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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">LCj7Wnc6YZDRFzFQ7h8Mfbn</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2026000400603</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00603</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250650</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Idade-ECG Derivada de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial como Preditora de Mortalidade e Eventos Cardiovasculares: Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica e Metan&#225;lise</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3800-7107</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bozzi</surname>
            <given-names>Isadora Cristine Reis Sguizzato</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-3873-0520</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Clara de Araujo Gontijo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2740-0042</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Luiz Pinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1349-1745</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paix&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriela Miana de Mattos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do intelectual importante</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Centro de Telessa&#250;de</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Telessa&#250;de, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia</label>: Isadora Bozzi &#8226; Centro de Telessa&#250;de do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais &#8211; Av. Professor Alfredo Balena, 110, 1&#186; Andar, Ala Sul &#8211; Sala 107. CEP 30130-100, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>isbozzi@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p> Marcio Bittencourt</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse:</label>
          <p> Declaro n&#227;o haver conflito de interesses pertinentes.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>12</day>
        <month>06</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>123</volume>
      <issue>4</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250650</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>25</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>15</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A idade eletrocardiogr&#225;fica (idade-ECG) estimada pore intelig&#234;ncia artificial (IA) e a diferen&#231;a entre a idade-ECG e a idade cronol&#243;gica (delta-idade) s&#227;o biomarcadores emergentes do envelhecimento cardiovascular e de desfechos adversos, mas seu valor progn&#243;stico permanece incerto.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Realizamos uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise para avaliar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre a idade-ECG estimada por IA ou a delta-idade e os desfechos cl&#237;nicos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Nove bases de dados foram pesquisadas at&#233; 1&#186; de maio de 2025. Os estudos eleg&#237;veis avaliaram mortalidade ou eventos cardiovasculares e relataram medidas de associa&#231;&#227;o. As <italic>hazard ratios</italic> agrupadas (pHRs) com intervalos de confian&#231;a (IC) de 95% foram calculadas por meio de modelos de efeitos fixos ou aleat&#243;rios, com signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica definida em p &lt; 0,05. O protocolo foi registrado no PROSPERO (CRD420251042467).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Dez estudos (2021&#8211;2025) com mais de 550.000 participantes do Leste Asi&#225;tico, das Am&#233;ricas e do Reino Unido foram inclu&#237;dos. A maioria utilizou redes neurais convolucionais para estimar a idade-ECG; a delta-idade foi calculada como a idade-ECG menos idade cronol&#243;gica. Uma delta-idade elevada foi associada ao aumento da mortalidade por todas as causas (pHR = 1,83, IC 95%: 1,45&#8211;2,32) e da mortalidade cardiovascular (pHR = 2,63, IC 95%: 1,93&#8211;3,58). Tr&#234;s estudos relataram aumento do risco de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (pHR = 1,96, IC 95%: 1,43&#8211;2,69), embora os dados fossem limitados e heterog&#234;neos. An&#225;lises descritivas sugeriram que uma delta-idade maior prediz a incid&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e acidente vascular cerebral.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> A idade-ECG estimada por IA, particularmente a delta-idade, est&#225; associada &#224; mortalidade por todas as causas e &#224; mortalidade cardiovascular, refor&#231;ando seu papel como um biomarcador n&#227;o invasivo do envelhecimento cardiovascular. As evid&#234;ncias para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial s&#227;o sugestivas, mas limitadas. Algoritmos padronizados, valida&#231;&#227;o externa robusta e estudos prospectivos multic&#234;ntricos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para confirmar a utilidade cl&#237;nica e integrar a idade-ECG &#224; estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, mesmo em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Idade-ECG Derivada de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial como Preditora de Mortalidade e Eventos Cardiovasculares: Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica e Metan&#225;lise</title>
            </caption>
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      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Eletrocardiografia</kwd>
        <kwd>Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</kwd>
        <kwd>Aprendizagem Profunda</kwd>
        <kwd>Aprendizado de M&#225;quina</kwd>
        <kwd>Progn&#243;stico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento:</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="12"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="27"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>O eletrocardiograma (ECG) &#233; uma ferramenta diagn&#243;stica vital em diversos cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> &#201; bem estabelecido que os sinais el&#233;tricos do cora&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o modulados por in&#250;meros fatores fisiol&#243;gicos relacionados tanto ao sistema cardiovascular quanto a mecanismos biol&#243;gicos mais amplos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Assim, n&#227;o apenas as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares podem influenciar significativamente os sinais do ECG, mas tamb&#233;m o estilo de vida,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> os padr&#245;es alimentares<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> e as doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Sua aplica&#231;&#227;o vai al&#233;m da identifica&#231;&#227;o de dist&#250;rbios card&#237;acos, e informa&#231;&#245;es latentes adicionais baseadas em dados de ECG podem ser aproveitadas para fornecer uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais abrangente da sa&#250;de cardiovascular e do envelhecimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A integra&#231;&#227;o da interpreta&#231;&#227;o assistida por computador em ECG cl&#237;nicos ganhou destaque,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> e a idade eletrocardiogr&#225;fica (idade-ECG) , uma estimativa de idade derivada de ECGs de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es usando intelig&#234;ncia artificial (IA), emergiu como um potencial biomarcador do envelhecimento cardiovascular e um indicador mensur&#225;vel da sa&#250;de cardiovascular global.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup>Estudos anteriores mostraram uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre a idade-ECG e a idade cronol&#243;gica em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, enquanto uma idade-ECG elevada em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; idade cronol&#243;gica foi associada a um maior risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Acredita-se que essa discrep&#226;ncia reflita um envelhecimento cardiovascular ou biol&#243;gico acelerado, resultante do impacto cumulativo de comorbidades, doen&#231;as subcl&#237;nicas e fatores de estilo de vida. Isso sugere que a idade-ECG poderia servir como um marcador integrativo da carga de doen&#231;as subcl&#237;nicas e da sa&#250;de cardiovascular geral.</p>
      <p>A diferen&#231;a entre a idade-ECG e a idade cronol&#243;gica, conhecida como delta-idade, tem sido proposta como um preditor de desfechos adversos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> incluindo mortalidade e eventos cardiovasculares adversos maiores (MACE). No entanto, seu impacto cl&#237;nico ainda n&#227;o foi totalmente estabelecido.</p>
      <p>Uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica recente<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> avaliou dezessete estudos originais que utilizaram algoritmos baseados em IA para avaliar a idade-delta. A an&#225;lise revelou que hipertens&#227;o e diabetes mellitus foram os fatores mais prevalentes que contribu&#237;ram para a delta-idade elevada, e infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) tiveram os impactos mais significativos. Embora tenha sido observada uma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre o aumento da delta-idade e a mortalidade por todas as causas e a mortalidade cardiovascular, a metan&#225;lise se limitou a seis e tr&#234;s estudos para esses desfechos, respectivamente.</p>
      <p>Portanto, o objetivo principal desta revis&#227;o foi avaliar o valor progn&#243;stico da idade-ECG estimada por IA e da delta-idade na predi&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade por todas as causas e da mortalidade cardiovascular. Os objetivos secund&#225;rios inclu&#237;ram a avalia&#231;&#227;o de suas associa&#231;&#245;es com outros desfechos cardiovasculares adversos, como fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, IC e acidente vascular cerebral (AVC), incorporando dados e an&#225;lises atualizados de estudos recentes. Os principais resultados e implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas desta revis&#227;o est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Estrat&#233;gia de busca e crit&#233;rios de sele&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Esta revis&#227;o seguiu as diretrizes PRISMA (<italic>Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses</italic>). O protocolo do estudo foi registrado no PROSPERO (CRD420251042467).</p>
        <p>Nove bases de dados (LILACS, SciELO, MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, EMBASE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, Web of Science e Scopus) foram sistematicamente pesquisadas desde sua cria&#231;&#227;o at&#233; 1&#186; de maio de 2025, em busca de estudos prim&#225;rios de desenvolvimento ou valida&#231;&#227;o de modelos preditivos baseados na idade-ECG determinada por IA que avaliassem as associa&#231;&#245;es entre a idade-ECG ou a delta-idade e desfechos cl&#237;nicos. A estrat&#233;gia de busca incluiu os seguintes termos MeSH: &#8220;<italic>electrocardiographic age</italic>&#8221; OR &#8220;<italic>AI ECG-heart age</italic>&#8221; OR &#8220;<italic>AI ECG age</italic>&#8221; OR &#8220;<italic>ECG-age</italic>&#8221;. Os estudos foram considerados eleg&#237;veis se apresentassem m&#233;tricas de desempenho do modelo (por exemplo, AUC, sensibilidade, especificidade, acur&#225;cia e calibra&#231;&#227;o) ou medidas de associa&#231;&#227;o (por exemplo, <italic>hazard ratio</italic> [HR], <italic>odds ratio</italic> [OR] e <italic>risk ratio</italic> [RR]). Os desfechos prim&#225;rios foram mortalidade por todas as causas, mortalidade cardiovascular e eventos cardiovasculares adversos, incluindo infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica, AVC, IC e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
        <p>Os per&#237;odos de acompanhamento variaram entre os estudos, com predomin&#226;ncia de estudos de coorte retrospectivos. Revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas, metan&#225;lises, editoriais, cartas, artigos de opini&#227;o, resumos de congressos sem dados completos e estudos puramente metodol&#243;gicos sem aplica&#231;&#227;o a desfechos cl&#237;nicos foram exclu&#237;dos.</p>
        <p>Os artigos recuperados foram carregados no Rayyan,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> e as duplicatas foram removidas. Dois revisores examinaram os artigos e extra&#237;ram os dados de forma independente. Quaisquer discrep&#226;ncias foram resolvidas por meio de discuss&#227;o com um terceiro revisor.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Processo de coleta de dados e itens de dados</title>
        <p>Dados de todos os estudos que atenderam aos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o foram extra&#237;dos para uma tabela de acordo com a lista de verifica&#231;&#227;o CHARMS. Os dados extra&#237;dos inclu&#237;ram o desenho do estudo, o per&#237;odo do estudo, a popula&#231;&#227;o total do estudo, a popula&#231;&#227;o da an&#225;lise progn&#243;stica, as caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o, os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o e exclus&#227;o, a fonte de dados, o tipo de ECG utilizado e o tipo de algoritmo de IA. As vari&#225;veis adicionais coletadas inclu&#237;ram a correla&#231;&#227;o entre a idade-ECG e a idade cronol&#243;gica, o m&#233;todo de divis&#227;o dos dados, o tipo de valida&#231;&#227;o, o ponto de corte da delta-idade, os desfechos avaliados, o n&#250;mero de eventos por grupo, HR dos eventos por grupo, as covari&#225;veis ajustadas e a avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de vi&#233;s. Para os estudos que relataram m&#250;ltiplas HRs com diferentes ajustes de covari&#225;veis, extra&#237;mos a HR mais totalmente ajustada.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de qualidade</title>
        <p>Avaliamos o risco de vi&#233;s nos estudos inclu&#237;dos por meio da Escala de Newcastle-Ottawa (NOS) para estudos de coorte. Essa escala compreende tr&#234;s dom&#237;nios &#8211; Sele&#231;&#227;o, Comparabilidade e Desfecho &#8211; cada um contendo itens espec&#237;ficos com m&#250;ltiplas op&#231;&#245;es de resposta, em que aquelas que refletem maior qualidade metodol&#243;gica recebem estrelas. Como diversos estudos realizaram v&#225;rias an&#225;lises em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es, cada popula&#231;&#227;o foi avaliada separadamente. Um estudo foi classificado como &#8220;bom&#8221; se recebeu tr&#234;s ou quatro estrelas no dom&#237;nio de sele&#231;&#227;o, uma ou duas estrelas no dom&#237;nio de comparabilidade e duas ou tr&#234;s estrelas no dom&#237;nio de desfecho. Uma classifica&#231;&#227;o &#8220;regular&#8221; requer o mesmo n&#250;mero de estrelas nos dom&#237;nios de comparabilidade e desfecho, mas apenas duas estrelas no dom&#237;nio de sele&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>S&#237;ntese de dados e metan&#225;lise</title>
        <p>A HR agrupada, com seu intervalo de confian&#231;a (IC) de 95%, foi calculada para avaliar as associa&#231;&#245;es entre o aumento da idade-delta e os desfechos de mortalidade, bem como a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. Uma HR maior que 1 foi interpretada como um risco significativamente maior entre pacientes com maior idade cronol&#243;gica, assumindo que o IC de 95% n&#227;o inclu&#237;sse o valor 1. Para todas as an&#225;lises, a signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi definida como p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        <p>Para quantificar a heterogeneidade, calculamos o Q de Cochran, a estat&#237;stica I<sup>2</sup> e a estat&#237;stica &#964;<sup>2</sup>. Uma metan&#225;lise de efeitos aleat&#243;rios com ajuste de Hartung-Knapp foi realizada na an&#225;lise da mortalidade por todas as causas e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, devido &#224; heterogeneidade substancial entre os estudos (I<sup>2</sup> &gt; 25%). No entanto, o modelo de efeitos fixos foi aplicado na an&#225;lise da mortalidade cardiovascular, pois nenhuma heterogeneidade significativa foi detectada (I<sup>2</sup> = 0,0%). O vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o foi avaliado por meio da inspe&#231;&#227;o do gr&#225;fico de funil e do teste de Begg. Al&#233;m disso, o m&#233;todo de <italic>trim-and-fill</italic> foi utilizado para lidar com poss&#237;veis estudos ausentes. Devido ao n&#250;mero limitado de estudos inclu&#237;dos (k = 3), o teste de Begg n&#227;o p&#244;de ser utilizado para avaliar a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e a mortalidade cardiovascular.</p>
        <p>Todas as an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas utilizando o software R, vers&#227;o 4.5.0 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Viena, &#193;ustria).</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Sele&#231;&#227;o de estudos</title>
        <p>O processo de sele&#231;&#227;o dos estudos &#233; apresentado no fluxograma PRISMA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>). Identificamos 1249 registros em nove bases de dados e 486 duplicatas. Ap&#243;s a remo&#231;&#227;o das duplicatas, 763 artigos foram triados para inclus&#227;o. Destes, 752 foram exclu&#237;dos com base no t&#237;tulo ou resumo, principalmente por n&#227;o avaliarem a idade-ECG. Os 11 artigos restantes foram submetidos &#224; an&#225;lise do texto completo. Um foi exclu&#237;do devido ao desenho do estudo. Dez estudos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup>foram inclu&#237;dos nas an&#225;lises qualitativas e quantitativas.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Diagrama de fluxo PRISMA. Processo de sele&#231;&#227;o de estudos, ilustrando a identifica&#231;&#227;o, triagem e inclus&#227;o de estudos na revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos inclu&#237;dos</title>
        <p>Todos os estudos inclu&#237;dos foram publicados entre 2021 e 2025 e se basearam em registros de ECG de coortes retrospectivas. Alguns foram conduzidos em popula&#231;&#245;es do Leste Asi&#225;tico,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> enquanto outros inclu&#237;ram dados do Brasil,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> dos Estados Unidos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> e do Reino Unido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> O n&#250;mero de participantes inclu&#237;dos na an&#225;lise progn&#243;stica variou substancialmente entre os estudos, de aproximadamente 2.000<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> indiv&#237;duos a mais de 200.000.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Coletivamente, os dez estudos abrangeram uma popula&#231;&#227;o total de an&#225;lise progn&#243;stica de quase 558.000 participantes, n&#250;mero que foi reduzido para 336.026 ap&#243;s considerar a sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de conjuntos de dados utilizados em mais de um estudo. Os participantes eram predominantemente adultos, com idades variando de 18 a mais de 68 anos. A maioria dos estudos analisou coortes da popula&#231;&#227;o geral ou indiv&#237;duos submetidos a rastreamento de risco cardiovascular. As <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabelas 1</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">2</xref> resumem as caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas do estudo</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="9%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Autor e ano de publica&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Desenho do estudo</th>
                  <th>Per&#237;odo de estudo</th>
                  <th>Caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Popula&#231;&#227;o total do estudo</th>
                  <th>Popula&#231;&#227;o de an&#225;lise progn&#243;stica</th>
                  <th>Idade m&#233;dia</th>
                  <th>Masculino (%)</th>
                  <th>Erro Absoluto M&#233;dio</th>
                  <th>Valor de corte de delta-idade*</th>
                  <th>Resultados</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Baek et al., 2023<sup>19</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">2006 - 2021</td>
                  <td align="center">Adultos sul-coreanos submetidos a um ECG padr&#227;o de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">226476</td>
                  <td align="center">34317</td>
                  <td align="center">48,13 &#177; 20,79</td>
                  <td align="center">51,3%</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 6 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade por todas as causas, mortalidade por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares e eventos cardiovasculares adversos maiores (MACE)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Bran et al., 2023<sup>20</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">1986 - 2021</td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte do Framingham Heart Study</td>
                  <td align="center">9877</td>
                  <td align="center">9877</td>
                  <td align="center">55 &#177;13</td>
                  <td align="center">45,1%</td>
                  <td align="center">9&#177;7 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 9 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade por todas as causas ou desfechos cardiovasculares (FA, IM e IC)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Chang et al., 2022<sup>13</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">2012 - 2019</td>
                  <td align="center">Adultos taiwaneses entre 20 e 80 anos sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio dos desfechos cardiovasculares em investiga&#231;&#227;o</td>
                  <td align="center">71741</td>
                  <td align="center">30469</td>
                  <td align="center">51,8 &#177; 16,9</td>
                  <td align="center">51,7%</td>
                  <td align="center">6,899 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 7 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade por todas as causas, mortalidade por DCV, IC, DM, DRC, IM, AVC, DAC, FA, hipertens&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cho et al., 2024<sup>22</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">2003 - 2020</td>
                  <td align="center">Popula&#231;&#227;o geral da Universidade Nacional de Seul</td>
                  <td align="center">264487</td>
                  <td align="center">1951</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">41,5%</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 20 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade por todas as causas e mortalidade cardiovascular</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Cho et al., 2025<sup>21</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">2006 - 2021</td>
                  <td align="center">Pacientes com idades entre 20 e 90 anos que visitaram ou foram encaminhados em todo o pa&#237;s para o Hospital Severance, na Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">811341</td>
                  <td align="center">121702</td>
                  <td align="center">51,9 &#177; 16,4</td>
                  <td align="center">45,9%</td>
                  <td align="center">6,44</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 7 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">FA de in&#237;cio recente e de in&#237;cio precoce</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Ladejobi et al., 2021<sup>23</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">1997 - 2003</td>
                  <td align="center">Pacientes com idade &#8805;30 anos sem doen&#231;a cardiovascular pr&#233;via em Minnesota, EUA</td>
                  <td align="center">33229</td>
                  <td align="center">25144</td>
                  <td align="center">53,71 &#177; 11,59</td>
                  <td align="center">46%</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 14,8 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade por todas as causas e mortalidade cardiovascular</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Leung et al., 2024<sup>24</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">2006 - 2010</td>
                  <td align="center">Volunt&#225;rios de 40 a 69 anos inscritos no UK Biobank</td>
                  <td align="center">67757</td>
                  <td align="center">67757</td>
                  <td align="center">65 &#177; 8</td>
                  <td align="center">48,3%</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; EAM (valor n&#227;o relatado)</td>
                  <td align="center">Acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#234;mico e acidente vascular cerebral hemorr&#225;gico (intracerebral e subaracnoide)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Lima et al., 2021<sup>16</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">2010 - 2017</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE: Popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira em geral; ELSA: Servidores p&#250;blicos brasileiros; SaMi-Trop: Pacientes com cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica</td>
                  <td align="center">1574282</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE: 218169 ELSA:14236 SaMi-Trop: 1631</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE: 51 &#177; 20 ELSA: 52 &#177; 9 SaMi-Trop: 60 &#177; 13</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE: 41% ELSA: 46% SaMi-Trop: 34%</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE: 15%: 8,38 ELSA: 8,44 SaMi-Trop: 10,04</td>
                  <td align="center">&gt; 8 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade por todas as causas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Lorenz et al., 2023<sup>25</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">2014 - 2019</td>
                  <td align="center">Adultos que foram submetidos &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o para transplante de rim (ou rim e p&#226;ncreas) na Cl&#237;nica Mayo</td>
                  <td align="center">2183</td>
                  <td align="center">2183</td>
                  <td align="center">53,3 &#177; 13,6</td>
                  <td align="center">59,1%</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 10 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Mortalidade na lista de espera, mortalidade p&#243;s-transplante (subconjunto de pacientes transplantados)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">Park et al., 2024<sup>26</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte Retrospectiva</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohortes de abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial de dois hospitais sul-coreanos</td>
                  <td align="center">421834</td>
                  <td align="center">7030</td>
                  <td align="center">N&#227;o relatado</td>
                  <td align="center">YUHS 74,7% KUAH 73,2%</td>
                  <td align="center">9,2<sup>&#8224;</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">&#8805; 10 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">Recorr&#234;ncia de FA ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>Os dados s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; DP, salvo indica&#231;&#227;o em contr&#225;rio. A signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi definida como p &lt; 0,05 em todos os estudos inclu&#237;dos. FA: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; DCV: doen&#231;a cardiovascular; DRC: doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica; DM: diabetes mellitus; IC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; EAM: erro absoluto m&#233;dio; MACE: eventos cardiovasculares adversos maiores; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; KUAH: Hospital Universit&#225;rio Anam da Universidade da Coreia; DP: desvio padr&#227;o; YUHS: Sistema de Sa&#250;de da Universidade Yonsei. *Grupo com maior delta-idade relatada, calculada como idade do ECG menos a idade cronol&#243;gica. <sup>&#8224;</sup>EAM m&#233;dio das quatro coortes de valida&#231;&#227;o.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas metodol&#243;gicas dos estudos inclu&#237;dos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="14%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Estudo</th>
                  <th>Algoritmo de IA</th>
                  <th>Entrada de ECG</th>
                  <th>Fonte de dados</th>
                  <th>Conjunto de dados de desenvolvimento</th>
                  <th>Conjunto de dados de teste</th>
                  <th>Valida&#231;&#227;o externa</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baek et al., 2023<sup>19</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DNN</td>
                  <td align="center">Dados XML extra&#237;dos de um ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es.</td>
                  <td align="center">Centro de Exames de Sa&#250;de do Hospital Universit&#225;rio Inha, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Inha, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Inha, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Brant et al., 2023<sup>20</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">Cohortes do Framingham Heart Study, EUA</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE, Brasil*</td>
                  <td align="center">Framingham Heart Study, EUA</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chang et al., 2022<sup>13</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DLM</td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Geral Tri-Service, Taiwan</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Geral Tri-Service, Taiwan</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Geral Tri-Service, Taiwan</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE-15%, SaMI-Trop</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cho et al, 2024<sup>22</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DLM</td>
                  <td align="center">Imagem de ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Nacional de Bundang, Seul, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Nacional de Bundang, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Nacional de Bundang, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE-15%</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cho et al, 2025<sup>21</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DNN</td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">Hospital Severance, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">Severance, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">Severance, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">Severance Health Check-up, UK Biobank, Mayo Clinic, Shaoxing (China), PTB-XL (Alemanha)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ladejobi et al, 2021<sup>23</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">CNN &#8211; Attia et al<sup>12</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">Olmsted Medical Center, a Cl&#237;nica Mayo e alguns outros prestadores de servi&#231;os privados. Condado de Olmsted, Minnesota</td>
                  <td align="center">Cl&#237;nica Mayo, EUA*</td>
                  <td align="center">Condado de Olmsted (Cl&#237;nica Mayo, Centro M&#233;dico de Olmsted), EUA</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Leung et al, 2024<sup>24</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">UK Biobank</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE, Brasil*</td>
                  <td align="center">UK Biobank</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lima et al, 2021<sup>16</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE: popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, Brasil ELSA: servidores p&#250;blicos, Brasil SaMi-Trop: pacientes com miocardiopatia chag&#225;sica, Brasil</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE, Brasil*</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE-15%</td>
                  <td align="center">ELSA, SaMI-Trop</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lorenz et al, 2023<sup>25</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">CNN &#8211; Attia et al<sup>12</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">Cl&#237;nica Mayo, Minnesota</td>
                  <td align="center">Cl&#237;nica Mayo, EUA*</td>
                  <td align="center">Cl&#237;nica Mayo, EUA</td>
                  <td align="center">-</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Park et al, 2024<sup>26</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">Sinal de ECG</td>
                  <td align="center">Sistema de Sa&#250;de da Universidade Yonsei e Hospital Anam da Universidade da Coreia, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE, Brasil*</td>
                  <td align="center">Sistema de Sa&#250;de da Universidade Yonsei e Hospital Anam da Universidade da Coreia, Coreia do Sul</td>
                  <td align="center">CODE-15%, PhysioNet, SaMI-Trop, UK Biobank</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>CNN: rede neural convolucional; DLM: aprendizado profundo; DNN: rede neural profunda; XML: linguagem de marca&#231;&#227;o extens&#237;vel. *Conjunto de dados usado para o desenvolvimento do modelo de IA original.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A maioria dos estudos utilizou redes neurais profundas (DNNs) treinadas em sinais de ECG para prever a idade-ECG, sendo a diferen&#231;a entre a idade estimada pela IA e a idade cronol&#243;gica real &#8211; a delta-idade &#8211; calculada e interpretada como envelhecimento cardiovascular acelerado. A idade-delta foi analisada tanto como uma vari&#225;vel cont&#237;nua quanto de forma categ&#243;rica, sendo definida mais frequentemente como sendo superior a oito anos acima da idade cronol&#243;gica. Embora a maioria das an&#225;lises tenha se baseado em sinais de ECG,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> um estudo utilizou imagens de ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es como entrada,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> e outro empregou dados XML extra&#237;dos de ECGs de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Muitas dessas an&#225;lises utilizaram a CNN<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup>de Attia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> ou o modelo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup>de IA de Ribeiro<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> e a maioria das investiga&#231;&#245;es se baseou em grandes coortes bem estabelecidas que foram usadas para treinar essas CNNs, particularmente o conjunto de dados CODE no Brasil e o conjunto de dados da Cl&#237;nica Mayo nos Estados Unidos, embora alguns tenham desenvolvido e validado modelos usando conjuntos de dados nacionais independentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Os procedimentos de valida&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m variaram, desde a valida&#231;&#227;o interna dentro do mesmo conjunto de dados at&#233; an&#225;lises em coortes independentes, embora a valida&#231;&#227;o externa nem sempre tenha sido realizada com popula&#231;&#245;es totalmente distintas.</p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de vi&#233;s foi realizada por meio da Escala de Newcastle-Ottawa (NOS), que atribui estrelas com base em crit&#233;rios predefinidos, resultando em uma pontua&#231;&#227;o total que varia de 0 a 9. Estudos com maior qualidade metodol&#243;gica recebem mais estrelas. Em nossa avalia&#231;&#227;o, a pontua&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dia foi de 8,5 estrelas. A maioria dos estudos foi classificada como &#8220;boa&#8221;. Apenas um estudo teve uma &#250;nica an&#225;lise classificada como &#8220;regular&#8221;. Os resultados detalhados da avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco de vi&#233;s s&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Escala Newcastle-Ottawa</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="8%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left" rowspan="2">Estudo</th>
                  <th rowspan="2">Ano</th>
                  <th colspan="4">Sele&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th colspan="2">Comparabilidade</th>
                  <th colspan="3">Resultado</th>
                  <th rowspan="2">Escala</th>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <th>Exposto</th>
                  <th>N&#227;o exposto</th>
                  <th>Determina&#231;&#227;o da exposi&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th>Come&#231;o sem um resultado presente</th>
                  <th>Fator principal</th>
                  <th>Fator adicional</th>
                  <th>Avalia&#231;&#227;o de resultados</th>
                  <th>Dura&#231;&#227;o do acompanhamento</th>
                  <th>Adequa&#231;&#227;o do resultado</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baek et al.<sup>19</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2023</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Brant et al.<sup>20</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2023</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chang et al.<sup>13</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chang et al.<sup>13</sup> - CODE-15%</td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Chang et al.<sup>13</sup> - SaMi-Trop</td>
                  <td align="center">2022</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cho et al.<sup>22</sup> - 10% CODE-15%</td>
                  <td align="center">2024</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ladejobi et al.<sup>23</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2021</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lima et al.<sup>16</sup> - CODE-15%</td>
                  <td align="center">2021</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lima et al.<sup>16</sup> - ELSA</td>
                  <td align="center">2021</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">8</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lima et al.<sup>16</sup> - SaMi-Trop</td>
                  <td align="center">2021</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td> </td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">7</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Lorenz et al.<sup>25</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2023</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cho et al.<sup>21</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">2025</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                  <td align="center">9</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mortalidade por todas as causas</title>
        <p>Sete estudos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup>relataram o HR para delta-idade mais elevada para mortalidade por todas as causas, com onze an&#225;lises considerando que alguns estudos avaliaram mais de um subgrupo populacional.</p>
        <p>A estimativa agrupada para mortalidade por todas as causas foi de HR = 1,83 (IC 95%: 1,45-2,32), indicando que um risco significativamente aumentado estava associado a uma elevada delta-idade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>). Os estudos inclu&#237;dos apresentaram heterogeneidade significativa, com I<sup>2</sup> = 82,9%. Avaliamos o potencial vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o utilizando um gr&#225;fico de funil e testes estat&#237;sticos. A inspe&#231;&#227;o visual do gr&#225;fico de funil sugeriu assimetria, indicando um potencial efeito de pequenos estudos (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>). A an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica corroborou essa observa&#231;&#227;o, visto que o teste de correla&#231;&#227;o de postos de Begg indicou evid&#234;ncia significativa de vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o (p = 0,0290). O m&#233;todo de <italic>trim-and-fill</italic> imputou tr&#234;s estudos faltantes no lado direito do gr&#225;fico de funil. Ap&#243;s a imputa&#231;&#227;o dos tr&#234;s estudos faltantes, o HR agrupado ajustado foi de 1,678 (IC 95%: 1,26-2,23). Embora esse tamanho de efeito ajustado tenha sido ligeiramente menor que o original, o achado permaneceu estatisticamente significativo. Isso sugere que, embora o vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o possa ter levado a uma superestima&#231;&#227;o do efeito, a an&#225;lise ainda revelou uma associa&#231;&#227;o positiva significativa.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Hazard ratios (HRs) agrupadas e intervalos de confian&#231;a (ICs) de 95% para mortalidade por todas as causas em grupos com delta-idade mais elevado.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Gr&#225;fico de funil dos estudos inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise de mortalidade por todas as causas.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mortalidade cardiovascular</title>
        <p>Tr&#234;s estudos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>relataram a HR para a associa&#231;&#227;o entre maior delta-idade e mortalidade cardiovascular. A estimativa agrupada foi de HR = 2,63 (IC 95%: 1,93-3,5), indicando que um risco significativamente aumentado estava associado ao aumento da delta-idade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4</xref>). Nenhuma heterogeneidade foi identificada entre esses estudos (I<sup>2</sup> = 0,0%). Devido ao pequeno n&#250;mero de estudos (k = 3), o teste de Begg n&#227;o foi realizado. Uma an&#225;lise de <italic>trim and fill</italic> foi conduzida para abordar o potencial vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o, que imputou dois estudos. Ap&#243;s a inclus&#227;o desses estudos, a HR agrupada diminuiu para 2,2 (IC 95%: 1,67-2,89), mas os resultados permaneceram estatisticamente significativos, sugerindo que a associa&#231;&#227;o positiva geral &#233; robusta.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Hazard ratios (HRs) agrupadas e intervalos de confian&#231;a (ICs) de 95% para mortalidade cardiovascular em grupos com delta-idade mais elevado.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial</title>
        <p>De forma semelhante, tr&#234;s estudos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>foram inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise que relatou a HR agrupada para a associa&#231;&#227;o entre maior delta-idade e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. A estimativa agrupada foi de HR = 1,96 (IC 95%: 1,43-2,69), indicando que um risco significativamente aumentado estava associado a uma maior delta-idade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 5</xref>). No entanto, esta an&#225;lise revelou alta heterogeneidade (I<sup>2</sup> = 91,1%). Devido ao pequeno n&#250;mero de estudos (k = 3), o teste de Begg n&#227;o foi realizado para avaliar o vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o. Uma an&#225;lise subsequente de <italic>trim-and-fill</italic> mostrou que nenhum estudo estava faltando, confirmando que todos os estudos eleg&#237;veis foram inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise. Notavelmente, quando o ajuste de Hartung-Knapp foi aplicado, o intervalo de confian&#231;a se ampliou e incluiu o valor nulo (HR = 1,96, IC 95%: 0,99&#8211;3,88), refletindo a incerteza relacionada ao n&#250;mero limitado de estudos.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Hazard ratios (HRs) agrupadas e intervalos de confian&#231;a (ICs) de 95% para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial de in&#237;cio recente em grupos com delta-idade mais elevado.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf05.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</title>
        <p>Uma maior delta-idade tamb&#233;m tem sido associada a um risco aumentado de IC. Brant et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> descobriram que participantes cuja idade-ECG excedia sua idade cronol&#243;gica em 9 anos apresentavam um risco 75% maior de desenvolver IC (HR 1,75; IC 95%: 1,45&#8211;2,12). Chang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> relataram uma associa&#231;&#227;o ainda mais forte com IC de in&#237;cio recente de (HR 2,79; IC 95%: 2,25&#8211;3,45). Esses estudos demonstram consistentemente que uma delta-idade elevada est&#225; associada a um risco maior de IC incidente.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Acidente vascular cerebral</title>
        <p>Dois estudos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> analisaram o valor preditivo da delta-idade para AVC. Chang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> descobriram que indiv&#237;duos com idade-ECG acelerada apresentavam um risco significativamente maior de AVC (HR 1,65; IC 95%: 1,42&#8211;1,92). Essa descoberta foi corroborada por Leung et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> que relataram um risco 42% maior de AVC incidente entre participantes com maior delta-idade (HR 1,42; IC 95%: 1,12&#8211;1,80). Esses estudos demonstram que uma maior delta-idade est&#225; consistentemente associada a um risco aumentado de AVC em diferentes coortes.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Nossa revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise revelaram uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o entre a idade derivada do ECG (idade-ECG) e o risco de desfechos clinicamente significativos, incluindo mortalidade por todas as causas, mortalidade cardiovascular e fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. Especificamente, uma maior delta-idade (a diferen&#231;a entre a idade-ECG do paciente e sua idade cronol&#243;gica) foi consistentemente associada a um risco maior desses desfechos.</p>
      <p>De acordo com os estudos inclu&#237;dos, o aumento da idade-ECG foi geralmente definido como uma idade prevista que excedia o erro absoluto m&#233;dio (EAM) do modelo, que normalmente variava entre 6 e 9 anos (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). Esse limiar representou a delta-idade acima da qual os desfechos adversos foram observados com maior frequ&#234;ncia, refor&#231;ando o potencial da idade-ECG como um indicador de envelhecimento cardiovascular acelerado. No entanto, nenhum ponto de corte espec&#237;fico ou padronizado para a delta-idade foi estabelecido para cada desfecho, visto que os estudos adotaram diferentes defini&#231;&#245;es e estrat&#233;gias de relato.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; mortalidade por todas as causas, todas as onze an&#225;lises revisadas revelaram uma correla&#231;&#227;o positiva entre maior delta-idade e aumento do risco. As estimativas agrupadas indicaram um risco significativamente maior entre indiv&#237;duos com delta-idade elevada. O aumento do risco variou amplamente, de 28% a 600%, provavelmente refletindo varia&#231;&#245;es nos subgrupos analisados. Por exemplo, Cho et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> relataram uma <italic>hazard ratio</italic> particularmente alta, possivelmente porque analisaram apenas um pequeno subgrupo do estudo CODE. A heterogeneidade significativa observada entre os estudos pode ser atribu&#237;da a diversos fatores. Primeiro, as popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas variaram significativamente em termos de ra&#231;a e etnia, o que influencia os ECGs. Segundo, a presen&#231;a de v&#225;rias comorbidades, como a cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica, nos pacientes do estudo SaMi-Trop provavelmente influiram. Finalmente, o uso de diferentes algoritmos de aprendizado de m&#225;quina, cada um com popula&#231;&#245;es de treinamento e configura&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas &#250;nicas, tamb&#233;m pode ter contribu&#237;do para essa varia&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Nossas an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas revelaram evid&#234;ncias de vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o. Esse achado pode refletir o efeito de pequenos estudos, em que estudos menores tendem a apresentar tamanhos de efeito maiores. Ap&#243;s a realiza&#231;&#227;o de uma an&#225;lise de <italic>trim-and-fill</italic> para corrigir o potencial vi&#233;s, o efeito agrupado ajustado permaneceu estatisticamente significativo. Assim, embora o vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o possa ter inflado ligeiramente o tamanho do efeito, a conclus&#227;o geral permanece inalterada: a an&#225;lise &#233; robusta e sugere um claro aumento no risco de mortalidade por todas as causas em pacientes com idade-ECG mais elevada.</p>
      <p>Para mortalidade cardiovascular, a metan&#225;lise demonstrou um efeito robusto e estatisticamente significativo. Nossas an&#225;lises tamb&#233;m revelaram uma forte correla&#231;&#227;o positiva, com o aumento do risco para esse evento variando de 120% a 249%. Ao contr&#225;rio da an&#225;lise de mortalidade por todas as causas, n&#227;o houve heterogeneidade entre os estudos inclu&#237;dos. A an&#225;lise de sensibilidade <italic>trim-and-fill</italic> atenuou ligeiramente a estimativa agrupada, mas n&#227;o alterou a signific&#226;ncia dos resultados, confirmando a robustez da associa&#231;&#227;o entre maior delta-idade e risco de mortalidade cardiovascular.</p>
      <p>Para a fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, a metan&#225;lise utilizando o modelo convencional de efeitos aleat&#243;rios mostrou que indiv&#237;duos com uma maior delta-idade apresentavam quase o dobro do risco de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial. No entanto, as estimativas variaram dependendo do m&#233;todo estat&#237;stico aplicado, refletindo a incerteza inerente associada ao pequeno n&#250;mero de estudos. Observou-se alta heterogeneidade, indicando que o efeito da idade-ECG sobre o risco de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial varia entre os estudos. A disparidade nos tamanhos do efeito provavelmente se explica pelas diferen&#231;as nas popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas: um estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> analisou 9.877 participantes do <italic>Framingham Heart Study</italic>, outro<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> incluiu 30.469 adultos taiwaneses com idades entre 20 e 80 anos sem doen&#231;a cardiovascular pr&#233;-existente, e o maior estudo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> analisou mais de 121.000 pacientes sul-coreanos com idades entre 20 e 90 anos. Essas diferen&#231;as nas caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas dos pacientes, no estado de sa&#250;de basal e na localiza&#231;&#227;o geogr&#225;fica provavelmente contribu&#237;ram para a alta heterogeneidade observada. Esses achados sugerem uma poss&#237;vel rela&#231;&#227;o entre a idade-ECG acelerada e o risco de fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, possivelmente mediada por remodelamento atrial subcl&#237;nico, fibrose relacionada &#224; idade ou carga cumulativa de risco cardiovascular. No entanto, as evid&#234;ncias atuais s&#227;o insuficientes para tirar conclus&#245;es definitivas, e esses resultados devem ser interpretados com cautela. S&#227;o necess&#225;rios estudos adicionais, de grande porte e com delineamento prospectivo, envolvendo popula&#231;&#245;es diversas, para esclarecer o valor progn&#243;stico da idade-ECG para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial.</p>
      <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre a varia&#231;&#227;o da delta-idade e a IC sugere que a idade-ECG pode refletir um remodelamento card&#237;aco subcl&#237;nico precoce ou comprometimento funcional n&#227;o detectado pelos fatores de risco tradicionais. Embora apenas alguns estudos tenham analisado esse desfecho<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> e uma metan&#225;lise formal n&#227;o tenha sido poss&#237;vel, resultados consistentes entre as coortes sugerem que a idade-ECG pode ser um marcador n&#227;o invasivo promissor de risco de IC. No entanto, esses resultados exigem interpreta&#231;&#227;o cautelosa devido ao pequeno n&#250;mero de estudos dispon&#237;veis.</p>
      <p>Da mesma forma, a associa&#231;&#227;o entre a idade-ECG acelerada e o AVC incidente destaca seu potencial como marcador de envelhecimento vascular subcl&#237;nico. Dado o pequeno n&#250;mero de estudos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> esta s&#237;ntese foi descritiva, e n&#227;o quantitativa. As tend&#234;ncias observadas sugerem que o idade-ECG captura processos fisiopatol&#243;gicos que predisp&#245;em a eventos cerebrovasculares independentemente dos fatores de risco tradicionais. Como esse desfecho foi avaliado em apenas alguns estudos, a associa&#231;&#227;o observada deve ser considerada preliminar e confirmada em pesquisas futuras.</p>
      <p>Diversas comorbidades e h&#225;bitos de vida podem comprometer a fun&#231;&#227;o fisiol&#243;gica, levando a uma discrep&#226;ncia entre a idade cronol&#243;gica e a idade biol&#243;gica de uma pessoa. Pesquisas recentes<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup>t&#234;m demonstrado consistentemente que uma ampla gama de fatores de estilo de vida e doen&#231;as pode causar anormalidades no ECG. Por exemplo, se sabe que condi&#231;&#245;es como hipertens&#227;o, diabetes tipo 2, obesidade, tabagismo e sedentarismo afetam as medidas do ECG. Diante disso, a idade-ECG &#233; uma ferramenta simples, n&#227;o invasiva e de baixo custo para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular, particularmente em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos, permitindo decis&#245;es preventivas e progn&#243;sticas mais precisas. Embora diversos estudos tenham conclu&#237;do que uma maior delta-idade est&#225; associada &#224; doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica, disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial perif&#233;rica anormal e aumento da mortalidade, nossa revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise destaca o poder preditivo desses dados. Nossos achados revelaram que um delta-ECG aumentado est&#225; consistentemente associado a maior mortalidade e risco cardiovascular. Uma aplica&#231;&#227;o promissora dessa ferramenta seria a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes aparentemente saud&#225;veis ou assintom&#225;ticos, identificando aqueles com maior risco para esses eventos. Esse conceito &#233; ainda corroborado por estudos como o de Mossavarali et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> que demonstrou que doen&#231;as cr&#244;nicas, muta&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares estruturais est&#227;o associadas a um aumento da idade-ECG. Isso sugere que a delta-idade pode se tornar uma ferramenta valiosa para fornecer uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais precisa da sa&#250;de cardiovascular geral, mesmo em pacientes que j&#225; apresentam alto risco cardiovascular.</p>
      <p>Ao interpretar esses achados, algumas considera&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas s&#227;o importantes. O uso repetido dos mesmos grandes conjuntos de dados, frequentemente com diferentes algoritmos aplicados &#224; mesma popula&#231;&#227;o, pode limitar a independ&#234;ncia dos resultados e o valor incremental de cada nova abordagem. Al&#233;m disso, a valida&#231;&#227;o externa n&#227;o foi uniformemente rigorosa, visto que diversos estudos utilizaram coortes da mesma institui&#231;&#227;o ou com conjuntos de dados sobrepostos, enquanto a valida&#231;&#227;o verdadeiramente independente em diferentes popula&#231;&#245;es e sistemas de sa&#250;de foi menos frequente. A valida&#231;&#227;o externa foi realizada em cinco estudos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> utilizando conjuntos de dados de diversas coortes, como popula&#231;&#245;es comunit&#225;rias (CODE, Brasil), popula&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas com doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (SaMi-Trop, Brasil), participantes de exames de sa&#250;de (Severance Health Check-up, Coreia do Sul) e grandes biobancos (UK Biobank, EUA/Reino Unido). Considerando que as caracter&#237;sticas do ECG podem variar de acordo com a etnia, a distribui&#231;&#227;o et&#225;ria, as comorbidades e os padr&#245;es de registro, a falta de uma valida&#231;&#227;o externa consistente e rigorosa levanta preocupa&#231;&#245;es sobre a generaliza&#231;&#227;o da idade-ECG. Para garantir a reprodutibilidade e mitigar potenciais vieses, futuras investiga&#231;&#245;es devem priorizar a valida&#231;&#227;o em coortes diversas, multic&#234;ntricas e internacionais, idealmente incluindo tanto popula&#231;&#245;es da comunidade quanto grupos cl&#237;nicos de alto risco, com relatos transparentes do pr&#233;-processamento de dados, calibra&#231;&#227;o do modelo e m&#233;tricas de desempenho. Tais esfor&#231;os s&#227;o essenciais para estabelecer a idade-ECG como um biomarcador confi&#225;vel em diversos contextos cl&#237;nicos e demogr&#225;ficos.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m dessas limita&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas, outro aspecto importante relaciona-se &#224; explicabilidade e interpretabilidade. Embora a maioria dos estudos inclu&#237;dos n&#227;o tenha fornecido an&#225;lises aprofundadas a esse respeito, Cho et al., em 2025<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> aplicaram mapas de sali&#234;ncia ao seu modelo de idade-ECG baseado em IA, segmentando o ECG em intervalos PQ, QRS, ST e TP. Seus resultados mostraram que o segmento PQ apresentou consistentemente os maiores valores de sali&#234;ncia em cinco conjuntos de dados de valida&#231;&#227;o independentes. Essa descoberta indica que o modelo se concentrou em regi&#245;es fisiologicamente significativas do ECG, em vez de artefatos aleat&#243;rios. Ao identificar quais componentes da forma de onda influenciam mais fortemente a predi&#231;&#227;o de idade, essas an&#225;lises aumentam a transpar&#234;ncia e ajudam a preencher a lacuna entre a modelagem por IA e a interpreta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica. No entanto, al&#233;m desse esfor&#231;o isolado, a explicabilidade permanece amplamente subexplorada na literatura atual, e estudos futuros devem incorporar e padronizar sistematicamente estruturas de interpretabilidade na pesquisa sobre idade-ECG.</p>
      <p>Pesquisas futuras devem se concentrar em estudos prospectivos e longitudinais para estabelecer o impacto cl&#237;nico da idade-ECG no mundo real. Esses ensaios s&#227;o essenciais para determinar se a idade-ECG fornece valor progn&#243;stico incremental em rela&#231;&#227;o aos escores de risco estabelecidos, melhora a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco ou orienta interven&#231;&#245;es preventivas na pr&#225;tica di&#225;ria. Estudos prospectivos multic&#234;ntricos integrados aos sistemas de sa&#250;de ser&#227;o fundamentais para avaliar se o uso da idade-ECG pode levar a melhorias significativas nos desfechos dos pacientes. Esses esfor&#231;os s&#227;o cruciais para passar da prova de conceito &#224; implementa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, abrindo caminho para que ECG biomarcadores derivados de IA sejam incorporados &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o e ao gerenciamento de risco cardiovascular de rotina.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise demonstrou que a idade-ECG estimada por IA, particularmente a maior delta-idade, est&#225; fortemente associada &#224; mortalidade por todas as causas e &#224; mortalidade cardiovascular, corroborando seu papel como biomarcador do envelhecimento cardiovascular. As evid&#234;ncias para fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial s&#227;o sugestivas, por&#233;m inconclusivas, o que destaca a necessidade de mais estudos. Esses achados refor&#231;am o potencial da idade-ECG como um biomarcador n&#227;o invasivo, simples e de baixo custo para aprimorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular, mesmo em indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos. Para fortalecer a utilidade cl&#237;nica e orientar a implementa&#231;&#227;o na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco cardiovascular, s&#227;o necess&#225;rios a padroniza&#231;&#227;o de algoritmos, valida&#231;&#227;o externa robusta e estudos prospectivos multic&#234;ntricos, bem como avalia&#231;&#245;es do valor incremental dessa abordagem em combina&#231;&#227;o com escores de risco tradicionais. Paralelamente, aprimorar a explicabilidade do modelo ser&#225; essencial para garantir a transpar&#234;ncia e fomentar a confian&#231;a cl&#237;nica em ECG biomarcadores baseados em IA.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica:</label>
        <p> Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de Mestrado de Isadora Cristine Reis Sguizzato Bozzi pela Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#201;tica e Consentimento Informado:</label>
        <p> Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial:</label>
        <p> Durante a prepara&#231;&#227;o deste trabalho, o(s) autor(es) usaram Grammarly para auxiliar na revis&#227;o da l&#237;ngua inglesa e melhorar a clareza e a flu&#234;ncia do manuscrito. Ap&#243;s o uso desta ferramenta/servi&#231;o, o(s) autor(es) revisaram e editaram o conte&#250;do conforme necess&#225;rio e assumem total responsabilidade pelo conte&#250;do do artigo publicado.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <label>Disponibilidade de Dados:</label>
        <p> Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <label>Fontes de Financiamento:</label>
        <p> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250650i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Artificial Intelligence-Derived ECG-Age as a Predictor of Mortality and Cardiovascular Events: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3800-7107</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bozzi</surname>
            <given-names>Isadora Cristine Reis Sguizzato</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-3873-0520</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Clara de Araujo Gontijo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2740-0042</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Antonio Luiz Pinho</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1349-1745</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Paix&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriela Miana de Mattos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research and Critical revision of the manuscript for intellectual content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Telessa&#250;de, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address</label>: Isadora Bozzi &#8226; Centro de Telessa&#250;de do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais &#8211; Av. Professor Alfredo Balena, 110, 1&#186; Andar, Ala Sul &#8211; Sala 107. Postal Code 30130-100, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil E-mail: isbozzi@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential Conflict of Interest:</label>
          <p> No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p> Marcio Bittencourt</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Artificial intelligence (AI)-derived electrocardiographic age (ECG-age) and the difference between ECG-age and chronological age (delta-age) are emerging biomarkers of cardiovascular aging and adverse outcomes, but their prognostic value remains unclear.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to evaluate associations between AI-derived ECG-age or delta-age and clinical outcomes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> Nine databases were searched through May 1, 2025. Eligible studies evaluated mortality or cardiovascular events and reported measures of association. Pooled hazard ratios (pHRs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated via fixed- or random-effects models, with statistical significance set at p &lt; 0.05. The protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251042467).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> Ten studies (2021&#8211;2025) with over 550,000 participants from East Asia, the Americas, and the UK were included. Most used convolutional neural networks to estimate ECG-age; delta-age was calculated as ECG-age minus chronological age. Elevated delta-age was associated with increased all-cause mortality (pHR = 1.83, 95% CI: 1.45&#8211;2.32) and cardiovascular mortality (pHR = 2.63, 95% CI: 1.93&#8211;3.58). Three studies reported increased risk of atrial fibrillation (pHR = 1.96, 95% CI: 1.43&#8211;2.69), although data were limited and heterogeneous. Descriptive analyses suggested that greater delta-age predicts incident heart failure and stroke.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> AI-derived ECG-age, particularly delta-age, is associated with all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, supporting its role as a noninvasive biomarker of cardiovascular aging. Evidence for atrial fibrillation is suggestive but limited. Standardized algorithms, robust external validation, and prospective multicenter studies are needed to confirm clinical utility and integrate ECG-age into risk stratification, even in asymptomatic individuals.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Artificial Intelligence-Derived ECG-Age as a Predictor of Mortality and Cardiovascular Events: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Electrocardiography</kwd>
        <kwd>Artificial Intelligence</kwd>
        <kwd>Deep Learning</kwd>
        <kwd>Machine Learning</kwd>
        <kwd>Prognosis</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of Funding:</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>The electrocardiogram (ECG) is a vital diagnostic tool across diverse clinical scenarios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> It is well established that the electrical signals of the heart are modulated by numerous physiological factors related to both the cardiovascular system and broader biological mechanisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> As such, not only can cardiovascular diseases significantly influence ECG signals, but also lifestyle,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> dietary patterns,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> and chronic diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Its application extends beyond the identification of cardiac disorders, and additional latent information based on ECG data can be harnessed to provide a broader assessment of cardiovascular health and aging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The integration of computer-assisted interpretation into clinical ECGs has gained prominence,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> and ECG-age, an age estimate derived from 12-lead ECGs using artificial intelligence (AI), has emerged as a potential biomarker of cardiovascular aging and a measurable indicator of global cardiovascular health.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup>Previous studies have shown a strong correlation between ECG-age and chronological age in healthy individuals, while an elevated ECG-age relative to chronological age has been associated with higher cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> This discrepancy is thought to reflect accelerated cardiovascular or biological aging, resulting from the cumulative impact of comorbidities, subclinical disease, and lifestyle factors. This suggests that ECG-age could serve as an integrative marker of subclinical disease burden and overall cardiovascular health.</p>
        <p>The difference between ECG-age and chronological age, known as delta-age, has been proposed as a predictor of adverse outcomes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> including mortality and major adverse cardiovascular events (MACEs). However, its clinical impact has not yet been fully established.</p>
        <p>A recent systematic review<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> evaluated seventeen original studies that employed AI-based algorithms to assess delta-age. The analysis revealed that hypertension and diabetes mellitus were the most prevalent factors contributing to elevated delta-age, and myocardial infarction and heart failure (HF) had the most significant impacts. Although a significant association was observed between increased delta-age and both all-cause mortality and cardiovascular mortality, the meta-analysis was limited to six and three studies for these respective outcomes.</p>
        <p>Therefore, the primary objective of this review was to assess the prognostic value of AI-derived ECG-age and delta-age in predicting all-cause and cardiovascular mortality. Secondary objectives included evaluating their associations with other adverse cardiovascular outcomes, such as atrial fibrillation, heart failure, and stroke, incorporating updated data and analyses from recent studies. The main findings and clinical implications of this review are summarized in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Search strategy and selection criteria</title>
          <p>This review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The study protocol was registered in PROSPERO (CRD420251042467).</p>
          <p>Nine databases (LILACS, Scielo, MEDLINE, ScienceDirect, EMBASE, CENTRAL, CINAHL, Web of Science, and Scopus) were systematically searched from inception to May 1, 2025, for primary development or validation studies of predictive models based on AI-determined ECG-age that assessed the associations between ECG-age or delta-age and clinical outcomes. The search strategy included the following MeSH terms: "electrocardiographic age" OR "AI ECG-heart age" OR "AI ECG age" OR "ECG-age". Studies were eligible if they reported model performance metrics (e.g., AUC, sensitivity, specificity, accuracy, and calibration) or measures of association (e.g., hazard ratio [HR], odds ratio [OR], and risk ratio [RR]). The primary outcomes were all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and adverse cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction, atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, stroke, heart failure, and atrial fibrillation.</p>
          <p>The follow-up periods varied across studies, with a predominance of retrospective cohort designs. Systematic reviews, meta-analyses, editorials, letters, opinion pieces, conference abstracts without complete data, and purely methodological studies without application to clinical outcomes were excluded.</p>
          <p>The retrieved articles were uploaded into Rayyan,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> and duplicates were removed. Two reviewers independently screened the articles and extracted the data. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion with a third reviewer.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data collection process and data items</title>
          <p>Data from all studies meeting the inclusion criteria were extracted into a table in accordance with the CHARMS checklist. The extracted data included the study design, study period, total study population, prognostic analysis population, population characteristics, inclusion and exclusion criteria, data source, type of ECG used, and kind of IA algorithm. Additional variables collected included the correlation between ECG-age and chronological age, data split method, validation type, delta-age cutoff, outcomes assessed, number of events per group, HR of events per group, covariates adjusted for, and risk of bias assessment. For studies that reported multiple HRs with different covariate adjustments, we extracted the most fully adjusted HR.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Quality assessment</title>
          <p>We assessed the risk of bias in the included studies via the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for cohort studies. This scale comprises three domains&#8211;Selection, Comparability, and Outcome&#8211;each containing specific items with multiple answer options, in which those reflecting higher methodological quality are awarded stars. Because several studies have conducted various analyses in different populations, each population was assessed separately. A study was classified as &#8220;good&#8221; if it received three or four stars in the selection domain, one or two stars in the comparability domain, and two or three stars in the Outcome domain. A &#8220;fair&#8221; classification requires the same number of stars in the comparability and outcome domains but only two stars in the selection domain.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data synthesis and meta-analysis</title>
          <p>The pooled hazard ratio (HR) with its 95% confidence interval (CI) was calculated to assess the associations between elevated delta-age and mortality outcomes, as well as atrial fibrillation. An HR greater than 1 was interpreted as a significantly greater risk among patients with higher delta-age, assuming that the 95% CI did not cross 1. For all analyses, statistical significance was set at p &lt; 0.05.</p>
          <p>To quantify heterogeneity, we calculated Cochran&#8217;s Q, the I<sup>2</sup> statistic, and the &#964;<sup>2</sup> statistic. A random-effects meta-analysis with Hartung&#8211;Knapp adjustment was conducted in the analysis of all-cause mortality and atrial fibrillation, due to substantial heterogeneity among studies (I<sup>2</sup> &gt; 25%). However, the fixed-effects model was applied in the cardiovascular mortality analysis because no significant heterogeneity was detected (I<sup>2</sup> = 0.0%). Publication bias was assessed using funnel plot inspection and Begg&#8217;s test. Additionally, the trim-and-fill method was used to address potentially missing studies. Owing to the limited number of included studies (k = 3), Begg&#8217;s test could not be used to assess atrial fibrillation and cardiovascular mortality.</p>
          <p>All the statistical analyses were performed using R software, version 4.5.0 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study selection</title>
          <p>The study selection process is shown in the PRISMA flow diagram (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>). We identified 1249 records across nine databases and 486 duplicates. After removing duplicates, 763 articles were screened for inclusion. Of these, 752 were excluded based on title or abstract, primarily because they did not assess ECG-age. The remaining 11 articles underwent full-text analysis. One was excluded from the study design. Ten studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> were included in the qualitative and quantitative analyses.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; PRISMA flow diagram. Study selection process, illustrating the identification, screening, and inclusion of studies in the systematic review.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Characteristics of included studies</title>
          <p>All included studies were published between 2021 and 2025 and were based on ECG recordings from retrospective cohorts. Some were conducted in East Asian populations,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> whereas others included data from Brazil,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> the United States,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> and the United Kingdom.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> The number of participants included in the prognostic analysis varied substantially across studies, ranging from approximately 2,000<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> individuals to more than 200,000.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Collectively, the ten studies encompassed a total prognostic analysis population of nearly 558,000 participants, which was reduced to 336,026 after accounting for overlapping datasets used in more than one study. The participants were predominantly adults, with ages ranging from 18 years to over 68 years. Most studies analyzed general population cohorts or individuals undergoing cardiovascular risk screening. <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">2</xref> summarize the study characteristics.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Study characteristics</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="9%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Author and year of publication</th>
                    <th>Study design</th>
                    <th>Study period</th>
                    <th>Population characteristics</th>
                    <th>Total study population</th>
                    <th>Prognostic analysis population</th>
                    <th>Mean Age</th>
                    <th>Male (%)</th>
                    <th>Mean Absolute Error</th>
                    <th>Delta-age cutoff*</th>
                    <th>Outcomes</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Baek et al., 2023<sup>19</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2006 - 2021</td>
                    <td align="center">South Korean adults who underwent a standard 12-lead ECG</td>
                    <td align="center">226476</td>
                    <td align="center">34317</td>
                    <td align="center">48.13 &#177; 20.79</td>
                    <td align="center">51.3%</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 6 years</td>
                    <td align="center">All-cause mortality, CVD-mortality, and MACE</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Bran et al., 2023<sup>20</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">1986 - 2021</td>
                    <td align="center">Framingham Heart Study cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">9877</td>
                    <td align="center">9877</td>
                    <td align="center">55 &#177;13</td>
                    <td align="center">45.1%</td>
                    <td align="center">9&#177;7 years</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 9 years</td>
                    <td align="center">All-cause mortality or cardiovascular outcomes (AF, MI, and HF)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Chang et al., 2022<sup>13</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2012 - 2019</td>
                    <td align="center">Taiwanese adults between 20 and 80 years without pre-existing diagnoses of the CVD outcomes under investigation</td>
                    <td align="center">71741</td>
                    <td align="center">30469</td>
                    <td align="center">51.8 &#177; 16.9</td>
                    <td align="center">51.7%</td>
                    <td align="center">6.899 years</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 7 years</td>
                    <td align="center">All-cause mortality, CVD-mortality, HF, DM, CKD, MI, stroke, CAD, AF, hypertension</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Cho et al., 2024<sup>22</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2003 - 2020</td>
                    <td align="center">General population from Seoul National University</td>
                    <td align="center">264487</td>
                    <td align="center">1951</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">41.5%</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 20 years</td>
                    <td align="center">All-cause and cardiovascular mortality</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Cho et al., 2025<sup>21</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2006 - 2021</td>
                    <td align="center">Patients aged 20-90 years who visited or were referred nationwide to Severance Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">811341</td>
                    <td align="center">121702</td>
                    <td align="center">51.9 &#177; 16.4</td>
                    <td align="center">45.9%</td>
                    <td align="center">6.44</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 7 years</td>
                    <td align="center">New-onset and early-onset AF</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Ladejobi et al., 2021<sup>23</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">1997 - 2003</td>
                    <td align="center">Patients &#8805;30 years without baseline cardiovascular disease in Minnesota, USA</td>
                    <td align="center">33229</td>
                    <td align="center">25144</td>
                    <td align="center">53.71 &#177; 11.59</td>
                    <td align="center">46%</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 14.8 years</td>
                    <td align="center">All-cause and cardiovascular mortality</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Leung et al., 2024<sup>24</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2006 - 2010</td>
                    <td align="center">Volunteers 40-69 years enrolled in the UK Biobank</td>
                    <td align="center">67757</td>
                    <td align="center">67757</td>
                    <td align="center">65 &#177; 8</td>
                    <td align="center">48.3%</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; MAE (value not reported)</td>
                    <td align="center">Ischemic stroke and hemorrhagic stroke (intracerebral and subarachnoid)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Lima et al., 2021<sup>16</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2010 - 2017</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE: Brazilian general population; ELSA: Brazilian public servants; SaMi-Trop: patients with Chagas cardiomyopathy</td>
                    <td align="center">1574282</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE: 218169 ELSA:14236 SaMi-Trop: 1631</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE: 51 &#177; 20 ELSA: 52 &#177; 9 SaMi-Trop: 60 &#177; 13</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE: 41% ELSA: 46% SaMi-Trop: 34%</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE: 15%: 8.38 ELSA: 8.44 SaMi-Trop: 10.04</td>
                    <td align="center">&gt; 8 years</td>
                    <td align="center">All-cause mortality</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Lorenz et al., 2023<sup>25</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2014 - 2019</td>
                    <td align="center">Adults who underwent evaluation for kidney (or kidney and pancreas) transplantation at Mayo Clinic</td>
                    <td align="center">2183</td>
                    <td align="center">2183</td>
                    <td align="center">53.3 &#177; 13.6</td>
                    <td align="center">59.1%</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 10 years</td>
                    <td align="center">Waitlist mortality, post-transplant mortality (subset of patients transplanted)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">Park et al., 2024<sup>26</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">Retrospective Cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">AF catheter ablation cohorts from two South Korean hospitals</td>
                    <td align="center">421834</td>
                    <td align="center">7030</td>
                    <td align="center">Not reported</td>
                    <td align="center">YUHS 74.7% KUAH 73.2%</td>
                    <td align="center">9.2<sup>&#8224;</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">&#8805; 10 years</td>
                    <td align="center">AF recurrence after catheter ablation</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>Data are reported as mean &#177; SD, unless specified. Statistical significance was defined as p &lt; 0.05 in all included studies. AF: atrial fibrillation; CAD: coronary artery disease; CVD: cardiovascular disease; CKD: chronic kidney disease; DM: diabetes mellitus; HF: heart failure; MAE: mean absolute error; MACE: major adverse cardiovascular events; MI: myocardial infarction; KUAH: Korea University Anam Hospital; SD: standard deviation; YUHS: Yonsei University Health System. *Greater delta-age group reported, calculated as ECG-age minus the chronological age. &#8224;Average MAE of the four validation cohorts.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Methodological characteristics of the included studies</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="14%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Study</th>
                    <th>AI algorithm</th>
                    <th>ECG input</th>
                    <th>Data source</th>
                    <th>Development dataset</th>
                    <th>Test dataset</th>
                    <th>External validation</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Baek et al., 2023<sup>19</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DNN</td>
                    <td align="center">XML data extracted from 12-lead ECG</td>
                    <td align="center">Health Examination Center at Inha University Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">Inha University Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">Inha University Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Brant et al., 2023<sup>20</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">Framingham Heart Study cohorts, USA</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE, Brazil*</td>
                    <td align="center">Framingham Heart Study, USA</td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Chang et al., 2022<sup>13</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DLM</td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">Tri-Service General Hospital, Taiwan</td>
                    <td align="center">Tri-Service General Hospital, Taiwan</td>
                    <td align="center">Tri-Service General Hospital, Taiwan</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE-15%, SaMI-Trop</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cho et al, 2024<sup>22</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DLM</td>
                    <td align="center">12-lead ECG image</td>
                    <td align="center">Seoul National University Bundang Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">National University Bundang Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">National University Bundang Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE-15%</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cho et al, 2025<sup>21</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DNN</td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">Severance Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">Severance, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">Severance, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">Severance Health Check-up, UK Biobank, Mayo Clinic, Shaoxing (China), PTB-XL (Germany)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ladejobi et al, 2021<sup>23</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">CNN &#8211; Attia et al<sup>12</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">Olmsted Medical Center, the Mayo Clinic, and a few other individual private providers. Olmsted County, Minnesota</td>
                    <td align="center">Mayo Clinic, USA*</td>
                    <td align="center">Olmsted County (Mayo Clinic, Olmsted Medical Center), USA</td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Leung et al, 2024<sup>24</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">UK Biobank</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE, Brazil*</td>
                    <td align="center">UK Biobank</td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lima et al, 2021<sup>16</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE: general population, Brazil ELSA: public servants, Brazil SaMi-Trop: patients with Chagas myocardiopathy, Brazil</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE, Brazil*</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE-15%</td>
                    <td align="center">ELSA, SaMI-Trop</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lorenz et al, 2023<sup>25</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">CNN &#8211; Attia et al<sup>12</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">Mayo Clinic, Minnesota</td>
                    <td align="center">Mayo Clinic, USA*</td>
                    <td align="center">Mayo Clinic, USA</td>
                    <td align="center">-</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Park et al, 2024<sup>26</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">DNN &#8211; Ribeiro et al<sup>27</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">ECG signal</td>
                    <td align="center">Yonsei University Health System and Korea University Anam Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE, Brazil*</td>
                    <td align="center">Yonsei University Health System and Korea University Anam Hospital, South Korea</td>
                    <td align="center">CODE-15%, PhysioNet, SaMI-Trop, UK Biobank</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>CNN: convolutional neural network; DLM: deep learning; DNN: deep neural network; XML: extensible markup language. *Dataset used for original AI model development.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Most studies have used deep neural networks (DNNs) trained on ECG signals to predict ECG-age, with the difference between the AI-estimated age and the actual chronological age&#8211;delta-age&#8211;subsequently calculated and interpreted as accelerated cardiovascular aging. Delta-age was analyzed both as a continuous variable and in categorical form, most frequently defined as being more than eight years above chronological age. While most analyses have been based on ECG signals,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> one study used 12-lead ECG images as input,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> and another employed XML data extracted from 12-lead ECGs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Many of these analyses utilized Attia&#8217;s<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> CNN<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> or Ribeiro&#8217;s<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> AI model,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> and the majority of investigations relied on large, well-established cohorts that were used to train those CNNs, particularly the CODE dataset in Brazil and the Mayo Clinic dataset in the United States, although some developed and validated models using independent national datasets.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> The validation procedures also varied, ranging from internal validation within the same dataset to analyses in independent cohorts, although external validation was not always performed with fully distinct populations.</p>
          <p>The risk of bias assessment was performed via the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) tool, which awards stars on the basis of predefined criteria, resulting in a total score ranging from 0 to 9. Studies with higher methodological quality receive more stars. In our assessment, the mean score was 8.5 stars. Most studies were classified as &#8220;good.&#8221; Only one study had a single analysis rated as &#8220;fair.&#8221; The detailed results of the risk of bias assessment are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Newcastle-Ottawa Scale</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="8%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left" rowspan="2">Study</th>
                    <th rowspan="2">Year</th>
                    <th colspan="4">Selection</th>
                    <th colspan="2">Comparability</th>
                    <th colspan="3">Outcome</th>
                    <th rowspan="2">Scale</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Exposed</th>
                    <th>Non-exposed</th>
                    <th>Ascertainment of exposure</th>
                    <th>Start without an outcome present</th>
                    <th>Major factor</th>
                    <th>Additional factor</th>
                    <th>Outcome assessment</th>
                    <th>Follow-up length</th>
                    <th>Adequacy of outcome</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Baek et al.<sup>19</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">2023</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Brant et al.<sup>20</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">2023</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Chang et al.<sup>13</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">2022</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Chang et al.<sup>13</sup> - CODE-15%</td>
                    <td align="center">2022</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Chang et al.<sup>13</sup> - SaMi-Trop</td>
                    <td align="center">2022</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">7</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cho et al.<sup>22</sup> - 10% CODE-15%</td>
                    <td align="center">2024</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Ladejobi et al.<sup>23</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">2021</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lima et al.<sup>16</sup> - CODE-15%</td>
                    <td align="center">2021</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lima et al.<sup>16</sup> - ELSA</td>
                    <td align="center">2021</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">8</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lima et al.<sup>16</sup> - SaMi-Trop</td>
                    <td align="center">2021</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td> </td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">7</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lorenz et al.<sup>25</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">2023</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Cho et al.<sup>21</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">2025</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">&#10025;</td>
                    <td align="center">9</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>All-cause mortality</title>
          <p>Seven studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> reported the HR for higher delta-age for all-cause mortality, with eleven analyses considering that some studies evaluated more than one population subgroup.</p>
          <p>The pooled estimate for all-cause mortality was HR = 1.83 (95% CI: 1.45-2.32), indicating that a significantly increased risk was associated with high delta-age (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>). The included studies were significantly heterogeneous, with I<sup>2</sup> = 82,9%. We assessed for potential publication bias using a funnel plot and statistical tests. The visual inspection of the funnel plot suggested asymmetry, indicating a potential small-study effect (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>). Statistical analysis further supported this observation, as Begg's rank correlation test indicated significant evidence of publication bias (p = 0.0290). The trim-and-fill method imputed three missing studies on the right side of the funnel plot. After imputing the three missing studies, the adjusted pooled HR was 1.678 (95% CI: 1.26-2.23). While this adjusted effect size was slightly smaller than the original, the finding remained statistically significant. This suggests that while publication bias may have led to an overestimation of the effect, the analysis still revealed a significant positive association.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for all-cause mortality in higher delta-age groups.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Funnel plot of the studies included in the all-cause mortality meta-analysis.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Cardiovascular mortality</title>
          <p>Three studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> reported the hazard ratio (HR) for the association between higher delta-age and cardiovascular mortality. The pooled estimate was HR = 2.63 (95% CI: 1.93-3.5), indicating that a significantly increased risk was associated with increased delta-age (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4</xref>). No heterogeneity was identified among these studies (I<sup>2</sup>=0.0%). Owing to the low number of studies (k = 3), Begg's test was not performed. A trim and fill analysis was conducted to address potential publication bias, which imputed two studies. After the inclusion of these studies, the pooled HR decreased to 2.2 (95% CI: 1.67-2.89), but the results remained statistically significant, suggesting that the overall positive association is robust.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for cardiovascular mortality in higher delta-age groups.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Atrial fibrillation</title>
          <p>Similarly, three studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> were included in the meta-analysis that reported the pooled hazard ratio (HR) for the association between greater delta-age and atrial fibrillation. The pooled estimate was HR = 1.96 (95% CI: 1.43-2.69), indicating that a significantly increased risk was associated with greater delta-age (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 5</xref>). However, this analysis revealed high heterogeneity (I<sup>2</sup> = 91.1%). Due to the small number of studies (k=3), Begg&#8217;s test was not performed to assess publication bias. A subsequent trim-and-fill analysis showed that no studies were missing, confirming that all eligible studies were included in the meta-analysis. Notably, when the Hartung&#8211;Knapp adjustment was applied, the confidence interval widened and included the null (HR = 1.96, 95% CI: 0.99&#8211;3.88), reflecting the uncertainty related to the limited number of studies.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f06001">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for new-onset atrial fibrillation in higher delta-age groups.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-04-e20250650-50650-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Heart failure</title>
          <p>Greater delta-age has also been associated with increased risk of HF. Brant et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> found that participants whose ECG-age exceeded their chronological age by 9 years had a 75% higher risk of developing HF (HR 1.75; 95% CI: 1.45&#8211;2.12). Chang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> reported an even stronger association with newly onset HF (HR 2.79; 95% CI: 2.25&#8211;3.45). These studies consistently demonstrate that elevated delta-age is associated with a higher risk of incident HF.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Stroke</title>
          <p>Two studies<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> analyzed the predictive value of delta-age for stroke. Chang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> found that individuals with accelerated ECG-age had a significantly increased risk of stroke (HR 1.65; 95% CI: 1.42&#8211;1.92). This finding was corroborated by Leung et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> who reported a 42% higher risk of incident stroke among participants with greater delta-age (HR 1.42; 95% CI: 1.12&#8211;1.80). These studies demonstrate that higher delta-age is consistently associated with increased risk of stroke across different cohorts.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Our systematic review and meta-analysis revealed a strong correlation between ECG-derived age (ECG-age) and the risk of clinically significant outcomes, including all-cause mortality, cardiovascular mortality, and atrial fibrillation. Specifically, a greater delta-age (the difference between a patient&#8217;s ECG-age and his chronological age) was consistently associated with a higher risk of these outcomes.</p>
        <p>According to the studies included, increased ECG-age was generally defined as a predicted age exceeding the model&#8217;s mean absolute error (MAE), which typically ranged between 6 and 9 years (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>). This threshold represented the delta-age above which adverse outcomes were more frequently observed, reinforcing the potential of ECG-age as an indicator of accelerated cardiovascular aging. However, no specific or standardized delta-age cutoff has been established for each outcome, as studies adopted different definitions and reporting strategies.</p>
        <p>With respect to all-cause mortality, all eleven analyses reviewed revealed a positive correlation between greater delta-age and increased risk. The pooled estimates indicated a significantly higher risk among individuals with elevated delta-age. The increased risk ranged widely from 28% to 600%, most likely reflecting variations in the subgroups analyzed. For example, Cho et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> reported a particularly high hazard ratio, possibly because they analyzed only a small subgroup from the CODE study. The significant heterogeneity observed among studies can be attributed to several factors. First, the study populations varied significantly in terms of race and ethnicity, which influences ECGs. Second, the presence of various comorbidities, such as Chagas cardiomyopathy, in the patients from the SaMi-Trop study likely played a role. Finally, the use of different machine learning algorithms, each with unique training populations and specific settings, may have also contributed to this variation.</p>
        <p>Our statistical analyses revealed evidence of publication bias. This finding may reflect the small-study effect, where smaller studies tend to show larger effect sizes. After performing a trim-and-fill analysis to account for potential bias, the adjusted pooled effect remained statistically significant. Thus, while publication bias may have slightly inflated the effect size, the overall conclusion remains unchanged: the analysis is robust and suggests a clear increase in the risk of all-cause mortality in patients with a higher ECG-age.</p>
        <p>For cardiovascular mortality, the meta-analysis demonstrated a robust and statistically significant effect. Our analyses also revealed a strong positive correlation, with the increased risk for this event ranging from 120% to 249%. Unlike the all-cause mortality analysis, there was no heterogeneity among the included studies. The trim-and-fill sensitivity analysis slightly attenuated the pooled estimate but did not alter the significance of the results, confirming the robustness of the association between higher delta-age and cardiovascular mortality risk.</p>
        <p>For atrial fibrillation, the meta-analysis using the conventional random-effects model showed that individuals with a greater delta-age had almost twice the risk of atrial fibrillation. However, estimates varied depending on the statistical method applied, reflecting the inherent uncertainty associated with the small number of studies. High heterogeneity was observed, indicating that the effect of ECG-age on atrial fibrillation risk varies across studies. The disparity in effect sizes is likely explained by differences in study populations: one study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> analyzed 9,877 participants from the Framingham Heart Study, another<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> included 30,469 Taiwanese adults aged 20&#8211;80 years without pre-existing cardiovascular disease, and the largest study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> analyzed over 121,000 South Korean patients aged 20&#8211;90 years. These differences in patient demographics, baseline health, and geographic location likely contributed to the high heterogeneity observed. These findings suggest a potential relationship between accelerated ECG-age and AF risk, possibly mediated by subclinical atrial remodeling, age-related fibrosis, or cumulative cardiovascular risk burden. However, the evidence is currently insufficient to draw definitive conclusions, and these findings should be interpreted with caution. Additional large, prospectively designed studies with diverse populations are needed to clarify the prognostic value of ECG-age for AF.</p>
        <p>The association between delta-age and heart failure suggests ECG-age may reflect early subclinical cardiac remodeling or functional impairment not captured by traditional risk factors. Although only a few studies analyzed this outcome<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> and a formal meta-analysis was not possible, consistent results across cohorts suggest that ECG-age may be a promising non-invasive marker of HF risk. However, these results warrant cautious interpretation due to the small number of studies available.</p>
        <p>Similarly, the association between accelerated ECG-age and incident stroke highlights its potential as a marker of subclinical vascular aging. Given the small number of studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> this synthesis was descriptive rather than quantitative. The observed trends suggest that ECG-age captures pathophysiological processes that predispose to cerebrovascular events independently of traditional risk factors. Because this outcome was evaluated in only a few studies, the observed association should be viewed as preliminary and confirmed in future research.</p>
        <p>Various comorbidities and lifestyle habits can compromise physiological function, leading to a disparity between a person's chronological and biological age. Recent research<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> has consistently shown that a wide range of lifestyle factors and diseases can cause abnormalities on an ECG. For example, conditions such as hypertension, type 2 diabetes, obesity, smoking, and sedentarism are known to affect ECG measurements. Given this, ECG-age is a simple, noninvasive, and cost-effective tool for cardiovascular risk stratification, particularly in asymptomatic individuals, enabling more precise preventive and prognostic decisions. While several studies have concluded that a greater delta-age is associated with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, abnormal peripheral endothelial dysfunction, and increased mortality, our systematic review and meta-analysis highlight the predictive power of these data. Our findings revealed that an increased delta-ECG is consistently associated with higher mortality and cardiovascular risk. A promising application of this tool would be the stratification of apparently healthy or asymptomatic patients, identifying those at greater risk for these events. This concept is further supported by studies such as the one by Mossavarali et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> which demonstrated that chronic diseases, genetic mutations, and structural cardiovascular diseases are associated with an increased ECG-age. This suggests that ECG-age can become a valuable tool for providing a more precise assessment of overall cardiovascular health, even in patients who already have a high cardiovascular risk.</p>
        <p>When interpreting these findings, some methodological considerations are important. The repeated use of the same large datasets, often with different algorithms applied to the same population, may limit the independence of the results and the incremental value of each new approach. Furthermore, external validation was not uniformly rigorous, as several studies relied on cohorts from the same institution or with overlapping datasets, while truly independent validation across distinct populations and healthcare systems was less frequent. External validation was performed in five studies,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> using datasets from diverse cohorts, such as community-based populations (CODE, Brazil), clinical populations with cardiovascular disease (SaMi-Trop, Brazil), health check-up participants (Severance Health Check-up, South Korea), and large biobanks (UK Biobank, USA/UK). Given that ECG characteristics may vary according to ethnicity, age distribution, comorbidities, and recording standards, the lack of consistent, rigorous external validation raises concerns about the generalizability of ECG-age. To ensure reproducibility and mitigate potential biases, future investigations should prioritize validation in diverse, multicenter, and international cohorts, ideally including both community-based populations and high-risk clinical groups, with transparent reporting of data preprocessing, model calibration, and performance metrics. Such efforts are essential to establish ECG-age as a reliable biomarker across varied clinical and demographic contexts.</p>
        <p>In addition to these methodological limitations, another important aspect relates to explainability and interpretability. While most of the included studies did not provide in-depth analyses in this regard, Cho et al. in 2025<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup>applied saliency maps to their AI-based ECG-age model, segmenting the ECG into PQ, QRS, ST, and TP intervals. Their results showed that the PQ segment consistently presented the highest saliency values across five independent validation datasets. This finding indicates that the model focused on physiologically meaningful regions of the ECG rather than random artifacts. By identifying which waveform components most strongly drive age prediction, such analyses enhance transparency and help bridge the gap between AI modeling and clinical interpretation. However, beyond this isolated effort, explainability remains largely underexplored in the current literature, and future studies should systematically incorporate and standardize interpretability frameworks in ECG-age research.</p>
        <p>Future research should focus on prospective, longitudinal studies to establish the real-world clinical impact of ECG-age. Such trials are essential to determine whether ECG-age provides incremental prognostic value over established risk scores, improves risk stratification, or guides preventive interventions in daily practice. Prospective multicenter studies embedded within healthcare systems will be key to evaluating whether the use of ECG-age can lead to meaningful improvements in patient outcomes. These efforts are crucial to move from proof-of-concept to clinical implementation, paving the way for AI-derived ECG biomarkers to be incorporated into routine cardiovascular risk assessment and management.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>This systematic review and meta-analysis demonstrated that AI-derived ECG-age, particularly greater delta-age, is strongly associated with both all-cause and cardiovascular mortality, supporting its role as a biomarker of cardiovascular aging. Evidence for atrial fibrillation is suggestive but inconclusive, highlighting the need for further studies. These findings reinforce the potential of ECG-age as a noninvasive, simple, and cost-effective biomarker to enhance cardiovascular risk stratification, even among asymptomatic individuals. To strengthen clinical utility and guide implementation in cardiovascular risk stratification, standardization of algorithms, robust external validation, and prospective multicenter studies are needed, as are assessments of the incremental value of this approach in combination with traditional risk scores. In parallel, improving model explainability will be essential to ensure transparency and foster clinical trust in AI-based ECG biomarkers.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study Association:</label>
          <p> This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Isadora Cristine Reis Sguizzato Bozzi, from Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate:</label>
          <p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Grammarly for to assist with English language revision and improve the clarity and fluency of the manuscript. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
          <label>Availability of Research Data:</label>
          <p> The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of Funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
