I</xref>), or hemorrhagic effusion. The presence of debris and septations indicates a complex effusion of likely infectious origin, warranting further investigation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13J</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f45">
              <label>Figure 14</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Example of pleural effusion volume estimation obtained by measuring, during expiration, the distance between the diaphragmatic dome and lung tissue.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.3. Interstitial Syndromes</title>
            <p>Acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) represents a form of pulmonary edema secondary to inflammatory processes caused by various pulmonary or systemic diseases, most commonly viral or bacterial pneumonia, sepsis, aspiration, and severe trauma, including barotrauma secondary to mechanical ventilation. ARDS may coexist with HF, further complicating LUS interpretation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref></sup> Certain LUS findings help differentiate cardiogenic from inflammatory pulmonary edema, including heterogeneous and asymmetric distribution of B-lines, spared areas within the same ultrasound field (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13C</xref>), thickening and irregularity of the pleural line, and the presence of subpleural (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13E</xref>) or translobar consolidations, all findings observed, for example, in SARS-CoV-2 pneumonia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis or fibrosis secondary to toxins, organic dusts, medications, or connective tissue diseases is characterized by progressive thickening and fibrosis of lung tissue. In milder forms, pleural line thickening is observed. As the disease progresses, pleural thickening increases, pleural sliding is reduced, B-lines &#151; some of them coalescent &#151; appear, and subpleural cysts develop, which on LUS resemble subpleural consolidations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.4. Pneumonic Consolidation</title>
            <p>Bacterial pneumonia is characterized by loss of lung aeration, with alveoli filled by infectious fluid, giving the lung a solid, tissue-like appearance (hepatization). Consolidation may vary in extent, being classified as translobar when it occupies the entire ultrasound field, or nontranslobar or subpleural when an irregular hyperechoic line divides consolidated from partially aerated lung tissue<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup> (shred sign) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13H</xref>).</p>
            <p>Pneumonic consolidations are most commonly located at the lung bases (PLAPS point), often accompanied by small pleural effusions restricted to the costophrenic recess, inflammatory B-lines, and occasional dynamic air bronchograms (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13F</xref>). The pleura typically appears thickened and irregular, with reduced or absent pleural sliding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.5. Atelectasis</title>
            <p>Atelectasis refers to loss of lung volume and aeration due either to bronchial obstruction by mucus plugging or to compression of the parenchyma secondary to large pleural effusions. Extensive atelectasis leads to ventilation&#8211;perfusion mismatch, intrapulmonary shunt, increased pulmonary vascular resistance, and hypoxemia. Differentiating atelectasis from pneumonic consolidation by LUS is challenging and must be interpreted in the clinical context. Findings such as static air bronchograms and localized rather than diffuse B-lines<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> aid in this differentiation. In cases of compressive atelectasis, a thin layer of consolidated lung tissue with sinusoidal movement (jellyfish sign) may be observed within pleural fluid (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13G</xref>). Notably, atelectasis and pneumonic consolidation may coexist.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.6. Pneumothorax</title>
            <p>LUS has a sensitivity of approximately 90% and a specificity of 98% for the diagnosis of pneumothorax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> Air accumulation between the parietal and visceral pleura occurs predominantly in the anterior chest. Therefore, when pneumothorax is clinically suspected, whether due to trauma or positive-pressure mechanical ventilation, evaluation should begin in the anterior thorax. In this region, the most sensitive diagnostic finding is abolition of pleural sliding (lung sliding). On M-mode ultrasonography, this condition appears as the barcode (stratosphere) sign, characterized by multiple horizontal parallel lines extending throughout the ultrasound field. This pattern contrasts with the physiological seashore sign, in which the granular appearance of the lung parenchyma ("sand") is distinguished from the static horizontal lines of the chest wall ("sea") above the pleural line<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13L</xref>).</p>
            <p>Absence of pleural sliding, however, is not specific to pneumothorax and may also be observed in selective intubation, pleurodesis, pulmonary contusions, and pulmonary fibrosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Although not always easy to demonstrate, the lung point is the only pathognomonic sign of pneumothorax, indicating the exact transition between collapsed lung (absent sliding) and normal lung (present sliding). The more lateral the lung point, the larger the pneumothorax.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.7. Pulmonary Embolism</title>
            <p>Although LUS is not considered the first-line diagnostic modality for the investigation of pulmonary embolism,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> it represents a valuable alternative for patients who are unable to undergo CTPA. Integrated analysis of LUS with cardiac and venous POCUS, aimed at identifying signs of right-sided chamber overload and/or deep vein thrombosis (DVT), may increase the sensitivity and specificity of the method.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup> Findings related to pulmonary embolism are most frequently located in the posterobasal regions of the thorax, where patients often report pleuritic chest pain. The most suggestive LUS finding is a triangular subpleural consolidation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13K</xref>), which may also appear circular or polygonal. These consolidations result from parenchymal necrosis or atelectasis due to disruption of the surfactant layer with local blood extravasation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec sec-type="conclusions">
          <title>3.6. Conclusions and Future Perspectives</title>
          <p>Lung ultrasound (LUS), previously underutilized, has recently become an essential tool for outpatient follow-up and for the management of patients with dyspnea in intensive care units, and emergency departments. LUS is a rapid, simple, and highly informative imaging modality, capable of providing critical diagnostic information. In addition it is cost-effective and suitable for bedside application.</p>
          <p>With the advent of AI applied to image interpretation, automated B-line quantification, and the development of integrated diagnostic algorithms, the use of LUS is expected to expand further in emergency medicine, critical care, cardiology, and other specialties in which this form of POCUS imaging adds value to clinical decision-making. Nevertheless, it is important to emphasize that LUS does not replace careful clinical assessment and must always be interpreted within the context of the patient's clinical history and overall presentation.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Ultrasound Focused on the Assessment Of Systemic Venous Congestion &#8211; VExUS</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>4.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>The management of critically ill patients has long focused on ensuring adequate perfusion pressure, with attention primarily directed toward the arterial side of the vascular system through assessment of fluid responsiveness (FR). However, the venous system, often overlooked, plays a crucial role in this context. Patients with right ventricular failure, pulmonary hypertension, or fluid overload are prone to developing significant systemic venous congestion, resulting in a reduced arteriovenous pressure gradient, increased capillary hydrostatic pressure, and interstitial edema, frequently exacerbated by endothelial dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref></sup> These factors adversely affect tissue perfusion and contribute to organ dysfunction, particularly kidney impairment. Acute kidney injury (AKI), in turn, worsens fluid retention, perpetuating a vicious cycle and significantly increasing morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In this setting, early detection of venous congestion is of paramount importance for the development of appropriate patient monitoring and management strategies. However, assessment based on physical examination and cumulative fluid balance has important limitations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> Moreover, central venous pressure (CVP) measurements are invasive, prone to error, and do not always reliably reflect preload, particularly in patients receiving mechanical ventilation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Because of the scarcity of reliable clinical signs, additional, more precise, and objective information is required to guide therapeutic decision-making. In this context, POCUS has emerged as a useful, effective tool for assessing volume status and quantifying systemic venous congestion.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Clinical Studies and Scientific Evidence</title>
          <p>Ultrasonographic markers of systemic venous congestion are not new. More than 20 years ago, portal vein pulsatility was described in the context of HF,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> although it was never fully incorporated into routine clinical practice.</p>
          <p>More recently, venous excess ultrasound (VExUS) has proven to be a reliable and reproducible method, demonstrating good interobserver agreement among trained operators and correlation with other measures of volume status, such as CVP. The technique has gained increasing attention in the literature, and several studies have explored its application across different clinical contexts (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Table 5</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t18">
            <label>Table 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Studies evaluating the VExUS score in different clinical contexts</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Study</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Objective</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Results</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Beaubien-Souligny et al. (2020)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup><break/> Single-center prospective study;<break/> 145 patients undergoing cardiac surgery</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Initial VExUS grading system and its association with AKI</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Association with subse-quent AKI: HR = 3.69;<break/> 95% CI 1.65-8.24; p = 0.001; +LR 6.37<break/> (95% CI 2.19-18.50) when detected at<break/> ICU admission, outperforming CVP</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Bhardwaj et al. (2020)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup><break/> Prospective ICU cohort;<break/> 30 patients</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Application of VExUS score for AKI staging in cardiorenal syndrome</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">AKI resolution significantly correlated with<break/> improvement in VExUS grade (p = 0.003);<break/> significant association between VExUS changes<break/> and fluid balance (p = 0.006)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Varudo et al. (2022)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref></sup><break/> ICU case report</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Use of VExUS as a rapid tool to assess volume status in complex hyponatremia</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Overall VExUS grade 2 prompted a diuretic<break/> strategy with clinical improvement</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Rolston et al. (2022)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B106">106</xref></sup><break/> Single-center observational study; 150 septic patients</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS grading in septic patients prior to fluid therapy</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Composite outcome (mortality,<break/> ICU admission, or rapid response activation):<break/> VExUS 0: 31.6%; VExUS 1: 47.6%;<break/> VExUS &gt; 1: 67.7% (p = 0.0015)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Guinot et al. (2022)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref></sup><break/> Prospective ICU<break/> observational study;<break/> 81 patients starting loop diuretics</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Comparison of portal vein pulsatility index, kidney venous impedance index, and VExUS</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Portal vein pulsatility and kidney venous impedance indices outperformed VExUS;<break/> baseline VExUS had limited predictive value<break/> (AUC 0.66; 95% CI 0.53-0.79; p = 0.012)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Men&#233;ndez-Suso et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup><break/> Pediatric ICU cross-sectional<break/> pilot study;<break/> 33 children</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Association between VExUS score<break/> and CVP</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS severity strongly associated with<break/> CVP (p &lt; 0.001)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Longino et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup><break/> Single-center prospective study; 81 patients undergoing right heart catheterization</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Validation of association between<break/> VExUS grade and right atrial pressure</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Favorable AUC for predict-ing right atrial<break/> pressure &gt; 10 mm Hg<break/> (AUC 0.90; 95% CI 0.83-0.97)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Torres-Arrese et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref></sup><break/> Multicenter prospective study;<break/> 74 patients with acute heart failure</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Evaluation of ultrasound parameters, including VExUS, as predictors of<break/> clinical outcomes</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS grade 3 predicted in-hospital mortality<break/> (AUC 0.885; sensitivity 80%; specificity 75%;<break/> PPV 33%; NPV 96%)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Magin et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup><break/> Single-center prospective<break/> pilot study;<break/> 69 patients undergoing<break/> noncardiac surgery</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Feasibility of VExUS assessment in perioperative settings</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS feasible for as-sessing venous congestion after noncardiac surgery; trend toward increased congestion after abdominal surgery.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Viana-Rojas et al. (2023)</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref></sup><break/> Prospective study;<break/> 77 patients with acute<break/> coronary syndrome</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Association between VExUS and AKI</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">VExUS &#8805; 1 associated with AKI<break/> (OR 6.15; 95% CI 1.26-29.94; p = 0.02);<break/> VExUS &#8805; 1 more prevalent in inferior acute myocardial infarction</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN23">
                <p>+LR: positive likelihood ratio; AKI: acute kidney injury; AUC: area under the curve; CVP: central venous pressure; HR: hazard ratio; ICU: intensive care unit; NPV: negative predictive value; OR: odds ratio; PPV: positive predictive value; VExUS: venous excess ultrasound.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3. Venous Excess Ultrasound Components</title>
          <p>For VExUS assessment, either a phased-array or convex transducer may be used, with reduction of wall filters and adjustment of the velocity scale to venous flow settings. We recommend the following step-by-step sequence for each vessel evaluated, detailing the optimal approach to obtain flow waveforms and thereby minimizing potential interpretation errors. Final grading of systemic venous congestion should follow the model proposed in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f46">Figure 15</xref>.</p>
          <fig id="f46">
            <label>Figure 15</label>
            <caption>
              <title>VExUS grading: when the IVC diameter exceeds 2 cm, three grades of venous congestion are defined according to the severity of abnormalities observed in the flow patterns of the hepatic, portal, and renal interlobar veins, which should ideally be recorded during end-expiratory apnea. IVC: inferior vena cava; VExUS: venous excess ultrasound. Adapted from Koratala et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 1: Inferior vena cava assessment</title>
            <p>IVC assessment is preferably performed via the subcostal approach, with the transducer index oriented toward the 12 o'clock position. In this view, the IVC drains longitudinally into the right atrium (RA). Less ideally, IVC assessment may be performed from the mid-axillary line with the index also oriented toward 12 o'clock (transhepatic window). This latter approach frequently overestimates IVC diameter and should therefore be avoided.</p>
            <p>IVC diameter is measured 2 cm proximal to its junction with the RA, with the patient in end-expiratory apnea. The left hepatic vein often drains near the measurement site and should not be included in the measurement.</p>
            <p>If the IVC diameter is &lt; 2 cm, systemic venous congestion is considered absent, and VExUS is graded as 0 (no congestion), with no need to evaluate the remaining components (hepatic vein, portal vein, and kidney interlobar vein).</p>
            <p>If the diameter is &#8805; 2 cm, venous congestion may be present and further assessment of the remaining components should be performed. Use of this parameter helps eliminate potential false-positive diagnoses of systemic venous congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 2: Hepatic vein assessment using pulsed-wave Doppler</title>
            <p>Hepatic vein assessment may be performed via the subcostal or transhepatic approach (mid-axillary line, with anterior angulation of the transducer if needed), adjusting the color Doppler velocity scale to 30-40 cm/s. The vein selected for analysis should be the one most vertically aligned with the transducer, allowing optimal acquisition of flow waveforms.</p>
            <p>Because the hepatic veins are directly connected to a central vein (IVC), they transmit venous pulsatility through four Doppler waveforms identifiable on pulsed-wave Doppler:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup> <bold>S wave</bold>, negative and dominant, resulting from right atrial relaxation and downward displacement of the tricuspid annulus toward the cardiac apex during ventricular systole; <bold>V wave</bold>, not always present, usually positive, occurring when the tricuspid annulus returns to its diastolic position; <bold>D wave</bold>, negative and smaller than the S wave, resulting from tricuspid valve opening and blood inflow from the RA to the right ventricle; <bold>A wave</bold>, positive, caused by atrial contraction.</p>
            <p>The S wave occurs immediately after the R wave of the electrocardiogram (ECG), the D wave follows the T wave, and the A wave correlates directly with the P wave of the ECG and is absent in atrial fibrillation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> Therefore, ECG monitoring is essential for accurate differentiation of venous waveforms.</p>
            <p>According to RA pressure (RAP), hepatic vein Doppler waveforms may be classified into three patterns:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup></p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Normal (type 1): S wave larger than D wave.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Increased RAP (type 2): S wave smaller than D wave, reflecting predominant atrial emptying during diastole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Markedly increased RAP (type 3): inversion of the S wave, which becomes positive, while the D wave remains negative.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 3: Portal vein assessment using pulsed-wave Doppler</title>
            <p>Portal vein assessment is ideally performed via the transhepatic window (mid-axillary line), with the transducer index oriented toward 12 o'clock and the color Doppler velocity scale adjusted to 20-30 cm/s. It may also be visualized using the subcostal approach. In this orientation, portal vein flow is ascending, appears red on color Doppler, and exhibits a continuous or mildly pulsatile pattern. Due to its thicker and hyperechoic walls, the portal vein is easily distinguished from the hepatic veins, which lack visible walls and exhibit flow directed toward the IVC, appearing blue on color Doppler.</p>
            <p>Because it is separated from the central systemic venous circulation by hepatic sinusoids, portal vein flow is typically continuous or mildly pulsatile, with a positive waveform generated by atrial contraction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup> As systemic venous pressure increases, sinusoidal dilation occurs due to congestion, and venous pulsatility is increasingly transmitted to the portal vein. Thus, the greater the systemic venous congestion, the greater the portal vein pulsatility, quantified by the pulsatility fraction (pulsatility fraction = [peak velocity &#8722; minimum velocity] / peak velocity &#215; 100).</p>
            <p>Similar to hepatic veins, RAP alters portal vein Doppler morphology, which can be classified into three patterns:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup></p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Normal (type 1): preserved sinusoids with flow oscillation &lt; 30%;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Increased RAP (type 2): sinusoidal dilation with flow oscillation between 31% and 50%;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Markedly increased RAP (type 3): severe sinusoidal dilation with marked transmission of systemic venous pulsatility to the portal vein, with oscillation &gt; 50%; in some cases, flow velocity may cross below the baseline (negative velocity).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 4: Kidney interlobar vein assessment using pulsed-wave Doppler</title>
            <p>Assessment of the kidney interlobar vein is of critical importance in VExUS grading, as it shows the strongest isolated correlation with progression to kidney failure in patients with severe systemic venous congestion.</p>
            <p>Because the kidney is an encapsulated organ, it does not normally transmit central venous pulsatility, and venous flow is typically continuous. However, as systemic venous congestion develops (congestive nephropathy), interstitial kidney edema occurs, venous compliance decreases, and flow becomes biphasic or, in more severe cases, monophasic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Due to the close proximity of arteries and veins, parenchymal arterial flow is visualized above the Doppler baseline, whereas venous flow appears below the baseline.</p>
            <p>Kidney veins at the renal hilum should not be confused with intrarenal veins located in the cortical region, as the renal vein is a central vein with pulsatile flow and represents a frequent source of error.</p>
            <p>For correct acquisition of interlobar vein flow, Doppler sampling should be performed in the kidney cortex, with the color Doppler velocity scale reduced to approximately 20 cm/s to enhance flow visualization.</p>
            <p>According to systemic venous pressure, kidney interlobar vein flow patterns are classified into three types:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Normal (type 1): continuous venous flow throughout the cardiac cycle;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Increased RAP (type 2): biphasic venous flow with one systolic and one diastolic peak;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Markedly increased RAP (type 3): with further elevation of venous pressure and kidney edema, only the diastolic peak remains, resulting in monophasic flow.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>For optimal acquisition of venous waveforms in the VExUS protocol, respiratory apnea should be performed whenever possible.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Step 5: data integration and VExUS grading</title>
            <p>Once the step-by-step analysis as described has been performed, the data should be integrated to allow appropriate grading of the degree of visceral venous congestion.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4. Venous Excess Ultrasound Grading</title>
          <p>Quantification of the degree of visceral venous congestion is based on the original study by Beaubien-Souligny et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> in which five prototypes of a grading system, termed the VExUS score, were validated in a population of 145 postoperative cardiac surgery patients with respect to the risk of developing kidney failure. A post hoc analysis of this single-center prospective study identified the prototype with the best diagnostic performance, leading to the proposal of a four-grade classification of venous congestion based on the abnormalities observed in the VExUS components (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f46">Figure 15</xref>).</p>
          <p>The study included patients receiving mechanical ventilation, thereby expanding the practical applicability of the VExUS score. This grading system, when used in isolation, is not capable of distinguishing visceral venous congestion caused by volume overload from that caused by pressure overload. Therefore, findings must be interpreted in an integrated manner, taking into account the clinical context and other POCUS findings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.5. Clinical Applications</title>
          <p>Overall, the VExUS score should not be interpreted in isolation nor considered a substitute for careful history taking and conventional physical examination. However, it can provide valuable information in the management of critically ill patients, particularly in conditions or states associated with elevated venous pressure, which increase the risk of significant systemic venous congestion, impaired tissue perfusion, and subsequent renal dysfunction.</p>
          <p>VExUS plays an important role in fluid balance management. Although it does not provide direct information regarding the need for volume expansion, it serves as a key indicator of FT, helping to identify situations in which discontinuation of fluid resuscitation or active fluid removal is likely to be beneficial, especially in complex scenarios associated with AKI (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f47">Figure 16</xref>).</p>
          <fig id="f47">
            <label>Figure 16</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Algorithm incorporating venous excess ultrasound into the management of critically ill patients. AKI: acute kidney injury; IV: intravenous; VExUS: venous excess ultrasound score. Adapted from Bhardwaj et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> e Argaiz et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Across various clinical contexts, recent studies have demonstrated potentially useful applications of this tool (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Table 5</xref>): prediction of AKI risk in the perioperative period of cardiac surgery; monitoring of decongestive therapy in patients with cardiorenal syndrome; assessment of volume status in complex hyponatremia; evaluation of AKI risk in ischemic coronary syndromes; estimation of CVP in critically ill children; and assessment of volume status in pulmonary hypertension, right HF, or mechanically ventilated patients, in whom CVP may not reliably reflect preload.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.6. Limitations and Pitfalls</title>
          <p>The first step in the assessment of venous congestion should always be evaluation of the IVC. However, isolated assessment of the IVC has several limitations, beginning with its modest correlation with right atrial pressure measured by catheterization studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup> In addition, assessment of IVC collapsibility depends on the patient's inspiratory effort and may vary considerably according to clinical conditions. Athletes and young individuals may present with a persistently dilated IVC without elevated right atrial pressure, whereas patients with increased intra-abdominal pressure may exhibit a collapsed IVC despite elevated right atrial pressure. Furthermore, IVC assessment using only the long-axis view is subject to the cylinder effect, which occurs when a two-dimensional ultrasound beam intersects a three-dimensional structure peripherally rather than centrally, potentially underestimating its true diameter.</p>
          <p>Regarding hepatic vein assessment, failure to use simultaneous ECG tracing may lead to significant interpretation errors,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> particularly in the presence of arrhythmias. Atrial fibrillation may cause reduction of the S wave in patients with normal right atrial pressure, as this wave partially depends on atrial relaxation. In patients with tricuspid regurgitation or pulmonary arterial hypertension, a chronic pattern of S wave smaller than D wave or S wave reversal may be observed regardless of volume status. Right ventricular dysfunction, due to reduced downward displacement of the tricuspid annulus during ventricular systole, may also reduce or abolish the S wave.</p>
          <p>Portal vein assessment also has important limitations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> Lean individuals with low body mass index may exhibit high portal vein pulsatility even in the presence of normal right atrial pressure. In patients with chronic liver disease, the spectral waveform reflects local pressure changes more than CVPs, such that flow may appear pulsatile even in euvolemic patients due to the presence of portoarterial shunts. Patients with portal hypertension may exhibit reversed (hepatofugal) flow, whereas in those with liver cirrhosis the waveform may appear relatively normal despite tricuspid regurgitation and elevated right atrial pressure, owing to increased sinusoidal resistance caused by hepatic fibrosis.</p>
          <p>Finally, the main limitation of renal interlobar vein flow assessment is its technical difficulty.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup> Intrarenal vessels are small and frequently move out of the imaging plane as the kidney shifts with respiration. Respiratory breath-holding may facilitate acquisition but is not always feasible depending on the patient's clinical condition. Obesity and dyspnea may preclude adequate Doppler tracing. In addition, factors other than right atrial pressure may alter venous flow patterns, such as structural renal abnormalities and chronic kidney disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.7. Conclusion</title>
          <p>The VExUS score has demonstrated high specificity for the diagnosis of systemic venous congestion and prognostic value for AKI following cardiac surgery. It is a method that can be easily performed by trained professionals and represents a potentially useful tool in the clinical management of critically ill patients.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. POCUS in Deep Vein Thrombosis</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>5.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>DVT is a common vascular condition, occurring in approximately 30% of hospitalized patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref></sup> Pulmonary embolism is a complication of DVT and represents the third most frequent cause of acute cardiovascular syndrome, surpassed only by AMI and stroke. In Brazil, between 2016 and 2020, more than 34,000 deaths were attributed to venous thromboembolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref></sup> Mortality from pulmonary embolism may reach 30% if not properly treated, and it remains one of the most frequent unsuspected findings in autopsy studies of critically ill patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref></sup> Rapid and accurate diagnosis is therefore essential for timely treatment of DVT and prevention of complications. The Joint Guideline on Venous Thromboembolism &#8211; 2022 was developed by a task force of Brazilian medical societies (Department of Cardiovascular Imaging, Brazilian Society of Cardiology; Brazilian College of Radiology; Brazilian Society of Angiology and Vascular Surgery; Brazilian Society of Nuclear Medicine) with the aim of guiding the diagnostic approach to DVT and pulmonary embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In DVT, thrombi form in areas of reduced venous flow and subsequently propagate along the vessel lumen. During the acute phase, an inflammatory response develops in the venous wall, with partial or complete luminal obstruction and associated clinical symptoms such as pain, edema, and erythema of the affected limb. However, in approximately 50% of cases, clinical signs of DVT are nonspecific, making diagnosis challenging. Complementary diagnostic tests are therefore required to confirm or exclude DVT. According to the 2022 Brazilian Guideline, in patients with suspected DVT, use of the simplified Wells score as a clinical prediction model is recommended, in combination with D-dimer measurement and vascular ultrasonography (VUS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref></sup></p>
          <p>VUS is the diagnostic test of choice in suspected DVT, providing anatomical and functional venous information. Its advantages include being noninvasive, not requiring nephrotoxic contrast agents, being reproducible, and having low cost.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B135">135</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In this chapter, we present the different POCUS protocols for assessment of DVT. Based on the 2022 Brazilian Guideline, we recommend use of the extended compression protocol, also known as the 3-point compression ultrasound (CUS) protocol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup> This recommendation is supported by the most recent European Society of Intensive Care Medicine consensus, the latest Emergency Ultrasound Guideline of the American College of Emergency Physicians, and its inclusion in the Critical Care Ultrasonography Certificate of Completion Program of the American College of Chest Physicians.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. Scientific Evidence for POCUS in Assessment of Deep Vein Thrombosis</title>
          <p>Regarding the diagnostic accuracy of bedside CUS performed by emergency physicians, a meta-analysis by Pomero et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref></sup> reported a sensitivity of 96.1% (95% CI 90.6%-98.5%) and a specificity of 96.8% (95% CI 94.6%-98.1%). However, the included studies showed substantial heterogeneity, likely related to limited operator training, presence of distal or intra-abdominal thrombosis, and patients with challenging body habitus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In a study by Garcia et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref></sup> the accuracy of CUS for diagnosing DVT in patients with high clinical suspicion, performed in the emergency department, was 91.7% compared with comprehensive examinations performed by specialists within 48 hours. In critically ill patients, Kory et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref></sup> demonstrated a diagnostic accuracy of 95% for CUS performed by intensivists with less than 2 years of ultrasound experience. Moreover, diagnosis was established, on average, 13 hours earlier than by specialist-performed examinations. A multicenter study evaluating the accuracy of CUS performed by emergency physicians in patients with high suspicion of pulmonary embolism/DVT reported a high negative predictive value (100%) and a moderate positive predictive value (61.5%), with sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 95.8%, compared with formal ultrasound performed by specialists. A reduction of approximately 50% in the time between POCUS and formal ultrasound was also observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Collectively, these studies demonstrate the utility of CUS in the management of patients with suspected DVT in emergency and intensive care settings. Additionally, the rapid execution of these examinations &#151; typically in less than 5 minutes &#151; may prevent unnecessary comprehensive studies and diagnostic delays, particularly outside regular working hours or in settings with limited specialist availability. Regarding comparison between 2-point and 3-point CUS protocols, a recent meta-analysis including 17 studies found that both protocols exhibited excellent performance, with sensitivities and specificities of approximately 90% and false-positive and false-negative rates of about 4%. Diagnostic accuracy tended to be higher when examinations were performed by emergency physicians rather than residents.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Due to its lower prevalence, studies evaluating POCUS for upper extremity thrombosis in emergency settings remain scarce, and standardized protocols are less well established.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.3. Technique of the Focused Ultrasound Protocol for Assessment of Deep Vein Thrombosis</title>
          <p>Application of concise bedside ultrasound protocols, as opposed to full examinations, offers several advantages in emergency and urgent care settings, including rapid diagnosis enabling early treatment initiation, continuous monitoring with therapy adjustments as needed, and reduced length of hospital stay, benefiting both patients and health care systems.</p>
          <p>Nevertheless, although POCUS provides substantial benefits, its application must be appropriately integrated into the clinical context, taking into account patient-specific needs and ensuring result reliability.</p>
          <p>Ultrasound equipment ranges from portable handheld devices to advanced machines with varying costs. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t25">Chart 2</xref> summarizes key technical tips for performing the POCUS protocol for assessment of DVT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t25">
            <label>Chart 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Technical tips for performing the POCUS protocol for assessment of DVT</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Guidelines for POCUS protocol in the investigation of DVT</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Become familiar with the ultrasound equipment available in the unit.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Select the appropriate transducer: (1) linear, 5-10 MHz; (2) convex, 2-5 MHz (occasionally in obese or<break/> edematous patients).</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Choose the venous examination preset, if available.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Adjust basic two-dimensional imaging parameters, including gain, depth, and focus.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Observe the transducer index, aligning it with the<break/> screen marker.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Ensure adequate availability of ultrasound gel.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226;Record images for follow-up comparison.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN25">
                <p>DVT: deep vein thrombosis; POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Patients should preferably be examined in the supine position in bed, with the head elevated at approximately 30&#176;. For lower limb assessment, external rotation with slight knee flexion is recommended to allow evaluation of the inguinal region and popliteal fossa without repositioning the limb.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup></p>
          <p>For both 2-point and 3-point CUS protocols, grayscale imaging is used to identify intraluminal echogenic material suggestive of thrombus. Compression of the vein must be performed with the transducer positioned transversely.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f48">Figure 17</xref> schematically illustrates the CUS protocols.</p>
          <fig id="f48">
            <label>Figure 17</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Extended compression ultrasound (CUS) protocol (3-point; A); CUS protocol (2-point; B).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>The 2-point protocol consists of evaluation of the common femoral vein and the popliteal vein. Examination begins in the inguinal region, encompassing the segment 1-2 cm above and below the saphenofemoral junction, respectively. The popliteal fossa is then assessed, where the vein runs parallel to the popliteal artery until the confluence of the calf veins. The 3-point protocol evaluates the common femoral and popliteal veins in a manner similar to the 2-point protocol, with the addition of compression of the femoral vein at proximal and mid-distal thigh segments.</p>
          <p>Regardless of the protocol used, within the POCUS framework, DVT diagnosis is established by visualization of thrombus (intraluminal echogenic material) or by identification of venous incompressibility. In acute thrombosis, venous incompressibility often precedes direct visualization of the thrombus. Therefore, adequate transducer pressure must be applied to collapse the venous wall, avoiding overly gentle compression that may result in false-negative findings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f49">Figure 18</xref> illustrates the ultrasound scan sequence for the extended 3-point compression protocol.</p>
          <fig id="f49">
            <label>Figure 18</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Scan sequence for extended 3-point compression ultrasound protocol.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f50">Figure 19</xref> displays ultrasound findings in normal veins and in veins with acute thrombosis, comparing venous caliber, compressibility, luminal characteristics, and thrombus echogenicity.</p>
          <fig id="f50">
            <label>Figure 19</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Ultrasound findings in normal veins and veins with signs of acute.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Clinical signs and symptoms of thrombotic events may overlap with those of several acute or chronic conditions. Therefore, it is essential to consider differential diagnoses, including ruptured synovial cysts, chronic venous insufficiency, muscle ruptures and hematomas, abscesses, synovial cysts, lymphadenopathy, tumors, and Baker cyst, among others.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Health professionals must become familiar with the devices and specific techniques employed in the POCUS protocols they use, thereby ensuring accuracy and reliability of bedside results. Interdisciplinary collaboration and ongoing training are also fundamental to the successful implementation of POCUS protocols for DVT assessment.</p>
          <p>Recommendation: POCUS for proximal assessment of DVT, when performed by adequately trained professionals in emergency and urgent care settings, carries a Grade I recommendation, Level B evidence.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>6. POCUS in the Patient with Circulatory Shock</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>6.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>Shock can be defined as a severe state of generalized circulatory failure that leads to inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues. The four basic hemodynamic types of shock are hypovolemic, cardiogenic, obstructive, and distributive. Each has a different treatment approach, which makes rapid diagnosis and therapy essential. POCUS is the method of choice for the initial hemodynamic evaluation and monitoring of patients with circulatory shock. It allows rapid identification of the hemodynamic profile, often within 2 minutes, even when performed by non-specialists.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref></sup></p>
          <p>For clinicians with basic training, the main focus should be qualitative image assessment. Making clinical decisions based on quantitative measurements without adequate proficiency may compromise patient management.</p>
          <p>Several bedside ultrasound protocols have been proposed for cardiac arrest (Focused Echocardiographic Evaluation in Resuscitation, Pulseless Electrical Activity, Cardiac Arrest Sonographic Assessment [CASA]),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> shock (Ultrasound Hypotension Protocol, Trinity, Rapid Ultrasound for Shock and Hypotension, Focus-Assessed Transthoracic Echocardiography, Echo Guided Life Support [EGLS]),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> and respiratory failure (BLUE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The goal of this chapter is to present a diagnostic algorithm for circulatory shock based on POCUS, similar to an adapted EGLS protocol, designed to be feasible at the bedside by non-imaging specialists working in emergency or critical care settings.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.2. Diagnostic Protocols</title>
          <p>This section presents an integrated approach that combines the principles of BLUE, cardiac POCUS, and the Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography in Trauma (EFAST)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> and EGLS protocols.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> We believe that, given the close relationship between pulmonary extravascular water, LV function, and volume status in shock states, the combined use of lung and cardiac ultrasound together with the EFAST examination offers a clear advantage over isolated cardiac POCUS or EFAST in patients with undifferentiated shock.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.3. Key questions to Identify the Type of Shock</title>
          <p>We propose a sequence of five key questions, aligned with their corresponding ultrasound findings and implicit therapeutic implications, designed to rapidly identify and manage conditions that present a characteristic "ultrasound signature"<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f51">Figure 20</xref>). These questions are:</p>
          <fig id="f51">
            <label>Figure 20</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Adapted EGLS protocol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> CT: Computed tomography EFAST: Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography in Trauma; EGLS: Echo Guided Life Support; LV: Left ventricle; LVOT: LV outflow tract; VTI: Velocity-time integral; RA: Right Atrium; TTE: Transthoracic echocardiography; VExUS: Venous Excess Ultrasound Score.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Is there cardiac tamponade?</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Is the patient hypovolemic?</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>If left ventricular systolic dysfunction is present, is it the primary cause of shock?</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Are there signs of right ventricular dilation?</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Is there pneumothorax?</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Each of these questions is discussed below.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>a . Is there cardiac tamponade?</title>
            <p>The evaluation should focus on the presence of moderate to large pericardial effusion, a dilated IVC with minimal respiratory variation, diastolic collapse of cardiac chambers, and the presence of a swinging heart.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The pathophysiology of tamponade is suggested by a pericardial effusion causing atrial or right ventricular diastolic collapse. In cases of massive effusion, a pendular motion of the heart ("swinging heart") may be observed. Cardiac tamponade should be associated with increased CVP, which can be demonstrated in the subcostal view by a plethoric IVC (&#8805; 20 mm) without respiratory variation.</p>
            <p>These findings are discussed in greater detail in Section 4 of Chapter 2 (POCUS in cardiac tamponade).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>b. Is the patient hypovolemic?</title>
            <p>The assessment should include identification of a hyperdynamic or hypovolemic LV pattern ("kissing walls"), a narrow IVC (&lt; 10 mm), or marked IVC collapse throughout the respiratory cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In hypovolemic shock, LUS is expected to show normal aeration (absence of B-lines), in association with a hyperdynamic LV and a collapsible IVC. In this context, investigation of potential causes of hypovolemia is warranted, and an EFAST examination may be considered.</p>
            <p>A small IVC (diameter &lt; 10 mm) has been shown to correlate with hypovolemia in trauma patients. Therefore, significant respiratory variation or collapse of the IVC in patients with shock should always raise suspicion of hypovolemia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> particularly when associated with a hyperdynamic LV.</p>
            <p>In the early phases of sepsis, patients may also present with a hyperdynamic cardiac profile. Accordingly, sepsis should be actively investigated as a potential underlying cause.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>c. If left ventricular systolic dysfunction is present, is it the primary cause of shock?</title>
            <p>The evaluation should focus on identifying significant LV systolic dysfunction and signs of pulmonary and systemic venous congestion.</p>
            <p>For shock to be purely cardiogenic, marked LV systolic dysfunction must be present. These patients typically also exhibit signs of pulmonary congestion (B-line pattern on LUS) and/or systemic venous congestion (IVC dilation).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Pulmonary interstitial syndrome is defined by the presence of at least three B-lines within the width of a single intercostal space (the "B profile"). Although this pattern may represent cardiogenic pulmonary edema,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> it is not specific and may also be observed in other interstitial lung diseases,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> such as pulmonary fibrosis, ARDS, or pulmonary contusions. A cardiogenic origin is more likely when B-lines are homogeneously distributed, bilateral, and gravity dependent, with greater involvement of the lung bases.</p>
            <p>Pure cardiogenic shock (CS) is unlikely to be the primary cause of hemodynamic instability in the presence of a normal LUS pattern, suggesting that fluid administration is probably safe in such cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Prior knowledge of baseline echocardiographic and LUS findings may assist in interpretation. For example, LV systolic dysfunction combined with normal lung findings suggests pre-existing cardiac disease rather than acute CS, particularly when the IVC is small.</p>
            <p>In mixed shock states (cardiogenic and distributive), such as septic shock with sepsis-induced myocardial dysfunction, mild cardiac dysfunction may coexist with vasoplegia or hypovolemia, explaining the presence of shock in the absence of severe LV dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> In septic shock, a normal heart is expected to be somewhat hyperdynamic due to reduced systemic vascular resistance. Therefore, borderline LV systolic function in this context should raise suspicion of underlying or sepsis-related myocardial dysfunction, which may become more apparent after escalation of vasopressor therapy.</p>
            <p>Severe acute mitral regurgitation, such as that caused by chordae tendineae rupture, is another condition that may present with shock and a hyperdynamic LV. This scenario may be misinterpreted as hypovolemia by nonexperts with limited Doppler experience. However, unlike hypovolemia, severe acute mitral regurgitation is typically associated with a B-line pattern and a less compliant IVC, reflecting elevated filling pressures. This illustrates how LUS findings can directly influence the interpretation of cardiac POCUS. In such cases, evaluation by an imaging specialist (echocardiographer) is recommended.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>d. Are there signs of right ventricular dilation?</title>
            <p>The assessment should include identification of moderate to severe right-sided chamber dilation and flattening of the interventricular septum (D-shape).</p>
            <p>In obstructive shock, the IVC is expected to be dilated. An IVC diameter &gt; 20 mm with loss of respiratory variability suggests elevated CVP.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
            <p>If acute cor pulmonale is the cause of obstructive shock, right-sided chamber dilation and interventricular septal flattening must be present, resulting in a D-shaped LV on parasternal short-axis view (PSAX; <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">Figure 7</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> The A4C view is the best window for assessing RV-to-LV size ratios. The severity of cor pulmonale may be estimated as follows:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>
                  <italic>Mild: RV &gt; 60% of LV;</italic>
                </p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>
                  <italic>Moderate: RV = LV;</italic>
                </p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>
                  <italic>Severe: RV &gt; LV.</italic>
                </p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>e. Is there pneumothorax?<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></title>
            <p>The assessment should focus on the absence of pleural sliding and the presence of the lung point. The presence of pleural sliding excludes pneumothorax beneath the probe and requires only minimal training to be recognized. Although not specific (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f51">Figure 20</xref>), the absence of pleural sliding in the appropriate clinical context may be highly suggestive of pneumothorax. The lung point represents a more specific finding for this diagnosis and is described in detail in the LUS chapter.</p>
            <p>The absence of a lung point does not exclude pneumothorax. In cases of circumferential pneumothorax, this finding will not be observed. The presence of a B-line pattern excludes pneumothorax in the scanned region.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>6.4. Fluid Responsiveness and Fluid Tolerance</title>
          <p>Depending on the most likely type of shock, additional complementary assessments may be performed according to the examiner's level of experience and the suspected underlying cause.</p>
          <p>Despite variations in methodology and definitions across the literature, the most widely accepted concept of FR is an increase in cardiac output greater than 10%-15% induced by an increase in preload.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>6.4.1. Estimation of Cardiac Output</title>
            <p>The primary component for estimating cardiac output using cardiac POCUS is the LVOT VTI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> This concept is addressed in Section 2 on advanced cardiac POCUS. The normal LVOT VTI ranges from approximately 18-22 cm in patients with a heart rate between 55 and 95 bpm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup> When systolic function is preserved and the VTI is low, hypovolemic shock should be considered. Conversely, preserved systolic function with an elevated VTI suggests distributive shock. The assessment of LVOT VTI is also discussed below in the evaluation of FR.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>6.4.2. Inferior and Superior Vena Cava</title>
            <p>Assessment of the maximum diameter and respiratory variability of IVC may be used to estimate RAP and FR. For RAP estimation, the IVC has greater accuracy in spontaneously breathing patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref></sup> Regarding FR estimation, indices based on IVC variability in patients under controlled mechanical ventilation, without spontaneous respiratory effort and with near-normal tidal volumes and positive end-expiratory pressure (PEEP), showed good accuracy in early studies (approximately 90%). However, this performance was not confirmed in subsequent publications, in which accuracy decreased to about 65%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B148">148</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> Assessment of SVC demonstrated better accuracy (approximately 75%) than the IVC for predicting FR, although SVC evaluation requires transesophageal echocardiography (TEE).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref></sup> In spontaneously breathing patients, several studies have shown that IVC accuracy is also limited, with higher specificity than sensitivity.</p>
            <p>Thus, the assessment of IVC may assist in evaluating volume status and FR, particularly in extreme scenarios:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>A very small IVC (&#8804; 10 mm) or marked collapse &#10132; likely FR and FT;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>A markedly dilated IVC (&gt; 25 mm) with minimal respiratory variation &#10132; likely absence of FR and FT.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Respiratory variation of the IVC is frequently altered in patients receiving mechanical ventilation, in cirrhosis, and in chronic lung disease, and should therefore be interpreted with caution. Although IVC respiratory variation may predict FR in hypotensive patients under mechanical ventilation, a plethoric IVC without respiratory variation is not, by itself, a contraindication to fluid administration in this population. As with elevated CVP, the absence of respiratory variation does not necessarily indicate lack of FR and must be interpreted within the clinical context.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>6.4.3. Passive Leg Raising Maneuver</title>
            <p>Among POCUS-based methods for estimating FR, the passive leg raising (PLR) maneuver is the most extensively studied.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B152">152</xref></sup> PLR involves measuring LVOT VTI with the patient in a semi-recumbent position (head of bed elevated at 45&#176;) and the legs extended. The head of the bed is then lowered to the supine position while the lower limbs are elevated to 45&#176;, and the VTI is reassessed approximately 1 minute after leg elevation. These maneuvers must be performed passively by adjusting the bed position rather than through active patient movement. An increase in LVOT VTI of &#8805; 10% induced by PLR predicts an increase in cardiac output after volume infusion with an accuracy of approximately 84%, according to recent studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup></p>
            <p>However, both intra- and interobserver variability affect LVOT VTI measurements. A recent ICU study showed that when the same examiner performed two measurements at different times without moving the transducer, variability reached approximately 11% (range 5%-18%). When measurements were performed by different operators, variability increased to approximately 14% (range 8%-26%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> Therefore, therapeutic decisions based solely on this parameter require caution. Changes in VTI close to the intraobserver variability threshold (11%) may represent false-positive results. Consequently, a more substantial VTI increase (&gt; 20%) following PLR more reliably indicates true FR.</p>
            <p>An advantage of PLR is that it can be performed in both spontaneously breathing and mechanically ventilated patients, with or without respiratory effort, even at low tidal volumes. However, the maneuver requires greater operator experience to ensure rapid and accurate VTI measurements. It is recommended to average at least three measurements at end-expiration in patients with sinus rhythm and at least five measurements in patients with atrial fibrillation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B154">154</xref></sup> Factors that limit the applicability of PLR include intra-abdominal hypertension, inability to mobilize the lower limbs (e.g., fractures), lower limb thrombosis, and intracranial hypertension.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>6.4.4. Expiratory and Inspiratory Occlusion Maneuvers</title>
            <p>Some studies have shown that an expiratory hold lasting 12-15 seconds is associated with an increase in VTI or cardiac output in fluid-responsive patients. Similarly, an inspiratory hold of 12-15 seconds is associated with a reduction in VTI or cardiac output in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> These assessments may be performed using ultrasound or other cardiac output monitoring devices. However, because the magnitude of cardiac output variation induced by these maneuvers approaches the limits of intraobserver variability when assessed by POCUS, an integrated approach combining both maneuvers has been proposed.</p>
            <p>A combined absolute LVOT VTI variation of at least 13%, obtained using end-expiratory occlusion test and end-inspiratory occlusion test, each lasting approximately 12-15 seconds, demonstrated an accuracy of 93% for predicting FR. This approach should not be performed by operators with limited experience.</p>
            <p>It must be emphasized that no single parameter for estimating FR is perfect. Multiple factors related to the patient, equipment, and operator can influence accuracy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B153">153</xref></sup> Moreover, FR does not necessarily imply FT. Decisions regarding fluid administration must always balance the individualized risks of shock against the risks of hypoxemia and congestion.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B155">155</xref></sup></p>
            <p>FT is defined as the ability of the organism to receive fluid infusion without developing organ dysfunction. FT can be assessed using LUS to detect B-lines (pulmonary congestion) and the VExUS protocol to evaluate systemic venous congestion. The VExUS protocol, methodology, and interpretation are described in Section 4 of this document. For FT assessment, the protocol may be applied as follows:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>VExUS grades 0-1 (no significant congestion): fluid tolerant;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>VExUS grades 2-3 (significant congestion): fluid intolerant.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Once FR is confirmed, fluid infusion may be initiated, with response monitoring guided by LUS and VExUS, according to the algorithm shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f52">Figure 21</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f52">
              <label>Figure 21</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Integrated approach to fluid responsiveness and fluid tolerance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B156">156</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>Clinicians managing patients at the bedside should always integrate POCUS findings into their clinical reasoning, combining them with history taking, physical examination, and other diagnostic tests.</p>
            <p>Based on the topics discussed throughout this chapter, we recommend the use of an initial POCUS-based algorithm for the evaluation of circulatory shock, which may be further expanded according to the observer's level of expertise (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f52">Figure 21</xref>).</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>7. POCUS in Short-Term Mechanical Circulatory Support</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>7.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>CS is characterized by cardiac dysfunction leading to systemic hypoperfusion and end-organ failure. The most common cause of CS is AMI. Despite advances in early revascularization, the incidence of CS complicating AMI remains between 6.5% and 10.1%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B157">157</xref></sup> Other frequent causes include worsening of pre-existing ventricular dysfunction and postoperative cardiac dysfunction. CS is associated with high mortality, with an estimated in-hospital mortality rate of approximately 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref></sup> Medical therapy alone is often insufficient, making short-term mechanical circulatory support (ST-MCS) necessary.</p>
          <p>ST-MCS devices provide hemodynamic support in two main clinical scenarios: i) during high-risk cardiac procedures in patients with low cardiac output, and ii) in CS due to left or right ventricular failure. ST-MCS devices include the intra-aortic balloon pump (IABP), venoarterial (VA) ECMO (VA-ECMO), and percutaneous ventricular assist devices (pVADs), such as Impella<sup>&#174;</sup>. In addition, Impella<sup>&#174;</sup> devices may help unload the LV during VA-ECMO. Recently, the use of Impella<sup>&#174;</sup> has demonstrated a mortality benefit compared with standard medical therapy in patients with AMI-related CS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> The primary goals of ST-MCS devices are to provide circulatory support and to mitigate end-organ dysfunction in the setting of inadequate cardiac output.</p>
          <p>POCUS has transformed bedside diagnosis and management across multiple clinical scenarios. Its application in ST-MCS is particularly relevant due to the critical condition of these patients. Integrating POCUS into patient management provides real-time, noninvasive information that is essential for timely and effective clinical decision-making.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.2. The Role of POCUS in Short-Term Mechanical Circulatory Support</title>
          <p>POCUS is an invaluable tool and is recommended for clinicians managing patients on ST-MCS since it provides immediate visual feedback on cardiac function, device positioning, and potential complications. Its role encompasses several stages of care, including initial patient assessment, device placement, and ongoing monitoring.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.3. Initial Patient Assessment</title>
          <p>In the context of ST-MCS, the initial assessment is critical to determine appropriateness for support and to guide procedural planning. POCUS allows rapid evaluation of cardiac function, volume status, and other hemodynamic parameters. For example, in patients with CS, echocardiography can quickly assess left and right ventricular function, valvular abnormalities, and the presence of pericardial effusion. These findings are essential for determining the type and urgency of mechanical support required.</p>
          <fig id="f53">
            <label>Figure 22</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Initial diagnostic algorithm for circulatory shock based on POCUS. LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle; IVC: inferior vena cava; VTI: velocity time integral; TTE: transthoracic echocardiography; X-ray: radiography; MNM: myocardial necrosis marker; PASP: pulmonary artery systolic pressure; PAT: pulmonary acceleration time; mPAP: mean pulmonary artery pressure; TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; FAC: fractional area change; CT: computed tomography; VExUS: Venous Excess Ultrasound Score; PLAPS: posterolateral alveolar&#8211;pleural syndrome. Adapted from the EGLS, BLUE, and EFAST protocols.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.4. Device Placement and Position Confirmation</title>
          <p>Accurate positioning of mechanical support devices is essential for optimal performance and for preventing complications. POCUS plays a key role in guiding and confirming the placement of devices such as the IABP, ECMO cannulas, and pVADs.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.5. Intra-Aortic Balloon Pump</title>
          <sec sec-type="intro">
            <title>7.5.1. Introduction</title>
            <p>Although more recent European Society of Cardiology guidelines on HF discourage the routine use of the IABP,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup> it remains the most widely used short-term percutaneous mechanical circulatory support device, with more than 60,000 implants performed annually.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup> The IABP catheter is typically inserted via the femoral artery or, less commonly, via the axillary or subclavian artery. With a femoral approach, the catheter is advanced retrogradely into the descending aorta until the tip is positioned just distal to the left subclavian artery (LSA). The IABP operates by counterpulsation in the descending thoracic aorta, inflating during diastole and deflating during systole, thereby reducing LV afterload during systole and improving coronary perfusion during diastole. TEE is superior to fluoroscopy for this purpose, as it allows real-time visualization, is portable, free of ionizing radiation, and enables assessment not only of indications but also of complications related to IABP use. TEE also allows exclusion of primary contraindications, such as aortic regurgitation (AR) and aortic dissection, before device insertion.</p>
            <p>Echocardiography can also be used to monitor response to IABP support. Ntalianis et al. demonstrated, using transthoracic echocardiography (TTE), that patients treated with IABP showed right ventricular reverse remodeling and improved ventricular function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> When used in combination with VA-ECMO for CS, the IABP modestly reduces LV afterload, increases aortic flow pulsatility, helps prevent LV distension, and may reduce hydrostatic pulmonary edema.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup> Proper IABP positioning is crucial for device efficacy and for preventing complications such as limb ischemia or aortic dissection.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.5.2. Transesophageal Echocardiography Examination Sequence to Guide Intra-Aortic Balloon Pump Insertion</title>
            <p>A comprehensive TEE examination should be performed initially, followed by a focused assessment of the aortic valve, aortic root, ascending aorta, aortic arch, and descending aorta to exclude atheroma, aneurysmal dilation, or dissection. The aortic valve should be evaluated in both long- and short-axis views at the mid-esophageal level, and any degree of AR should be documented. Subsequently, the guidewire should be confirmed within the descending aorta. In the short-axis view of the descending aorta, the balloon tip can be identified. Still in the short-axis view, the distance between the balloon tip and the origin of the LSA can be estimated by placing the examiner's fingers at the level of the patient's teeth and gradually withdrawing the probe until the LSA becomes visible. The distance between the examiner's fingers and the patient's teeth corresponds to the distance between the balloon tip and the LSA origin. The catheter can then be advanced to the appropriate position, ensuring that the IABP tip is visualized approximately 2 cm distal to the origin of the LSA.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.5.3. Post-Implantation Checklist</title>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Assess for complications, including aortic injury, atheromatous plaque rupture, thrombosis or thromboembolism, and balloon rupture;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Evaluate IABP effectiveness by assessing LV dimensions, function, and LVOT-VTI;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Improvement in coronary flow can be assessed using color or pulsed-wave Doppler, indicated by increased diastolic flow velocity during balloon inflation.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.6. Veno-arterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation</title>
          <sec sec-type="intro">
            <title>7.6.1. Introduction</title>
            <p>ECMO is a critical life-support intervention used in patients with severe cardiac and respiratory failure. The role of echocardiography, particularly POCUS, in ECMO is multifaceted and includes patient selection, cannulation guidance, hemodynamic monitoring, and complication detection. This overview highlights each of these roles, emphasizing the importance of echocardiography and POCUS in optimizing ECMO therapy and potentially improving patient outcomes.</p>
            <p>Echocardiography is useful for identifying or excluding reversible conditions that may be responsible for hemodynamic deterioration, such as cardiac tamponade, previously unrecognized valvular lesions, and LV dysfunction, thereby potentially obviating the need for ECMO. It also provides critical information regarding contraindications; for example, ECMO should not be used in cases of aortic dissection. Significant AR is a relative contraindication to VA-ECMO, as it increases LV afterload and may exacerbate AR. In addition, echocardiography can detect aortic atherosclerosis, assisting intensivists in selecting cannulation sites (central versus peripheral) or techniques (surgical versus percutaneous). It also aids in evaluating right heart morphology to identify structural abnormalities that may hinder venous cannula placement for venovenous ECMO (VV-ECMO) or VA-ECMO. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f54">Figure 23</xref> summarizes the main points of attention for VV-ECMO and VA-ECMO during the pre-cannulation phase, throughout ECMO support, and during the weaning process, as well as potential causes of device malfunction.</p>
            <fig id="f54">
              <label>Figure 23</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Bedside echocardiography for VV and VA ECMO. Note: TEE should be performed in all patients when time and clinical conditions allow. Alternatively, TTE may provide important information during the pre-ECMO assessment and the weaning process and should be considered as a noninvasive option. ECMO: extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; RA: right atrium; RV: right ventricle; TAPSE: tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion; FAC: fractional area change; IVS: interventricular septum; IAS: interatrial septum; TTE: transthoracic echocardiography; VV: venovenous; VA: venoarterial.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.6.2. Patient Selection for Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation</title>
            <p>Initial assessment and patient selection for ECMO are critical determinants of procedural success. Echocardiography provides essential information on cardiac structure and function and plays a key role in determining patient suitability for ECMO.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup> Prior to ECMO initiation, a comprehensive evaluation of cardiac function is required to assess the severity of HF and the potential benefit of mechanical circulatory support. Echocardiography offers detailed assessment of LV and RV function, valvular integrity, and the presence of structural heart disease.</p>
            <p>RV dysfunction may significantly complicate management of ECMO. Echocardiographic evaluation of RV size, systolic function, and filling pressures is therefore essential for planning the ECMO strategy. Echocardiography is also indispensable for identifying significant valvular abnormalities, such as severe mitral regurgitation or aortic stenosis, which may influence the decision to initiate ECMO. Appropriate recognition and management of these conditions are fundamental to optimizing ECMO therapy.</p>
            <p>Hemodynamic instability is a common indication for ECMO support. Echocardiography provides real-time hemodynamic information, including cardiac output, filling pressures, and volume status. Cardiac output can be estimated by measuring stroke volume and heart rate, which is crucial for determining the need for ECMO and for monitoring the effectiveness of mechanical support. Assessment of intravascular volume status using echocardiography guides fluid management and is vital for hemodynamic stabilization before and during ECMO support. Parameters such as IVC diameter and respiratory variation are useful indicators of volume status.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.6.3. Cannulation Guidance</title>
            <p>Accurate cannulation is a fundamental step in ECMO initiation, and echocardiography plays a pivotal role in guiding and confirming correct cannula positioning. In peripheral VA-ECMO, cannulas are typically inserted into a vein (usually the femoral vein) and an artery (most commonly the femoral artery) to provide combined cardiac and respiratory support. TEE is the preferred modality, as TTE may not provide sufficient spatial resolution for this purpose. Clear communication between the ECMO operator and the echocardiographer is essential regarding the intended cannula positions. For example, in VV-ECMO, when separate cannulas are used for drainage and reinfusion, the drainage cannula tip should be positioned in the proximal IVC, just before its entry into the RA. The return cannula should ideally be positioned in the mid-RA, away from the interatrial septum and tricuspid valve.</p>
            <p>Echocardiographic monitoring during ECMO is particularly important for assessing hemodynamics and volume status.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref></sup> In cases of severe LV dysfunction associated with significant mitral regurgitation, the LV may become markedly dilated, and the aortic valve may fail to open because of severely reduced native cardiac output. This condition can lead to blood stasis and subsequent thrombosis in the ascending aorta, left-sided chambers, and pulmonary veins. In such situations, LV unloading or percutaneous balloon atrial septostomy may be beneficial. TEE is the optimal modality for guiding septostomy catheter placement and balloon inflation.</p>
            <p>Failure of aortic valve opening during peripheral VA-ECMO represents a serious complication. In these cases, anticoagulation intensity should be increased, and inodilators may be used to reduce afterload, optimize native LV output, and facilitate aortic valve opening. Transitioning from ECMO to a ventricular assist device should also be considered.</p>
            <p>In VV-ECMO, hemodynamics are simpler and generally more favorable. Blood is drained from and returned to the right heart without significantly altering RV preload or adversely affecting left heart hemodynamics. VV-ECMO increases mixed venous oxygen saturation, leading to reduced pulmonary vascular resistance and decreased RV afterload. Improved systemic oxygenation may also indirectly enhance LV function by increasing coronary oxygen delivery.</p>
            <p>VA-ECMO cannulation may be performed at the bedside in emergency situations or in the cardiac catheterization laboratory if the patient's condition allows. In these settings, a comprehensive echocardiographic assessment, including TTE and/or TEE, should be performed, supplemented by fluoroscopy when appropriate.</p>
            <p>In cases of extreme urgency where patient transport is not feasible, bedside cannulation should be performed using focused echocardiography guidance by an experienced operator. Focused ultrasound steps for bedside cannulation include:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Real-time ultrasound-guided vascular access;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Ultrasound confirmation of guidewire position in the IVC and aorta using the transhepatic mid-axillary window;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Continuous monitoring to ensure guidewire stability during cannula exchange;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Verification that the venous guidewire has not migrated into the RV or SVC;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Confirmation of venous cannula positioning directed toward the SVC;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Confirmation of arterial cannula positioning within the aorta;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Exclusion of immediate complications, such as pericardial effusion, aortic dissection, or cannula malposition (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f55">Figure 24</xref>).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <fig id="f55">
              <label>Figure 24</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Various situations demonstrating the role of TEE in the evaluation of patients on VA-ECMO. (a) Bicaval view showing the venous drainage cannula in the correct position, with the tip at the junction of the SVC and the RA. (b) Modified bicaval view in a patient presenting with difficulty in oxygenation during the weaning process. Color Doppler shows the presence of a patent foramen ovale with a right-to-left shunt explaining the hypoxia. (c) Transgastric view of the IVC with color Doppler showing signs of VV-ECMO recirculation (turbulent flow due to the short distance between the tips of the drainage and return cannulas, causing the drainage cannula to aspirate blood from the return cannula tip). (d) Transgastric view of the IVC in the same patient on VV-ECMO after repositioning the drainage cannula a few centimeters lower. Color Doppler shows linear flow, indicating less recirculation. (e) and (f) Bicaval view at the mid-esophageal level in a patient on VA-ECMO showing the drainage cannula crossing the interatrial septum through the fossa ovalis tunnel, creating a small iatrogenic ASD. ASD: atrial septal defect; IVC: inferior vena cava; RA: right atrium; SVC: superior vena cava; TEE: transesophageal echocardiography; VA-ECMO: venoarterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation; VV-ECMO: venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>It should be emphasized that this is not basic ultrasound, but rather focused echocardiography, which should be performed by an echocardiographer, as it requires a well-defined and precise protocol. It does not replace comprehensive echocardiography, which remains the preferred approach before and after cannulation. When time permits, a combined approach using ultrasound, TTE, and TEE is ideal, and a complete TEE examination during or after cannulation is recommended to confirm venous cannula positioning and detect previously unrecognized cardiac pathology.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.6.4. Immediate Effects of Peripheral Venoarterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation Observed by Bedside Echocardiography</title>
            <p>Immediate effects of VA-ECMO may include progressive LV dilation. When LV function is severely impaired, the aortic valve may open intermittently or fail to open entirely, with the appearance of spontaneous echocardiographic contrast within the LV. These findings should be promptly communicated to the ECMO consultant, as they may necessitate additional strategies for LV decompression. Although not an immediate emergency, a comprehensive echocardiographic evaluation is required to confirm the diagnosis, assess filling pressures, and determine the optimal unloading strategy.</p>
            <p>All patients with acute CS should undergo daily echocardiographic assessment. In cases of acute hemodynamic deterioration or circuit failure, the critical care team may request a focused study to rapidly identify or exclude specific complications, including:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Pericardial effusion, which may be large without hemodynamic impact or small with significant compromise if cardiac drainage is impaired;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Cannula displacement or migration, with or without obstruction;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Cannula-related thrombosis, with or without obstruction;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Excessive ventricular unloading;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Valvular or intracavitary thrombosis;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Worsening valvular regurgitation (severity and/or duration);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Inadequate LV unloading characterized by spontaneous LV contrast, biphasic retrograde transmitral flow, or retrograde systolic pulmonary venous flow;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Shortening of the post-ejection period, assessed by TAPSE or MAPSE.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>These findings should be identified or excluded using focused echocardiography protocols performed by experienced echocardiographer. As with all critical care echocardiography, findings must be interpreted within the clinical context and discussed with the treating physician. If TTE images are inadequate and no contraindications exist, TEE should be performed. The use of left-sided contrast agents to enhance image interpretation in patients receiving mechanical circulatory support should be limited to experienced practitioners, as detection of air bubbles may cause some ECMO circuits (e.g., Maquet<sup>&#174;</sup> or Cardiohelp<sup>&#174;</sup>) to immediately stop. Following any corrective intervention, such as adjustment of ECMO flow or cannula position, real-time reassessment of cardiac function and circulation is mandatory.</p>
            <p>In patients receiving univentricular support, the impact on the contralateral ventricle and any interventricular septal shift should also be evaluated. This type of evaluation is highly specialized and requires advanced knowledge of cardiac physiology, mechanical circulatory support, and techniques such as global longitudinal strain, which are beyond the scope of basic POCUS.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.6.5. Assessment of Unloading and Weaning</title>
            <p>Weaning from VA-ECMO and left-sided percutaneous support involves complex protocols that are typically combined with invasive hemodynamic monitoring and tailored to the patient's clinical status.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref></sup> These processes exceed the scope of focused ultrasound protocols and require the full use of advanced echocardiographic techniques. However, as understanding of acute mechanical circulatory support weaning improves, focused imaging protocols may become more standardized and play an expanded role in the future.</p>
            <p>ECMO weaning requires careful assessment of both cardiac and respiratory function to ensure that adequate hemodynamics can be maintained without mechanical support. Echocardiography is central to this evaluation, as it assesses recovery of cardiac function and provides essential information for determining the optimal timing of weaning. Improvement in global LV function and LV ejection fraction indicates recovery and readiness for VA-ECMO weaning. Serial echocardiographic evaluations are critical for monitoring this progression. Recovery of RV function is equally important. Echocardiography assesses RV size, systolic performance, and filling pressures, guiding the weaning process. In patients supported with VV-ECMO, echocardiography may assist in evaluating pulmonary function and readiness for decannulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> LUS, as an extension of echocardiography, aids in assessing pulmonary congestion and guiding fluid management. The presence of B-lines indicates interstitial edema and may influence fluid management decisions. Improvement in LUS findings supports the decision to wean from both VA-ECMO and VV-ECMO.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>7.6.6. Monitoring During Weaning Trials</title>
            <p>Echocardiography provides real-time monitoring during weaning trials, ensuring that the patient maintains adequate hemodynamics without ECMO support. It also plays a critical role in the early detection and management of ECMO-related complications, including:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Thrombosis: Thrombosis is a major risk in patients receiving ECMO because of exposure to foreign surfaces and altered hemodynamics. Echocardiography can detect intracardiac or intravascular thrombi, enabling timely intervention. Identification of thrombi within the cardiac chambers is essential to prevent embolic events. Early detection may prompt initiation or escalation of anticoagulation and other targeted interventions. Thrombi may also form at cannulation sites, posing a risk of embolization or cannula obstruction; echocardiography can identify these thrombi and guide management;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Bleeding and hematoma: Bleeding is a common complication in ECMO patients, often related to anticoagulation therapy. Echocardiography can identify pericardial effusions and hematomas that require prompt management. Pericardial effusions may develop due to bleeding or inflammation, and rapid detection with timely drainage of clinically significant effusions is critical for patient stability. Focused ultrasound can also detect hematomas surrounding cannulation sites, supporting appropriate management and prevention of further complications;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Ventricular distension: In patients supported with VA-ECMO, ventricular distension may occur due to inadequate LV unloading. Echocardiography can assess ventricular size and function and guide interventions to relieve distension. Serial assessment can quantify the degree of LV distension and inform therapeutic strategies, including IABP support, Impella<sup>&#174;</sup> placement, or surgical LV venting. RV distension may be managed by adjusting ECMO settings or adding additional mechanical support. Continuous echocardiographic monitoring is essential for early detection and management of this complication.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.7. Challenges and Future Directions</title>
          <p>Although POCUS offers numerous advantages in the management of patients requiring mechanical circulatory support, several challenges must be addressed. Diagnostic accuracy and clinical effectiveness are highly dependent on operator skill and experience. Inadequate training or limited expertise may result in image misinterpretation and inappropriate clinical decisions. Standardized training programs and certification for clinicians using POCUS in this setting are therefore essential to improve diagnostic accuracy and patient outcomes in critical care environments.</p>
          <p>While POCUS is a powerful tool, it should be integrated with other imaging modalities, such as echocardiography, CT and magnetic resonance imaging, to provide a comprehensive patient assessment. Combining POCUS with advanced imaging techniques can enhance diagnostic precision and improve treatment planning in complex cases. Future developments in POCUS are expected to include technological advances that improve image quality, portability, and ease of use. High-resolution handheld ultrasound devices and AI&#8211;based image analysis hold promise for increasing the accuracy and efficiency of POCUS in mechanical circulatory support.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>7.8. Conclusion</title>
          <p>POCUS has emerged as a critical tool in the management of patients requiring mechanical circulatory support. Its ability to provide real-time, noninvasive assessment of cardiac function, device positioning, and potential complications makes it invaluable in critical care settings. Despite challenges related to operator dependency and the need for integration with other imaging modalities, ongoing advances in technology and training are likely to address these limitations. As POCUS continues to evolve, its role in improving patient care and outcomes in mechanical circulatory support will undoubtedly expand, firmly establishing its place in modern critical care medicine.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>8. POCUS in the Emergency Department</title>
        <p>The use of POCUS is well established as an essential tool for rapid clinical decision-making during the initial assessment of critically ill patients in the emergency department. Despite its well-recognized benefits, POCUS should not be interpreted in isolation nor considered a substitute for careful history taking and a comprehensive physical examination. Rather, it provides valuable complementary information, particularly in the management of critically ill patients and those with potentially time-sensitive diagnoses.</p>
        <p>Below, we outline the main applications of POCUS across different clinical scenarios encountered in the emergency department.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>8.1. POCUS in Chest Pain</title>
          <p>Chest pain is a common and often challenging presentation in the emergency setting. POCUS serves as a valuable adjunct for the differential diagnosis of life-threatening conditions, allowing rapid bedside evaluation. Several high-risk diagnoses associated with chest pain can be identified using POCUS, including pulmonary embolism, pneumothorax, and pericardial diseases.</p>
          <p>Evaluation of the aorta for dissection and assessment of regional LV wall motion abnormalities for the diagnosis of acute coronary syndromes require advanced training and substantial expertise in echocardiography. Because of the complexity and clinical relevance of these diagnoses, such assessments should preferably be performed by physicians specialized in cardiovascular imaging to ensure diagnostic accuracy and patient safety.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref></sup></p>
          <p>When appropriately applied by adequately trained professionals, POCUS represents a powerful tool to support clinical decision-making.</p>
          <p>Below, we summarize the role of POCUS in the main diagnostic considerations.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>8.1.1. Evaluation of Pericardial Diseases in the Emergency Department</title>
            <p>Pericardial assessment is an integral component of the systematic cardiac evaluation performed with POCUS and is particularly useful in patients presenting with hemodynamic instability, dyspnea, and/or chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup></p>
            <p>POCUS has high diagnostic value for the rapid bedside identification of pericardial effusion and signs of impaired ventricular filling (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f39">Figure 8</xref>), and it is especially useful for guiding pericardiocentesis (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f56">Figures 25</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f57">26</xref>), a procedure detailed in a dedicated section.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup> The detection of pericardial effusion demonstrates high diagnostic accuracy (exceeding 95%), even when performed by emergency physicians without formal cardiology training, provided adequate training has been completed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Quantification of pericardial effusion (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t16">Table 3</xref>) can be performed using standard echocardiographic windows, including parasternal long-axis, parasternal short-axis, A4C, and subcostal views, allowing classification of effusion size.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Beyond effusion volume, the rate of fluid accumulation and its anatomical distribution may exceed the pericardium's elastic capacity, resulting in increased intrapericardial pressure and impaired atrial and ventricular filling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref></sup> In such cases, specific echocardiographic findings detectable by POCUS (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t19">Table 6</xref>) support the diagnosis of cardiac tamponade when correlated with a compatible clinical presentation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t19">
              <label>Table 6</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Echocardiographic findings of impaired cardiac chamber filling and their clinical significance<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Finding</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical significance</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Late diastolic</bold>
                      <break/>
                      <bold>right atrial collapse</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Occurs during atrial relaxation, when right atrial volume is minimal and pericardial pressure peaks, causing inward invagination of the atrial wall. Diagnostic value increases when collapse persists for more than one third of the cardiac cycle. This is one of the earliest signs of cardiac tamponade.<break/> Despite high sensitivity, specificity is approximately 82%, as brief right atrial collapse may occur in other conditions such as increased intrathoracic pressure. Sustained right atrial collapse remains a strong indicator of tamponade.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Right ventricular</bold>
                      <break/>
                      <bold>diastolic collapse</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Typically occurs during early diastole, when ventricular volume is still low.<break/> This finding has high specificity when present; however, in certain clinical scenarios &#8211; such as right ventricular hypertrophy or markedly elevated right ventricular diastolic pressure (e.g., acute or chronic cor pulmonale) &#8211; right-sided chamber collapse may be absent even in tamponade.<break/> Although sensitivity exceeds 90%, this sign is less sensitive than right atrial collapse.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Dilated inferior vena cava with minimal or absent respiratory variation</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">In cardiac tamponade, external compression of the right atrium during early diastole limits preload accommodation, resulting in a dilated inferior vena cava with reduced inspiratory collapse (diameter &gt; 2.1 cm with &lt; 50% inspiratory reduction). This finding has a high negative predictive value, whereas its positive predictive value is limited, as it may also be observed in chronic lung disease, heart failure, tricuspid regurgitation, and other cardiac conditions. Visualization is usually obtained in the sagittal plane below the xiphoid process, with diameter measured approximately 2-3 cm proximal to the junction with the right atrium, at the level of the hepatic vein confluence. M-mode may be used for more precise measurements.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>"Swinging heart"</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Oscillatory motion of the heart, typically observed in large pericardial effusions and often associated with beat-to-beat QRS amplitude variation (electrical alternans).</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>8.1.2. Pleural and Pulmonary Evaluation in the Emergency Department</title>
            <p>Among the causes of chest pain identifiable with POCUS are pulmonary conditions, such as pneumonia and pulmonary embolism, and pleural conditions, including pneumothorax and pleural effusion. Lung Ultrasound (LUS) enables direct visualization of the pleural line and assessment of the lung sliding sign, which is absent in pneumothorax. The absence of B-lines and the presence of the lung point further support the diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref></sup> Rapid exclusion or confirmation of pneumothorax is critical for immediate clinical management.</p>
            <p>Ultrasound findings suggestive of pulmonary embolism are discussed in the following section.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.2. Evaluation of the Patient with Dyspnea</title>
          <p>LUS is one of the primary applications of POCUS for rapid, real-time bedside assessment of patients presenting with dyspnea in the emergency department. It should always be interpreted in conjunction with clinical history and a thorough physical examination since it can significantly expedite diagnostic clarification and appropriate treatment initiation.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>8.2.1 Pulmonary Congestion, Pleural Diseases, and Other Diagnoses Assessed by Lung Ultrasound</title>
            <p>LUS is an excellent tool for rapid, noninvasive assessment of pulmonary congestion. It is based on the identification of ultrasound artifacts known as B-lines, which strongly indicate fluid accumulation within the pulmonary interlobular septa.</p>
            <p>B-lines, also referred to as "comet-tail artifacts," are vertical, hyperechoic, well-defined reverberation artifacts that arise from the pleural line, extend to the bottom of the screen, and move synchronously with lung sliding (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f44">Figure 13b</xref>). They occur in the presence of interlobular septal thickening or fluid accumulation, as seen in pulmonary congestion. The presence of three or more B-lines in a single intercostal space suggests clinically significant pulmonary congestion, and both their number and distribution correlate with congestion severity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Section 3 provides a detailed description of the essential aspects of LUS application in the emergency department, including:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Technical considerations of LUS;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Most common findings and their clinical significance;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>The role of POCUS in the diagnosis of pulmonary congestion, pleural effusion, interstitial syndromes, pneumonic consolidation, atelectasis, pneumothorax, and pulmonary embolism.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Because pulmonary embolism involves multiple ultrasound findings beyond LUS alone, this diagnosis is discussed in detail in the following section.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>8.2.2. Pulmonary Embolism</title>
            <p>As with other potentially life-threatening causes of chest pain, early diagnosis of pulmonary embolism is essential. However, pulmonary embolism remains a challenging diagnosis because it may mimic several other clinical conditions. In this context, POCUS is a highly valuable bedside diagnostic tool, enabling rapid, integrated assessment of cardiac, pulmonary, and vascular findings (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t20">Table 7</xref>).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t20">
              <label>Table 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>POCUS findings supporting the diagnosis of pulmonary embolism<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Finding</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Description</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Comments</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>DVT (Figure 19)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Visualization of a non-compressible thrombus in deep veins (femoral, popliteal, etc.)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Highly suggestive of pulmonary embolism when associated with respiratory symptoms</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Right ventricular dilation (Figures 6a and 6b)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">RV diameter greater than LV diameter<break/> (RV/LV &gt; 1) on paras-ternal or apical views</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Suggests RV pressure overload (massive or submassive pulmonary embolism)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>McConnell sign</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Hypokinesia of the basal and mid free wall of the RV with preserved apical con-tractility</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Highly suggestive of pulmonary embolism (specificity &#8776; 94%)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Flattened interventricular septum (Figure 7)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Septal shift toward the LV during diastole</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Indicates RV pressure overload</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Pulmonary hypertension</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Estimated pulmonary artery systolic pressure</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Can be calculated from peak tricuspid regurgitation velocity</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Thrombus in transit</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Direct visualization of thrombus in right-sided cardiac chambers</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Highly specific, but low sensitivity; differential diagnosis includes tumors and vegetations</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Thrombus in</bold>
                      <break/>
                      <bold>pulmonary artery</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Direct visualization of thrombus in the<break/> pulmonary artery trunk or branches (rare)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Highly specific, low sensitivity; more common in central pulmonary embolism</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Pleural effusion</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Fluid in the pleural space<break/> (usually small to moderate)</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Nonspecific, but frequently observed in pulmonary embolism</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Triangular subpleural con-solidations (Figure 13k)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Suggest pulmonary infarction</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with pulmonary em-bolism without pulmonary infarction may have normal LUS findings</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN24">
                  <p>DVT: deep vein thrombosis; LUS: lung ultrasound; LV: left ventricle; RV: right ventricle.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>The combined evaluation of these three key anatomical sites &#8211; the heart, lungs, and deep venous system of the lower limbs &#8211; achieves a specificity greater than 95%. In hemodynamically unstable patients, bedside cardiac POCUS should be the first diagnostic modality employed. The absence of signs of acute right ventricular pressure overload or right ventricular failure may help exclude massive pulmonary embolism as the underlying cause. Additionally, cardiac POCUS provides valuable information regarding alternative etiologies, such as LV failure, pericardial disease, and intravascular volume status.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>8.3. Evaluation of the Patient with Hemodynamic Instability or Organ Dysfunction</title>
            <p>Ensuring adequate perfusion pressure is essential in patients presenting with hemodynamic instability and/or organ dysfunction. Assessment of FR (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f52">Figure 21</xref>) provides critical information for determining the etiology of shock and guiding the most appropriate hemodynamic support strategy.</p>
            <p>Conversely, patients with RV failure, pulmonary hypertension, or volume overload are prone to developing significant systemic venous congestion. This process leads to a reduction in the arteriovenous pressure gradient, elevation of capillary hydrostatic pressure, and development of interstitial edema, which may result in organ dysfunction, particularly AKI, and subsequent fluid retention, creating a vicious cycle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> Section 6 provides a comprehensive description of the role of POCUS in shock states.</p>
            <p>Because AKI is often one of the earliest manifestations of organ dysfunction in both hypovolemic and hypervolemic patients, POCUS is particularly useful for evaluating patients with AKI (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f48">Figure 17</xref>), given the well-known limitations of clinical volume assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref></sup> Bedside use of POCUS therefore represents a valuable tool for assessing volume status and quantifying systemic venous congestion in the emergency department.</p>
            <p>In Section 4, the essential information regarding the application of VExUS in the emergency department is described, including:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Scientific evidence (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Table 5</xref>);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Technical aspects of VExUS for assessment of the IVC and, when necessary, analysis of additional components (hepatic veins, portal vein, and intrarenal interlobar veins) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f46">Figure 15</xref>).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Notably, VExUS does not determine the need for fluid administration. Instead, it serves as a key parameter for assessing tolerance to fluid therapy, helping identify patients in whom interruption of fluid administration or active fluid removal is likely to be beneficial.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>8.4. Evaluation of the Patient with Peripheral Edema</title>
          <p>In addition to LUS for the assessment of pulmonary congestion and VExUS for evaluation of volume status and quantification of systemic venous congestion, POCUS is highly useful in the investigation of specific causes of peripheral edema, such as DVT.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B131">131</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Section 5 provides a detailed description of the essential information regarding the application of POCUS in the evaluation of DVT, including:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Scientific evidence;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Technical aspects (compression protocols) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f47">Figure 16</xref>).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>9. POCUS in Cardiac Arrest</title>
        <sec sec-type="intro">
          <title>9.1. Introduction</title>
          <p>POCUS in cardiac arrest (POCUS-CA), when performed by a trained operator, enables assessment of chest compression quality, rapid diagnosis of treatable causes of cardiac arrest with non-shockable rhythms (hypovolemia, tension pneumothorax, pulmonary embolism, and cardiac tamponade), monitoring of interventions, and evaluation of response to treatment (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f58">Figure 27</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup> It also provides relevant prognostic information regarding the likelihood of return of spontaneous circulation and survival outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f58">
            <label>Figure 27</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Usefulness of POCUS-CA. Central illustration of figure represents the suggested team organization based on positioning during POCUS-CA. The subcostal view allows rapid confirmation of cardiac arrest versus cardiac contraction, differentiation between a shockable and a non-shockable rhythm (panel 1), and confirmation of the effectiveness of chest compressions (panel 2B). It is possible to identify reversible causes such as tension pneumothorax (panel 3C), hypovolemic shock (panel 3D), cardiac tamponade (panel 3E), and signs of pulmonary embolism (panel 3F). After return of spontaneous cardiac rhythm, a focused evaluation can be performed to identify other causes (panel 4).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>During cardiac arrest, the use of POCUS remains surrounded by uncertainties, unlike other clinical contexts in which its role is more firmly established. The main concern is that POCUS may delay the resumption of chest compressions, which are essential for cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR), and that, to date, its use has not demonstrated a significant impact on patient prognosis. These uncertainties are largely due to the lack of a universal protocol that can be definitively incorporated into Advanced Cardiac Life Support (ACLS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.2. Technical Aspects</title>
          <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f58">Figure 27</xref> illustrates team organization during cardiac arrest management, highlighting the position of the POCUS operator on the patient's left side.</p>
          <p>We recommend the exclusive use of a phased-array transducer (3.5&#8211;5 MHz), as it allows adequate evaluation of the lungs, heart, and abdomen according to the clinical scenario. Images should be acquired during the 10-second pause for rhythm analysis, with interpretation performed during the subsequent resuscitation cycle. During chest compressions, subcostal views may be obtained to assess the effectiveness of cardiac massage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> Several POCUS-CA protocols have been described; however, we recommend the CASA protocol, as it was the only one shown to reduce interruption time for rhythm checks. This protocol focuses on the assessment of cardiac activity and potential causes such as pulmonary embolism and cardiac tamponade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref></sup> During cardiac arrest, the POCUS operator may also actively search for pneumothorax and hypovolemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.3. Performance of POCUS in Cardiac Arrest</title>
          <p>When a cardiac arrest rhythm is identified as non-shockable, it is advisable to initiate POCUS-CA evaluation using the subcostal window. Images should be reviewed during the beginning of the next resuscitation cycle to avoid interference with CPR. During the interval designated for pulse check and rhythm analysis, additional echocardiographic windows may be examined. These include the lung window for assessment of pleural sliding, the A4C view, the PSAX view, and finally the PLAX view. Depending on the clinical scenario, the FAST protocol for detection of free intraperitoneal fluid may be incorporated into POCUS-CA without interrupting resuscitation maneuvers, providing additional diagnostic information.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup> POCUS-CA is fundamental for identifying reversible causes of cardiac arrest and should be used in conjunction with systematic evaluation for conditions such as hypovolemia, cardiac tamponade, tension pneumothorax, and pulmonary embolism (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f58">Figure 27</xref>, panel 3).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.4. Confirmation of Cardiac Arrest, Assessment of Chest Compression Effectiveness, and Prognostic Role of Cardiac Activity in Pulseless Electrical Activity</title>
          <p>Although the distinction between shockable and non-shockable rhythms depends on ECG, ultrasound may identify false cardiac arrest by allowing differentiation between true asystole and fine ventricular fibrillation with demonstrable myocardial contraction. This finding is present in approximately 10%-35% of patients initially diagnosed with asystole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Assessment of chest compression effectiveness is another important function of POCUS-CA, as it provides direct, real-time visualization of cardiac chamber contraction and relaxation during cardiac massage. Prior research emphasizes that improper hand positioning during resuscitation may result in compression of the ascending aorta, aortic root, or LVOT, rather than the LV itself. POCUS-CA allows adjustment of both hand position and compression force.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>9.5. Diagnosis of Reversible Causes Using POCUS in Cardiac Arrest</title>
          <sec>
            <title>9.5.1. Cardiac Tamponade</title>
            <p>Cardiac tamponade may result from both traumatic and non-traumatic causes. Even small volumes of rapidly accumulating pericardial fluid can significantly affect cardiovascular hemodynamics by impairing ventricular filling and cardiac output, potentially leading to tamponade physiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Differentiation between pericardial and pleural effusion is not always straightforward. In the PLAX view, pericardial effusion appears anterior to the descending aorta and above the posterior pericardial reflection. In contrast, pleural effusion is located posterior to the descending aorta and below this pericardial reflection (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f40">Figure 9</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Importantly, simple detection of pericardial effusion is insufficient to diagnose cardiac tamponade. Classic tamponade signs, such as systolic right atrial collapse and diastolic right ventricular collapse, are not visible in patients already in cardiac arrest. Assessment of IVC may assist in this differentiation when it is dilated, indicating elevated right atrial pressure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Echocardiography also plays a key role in guiding pericardiocentesis in cardiac tamponade. Several techniques have reported success rates close to 95% with complication rates below 2%. The subcostal window is the preferred approach, guiding needle trajectory during the procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>9.5.2. Pulmonary Embolism</title>
            <p>Pulmonary embolism may be identified by ultrasound through both direct and indirect findings. Direct evidence consists of visualization of the thrombus itself. Indirect signs include acute right ventricular dilation, in which the right ventricle becomes larger than the LV, with a right-to-left ventricular ratio of at least 1:1. In addition, a D-shaped LV in the PSAX view is another indicator of right ventricular dilation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">Figure 7</xref>).</p>
            <p>When pulmonary embolism is suspected, a focused ultrasound protocol for detection of DVT may be incorporated without compromising chest compressions (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f48">Figure 17</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>9.5.3. Tension Pneumothorax</title>
            <p>Tension pneumothorax is a major cause of cardiac arrest and may result from pre-existing lung disease, complications of positive-pressure ventilation, or venous access procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B181">181</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Signs of pneumothorax can be identified using LUS at the fourth to fifth intercostal spaces along the midclavicular line. These include absence of pleural sliding, presence of the stratosphere or barcode sign (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f58">Figure 27</xref>, panel 3C), and absence of lung pulse. The most definitive sign is the lung point, which, when identified, has very high specificity for confirming pneumothorax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>9.5.4. Hypovolemia</title>
            <p>During cardiac arrest, ultrasound may reveal complete collapse of the ventricles and collapse of IVC. These findings, when interpreted alongside clinical evolution and other indicators, may suggest hypovolemia as an underlying cause of cardiac arrest (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f58">Figure 27</xref>, panel 3D). In trauma settings, rapid identification of blood within the abdominal cavity or thorax is essential, as hemorrhage may be the primary cause of hypovolemic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>10. Ultrasound-Guided Procedures</title>
        <sec>
          <title>10.1. Ultrasound-Guided Vascular Access</title>
          <p>Ultrasound-guided cannulation has become a widely adopted practice in most medical centers, largely due to its demonstrated superiority in terms of safety. The effectiveness of the procedure is directly related to the operator's knowledge of regional anatomy, clinical experience, and the quality of the equipment used.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The occurrence of complications is multifactorial and depends on factors such as operator expertise, patient body habitus, and clinical status (including level of cooperation, agitation, and volume status) as well as the anatomical complexity of the site to be cannulated. Notably, the number of cannulation attempts is directly associated with a higher risk of adverse events.</p>
          <p>Historically, most of these procedures were performed "blind," relying solely on superficial anatomical landmarks. Currently, there is strong evidence that ultrasound-guided catheter placement is safer, making ultrasound an extremely useful tool for guiding cannulation and monitoring interventional procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>10.1.1. Cannulation Technique</title>
            <p>Seldinger described the percutaneous vessel cannulation technique for catheter insertion. It can be summarized as a "catheter-over-guidewire" approach: the vessel is punctured percutaneously, followed by introduction of a guidewire through the needle. The guidewire then serves as a rail, allowing the catheter to be advanced into the vessel as effectively and atraumatically as possible.</p>
            <p>There are two main ultrasound-guided cannulation techniques:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Static technique:</bold> This approach consists of a preliminary ultrasound survey of vascular anatomy and marking the ideal puncture site on the skin. One of its main advantages is that it does not require maintenance of a sterile field during the ultrasound examination, making it useful in less complex situations;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Dynamic or "real-time" technique:</bold> This approach enables continuous, live visualization of the vascular structure (vein or artery), the needle trajectory through the tissues, and entry into the vessel lumen. Whenever possible, we recommend this technique, as it improves procedural accuracy, reduces the number of attempts, and is associated with lower complication rates, particularly in patients with complex anatomy or difficult venous access.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.1.2. Step-by-Step Cannulation (Use Sterile Supplies)</title>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Position the patient supine, preferably in reverse Trendelenburg to increase venous caliber and facilitate cannulation. The Valsalva maneuver may also help;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Assess the target vessel and adjacent structures (vascular and nonvascular). It is important to differentiate arteries from veins, which can be readily done based on sonographic characteristics as described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t21">Table 8</xref>;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Perform wide skin antisepsis with 2% chlorhexidine;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Place sterile drapes;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Administer local anesthesia with 2% lidocaine (a small wheal using an insulin needle);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Cover the transducer with a sterile sheath, placing gel at the bottom of the sheath so that it remains in contact with the transducer tip. Securing the sheath with elastic bands facilitates transducer handling;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>After turning the patient's face 45&#176; to the contralateral side, visualize the vessel in transverse or longitudinal view and measure the distance from the anterior vein wall to the skin (at the planned needle entry site).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <table-wrap id="t21">
              <label>Table 8</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Ultrasonographic differentiation between arteries and veins</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Arteries</th>
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Veins</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Thicker walls</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Thinner walls</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Non-compressible</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Compressible</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulsatile</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Non-pulsatile</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Direction of flow on<break/> color Doppler</td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Direction of flow on<break/> color Doppler</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.1.3. Transverse (Short-Axis) Cannulation</title>
            <p>In this approach, the vein is identified in a transverse section and centered on the ultrasound screen. Needle insertion should be performed exactly in the midline of the transducer, perpendicular to the skin (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f59">Figure 28</xref>). This technique is considered technically more accessible because it allows simultaneous visualization of the vein and artery within the same imaging field, facilitating differentiation between vascular structures and helping to avoid inadvertent puncture.</p>
            <fig id="f59">
              <label>Figure 28</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Needle positioning and orientation in the transverse cannulation technique. The needle can be visualized only as an echogenic dot when crossing the ultrasound beam. Movement of the surrounding tissues helps identify needle location, and indentation of the venous wall confirms correct positioning.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>However, its main limitation is the inability to continuously visualize the needle tip. As the needle traverses the ultrasound beam obliquely, it appears as an intermittent hyperechoic (bright) dot, accompanied by a distal echogenic artifact. This artifact may lead to misinterpretation and be incorrectly identified as the needle tip.</p>
            <p>Needle position must therefore be inferred from movement of the surrounding tissues during insertion, which can be facilitated by gentle, controlled in-and-out motions. Because direct visualization of the needle tip is limited, prior knowledge of the depth of the anterior venous wall, measured in B-mode from the skin to the vascular lumen, is essential. This depth serves as a reference to avoid excessive advancement, which increases the risk of complications such as posterior wall puncture, arterial injury, or hematoma.</p>
            <p>Confirmation of correct needle positioning within the vessel is achieved by observing indentation of the anterior wall and, subsequently, by blood return through the attached syringe. This step is essential before guidewire insertion.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.1.4. Longitudinal (Long-Axis) Cannulation</title>
            <p>The longitudinal approach provides continuous, real-time visualization of the needle trajectory from tissue entry to penetration of the vessel lumen. This allows the operator more refined procedural control, with greater safety and precision (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f60">Figure 29</xref>).</p>
            <fig id="f60">
              <label>Figure 29</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Needle positioning and orientation in the longitudinal cannulation technique. The needle can be visualized along its entire length when fully aligned within the ultrasound beam, with the needle tip recognized by its beveled appearance.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>Unlike the short-axis approach, this technique enables direct visualization of the needle tip throughout its entire course, including the exact moment of vessel entry. This eliminates reliance on blood return to confirm correct positioning, as the needle can be visually monitored during the entire puncture. Consequently, the guidewire can be introduced under direct ultrasound guidance, reducing the risk of complications such as posterior wall injury or improper placement.</p>
            <p>Despite these advantages, this technique is more technically demanding, particularly for beginners. Precise alignment of the ultrasound beam with the needle axis is required, which demands manual dexterity and familiarity with ultrasound imaging. Minor misalignment may cause the needle to disappear from the field of view, making the procedure challenging for less experienced operators.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.1.5. Ultrasound-Guided Cannulation Sites</title>
            <p>Several central veins may be accessed with ultrasound guidance, and selection of the optimal site depends on anatomical and clinical factors as well as operator experience. The main approaches are described below.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>a. Internal jugular vein</title>
              <p>The internal jugular vein is often considered the site of choice for ultrasound-guided cannulation, primarily due to its accessibility and favorable visualization with the transducer. The most commonly used puncture site is located between the two heads of the sternocleidomastoid muscle, although any location with minimal soft tissue thickness between the skin and the vessel may be suitable. Ultrasound allows clear visualization of the relationship between the vein and the carotid artery, significantly reducing the risk of inadvertent arterial puncture.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>b. Femoral vein</title>
              <p>The femoral vein is a reliable alternative, particularly in emergency situations. To locate it, the transducer is positioned immediately below the inguinal ligament. In most patients, the vein lies medial to the femoral artery; however, in up to 50% of cases, overlap between the two vessels may occur. If the artery completely overlies the vein, assessment of the contralateral side is recommended to avoid complications.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>c. Subclavian vein</title>
              <p>Ultrasound-guided access to the subclavian vein has proven effective, with higher success rates and a lower incidence of complications such as arterial puncture and hematoma formation. In addition, this approach is associated with lower rates of infection and bacteremia as well as less anatomical variability compared with the internal jugular vein.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup></p>
              <p>However, the course of the subclavian vein beneath the clavicle poses technical challenges. Vessel insonation may be difficult for less experienced operators, particularly because of individual anatomical variations and bony interference. For ultrasound-guided infraclavicular cannulation, the following steps are recommended:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p>Begin with transverse imaging of the infraclavicular region;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Identify the vein and artery within the clavipectoral triangle;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Center the venous image on the screen;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Rotate the transducer to obtain a longitudinal (long-axis) view of the vein.</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>This approach allows:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p>Real-time visualization of the needle tip;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Avoidance of posterior wall puncture;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>In some cases, identification of the parietal pleura, thereby increasing procedural safety.</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>For these reasons, short-axis (transverse) cannulation should be avoided in this region, particularly because of the risk of pneumothorax.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Although meta-analyses have not demonstrated significant differences in success rates for subclavian vein cannulation using ultrasound compared with landmark-based techniques (failure rates of 9% versus 13%, respectively), Caballero et al. recommend ultrasound use in situations associated with higher risk of complications or technical difficulty.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup> Even when landmark-based techniques fail, ultrasound-guided cannulation demonstrates a higher likelihood of success.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.1.6. Other Ultrasound-Guided Vascular Punctures</title>
            <p>Ultrasound may also be used to guide puncture of the cephalic or basilic veins in the arm, which are commonly used for insertion of peripherally inserted central catheters.</p>
            <p>Arterial punctures are performed for diagnostic and therapeutic catheterization procedures and for invasive mean arterial pressure monitoring. When guided by ultrasound, they follow the same principles described for venous access, with the longitudinal technique being the most commonly used approach.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.2. Ultrasound-Guided Pericardiocentesis</title>
          <p>Abnormal accumulation of fluid between the pericardial layers is a common cardiac condition with multiple etiologies. Pericardial puncture may be performed electively for diagnostic investigation of pericardial effusion or emergently for immediate relief of cardiac tamponade. Echocardiography is the method of choice for diagnosis, localization, quantification, and assessment of hemodynamic effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Traditionally, pericardiocentesis was performed using a blind subxiphoid approach, with reported morbidity of approximately 20% and mortality of 6%. When guided by ultrasound and performed by experienced operators with adequate training, reported rates of major complications range from 0.3% to 3.9%, and minor complications from 0.4% to 20%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup> Below, we present the step-by-step technique for ultrasound-guided pericardiocentesis as recommended in this positioning statement.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>10.2.1. Ultrasound-guided puncture technique</title>
            <list list-type="alpha-lower">
              <list-item>
                <p>A low-frequency phased-array transducer, commonly used in echocardiography, is typically employed. When greater structural detail is required, particularly in parasternal windows (to evaluate the course of the internal thoracic arteries) or in very lateral windows (due to proximity to the pleura), a high-frequency linear transducer is used;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f56">Figure 25</xref> details the echocardiographic windows used and their frequency of use in a series reported by the Mayo Clinic;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>The area with the largest fluid collection should be identified (although effusions are often circumferential, fluid is not uniformly distributed around the heart);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>The point where the distance between the skin and the pericardial space is shortest should be identified as well as adjacent structures along the needle trajectory (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f57">Figure 26</xref>);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>The patient should be positioned supine with the head of the bed elevated between 30&#176; and 60&#176;;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Local anesthesia with mild sedation using a central venous cannulation kit;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Puncture: needle insertion at the previously marked site, always along the upper border of the rib (to avoid intercostal vessel injury); in apical windows and in the subcostal window, interposition of hepatic tissue should be excluded;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>After reaching the pericardial space (with drainage of fluid or blood), the catheter is introduced using the Seldinger technique, and correct positioning is confirmed by injection of 5 mL of agitated saline. The catheter is then secured and a sterile dressing applied as usual.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <fig id="f56">
              <label>Figure 25</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Echocardiographic windows used for ultrasound-guided pericardial puncture and their frequency of use in a series reported by the Mayo Clinic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <fig id="f57">
              <label>Figure 26</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Identification of the site of greatest fluid accumulation (blue line) and the site where the distance between the skin and the pericardial space is shortest (green).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.2.2. Contraindications</title>
            <p>Although there are no absolute contraindications to pericardiocentesis, particular caution is required in specific situations. When pericardial effusion is associated with acute aortic dissection or rupture of the LV free wall, as may occur after AMI or thoracic trauma, pericardial drainage should only be considered in the absence of immediate availability of cardiac surgery. In such cases, puncture should be performed slowly and in a controlled manner, draining only enough fluid to temporarily stabilize hemodynamics until surgical intervention becomes available.</p>
            <p>Another relative contraindication is significant thrombocytopenia, particularly when the platelet count is below 50,000/mm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>, which increases the risk of bleeding.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.2.3. Complications</title>
            <p>Bedside pericardial puncture, although potentially life-saving in cases of cardiac tamponade, is not without risk. Safe execution requires precise anatomical knowledge, appropriate technique, and preferential use of echocardiographic guidance. A range of complications may occur, varying in severity from self-limited vagal reactions to serious cardiac or vascular injuries. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t22">Table 9</xref> describes potential complications associated with this procedure.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t22">
              <label>Table 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Potential complications during pericardial puncture</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Major</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiac chamber injury<break/> Laceration of coronary, intercostal, or internal thoracic arteries<break/> Visceral puncture<break/> Pneumothorax<break/> Arrhythmias<break/> Pericardial decompression syndrome</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Minor</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Vasovagal hypotension and bradycardia<break/> Supraventricular arrhythmias<break/> Pleuropericardial fistula</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>10.3. Evaluation of Gastric Fullness</title>
          <p>TEE is performed under sedation, and for procedural safety it is essential to assess gastric contents in order to avoid the risk of aspiration and its consequences. In routine practice, patients are often asked only about fasting duration. This subjective assessment may increase the risk of aspiration, particularly in conditions associated with gastroparesis (pregnancy, diabetes, obesity, hemodynamic instability, etc.). For this positioning statement, we adopt the recommendations of the American Society of Anesthesiologists regarding fasting times<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t23">Table 10</xref>).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t23">
            <label>Table 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Recommended fasting times according to characteristics of the last meal<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">DIET</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Fasting time</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Clear liquids</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">2 hours</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Breast milk</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">4 hours</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Non-clear liquids and infant formula</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">6 hours</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Light meals and low volume</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">6 hours</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Fatty meals</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">8 hours or more</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Gastric POCUS allows simple, direct assessment of the quantity and quality of gastric contents prior to the procedure, thereby increasing procedural safety.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.1. Assessment Technique</title>
            <p>Gastric assessment with POCUS is generally performed with the patient in the supine position or right lateral decubitus. A low-frequency curvilinear transducer (2-5 MHz) is used to obtain images of the epigastric region and the gastric antrum. The probe is positioned longitudinally in the sagittal plane just below the xiphoid process and oriented toward the patient's left side. Identification of the gastric antrum is essential, as it is the most sensitive site for detecting gastric contents (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f61">Figure 30a</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f61">
              <label>Figure 30</label>
              <caption>
                <title>A) Gastric antrum with anechoic content indicating a full stomach (S) with liquid content. A: aorta; L: liver. B) Empty stomach with collapsed gastric antrum (S). C) Full stomach with solid content characterized by hyperechoic white areas (S).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>10.3.2. Sonographic Findings</title>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Empty stomach:</bold> an empty stomach typically shows a collapsed gastric antrum with thin walls and no discernible liquid or solid content. The gastric mucosa may appear as a hyperechoic line, and the lumen is virtually content-free (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f61">Figure 30b</xref>);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Liquid-filled stomach:</bold> when the stomach contains liquid, the gastric antrum becomes distended and appears anechoic (black) on ultrasound. This is due to the presence of fluid, which does not reflect sound waves, creating a dark image. Peristaltic movements may be observed in some cases (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f61">Figure 30a</xref>);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Solid-content stomach:</bold> a stomach containing solid or thick material presents a more complex sonographic appearance. The gastric antrum may appear heterogeneous, with hyperechoic (white) areas indicating solid particles mixed with fluid. This pattern is typical after ingestion of solid meals or foods that are difficult to digest (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f61">Figure 30c</xref>).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Quantification of gastric contents using POCUS emerges as a useful tool that adds procedural safety, particularly in scenarios where clinical history and fasting time cannot be reliably determined. Another potential advantage is anticipation of the procedure when sonographic findings indicate an empty stomach, although this approach has not yet been safely validated.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>11. Final Considerations of this Positioning Statement</title>
        <sec>
          <title>11.1. Current Reality and Future Perspectives</title>
          <p>The use of POCUS represents a natural extension of the modern physical examination, providing targeted, real-time data that directly impact clinical decision-making. Its structured application allows rapid and effective assessment of critical conditions in emergency settings, ICUs, and even outpatient environments. However, as described in Section 1, safe and effective use requires appropriate legal regulation, standardized training, adequate supervision, and continuous updating of technical and interpretative skills.</p>
          <p>Incorporation of POCUS into clinical workflows should be accompanied by training programs, competency certification, and continuous quality-monitoring strategies. In this way, the method can reach its full potential as a complementary diagnostic tool, promoting more precise, agile, and patient-centered care.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>11.2. Contextualization of Cardiovascular Point-of-Care Ultrasound within Public Health in Brazil</title>
          <p>Incorporation of cardiovascular POCUS into the Brazilian Unified Health System (SUS) occurs in the context of expansion of the national telehealth strategy, particularly following consolidation of the Telessa&#250;de Brasil Redes Program<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> and the SUS Digital Strategic Action,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> aimed at reducing access inequalities and supporting care qualification. Despite this progress, significant regional asymmetries in infrastructure and connectivity remain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">193</xref></sup> Adoption of POCUS faces barriers such as limited equipment availability, uneven training, absence of standardized clinical workflows, and logistical challenges related to maintenance, technical support, and integration with information systems, as discussed in national reviews on the topic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup> Portable ultrasound equipment, including handheld devices, typically costs between US$ 4,000 and US$ 6,000 on the international market, according to global manufacturer catalogs,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> with additional annual software and service subscription fees. Potential funding opportunities include federal programs linked to SUS Digital,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> as well as innovation support lines from Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (FINEP), such as Inova Sa&#250;de and Direct Support for Innovation,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup> and state-level funding calls, such as those from Funda&#231;&#227;o Carlos Chagas Filho de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (FAPERJ),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref></sup> aimed at equipment acquisition, technological infrastructure, and applied research. A challenging yet promising future scenario thus emerges for large-scale implementation of this methodology, not only in private health care but also within the public health system.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
          <label>Development:</label>
          <p>Department of Cardiovascular Imaging of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology (In Portuguese: Departamento de Imagem cardiovascular da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; DIC-SBC)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
          <label>SBC Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee:</label>
          <p>Humberto Graner Moreira (Chair), F&#233;lix Jos&#233; Alvarez Ramires, Helena Cramer Veiga Rey, Jos&#233; Augusto Soares Barreto Filho, Nadine Oliveira Clausell.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <label>Note:</label>
          <p>These statements are for information purposes and should not replace the clinical judgment of a physician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <title>Data Availability:</title>
        <p>The data underlying the text of the Position Statement are included in the manuscript.</p>
      </sec>
      <glossary>
        <def-list>
          <title>List of abbreviations and acronyms</title>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G99">A4C</term>
            <def>
              <p>Apical 4-chamber view</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G100">AI</term>
            <def>
              <p>Artificial intelligence</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G101">AKI</term>
            <def>
              <p>Acute kidney injury</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G102">AMI</term>
            <def>
              <p>Acute myocardial infarction</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G103">AR</term>
            <def>
              <p>Aortic regurgitation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G104">ARDS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Acute respiratory distress syndrome</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G105">BLUE</term>
            <def>
              <p>Bedside Lung Ultrasound in Emergency</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G106">CASA</term>
            <def>
              <p>Cardiac Arrest Sonographic Assessment</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G107">COPD</term>
            <def>
              <p>Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G108">CPR</term>
            <def>
              <p>Cardiopulmonary resuscitation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G109">CS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Cardiogenic shock</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G110">CT</term>
            <def>
              <p>Computed tomography</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G111">CTPA</term>
            <def>
              <p>CT pulmonary angiography</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G112">CUS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Compression ultrasound</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G113">CVP</term>
            <def>
              <p>Central venous pressure</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G114">DICOM</term>
            <def>
              <p>Digital Imaging and Communications in Medicine</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G115">DVT</term>
            <def>
              <p>Deep vein thrombosis</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G116">ECMO</term>
            <def>
              <p>Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G117">ECG</term>
            <def>
              <p>Electrocardiography</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G118">EFAST</term>
            <def>
              <p>Extended Focused Assessment with Sonography in Trauma</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G119">EGLS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Echo Guided Life Support</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G120">EIOT</term>
            <def>
              <p>End-inspiratory occlusion test</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G121">FAST</term>
            <def>
              <p>Focused Assessment with Sonography for Trauma</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G122">FR</term>
            <def>
              <p>Fluid responsiveness</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G123">FT</term>
            <def>
              <p>Fluid tolerance</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G124">HF</term>
            <def>
              <p>Heart failure</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G125">HFrEF</term>
            <def>
              <p>HF with reduced ejection fraction</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G126">HFpEF</term>
            <def>
              <p>HF with preserved ejection fraction</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G127">HR</term>
            <def>
              <p>Hazard ratio</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G128">IABP</term>
            <def>
              <p>Intra-aortic balloon pump</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G129">ICU</term>
            <def>
              <p>Intensive care unit</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G130">IVC</term>
            <def>
              <p>Inferior vena cava</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G131">LAP</term>
            <def>
              <p>Left atrial pressure</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G132">LR</term>
            <def>
              <p>Likelihood ratio</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G133">LSA</term>
            <def>
              <p>Left subclavian artery</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G134">LUS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Lung ultrasound</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G135">LV</term>
            <def>
              <p>Left ventricle</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G136">LVEF</term>
            <def>
              <p>LV ejection fraction</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G137">LVOT</term>
            <def>
              <p>LV outflow tract</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G138">MAPSE</term>
            <def>
              <p>Mitral annular plane systolic excursion</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G139">NPV</term>
            <def>
              <p>Negative predictive value</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G140">OR</term>
            <def>
              <p>Odds ratio</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G141">OSAUS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Objective Structured Assessment of Ultrasound Skills</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G142">PE</term>
            <def>
              <p>Pulmonary embolism</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G143">PEff</term>
            <def>
              <p>Pericardial effusion</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G144">PLAPS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Postero-lateral alveolar and/or pleural syndrome</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G145">PLAX</term>
            <def>
              <p>Parasternal long-axis view</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G146">PLR</term>
            <def>
              <p>Passive leg raising</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G147">POCUS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Point-of-care ultrasound</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G148">POCUS-CA</term>
            <def>
              <p>POCUS in cardiac arrest</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G149">PPV</term>
            <def>
              <p>Positive predictive value</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G150">PSAX</term>
            <def>
              <p>Parasternal short-axis view</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G151">RA</term>
            <def>
              <p>Right atrium</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G152">RAP</term>
            <def>
              <p>RA pressure</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G153">ROSC</term>
            <def>
              <p>Return of spontaneous circulation</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G154">ST-MCS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Short-term mechanical circulatory support</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G155">SUS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G156">SVC</term>
            <def>
              <p>Superior vena cava</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G157">TAPSE</term>
            <def>
              <p>Tricuspid annular plane systolic excursion</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G158">TEE</term>
            <def>
              <p>Transesophageal echocardiography</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G159">TTE</term>
            <def>
              <p>Transthoracic echocardiography</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G160">VA</term>
            <def>
              <p>Venoarterial</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G161">VExUS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Venous Excess Ultrasound Score</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G162">VV</term>
            <def>
              <p>Venovenous</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G163">VTI</term>
            <def>
              <p>Velocity-time integral</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
          <def-item>
            <term id="G164">VUS</term>
            <def>
              <p>Vascular ultrasonography</p>
            </def>
          </def-item>
        </def-list>
      </glossary>
      <sec sec-type="supplementary-material" id="sec2">
        <title>Supplement</title>
        <supplementary-material id="suppl3">
          <label>Supplement 1</label>
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        </supplementary-material>
        <supplementary-material id="suppl4">
          <label>Supplement 2</label>
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