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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">673wqhSYMGm8WvWVNRTshNp</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2026000301402</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01402</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250186</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Doen&#231;a de Danon: Compreendendo o Papel das Variantes do <italic>LAMP2</italic> na Miocardiopatia e no Envolvimento Multissist&#234;mico</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-6036-5474</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Giovanna Napolitano Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0982-0307</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lipari</surname>
            <given-names>Layara Fernanda Vicente Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Senra</surname>
            <given-names>Paula Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8649-976X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Vieira Lacerda</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9107-052X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mizuta</surname>
            <given-names>Marjorie Hayashida</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1061-8982</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Olivetti</surname>
            <given-names>Nat&#225;lia Quintella Sangiorgi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aiello</surname>
            <given-names>Vera Demarchi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Laborat&#243;rio de gen&#233;tica e cardiologia molecular</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de gen&#233;tica e cardiologia molecular - Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Layara Fernanda Vicente Pereira Lipari</bold> &#8226; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. CEP <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>layaralipari@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>15</day>
        <month>05</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>123</volume>
      <issue>3</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250186</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>18</day>
          <month>03</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>17</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A doen&#231;a de Danon &#233; uma doen&#231;a rara ligada ao cromossomo X, causada por variantes patog&#234;nicas ou provavelmente patog&#234;nicas no gene da prote&#237;na 2 da membrana associada ao lisossomo (<italic>LAMP2</italic>). Manifesta-se principalmente como cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica, miopatia, defici&#234;ncia intelectual e retinopatia, sendo que os homens geralmente apresentam um fen&#243;tipo mais grave e de in&#237;cio precoce. A fisiopatologia da doen&#231;a de Danon est&#225; ligada &#224; autofagia defeituosa devido &#224; defici&#234;ncia de <italic>LAMP2</italic>, levando ao ac&#250;mulo de vac&#250;olos cheios de glicog&#234;nio dentro dos cardiomi&#243;citos e outros tecidos. Isso resulta em hipertrofia card&#237;aca progressiva, anormalidades de condu&#231;&#227;o e eventual insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, frequentemente necessitando de transplante card&#237;aco. O envolvimento da musculatura esquel&#233;tica &#233; comum em homens, enquanto o comprometimento cognitivo &#233; observado em ambos os sexos, embora mais prevalente em homens. O diagn&#243;stico &#233; desafiador devido &#224; raridade da doen&#231;a e &#224; apresenta&#231;&#227;o vari&#225;vel, o que destaca a necessidade de uma abordagem multidisciplinar, incluindo testes gen&#233;ticos para um diagn&#243;stico definitivo. Os testes gen&#233;ticos devem ser realizados somente ap&#243;s aconselhamento gen&#233;tico adequado. O diagn&#243;stico diferencial deve ser considerado quando h&#225; suspeita de doen&#231;a de Danon, dependendo dos sinais e sintomas, incluindo doen&#231;as como a doen&#231;a de Fabry, a s&#237;ndrome <italic>PRKAG2</italic>, a doen&#231;a de Pompe, entre outras. As estrat&#233;gias de tratamento atuais focam no al&#237;vio dos sintomas, sendo o transplante card&#237;aco uma interven&#231;&#227;o crucial para casos avan&#231;ados. Terapias emergentes, como a terapia g&#234;nica direcionada ao gene <italic>LAMP2</italic>, podem auxiliar na altera&#231;&#227;o da progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a. Esta revis&#227;o oferece uma vis&#227;o abrangente da doen&#231;a de Danon, abordando suas manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, mecanismos subjacentes, desafios diagn&#243;sticos e potenciais abordagens terap&#234;uticas para melhorar os resultados. Nosso objetivo &#233; aumentar o reconhecimento da doen&#231;a de Danon para que a preven&#231;&#227;o de poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es e o diagn&#243;stico precoce se tornem vi&#225;veis, levando, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, a desfechos mais favor&#225;veis para os pacientes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Lisossomos</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiomiopatia Hipertr&#243;fica</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Gen&#233;ticas Inatas</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de financiamento</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="50"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Entendendo a Doen&#231;a de Danon: Gen&#233;tica, Manifesta&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas e Fisiopatologia</title>
        <p>A doen&#231;a de Danon (DD) &#233; uma doen&#231;a dominante ligada ao cromossomo X, causada por variantes germinativas no gene da prote&#237;na 2 da membrana associada ao lisossomo (<italic>LAMP2</italic>). Clinicamente, caracteriza-se por cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica (CMH), miopatia, defici&#234;ncia intelectual (DI) e retinopatia.</p>
        <p>A condi&#231;&#227;o foi descrita pela primeira vez por Danon et al. em 1981, em um relato de dois meninos com cardiomiopatia, miopatia e DI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Em 2000, foram relatados casos adicionais, incluindo 10 pacientes n&#227;o relacionados com miopatia vacuolar e CMH, todos apresentando defici&#234;ncia na prote&#237;na <italic>LAMP2</italic> e variantes no gene <italic>LAMP2.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A DD apresenta um espectro de sintomas e, devido &#224; sua heran&#231;a dominante ligada ao cromossomo X, tanto homens hemizigotos quanto mulheres heterozigotas podem ser afetados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Os homens tipicamente desenvolvem hipertrofia ventricular esquerda conc&#234;ntrica progressiva, frequentemente necessitando de transplante card&#237;aco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Anormalidades na condu&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca tamb&#233;m s&#227;o comuns. A fraqueza muscular esquel&#233;tica pode levar a atraso na aquisi&#231;&#227;o de marcos motores, dificuldades de aprendizagem ou DI. Nas mulheres, a doen&#231;a tende a se manifestar mais tarde e progredir mais lentamente, com fen&#243;tipos mais vari&#225;veis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A DD &#233; um desafio diagn&#243;stico, o que enfatiza a import&#226;ncia de uma abordagem multidisciplinar para um diagn&#243;stico preciso, incluindo aconselhamento gen&#233;tico sens&#237;vel e estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas personalizadas. &#192; medida que nossa compreens&#227;o da fisiopatologia da DD se aprofunda, h&#225; esperan&#231;a de novos tratamentos e melhores resultados. Compartilhar conhecimento sobre doen&#231;as raras como a DD &#233; essencial para ajudar os m&#233;dicos a suspeitar e diagnosticar corretamente pacientes potencialmente afetados, mitigando assim as complica&#231;&#245;es.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todo</title>
      <p>Os autores realizaram uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da literatura seguindo metodologia cient&#237;fica estabelecida para reunir e analisar estudos relevantes sobre a DD no campo da cardiogen&#233;tica. Uma busca abrangente foi realizada em diversas bases de dados acad&#234;micas, incluindo PubMed, Embase e Cochrane, utilizando as palavras-chave: "<italic>Danon disease</italic>"; "<italic>cardiomyopathy</italic>"; "<italic>LAMP2</italic>" e "<italic>lysosomal storage disorders</italic>". Os crit&#233;rios de sele&#231;&#227;o priorizaram artigos publicados na &#250;ltima d&#233;cada que abordassem diretamente os aspectos gen&#233;ticos e moleculares da doen&#231;a. A revis&#227;o focou particularmente em artigos que exploraram os mecanismos moleculares envolvidos na fisiopatologia da DD.</p>
      <p>Durante o processo de revis&#227;o, os autores tamb&#233;m encontraram alguns resultados conflitantes entre os estudos selecionados, os quais foram cuidadosamente analisados e discutidos em conjunto, considerando as diferen&#231;as metodol&#243;gicas e as varia&#231;&#245;es nas popula&#231;&#245;es estudadas, nas defini&#231;&#245;es de desfecho e nas abordagens anal&#237;ticas. Todas as figuras e tabelas presentes neste artigo foram elaboradas pelos autores, com base em dados extra&#237;dos de artigos previamente publicados.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Epidemiologia</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Preval&#234;ncia global e tend&#234;ncias de diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a de Danon</title>
          <p>A preval&#234;ncia da DD permanece incerta, mas se sabe que afeta indiv&#237;duos em diversos pa&#237;ses e etnias. A cardiomiopatia de Danon &#233; progressiva e tipicamente caracterizada por um fen&#243;tipo de hipertrofia ventricular esquerda. Entre pacientes pedi&#225;tricos com CMH, a DD foi identificada como a causa subjacente em 4% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Em certos subgrupos, a preval&#234;ncia &#233; notavelmente maior: at&#233; 17% em indiv&#237;duos com espessamento da parede ventricular esquerda e pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> e at&#233; 33% em pacientes do sexo masculino que apresentam miopatia vacuolar na bi&#243;psia muscular e CMH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> De acordo com um artigo recente, os homens tendem a apresentar CMH em 96,2% dos casos, enquanto as mulheres podem apresentar CMH (70,3%) ou cardiomiopatia dilatada (29,3%). Mas, quando se trata de transplante card&#237;aco, como a doen&#231;a continua a progredir, ocorre igualmente em ambos os sexos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fisiopatologia</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Disfun&#231;&#227;o da <italic>LAMP2</italic> na doen&#231;a de Danon: Mecanismos e impacto celular</title>
          <p>O gene <italic>LAMP2</italic>, localizado no cromossomo Xq24, codifica uma glicoprote&#237;na fundamental da membrana lisossomal, crucial para a biog&#234;nese do lisossomo, a regula&#231;&#227;o do pH lisossomal e a autofagia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> A <italic>LAMP2</italic> regula o pH do l&#250;men lisossomal, facilitando a acidifica&#231;&#227;o lisossomal para uma atividade hidrol&#237;tica ideal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Ela tamb&#233;m desempenha um papel significativo na autofagia mediada por chaperonas, um processo essencial para a degrada&#231;&#227;o lisossomal de prote&#237;nas sob estresse e durante a renova&#231;&#227;o proteica normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> A glicoprote&#237;na <italic>LAMP2</italic> tamb&#233;m &#233; necess&#225;ria para a fus&#227;o adequada entre autofagossomos e lisossomos durante a autofagia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Uma variante germinativa patog&#234;nica (PV) ou provavelmente patog&#234;nica (LPV) no gene <italic>LAMP2</italic> geralmente resulta na perda ou mau funcionamento da prote&#237;na <italic>LAMP2</italic>, levando &#224; fus&#227;o deficiente de autofagossomo-lisossomo e &#224; degrada&#231;&#227;o prejudicada do autofagossomo, resultando no ac&#250;mulo de vac&#250;olos cheios de glicog&#234;nio em cardiomi&#243;citos e outros tecidos (como na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura Central</xref>). Existem tr&#234;s isoformas de <italic>LAMP2</italic> &#8212; <italic>LAMP2</italic>A, <italic>LAMP2</italic>B e <italic>LAMP2</italic>C &#8212; que diferem em seus dom&#237;nios transmembrana e citoplasm&#225;ticos, mas compartilham dom&#237;nios luminais id&#234;nticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> As caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas da DD s&#227;o mediadas principalmente pela perda da isoforma <italic>LAMP2</italic>B, expressa no tecido muscular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <caption>
              <title>A disfun&#231;&#227;o da glicoprote&#237;na LAMP2 prejudica a fus&#227;o entre autofagossomos e lisossomos, resultando em degrada&#231;&#227;o inadequada dos autofagossomos. Isso leva ao comprometimento card&#237;aco progressivo, caracterizado pelo ac&#250;mulo de vac&#250;olos preenchidos com glicog&#234;nio. Imagens histol&#243;gicas do mioc&#225;rdio mostram a apar&#234;ncia vacuolizada t&#237;pica dos cardiomi&#243;citos (imagem A) e a substitui&#231;&#227;o das &#225;reas danificadas por fibrose (B). A cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica pode ser identificada por meio de diversos exames diagn&#243;sticos. Os achados do eletrocardiograma tipicamente mostram sinais de hipertrofia card&#237;aca, frequentemente com aumento da voltagem do complexo QRS (D). O ecocardiograma comumente revela espessamento do septo e da parede posterior, como visto nas janelas paraesternal eixo curto (C) e apical quarto c&#226;maras (E). Al&#233;m disso, a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica (RM) pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es, como o realce tardio de gadol&#237;nio, vis&#237;vel nesta imagem de um est&#225;gio avan&#231;ado de um fen&#243;tipo de cardiomiopatia dilatada (F). Por ser uma doen&#231;a multissist&#234;mica, a DD tamb&#233;m pode se manifestar com atraso no desenvolvimento (AD) neurol&#243;gico, miopatia e retinopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-03-e20250186-50186-gf01.tif"/></fig>
          <p>A an&#225;lise histol&#243;gica revela cardiomi&#243;citos com vacuoliza&#231;&#227;o dramaticamente aumentada e caracter&#237;sticas degenerativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a autofagia defeituosa resulta em morte celular e fibrose difusa, contribuindo para anormalidades de condu&#231;&#227;o e maior suscetibilidade a arritmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Ac&#250;mulo progressivo semelhante ocorre no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico, levando &#224; miopatia. Indiv&#237;duos com DD exibem varia&#231;&#227;o leve a moderada no tamanho das miofibras e pequenos gr&#226;nulos basof&#237;licos dispersos, indicando o ac&#250;mulo de organelas lisoss&#244;micas nas miofibras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Achados neuropatol&#243;gicos recentes sugerem que a <italic>LAMP2</italic> pode ter propriedades funcionais distintas em compara&#231;&#227;o com as do m&#250;sculo. Alguns estudos prop&#245;em que a <italic>LAMP2</italic>A atua como um receptor para a autofagia mediada por chaperonas, que est&#225; implicada em dist&#250;rbios neurodegenerativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Em neur&#244;nios, a deteriora&#231;&#227;o gradual da acidifica&#231;&#227;o lisossomal devido a danos oxidativos pode desencadear um ciclo vicioso, aumentando a produ&#231;&#227;o de esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A autofagia &#233; crucial para proteger as c&#233;lulas oculares contra danos oxidativos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> mas a contribui&#231;&#227;o da <italic>LAMP2</italic> para a autofagia e a retinopatia permanece pouco compreendida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A express&#227;o de <italic>LAMP2</italic>A e <italic>LAMP2</italic>B em linhagens celulares do epit&#233;lio pigmentar da retina (EPR) humano foi relatada, e a disfun&#231;&#227;o da <italic>LAMP2</italic> no EPR provavelmente causa patologia retiniana, incluindo distrofia de cones, por meio da forma&#231;&#227;o prejudicada de autofagossomos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recentemente, outros fatores modificadores da doen&#231;a t&#234;m sido descritos, incluindo genes envolvidos na estrutura sarcom&#233;rica, no metabolismo energ&#233;tico e nas vias de degrada&#231;&#227;o de prote&#237;nas, bem como fatores epigen&#233;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Crit&#233;rios e abordagens diagn&#243;sticas para a doen&#231;a de Danon</title>
          <p>A DD apresenta uma gama de sintomas que variam de acordo com a idade e o sexo devido &#224; sua heran&#231;a ligada ao cromossomo X.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Trata-se de uma condi&#231;&#227;o progressiva e multissist&#234;mica, embora as mulheres raramente apresentem envolvimento extracard&#237;aco e frequentemente manifestem um fen&#243;tipo menos grave.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> As manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas incluem CMH, miopatia esquel&#233;tica e DI. O hist&#243;rico familiar pode ser informativo, bi&#243;psias &#243;sseas e mioc&#225;rdicas podem ser &#250;teis e o teste gen&#233;tico &#233; necess&#225;rio para um diagn&#243;stico preciso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Um crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico proposto para a DD envolve a identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma PV ou LPV em <italic>LAMP2</italic> por meio de testes gen&#233;ticos e a confirma&#231;&#227;o de pelo menos uma caracter&#237;stica cl&#237;nica da doen&#231;a (para mulheres, apenas a apresenta&#231;&#227;o cardiol&#243;gica &#233; considerada v&#225;lida para o diagn&#243;stico).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> As caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas utilizadas para o diagn&#243;stico podem ser cardiol&#243;gicas, musculares ou de neurodesenvolvimento, conforme descrito abaixo:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Cardiol&#243;gico:</bold> Presen&#231;a de uma altera&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular objetiva, como aumento da espessura do septo e da parede posterior, fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (&lt;50%) ou altera&#231;&#245;es no eletrocardiograma (fibrila&#231;&#227;o ou flutter atrial, taquicardia ou fibrila&#231;&#227;o ventricular, morte s&#250;bita card&#237;aca, altera&#231;&#245;es de repolariza&#231;&#227;o, bloqueio atrioventricular ou padr&#245;es de pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o devido &#224; s&#237;ndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White ou vias fasciculoventriculares). Al&#233;m disso, o realce tardio de gadol&#237;nio na RM card&#237;aca pode ser considerado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Muscular:</bold> Evid&#234;ncia de altera&#231;&#245;es musculares indicadas por eletromiografia anormal, avalia&#231;&#245;es funcionais (teste cardiopulmonar de exerc&#237;cio [CPET] ou teste de caminhada de 6 minutos [6MWT]), ou testes cronometrados E/OU n&#237;veis elevados de creatina quinase (CPK), AST (aspartato aminotransferase) ou ALT (alanina aminotransferase).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Neurodesenvolvimento:</bold> Defici&#234;ncia intelectual ou AD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e avalia&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas</title>
          <p>Em homens, geralmente se manifesta como hipertrofia conc&#234;ntrica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o normal. Em mulheres, a condi&#231;&#227;o pode se manifestar de diversas formas, incluindo hipertrofia assim&#233;trica, hipertrofia do ventr&#237;culo direito e fen&#243;tipos tanto hipertr&#243;ficos quanto dilatados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> A hipertrofia pode ser extrema, com espessamento acentuado do septo e da parede posterior, maior do que na maioria dos fen&#243;tipos ou gen&#243;tipos semelhantes.</p>
          <p>A autofagia disfuncional interrompe fun&#231;&#245;es biol&#243;gicas essenciais e, como o cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; um m&#250;sculo constantemente ativo, essa interrup&#231;&#227;o leva a les&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas cont&#237;nuas, frequentemente evidenciadas pela eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente da troponina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> A doen&#231;a tipicamente progride por meio da morte de cardiomi&#243;citos e fibrose progressiva, resultando, em &#250;ltima inst&#226;ncia, em insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com redu&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o. Essa progress&#227;o pode levar ao afilamento e dilata&#231;&#227;o da parede. Permanece incerto se a cardiomiopatia dilatada em mulheres &#233; uma continua&#231;&#227;o dessa progress&#227;o ou representa um fen&#243;tipo distinto.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> A gravidade da cardiomiopatia &#233; um fator progn&#243;stico significativo, e muitos pacientes podem necessitar de transplante card&#237;aco na segunda e terceira d&#233;cadas de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O ecocardiograma &#233; comumente usado para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o e as dimens&#245;es card&#237;acas, mas carece de especificidade para diferenciar os tipos de cardiomiopatia. A RM pode fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas para a cardiomiopatia da DD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Em um estudo com 16 pacientes, 56% apresentaram um fen&#243;tipo de CMH sim&#233;trica, enquanto os demais apresentaram CMH assim&#233;trica ou cardiomiopatia dilatada (apenas uma mulher neste estudo).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> Os achados da RM inclu&#237;ram preserva&#231;&#227;o do septo m&#233;dio-basal (88%), envolvimento do &#225;pice (100%), envolvimento da parede livre (94%), envolvimento subendoc&#225;rdico (87%), altera&#231;&#227;o do sinal em T2 (44%) e altera&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o em repouso (88%). Essas caracter&#237;sticas sugerem considerar DD e a realiza&#231;&#227;o de testes gen&#233;ticos para pacientes com realce tardio at&#237;pico (subendoc&#225;rdico) em cardiopatia n&#227;o-isqu&#234;mica, especialmente com preserva&#231;&#227;o do septo m&#233;dio-basal, envolvimento do &#225;pice e envolvimento da parede livre.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Arritmias atriais e ventriculares s&#227;o prevalentes na DD, afetando quase todos os pacientes. O achado eletrocardiogr&#225;fico mais comum &#233; a pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o com padr&#227;o de s&#237;ndrome de Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW), observada em 69% dos pacientes do sexo masculino e 27% do sexo feminino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Os padr&#245;es de WPW s&#227;o observados nesses pacientes com uma frequ&#234;ncia cinco vezes maior do que na CMH idiop&#225;tica e familiar. Embora o mecanismo exato por tr&#225;s das anomalias de pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o seja totalmente compreendido, pode estar relacionado &#224; hipertrofia mioc&#225;rdica ou &#224; autofagia disfuncional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> A alta voltagem no eletrocardiograma &#233; frequentemente observada, sendo um dos sinais de hipertrofia card&#237;aca. Manifesta&#231;&#245;es comuns incluem arritmias supraventriculares, como fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial e flutter atrial, bem como arritmias ventriculares. Bloqueio atrioventricular e disfun&#231;&#227;o sinusal podem afetar at&#233; 50% dos pacientes e podem exigir implante de marca-passo. Em alguns casos, parada card&#237;aca ou morte s&#250;bita arr&#237;tmica podem ser o primeiro sinal da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Envolvimento do m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico</title>
          <p>A miopatia na DD &#233; significativamente mais comum em homens (80-90%) do que em mulheres (cerca de 5%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Geralmente se manifesta como fraqueza nos m&#250;sculos proximais, incluindo os da cintura p&#233;lvica e os m&#250;sculos axiais, e progride para envolver os ombros, o pesco&#231;o e as pernas. Apesar dessa fraqueza progressiva, raramente &#233; incapacitante, e a maioria dos pacientes mant&#233;m a capacidade de andar at&#233; a idade adulta.</p>
          <p>Um estudo cl&#237;nico utilizando um dinam&#244;metro para avaliar a for&#231;a muscular mostrou que pacientes do sexo masculino com DD apresentam for&#231;a significativamente reduzida em compara&#231;&#227;o com controles saud&#225;veis. N&#237;veis elevados de CPK s&#233;rica tamb&#233;m podem ser observados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Aspectos neurol&#243;gicos e psiqui&#225;tricos</title>
          <p>Dificuldades de aprendizagem e d&#233;ficits cognitivos podem estar presentes em 70 a 100% dos homens afetados e em 6 a 47% das mulheres, embora o comprometimento seja geralmente descrito como leve. Apesar desses desafios, a maioria dos indiv&#237;duos consegue viver de forma independente. Em uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica publicada em 2019, o comprometimento cognitivo foi observado em 47 dos 146 casos cl&#237;nicos avaliados, representando 55,6% dos pacientes. A maioria dos indiv&#237;duos com comprometimento cognitivo era do sexo masculino (80%), em compara&#231;&#227;o com 10,3% do sexo feminino.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Acidentes vasculares cerebrais emb&#243;licos podem ocorrer devido a trombos intracard&#237;acos, especialmente no contexto de fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda deprimida, aneurismas apicais, fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial ou flutter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Embora os transtornos de humor e ansiedade sejam mais prevalentes em pacientes com cardiomiopatia em compara&#231;&#227;o com a popula&#231;&#227;o em geral, os relatos espec&#237;ficos sobre a DD s&#227;o limitados. Uma s&#233;rie de casos com 14 pacientes indicou que os transtornos psiqui&#225;tricos podem afetar at&#233; 69% dos indiv&#237;duos com DD,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> incluindo transtornos de humor (46,15% dos pacientes), transtornos de ansiedade (46,15%), transtorno de d&#233;ficit de aten&#231;&#227;o/hiperatividade (TDAH) (15,4%) e, com menos frequ&#234;ncia, transtorno desafiador opositivo e transtorno obsessivo-compulsivo (7,7% cada).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es gastrointestinais</title>
        <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o das enzimas hep&#225;ticas &#233; comum em pacientes com DD, particularmente em homens, com n&#237;veis m&#233;dios de AST e ALT frequentemente superiores a tr&#234;s vezes o limite normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> A causa dessas eleva&#231;&#245;es permanece incerta; possivelmente devido a les&#227;o hep&#225;tica pela aus&#234;ncia de <italic>LAMP2</italic> ou secund&#225;ria ao aumento das press&#245;es de enchimento do lado direito do cora&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, n&#237;veis elevados de AST tamb&#233;m podem refletir les&#227;o muscular esquel&#233;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> Em casos avan&#231;ados de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, os pacientes tamb&#233;m podem apresentar hepatopatia congestiva e hepatomegalia.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Caracter&#237;sticas oftalmol&#243;gicas na doen&#231;a de Danon: mecanismos e apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica</title>
        <p>A defici&#234;ncia visual &#233; frequentemente relatada, sendo a retinopatia pigmentar e a miopia as altera&#231;&#245;es oculares mais comuns, embora a gravidade seja geralmente leve. Exames de imagem e testes funcionais revelam um fen&#243;tipo vari&#225;vel, com retinopatia pigmentar geralmente presente e potencialmente associada a dep&#243;sitos retinianos e perda generalizada da fun&#231;&#227;o dos cones e bastonetes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O mecanismo por tr&#225;s da retinopatia pigmentar est&#225; ligado ao ac&#250;mulo de remanescentes do segmento externo, mitoc&#244;ndrias defeituosas e lipofuscina n&#227;o degrad&#225;vel nas c&#233;lulas do EPR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Estudos experimentais em camundongos knockout para <italic>LAMP2</italic> demonstram autofagia e fagocitose interrompidas nas c&#233;lulas do EPR, levando ao ac&#250;mulo de lip&#237;dios e dep&#243;sitos na l&#226;mina basal, que resultam na perda de c&#233;lulas do EPR e fotorreceptores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estrat&#233;gias de teste gen&#233;tico e aconselhamento para a doen&#231;a de Danon</title>
        <p>A DD &#233; herdada em um padr&#227;o dominante ligado ao cromossomo X.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> O diagn&#243;stico &#233; estabelecido em um homem com achados sugestivos pela identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma PV) ou LPV hemizig&#243;tica em <italic>LAMP2</italic> por meio de teste gen&#233;tico, ou em uma mulher com uma PV ou LPV heterozig&#243;tica em <italic>LAMP.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> A identifica&#231;&#227;o de uma variante hemizig&#243;tica ou heterozig&#243;tica de significado incerto em <italic>LAMP2</italic> n&#227;o confirma nem descarta o diagn&#243;stico.</p>
        <p>O gene <italic>LAMP2</italic> apresenta aproximadamente 681 variantes germinativas descritas, incluindo 140 PV, 254 variantes de significado incerto (VUS) e 287 benignas. Entre as 140 PV, 89% (n=125/140) s&#227;o de perda de fun&#231;&#227;o, 6 s&#227;o muta&#231;&#245;es missense ou indels em fase e 9 s&#227;o n&#227;o codificantes. Entre as VUS, a grande maioria, 80% (n=204/254), s&#227;o muta&#231;&#245;es missense ou indels em fase. Por fim, entre as variantes benignas descritas, 44% s&#227;o n&#227;o codificantes e 35,5% s&#227;o sin&#244;nimas. Conclu&#237;mos, em conson&#226;ncia com a literatura, que a perda de fun&#231;&#227;o &#233; um mecanismo conhecido e descrito de doen&#231;a na DI. Ao considerar as variantes relatadas em homens e mulheres, o mais importante a ter em mente &#233; o fato de que os homens geralmente s&#227;o mais gravemente afetados do que as mulheres, devido ao fato de possu&#237;rem apenas um cromossomo X, enquanto as mulheres possuem dois. Quando nos deparamos com mulheres sendo afetadas igualmente ou at&#233; mais gravemente do que os homens, isso deve levar a equipe m&#233;dica a considerar (1) lioniza&#231;&#227;o, (2) mosaicismo som&#225;tico ou mesmo (3) uma transloca&#231;&#227;o entre o cromossomo X e um cromossomo autoss&#244;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Finalmente, ao considerarmos uma doen&#231;a de armazenamento lisoss&#244;mico (DAL), falamos de perda de fun&#231;&#227;o em diferentes genes que levam &#224; doen&#231;a. &#201; importante notar que, mesmo que a DD seja causada por variantes de perda de fun&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o h&#225; defici&#234;ncia enzim&#225;tica como em outras DALs, mas sim uma defici&#234;ncia em uma glicoprote&#237;na transmembrana. J&#225; em outras condi&#231;&#245;es, especialmente as RASopatias, que frequentemente se apresentam com CMH e, &#224;s vezes, DI, falamos de variantes de ganho de fun&#231;&#227;o, sendo a neurofibromatose tipo 1 a exce&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A heterogeneidade cl&#237;nica em pacientes do sexo feminino pode ser atribu&#237;da &#224; extens&#227;o dos padr&#245;es de inativa&#231;&#227;o do cromossomo X (XCI), que ocorrem em c&#233;lulas femininas. Quando ocorre XCI aleat&#243;ria, a sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de dom&#237;nios nucleares pode resgatar a express&#227;o de <italic>LAMP2</italic> em fibras musculares esquel&#233;ticas, mas n&#227;o em cardiomi&#243;citos (que n&#227;o se regeneram), explicando assim por que a maioria das pacientes do sexo feminino desenvolve cardiomiopatia, mas n&#227;o miopatia esquel&#233;tica. Um padr&#227;o de XCI aleat&#243;ria foi encontrado em v&#225;rios tecidos de diferentes pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Se a m&#227;e do probando tiver uma PV no gene <italic>LAMP2</italic>, a chance de transmiti-la em cada gravidez &#233; de 50%. Homens com uma PV no gene <italic>LAMP2</italic> transmitir&#227;o a PV para todas as suas filhas e nenhum de seus filhos. Homens que herdarem a PV ser&#227;o afetados; mulheres que herdarem a PV ser&#227;o heterozigotas e poder&#227;o apresentar caracter&#237;sticas de DI, geralmente n&#227;o t&#227;o graves quanto as dos homens.</p>
        <p>O teste gen&#233;tico deve ser realizado para diagnosticar o paciente e pode ser feito de forma direcionada a genes espec&#237;ficos, como testes de gene &#250;nico ou pain&#233;is multig&#234;nicos, ou por meio de testes gen&#244;micos abrangentes, incluindo sequenciamento de exoma completo e sequenciamento de genoma completo. Enquanto o teste direcionado a genes exige que o m&#233;dico determine quais genes provavelmente est&#227;o envolvidos, o teste gen&#244;mico n&#227;o exige isso.</p>
        <p>Uma vez identificada a PV ou a LPV do gene <italic>LAMP2</italic> em um membro afetado da fam&#237;lia, podem ser realizados testes pr&#233;-natais para gravidez de alto risco e testes gen&#233;ticos pr&#233;-implantacionais. Essas possibilidades devem ser discutidas com o paciente e a fam&#237;lia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quando uma VUS &#233; encontrada, devemos considerar que tal variante n&#227;o constitui um diagn&#243;stico de DD. As VUS devem ser reclassificadas de acordo com novos dados dispon&#237;veis na literatura, bancos de dados populacionais etc., &#224; medida que o tempo passa. &#192;s vezes, pode ser informativo segregar a variante e avaliar o fen&#243;tipo de outros membros da fam&#237;lia possivelmente afetados para classificar ou reclassificar a variante adequadamente.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico diferencial: Distinguindo a doen&#231;a de Danon de outras doen&#231;as</title>
        <p>Ao avaliar um paciente com suspeita de DD, outros diagn&#243;sticos devem ser considerados. Ao considerar condi&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas, todos os sistemas devem ser avaliados, incluindo dismorfismos faciais, DI, hipotonia, ataxia e baixa estatura, entre outros. &#201; importante verificar o hist&#243;rico familiar, considerando etnia, outros membros da fam&#237;lia e distribui&#231;&#227;o por sexo. Na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>, apresentamos uma lista dos principais diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais de DD.</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Condi&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas a serem consideradas no diagn&#243;stico diferencial da DD<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">DOEN&#199;A</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">VARIANTE GEN&#201;TICA</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">DIFEREN&#199;AS EM RELA&#199;&#195;O AO DD</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">CMH SARCOM&#201;RICA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>MYBPC3</italic>, <italic>MYH7</italic></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">PROGRESS&#195;O MAIS LENTA<break/> HIPERTROFIA ASSIM&#201;TRICA<break/> PR&#201;-EXCITA&#199;&#195;O VENTRICULAR (RARA)<break/> PENETR&#194;NCIA INCOMPLETA COM FEN&#211;TIPOS DIFERENTES DENTRO DA MESMA FAM&#205;LIA</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">S&#205;NDROME <italic>PRKAG2</italic></td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <italic>PRKAG2</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">PR&#201;-EXCITA&#199;&#195;O VENTRICULAR COM OU SEM CMH<break/> BLOQUEIOS ATRIOVENTRICULARES (COMUNS)<break/> TAQUICARDIA SUPRAVENTRICULAR<break/> A FIBROSE GERALMENTE EST&#193; AUSENTE.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">ATAXIA DE FRIEDREICH</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">EXPANS&#195;O DE TRINUCLEOT&#205;DEOS <italic>GAA</italic> EM FXN</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">ATAXIA DA MARCHA COM DISARTRIA E DISFAGIA.<break/> MOVIMENTOS OCULARES ANORMAIS E ATROFIA &#211;PTICA<break/> HIPERTROFIA VENTRICULAR ESQUERDA MENOS GRAVE<break/> IN&#205;CIO DOS SINTOMAS POR VOLTA DOS 10-15 ANOS.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOEN&#199;A DE POMPE</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <italic>GAA</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">IN&#205;CIO NA INF&#194;NCIA COM ENVOLVIMENTO CARD&#205;ACO E EXTRACARD&#205;ACO GRAVE<break/> MACROGLOSSIA, DIFICULDADE PARA DEGLUTI&#199;&#195;O, BAIXO GANHO PONDEROESTATURAL<break/> ATRASO MOTOR / HIPOTONIA<break/> HEPATOMEGALIA NA INF&#194;NCIA</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOEN&#199;AS MITOCONDRIAIS</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">VARIA&#199;&#213;ES NO mDNA OU NO DNA NUCLEAR</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">FRAQUEZA MUSCULAR, PERDA AUDITIVA, CONVULS&#213;ES, ATRASO NO DESENVOLVIMENTO, DEFICI&#202;NCIA VISUAL.<break/> PODE HAVER ENVOLVIMENTO DE M&#218;LTIPLOS &#211;RG&#195;OS E SISTEMAS<break/> OS SINTOMAS PODEM PIORAR COM INFEC&#199;&#213;ES</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">RASOPATIAS</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>NF1</italic>, <italic>NRAS</italic>, <italic>KRAS</italic>, <italic>PTPN11</italic>, <italic>SOS1</italic>, <italic>RAF1</italic> E OUTRAS</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">DOEN&#199;A CARD&#205;ACA CONG&#202;NITA<break/> HIPERTELORISMO, PESCO&#199;O CURTO E MANIFESTA&#199;&#213;ES CUT&#194;NEAS (MANCHAS CAF&#201;-AU-LAIT, LENTIGINAS)<break/> BAIXA ESTATURA</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">DOEN&#199;A DE FABRY</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <italic>GLA</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">CARDIOMIOPATIA DE IN&#205;CIO NA IDADE ADULTA<break/> C&#211;RNEA VERTICILATA, DEFICI&#202;NCIA VISUAL<break/> DOEN&#199;A RENAL CR&#212;NICA<break/> ANGIOQUERATOMAS<break/> ACROPARESTESIA<break/> REDU&#199;&#195;O DA SUDORESE</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">MIOPATIA LIGADA AO X COM AUTOFAGIA EXCESSIVA</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">
                  <italic>VMA21</italic>
                </td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">CARDIOMIOPATIA HIPERTR&#211;FICA LEVE EM UMA MINORIA DE CASOS<break/> HIPOTONIA E ATROFIA MUSCULAR<break/> VAC&#218;OLOS AUTOF&#193;GICOS EM BI&#211;PSIA MUSCULAR</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estrat&#233;gias atuais de manejo e considera&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas na doen&#231;a de Danon</title>
        <p>A DD n&#227;o est&#225; bem representada em coortes ou ensaios hist&#243;ricos de CMH, o que significa que as diretrizes existentes para CMH podem n&#227;o abordar completamente seus aspectos &#250;nicos. Atualmente, n&#227;o existem diretrizes de pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica espec&#237;ficas para DD, e o manejo depende muito da opini&#227;o de especialistas e da extrapola&#231;&#227;o de diretrizes gerais para cardiomiopatia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um recente documento de posicionamento da Sociedade Italiana de Cardiologia (SIC) e da Sociedade Italiana de Cardiologia Pedi&#225;trica (SICP) sugere a redu&#231;&#227;o do limiar para o implante de cardioversor-desfibrilador implant&#225;vel (CDI) em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica. Os CDIs devem ser considerados para pacientes com hipertrofia ventricular esquerda grave, taquicardia ventricular n&#227;o sustentada ou s&#237;ncope inexplicada.</p>
        <p>Devido &#224; sua natureza multissist&#234;mica, a DD deve ser tratada em centros de refer&#234;ncia especializados por uma equipe multidisciplinar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino geralmente apresentam sintomas cerca de 15 anos antes das mulheres (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>), com diagn&#243;stico frequentemente na inf&#226;ncia ou adolesc&#234;ncia, manifestando-se com CMH grave que progride para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca terminal na segunda ou terceira d&#233;cada de vida, com progress&#227;o para insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca terminal ocorrendo uma d&#233;cada ou mais tarde do que nos homens.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, as mulheres tendem a apresentar menor incid&#234;ncia de manifesta&#231;&#245;es extracard&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> O fen&#243;tipo em mulheres &#233; mais vari&#225;vel, com penetr&#226;ncia e expressividade heterog&#234;neas, provavelmente devido &#224; inativa&#231;&#227;o do cromossomo X enviesada e ao mosaicismo funcional da express&#227;o de <italic>LAMP2</italic>. Embora raro, algumas mulheres exibem um fen&#243;tipo fulminante, provavelmente resultante da inativa&#231;&#227;o do cromossomo X enviesada favorecendo a variante PV de <italic>LAMP2.</italic><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Evolu&#231;&#227;o temporal das manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas da doen&#231;a de Danon de acordo com o sexo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-03-e20250186-50186-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>Os CDI s&#227;o geralmente indicados para homens na segunda d&#233;cada de vida e mulheres na terceira (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>). &#192; medida que a doen&#231;a progride, o tratamento farmacol&#243;gico da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca pode n&#227;o resultar em melhora cl&#237;nica, evoluindo para indica&#231;&#227;o de transplante, geralmente na segunda ou terceira d&#233;cada de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Em uma coorte de 38 pacientes com DD submetidos a transplante, a mediana de idade no momento do transplante foi de 20,2 anos. Apesar da progress&#227;o mais lenta da doen&#231;a em mulheres, n&#227;o foi encontrada diferen&#231;a significativa de idade entre os sexos. A taxa de sobrevida em 5 anos ap&#243;s o transplante foi de 87,1%, semelhante &#224; de outras cardiomiopatias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Embora n&#227;o existam recomenda&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas para a imunossupress&#227;o p&#243;s-transplante, os inibidores de mTOR, como o sirolimus, representam um risco te&#243;rico de exacerbar a fraqueza muscular devido ao aumento da autofagia celular, embora esse efeito n&#227;o tenha sido observado em dados recentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os resultados p&#243;s-transplante s&#227;o geralmente favor&#225;veis, apesar dos desafios decorrentes do envolvimento extracard&#237;aco, como a doen&#231;a muscular esquel&#233;tica, que pode afetar a reabilita&#231;&#227;o. A DD n&#227;o recorre no enxerto vascular do &#243;rg&#227;o, a miopatia esquel&#233;tica progride muito lentamente ap&#243;s o transplante e a retinose pigmentar permanece a principal preocupa&#231;&#227;o relacionada &#224;s manifesta&#231;&#245;es sist&#234;micas da doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Dada a raridade da DD, os estudos dispon&#237;veis s&#227;o predominantemente observacionais e inerentemente propensos a vi&#233;s de sele&#231;&#227;o, especialmente em rela&#231;&#227;o aos resultados progn&#243;sticos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Dire&#231;&#245;es presentes e futuras na pesquisa e terap&#234;utica da doen&#231;a de Danon</title>
        <p>Nosso objetivo &#233; aumentar o reconhecimento precoce da DD para que a preven&#231;&#227;o de poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es, como transplante card&#237;aco ou mesmo morte s&#250;bita, se torne vi&#225;vel, levando, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, a resultados mais favor&#225;veis para os pacientes. Tamb&#233;m destacamos a import&#226;ncia do aconselhamento gen&#233;tico, considerando o padr&#227;o de heran&#231;a e como outros indiv&#237;duos de ambos os sexos podem ser afetados. O aconselhamento gen&#233;tico deve ser oferecido sempre que necess&#225;rio.</p>
        <p>Pesquisas futuras devem se concentrar no desenvolvimento de terapias direcionadas, como terapia g&#234;nica e tratamentos farmacol&#243;gicos, com o objetivo de reduzir o ac&#250;mulo de autofagossomos ou melhorar a fun&#231;&#227;o da prote&#237;na <italic>LAMP2</italic>.</p>
        <p>A terapia g&#234;nica tem o potencial de oferecer uma solu&#231;&#227;o a longo prazo e at&#233; mesmo permanente para pacientes com DD, mas precisamos considerar os desafios, como o alto custo, a acessibilidade ao tratamento e a variabilidade na resposta entre os pacientes. O custo deve ser levado em conta, especialmente em pa&#237;ses com muitas pessoas que dependem do sistema de sa&#250;de.</p>
        <p>Um ensaio cl&#237;nico in&#233;dito em humanos, ainda em andamento, demonstra que uma baixa dose da terapia g&#234;nica RP-A501 para DD foi geralmente bem tolerada, conferiu express&#227;o do gene <italic>LAMP2</italic>B card&#237;aco e est&#225; associada a evid&#234;ncias preliminares de benef&#237;cios card&#237;acos e cl&#237;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> O ensaio ainda apresenta limita&#231;&#245;es, como o pequeno n&#250;mero de indiv&#237;duos que receberam o tratamento e o foco apenas em homens com a doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Doen&#231;a de Danon: Resumo do conhecimento atual e das necessidades futuras</title>
        <p>Em resumo, a DD &#233; uma doen&#231;a rara que afeta principalmente o cora&#231;&#227;o e os m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos, e geralmente apresenta um fen&#243;tipo mais grave em homens. O hist&#243;rico familiar pode revelar indiv&#237;duos potencialmente afetados, e o teste gen&#233;tico &#233; crucial.</p>
        <p>Nosso principal objetivo &#233; facilitar a dissemina&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento sobre a DD para possibilitar o diagn&#243;stico precoce e o apoio aos indiv&#237;duos afetados. Ainda h&#225; necessidade de pesquisas futuras sobre os mecanismos subjacentes das isoformas de <italic>LAMP2</italic> para aprimorar o leque de estrat&#233;gias diagn&#243;sticas e terap&#234;uticas.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento</label>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</label>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</label>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</label>
        <p>Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
      <title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
      <p>Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
    </sec>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250186i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Danon Disease: Understanding the Role of <italic>LAMP2</italic> Variants in Cardiomyopathy and Multisystemic Involvement</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-6036-5474</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ribeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Giovanna Napolitano Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0982-0307</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lipari</surname>
            <given-names>Layara Fernanda Vicente Pereira</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Senra</surname>
            <given-names>Paula Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8649-976X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pires</surname>
            <given-names>Lucas Vieira Lacerda</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9107-052X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mizuta</surname>
            <given-names>Marjorie Hayashida</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1061-8982</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Olivetti</surname>
            <given-names>Nat&#225;lia Quintella Sangiorgi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Aiello</surname>
            <given-names>Vera Demarchi</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Krieger</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de gen&#233;tica e cardiologia molecular - Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Layara Fernanda Vicente Pereira Lipari</bold> &#8226; Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Av. Dr. Eneas de Carvalho Aguiar, 44. Postal Code <postal-code>05403-900</postal-code>, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: <email>layaralipari@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Danon disease (DD) is a rare X-linked disorder caused by pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants in the lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 (<italic>LAMP2</italic>) gene. It primarily manifests as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy, myopathy, intellectual disability, and retinopathy, with males typically experiencing a more severe and early-onset phenotype. The pathophysiology of DD is linked to defective autophagy due to LAMP2 deficiency, leading to the accumulation of glycogen-filled vacuoles within cardiomyocytes and other tissues. This results in progressive cardiac hypertrophy, conduction abnormalities, and eventual heart failure, often necessitating heart transplantation. Skeletal muscle involvement is common in males, while cognitive impairments are observed in both genders, though more prevalent in males. Diagnosis is challenging due to the condition's rarity and variable presentation, highlighting the need for a multidisciplinary approach, including genetic testing for definitive diagnosis. Genetic testing must be performed only after proper genetic counseling is done. Differential diagnosis must be considered when DD is suspected, depending on the signs and symptoms, such as Fabry disease, <italic>PRKAG2</italic>, Pompe disease, and others. Management strategies currently focus on symptomatic treatment, with cardiac transplantation as a critical intervention for advanced cases. Emerging therapies, such as gene therapy targeting <italic>LAMP2</italic>, could help in altering disease progression. This review provides a comprehensive overview of DD, discussing its clinical manifestations, underlying mechanisms, diagnostic challenges, and potential therapeutic approaches in improving outcomes. Our goal is to increase the recognition of DD so that the prevention of possible complications and early diagnosis becomes feasible, ultimately leading to more favorable patient outcomes.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Lysosomes</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy</kwd>
        <kwd>Inborn Genetic Diseases</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Understanding Danon Disease: Genetics, Clinical Manifestations, and Pathophysiology</p>
        <p>Danon disease (DD) is a dominant X-linked disorder caused by germline variants in the lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 (<italic>LAMP2</italic>) gene. It is clinically characterized by hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM), myopathy, intellectual disability, and retinopathy.</p>
        <p>The condition was first described by Danon et al. in 1981 in a report of two boys with cardiomyopathy, myopathy, and intellectual disability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In 2000, additional cases were reported, including 10 unrelated patients with vacuolar myopathy and HCM, all showing a deficiency in the LAMP2 protein and variants in the <italic>LAMP2</italic> gene.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>DD presents with a spectrum of symptoms, and due to its X-linked dominant inheritance, both hemizygous males and heterozygous females can be affected.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Males typically develop progressive concentric left ventricular hypertrophy, often necessitating heart transplantation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Cardiac conduction abnormalities are also common. Skeletal muscle weakness may lead to delayed motor milestone acquisition, learning, or intellectual disabilities. In females, the disease tends to manifest later and progress more slowly, with more variable phenotypes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>DD is challenging to diagnose, emphasizing the importance of a multidisciplinary approach for accurate diagnosis, including sensitive genetic counseling and tailored therapeutic strategies. As our understanding of DD pathophysiology deepens, there is hope for new treatments and improved outcomes. Sharing knowledge about rare conditions such as DD is essential to help clinicians suspect and properly diagnose potentially affected patients, thereby mitigating complications.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Method</title>
        <p>The authors conducted a systematic literature review following established scientific methodology to gather and analyze relevant studies in DD within the field of cardiogenetics. A comprehensive search was carried out across multiple academic databases, including PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane, using the keywords: "Danon disease"; "cardiomyopathy"; "LAMP2" and "lysosomal storage disorders". The selection criteria prioritized articles published in the last decade that directly addressed genetic and molecular aspects of the condition. The review focused particularly on articles that explored molecular mechanisms involved in the pathophysiology of DD.</p>
        <p>During the review process, the authors also encountered a few conflicting findings among the selected studies, which were carefully analyzed and discussed among the authors in the context of methodological differences and variations in study populations, outcome definitions, and analytical approaches. All the figures and tables available in this article were developed by the authors, based on data extracted from previously published articles.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Epidemiology</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Global prevalence and diagnosis trends in Danon disease</title>
            <p>The prevalence of DD remains unclear, but it is recognized to affect individuals across various countries and ethnicities<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>. Danon cardiomyopathy is progressive and typically characterized by a left hypertrophic ventricular phenotype. Among pediatric patients with HCM, DD has been identified as the underlying cause in 4% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In certain subgroups, the prevalence is notably higher: up to 17% in individuals with both thickened left ventricular walls and pre-excitation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> and as high as 33% in male patients presenting with both vacuolar myopathy on muscle biopsy and HCM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
            <p>According to a recent article, males tend to present with HCM 96,2% of the time, while females may present with either HCM (70.3%) or dilated cardiomyopathy (29.3%). But when it comes to heart transplantation, since the disease continues to progress, it occurs equally in both sexes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Pathophysiology</title>
          <sec>
            <title><italic>LAMP2</italic> dysfunction in Danon disease: Mechanisms and cellular impact</title>
            <p>The <italic>LAMP2</italic> gene, located on chromosome Xq24, encodes a fundamental lysosomal membrane glycoprotein crucial for lysosome biogenesis, lysosomal pH regulation, and autophagy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> LAMP2 regulates lysosomal lumen pH, facilitating lysosomal acidification for optimal hydrolase activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> It also plays a significant role in chaperone-mediated autophagy, a process essential for the lysosomal degradation of proteins under stress and during normal protein turnover.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> The LAMP2 glycoprotein is also required for the proper fusion between autophagosomes and lysosomes during autophagy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A pathogenic (PV) or likely pathogenic (LPV) germline variant in <italic>LAMP2</italic> typically results in the loss or malfunction of the LAMP2 protein, leading to deficient autophagosome-lysosome fusion and impaired autophagosome degradation, leading to the accumulation of glycogen-filled vacuoles within cardiomyocytes and other tissues (as in the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Central Illustration</xref>). There are three LAMP2 isoforms&#8212;LAMP2A, LAMP2B, and LAMP2C&#8212;which differ in their transmembrane and cytoplasmic domains but share identical luminal domains.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Clinical features of DD are primarily mediated by the loss of the LAMP2B isoform, expressed in muscle tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <caption>
                <title>Malfunction of the LAMP2 glycoprotein impairs the fusion between autophagosomes and lysosomes, resulting in inadequate degradation of autophagosomes. This leads to progressive cardiac involvement characterized by the accumulation of glycogen-filled vacuoles. Histological images of the myocardium show the typical vacuolated appearance of cardiomyocytes (image A) and the replacement of damaged areas by fibrosis (B). The HCM can be identified through various diagnostic exams. Electrocardiogram findings typically show signs of cardiac hypertrophy, often with increased QRS voltage (D). The echocardiogram commonly reveals thickening of the septum and posterior wall, as seen in the parasternal short-axis (C) and apical 4-chamber views (E). Additionally, magnetic resonance imaging can provide information, such as late gadolinium enhancement, which is visible in this image of a late-stage of a dilated cardiomyopathy phenotype (F). As a multisystemic disease, DD can also present with neurodevelopmental delay, myopathy and retinopathy. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-03-e20250186-50186-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
            <p>Histological analysis reveals cardiomyocytes with dramatically increased vacuolation and degenerative features in cardiomyocites.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Additionally, defective autophagy results in cell death and diffuse fibrosis, contributing to conduction abnormalities and increased susceptibility to arrhythmias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Similar progressive accumulation occurs in skeletal muscle, leading to myopathy. Individuals with DD exhibit mild to moderate variation in myofiber size and scattered small basophilic granules, indicating the accumulation of lysosomal organelles in myofibers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Recent neuropathological findings suggest that <italic>LAMP2</italic> may have distinct functional properties compared to those in muscle. Some studies propose that LAMP2A acts as a receptor for chaperone-mediated autophagy, which is implicated in neurodegenerative disorders.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In neurons, gradual impairment of lysosomal acidification due to oxidative damage may trigger a vicious cycle, enhancing reactive oxygen species production.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Autophagy is crucial for protecting eye cells against oxidative damage,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> but the contribution of <italic>LAMP2</italic> to autophagy and retinopathy remains poorly understood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> The expression of LAMP2A and LAMP2B in human retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) cell lines has been reported, and LAMP2 dysfunction in RPE likely causes retinal pathology, including cone dystrophy, through impaired autophagosome formation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Recently, there have been other disease-modifying factors being described, including genes involved in sarcomeric structure, energy metabolism, and protein degradation pathways, as well as epigenetic factors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagnosis</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Diagnostic criteria and approaches for Danon disease</title>
            <p>DD presents with a range of symptoms that vary by age and sex due to its X-linked inheritance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> It is a progressive, multisystem condition, although women rarely exhibit extracardiac involvement and often present with a less severe phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Clinical presentations include HCM, skeletal myopathy, and intellectual disability. Family history can be informative, skeletal and myocardial biopsies may be useful, and genetic testing is required for a precise diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A proposed diagnostic criterion for DD involves identifying a PV or LPV in <italic>LAMP2</italic> through genetic testing and confirming at least one clinical feature of the disease (for women, only the cardiological presentation is considered valid for diagnosis).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> The clinical features used for diagnosis can be cardiological, muscular, or neurodevelopmental, as outlined below:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Cardiological:</bold> Presence of an objective cardiovascular abnormality, such as increased septal and posterior wall thickness, reduced ejection fraction (&lt;50%), or electrocardiogram abnormalities (atrial fibrillation or flutter, ventricular tachycardia or fibrillation, sudden cardiac death, repolarization abnormalities, atrioventricular block, or pre-excitation patterns due to Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome or fasciculoventricular pathways). Additionally, late gadolinium enhancement on cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may be considered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Muscular:</bold> Evidence of muscle abnormalities as indicated by an abnormal electromyography, functional assessments (cardiopulmonary exercise testing [CPET] or the 6-minute walk test [6MWT]), or timed tests AND/OR elevated levels of CPK, AST (aspartate aminotransferase) or ALT (alanine aminotransferase).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Neurodevelopmental:</bold> Intellectual disability or developmental delay.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Clinical manifestations and diagnostic evaluations</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Cardiac manifestations</title>
            <p>In males, it generally appears as concentric left ventricular hypertrophy with a normal ejection fraction. In females, the condition can manifest in various forms, including asymmetric hypertrophy, right ventricular hypertrophy, and both hypertrophic and dilated phenotypes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> The hypertrophy can be extreme, with a markedly thickened septum and posterior wall greater than most phenocopies or genocopies.</p>
            <p>Defective autophagy disrupts essential biological functions, and since the heart is a constantly active muscle, this disruption leads to ongoing myocardial injury, often evidenced by persistent troponin elevation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> The disease typically advances through cardiomyocyte death and progressive fibrosis, ultimately resulting in heart failure with reduced ejection fraction. This progression can lead to wall thinning and dilation. It remains uncertain whether dilated cardiomyopathy in females is a continuation of this progression or represents a distinct phenotype.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> The severity of cardiomyopathy is a significant prognostic factor, and many patients may require cardiac transplantation in their second and third decades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The echocardiogram is commonly used to assess cardiac function and dimensions, but lacks specificity for differentiating cardiomyopathy types. MRI can provide valuable information for DD cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> In a study of 16 patients, 56% showed a symmetric HCM phenotype, while others had asymmetric HCM or dilated cardiomyopathy (only one female in this study).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> MRI findings included mid-basal septum sparing (88%), apex involvement (100%), free wall involvement (94%), subendocardial involvement (87%), abnormal T2 signals (44%), and resting perfusion defects (88%). These features suggest considering DD and genetic testing for patients with atypical subendocardial late gadolinium enhancement in nonischemic cardiomyopathy, especially with mid-basal septum sparing, apex involvement, and free-wall involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Atrial and ventricular arrhythmias are prevalent in DD, affecting nearly all patients. The most common electrocardiographic finding is pre-excitation with a Wolf-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome pattern, seen in 69% of male and 27% of female patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> WPW patterns are observed in these patients at a rate five times higher than in idiopathic and familial HCM. While the exact mechanism behind pre-excitation anomalies is not fully understood, it may be related to myocardial hypertrophy or impaired autophagy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup> Elevated electrocardiogram voltage is frequently observed, indicative of cardiac hypertrophy. Common manifestations include supraventricular arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter, as well as ventricular arrhythmias. Atrioventricular block and sinus dysfunction can affect up to 50% of patients and may require pacemaker implantation. In some cases, cardiac arrest or sudden arrhythmic death may be the first sign of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Skeletal muscle involvement</title>
          <p>Myopathy in DD is significantly more common in males (80&#8211;90%) than in females (around 5%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> It generally presents as weakness in proximal muscles, including those in the pelvic girdle and axial muscles, and progresses to involve the shoulders, neck, and legs. Despite this progressive weakness, it is rarely debilitating, and most patients retain the ability to walk into adulthood.</p>
          <p>A clinical study using a dynamometer to assess muscle strength has shown that male patients with DD have significantly reduced strength compared to healthy controls. Elevated serum creatine kinase (CK) levels may also be observed.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Neurological and psychiatric aspects</title>
          <p>Learning disabilities and cognitive deficits can be present in 70 to 100% of affected males and in 6 to 47% of females, though the impairment is usually described as mild. Despite these challenges, most individuals can live independently. In a systematic review published in 2019, cognitive impairment was observed in 47 of the 146 clinical cases evaluated, accounting for 55.6% of patients. The majority of those with cognitive impairment were male (80%), compared to 10.3% females.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Embolic strokes can occur due to intracardiac thrombi, especially in the context of depressed left ventricular function, apical aneurysms, atrial fibrillation, or flutter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although mood and anxiety disorders are more prevalent in cardiomyopathy patients compared to the general population, specific reports on DD are limited. A case series of 14 patients indicated that psychiatric disorders may affect up to 69% of individuals with DD,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> including mood disorders (46.15% of patients), anxiety disorders (46.15%), attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (15.4%), and, less frequently, oppositional defiant disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder (7.7% each).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Gastrointestinal manifestations</title>
          <p>Elevations in liver enzymes are common among patients with DD, particularly in males, with mean levels of AST and ALT often exceeding three times the normal limit.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> The cause of these elevations remains uncertain; possibly due to hepatic injury from the absence of LAMP2 or secondary to increased right-sided filling pressures. Additionally, elevated AST levels could also reflect skeletal muscle injury.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup> In advanced heart failure, patients may also experience congestive hepatopathy and hepatomegaly.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ophthalmologic features in Danon disease: Mechanisms and clinical presentation</title>
          <p>Impaired vision is frequently reported, with pigmentary retinopathy and myopia being the most common ocular findings, though the severity is often mild. Clinical imaging and functional tests reveal a variable phenotype, with pigmentary retinopathy usually present and potentially associated with retinal deposits and generalized loss of cone and rod function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The mechanism behind pigmentary retinopathy is linked to the accumulation of outer segment remnants, defective mitochondria, and undegradable lipofuscin in RPE cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Experimental studies in <italic>LAMP2</italic> knockout mice demonstrate disrupted autophagy and phagocytosis in RPE cells, leading to lipid accumulation and basal laminar deposits, which result in the loss of RPE and photoreceptor cells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic testing and counseling strategies for Danon disease</title>
          <p>DD is inherited in an X-linked dominant pattern.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The diagnosis is established in a male with suggestive findings by identifying a hemizygous PV or LPV in <italic>LAMP2</italic> through genetic testing or in a female with a heterozygous PV or LPV in <italic>LAMP2</italic>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> Identification of a hemizygous or heterozygous <italic>LAMP2</italic> variant of uncertain significance does not establish or rule out the diagnosis.</p>
          <p>The <italic>LAMP2</italic> gene has approximately 681 germline variants described, including 140 PV, 254 variants of uncertain significance (VUS), and 287 benign. Among the 140 PV, 89% (n=125/140) are loss of function, 6 missense or in-frame indels, and 9 non-coding. Among the VUS, the vast majority, 80% (n=204/254), are missense or in-frame indels. At last, among the benign variants described, 44% are non-coding, and 35,5% are synonymous. We conclude, what is according to the literature, that loss-of-function is a known and described mechanism of disease in DD. When considering the variants being reported in males and females, the most important thing to have in mind is the fact that males are usually more severely affected than females due to the fact that they only have one X chromosome, while women have two. When we come across women being equally or even more severely affected than males, it should lead the medical team to consider (1) lyonization, (2) somatic mosaicism, or even (3) a translocation between the X chromosome and an autosome chromosome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Finally, as we take into consideration a lysosomal storage disorder (LSD), we talk about loss-of-function in different genes leading to disease. It is important to note that even if DD is caused by loss of function variants, there is no enzymatic deficiency as in other LSD but a transmembrane glycoprotein. But in other conditions, especially RASopathies, that often present with HCM and sometimes intellectual disability, we talk about variants of gain-of-function, with neurofibromatosis type 1 being the exception.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The clinical heterogeneity in female patients could be attributed to the extent of X-chromosome inactivation (XCI) patterns, which occur in female cells. When random XCI occurs, the overlap of nuclear domains can rescue <italic>LAMP2</italic> expression in skeletal muscle fibers but not in cardiomyocytes (which do not regenerate), thus explaining why most female patients develop cardiomyopathy but not skeletal myopathy. A random XCI pattern has been found in various tissues from different patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <p>If the mother of the proband has a <italic>LAMP2</italic> PV, the chance of transmitting it in each pregnancy is 50%. Males who have a PV in <italic>LAMP2</italic> will transmit the PV to all their daughters and none of their sons. Males who inherit the PV will be affected; females who inherit the PV will be heterozygous and may have features of DD, usually not as severe as those of the males.</p>
          <p>Genetic testing must be performed to diagnose the patient, and it can be done in a gene-targeted manner, such as single-gene testing or multigene panel testing, or through comprehensive genomic testing, including whole exome sequencing and whole genome sequencing. While gene-targeted testing requires that the clinician determine which genes are likely involved, genomic testing does not.</p>
          <p>Once the <italic>LAMP2</italic> PV or LPV has been identified in an affected family member, prenatal testing for a pregnancy at increased risk and preimplantation genetic testing can be performed. These possibilities must be discussed with the patient and family.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
          <p>When a VUS is found, we must consider that such a variant does not constitute a DD diagnosis. VUS must be reclassified according to new data available in literature, population databases, etc, as time passes. Sometimes, it is helpful to segregate the variant or other possibly affected family members to properly classify or reclassify the variant.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Differential diagnosis: Distinguishing Danon disease from other conditions</title>
          <p>When evaluating a patient for DD, other diagnoses should be considered. When considering genetic conditions, all systems must be assessed, evaluating any facial dysmorphisms, developmental delay, hypotonia, ataxia, and short stature, among others. It is important to check the family history, considering ethnicity, other family members, and gender distribution. In <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Table 1</xref>, we show a list of the main differential diagnoses of DD.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Genetic conditions to consider in the differential diagnosis of DD<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">DISEASE</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">GENETIC VARIANT</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">DIFFERENCES FROM DD</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">SARCOMERIC HCM</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>MYBPC3</italic>, <italic>MYH7</italic></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">SLOWER PROGRESSION<break/> ASYMMETRIC PATTERN OF HYPERTROPHY<break/> VENTRICULAR PRE-EXCITATION (RARE)<break/> INCOMPLETE PENETRANCE WITH DIFFERENT PHENOTYPES WITHIN THE SAME FAMILY</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">PRKAG2 SYNDROME</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <italic>PRKAG2</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">VENTRICULAR PREEXCITATION WITH OR WITHOUT HCM<break/> ATRIOVENTRICULAR BLOCKS (COMMON)<break/> SUPRAVENTRICULAR TACHYCARDIA<break/> FIBROSIS IS USUALLY ABSENT</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">FRIEDREICH ATAXIA</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>GAA</italic> TRINUCLEOTIDES<break/> EXPANSION IN <italic>FXN</italic></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">GAIT ATAXIA WITH DYSARTHRIA, DYSPHAGIA<break/> ABNORMAL EYE MOVEMENTS AND OPTIC ATROPHY<break/> LESS SEVERE LEFT VENTRICULAR HYPERTROPHY<break/> INITIAL ONSET AROUND 10-15 YO</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">POMPE DISEASE</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <italic>GAA</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">INFANT ONSET WITH SEVERE CARDIAC AND EXTRACARDIAC INVOLVEMENT<break/> MACROGLOSSIA, FEEDING DIFFICULTIES, FAILURE TO THRIVE<break/> MOTOR DELAY/HYPOTONIA<break/> HEPATOMEGALY IN INFANCY</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">MITOCHONDRIAL DISEASES</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">VARIANTS IN mDNA OR NUCLEAR DNA</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">MUSCLE WEAKNESS, HEARING LOSS, SEIZURES, DEVELOPMENTAL DELAY, VISUAL IMPAIRMENT<break/> SYMPTOMS EXACERBATE WITH INFECTION<break/> DIFFERENT ORGANS/SYSTEMS MAY BE INVOLVED</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">RASOPATHIES</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle"><italic>NF1</italic>, <italic>NRAS</italic>, <italic>KRAS</italic>, <italic>PTPN11</italic>, <italic>SOS1</italic>, <italic>RAF1</italic> AND OTHERS</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">CONGENITAL HEART DISEASE<break/> HYPERTELORISM, SHORT NECK, AND CUTANEOUS MANIFESTATIONS (CAF&#201;-AU-LAIT SPOTS, LENTIGINES)<break/> SHORT STATURE</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">FABRY DISEASE</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <italic>GLA</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">ADULT-ONSET CARDIOMYOPATHY<break/> CORNEA VERTICILLATA, VISUAL IMPAIRMENT<break/> CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE<break/> ANGIOKERATOMAS<break/> ACROPARESTHESIA<break/> SWEATING ABNORMALITIES</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">X-LINKED MYOPATHY WITH EXCESSIVE AUTOPHAGY</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <italic>VMA21</italic>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">MILD HYPERTROPHIC CARDIOMYOPATHY IN A MINORITY OF CASES<break/> HYPOTONIA AND MUSCLE ATROPHY<break/> AUTOPHAGOCYTIC VACUOLES ON MUSCLE BIOPSY</td>
                </tr>
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            </table>
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        <sec>
          <title>Current management strategies and prognostic considerations in Danon disease</title>
          <p>DD is not well-represented in historical HCM cohorts or trials, meaning existing HCM guidelines may not fully address its unique aspects. Currently, there are no specific clinical practice guidelines for DD, and management relies heavily on expert opinion and extrapolation from general cardiomyopathy guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A recent position paper by the Italian Society of Cardiology (SIC) and the Italian Society of Pediatric Cardiology (SICP) suggests lowering the threshold for implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD) implantation in DD. ICDs should be considered for patients with severe left ventricular hypertrophy, non-sustained ventricular tachycardia, or unexplained syncope.</p>
          <p>Given its multisystemic nature, DD should be managed at specialized referral centers by a multidisciplinary team.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Male individuals typically experience symptoms about 15 years earlier than females, with diagnosis often in childhood or adolescence, presenting severe HCM that progresses to end-stage heart failure by the second or third life decade, with progression to end-stage heart failure occurring a decade or more later than in males.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Additionally, females tend to have a lower incidence of extracardiac manifestations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> The phenotype in females is more variable, with heterogeneous penetrance and expressivity likely due to skewed XCI and functional mosaicism of <italic>LAMP2</italic> expression. Although rare, some females exhibit a fulminant phenotype, likely resulting from skewed XCI favoring the <italic>LAMP2</italic> PV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
          <p>ICD are typically indicated for males in their second decade and females in their third (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>). As the disease progresses, heart failure treatment may become insufficient, requiring transplantation, typically by their second or third decade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> In a cohort of 38 DD patients who underwent transplantation, the median age at transplant was 20.2 years (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figure 1</xref>). Despite slower disease progression in females, no significant age difference was found between sexes. The 5-year post-transplant survival rate was 87.1%, similar to other cardiomyopathies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Timeline evolution considering the clinical manifestations of Danon disease according to gender.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-03-e20250186-50186-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>While there are no specific recommendations for post-transplant immunosuppression, mTOR inhibitors like sirolimus pose a theoretical risk of exacerbating muscle weakness due to increased cellular autophagy, although this effect has not been observed in recent data.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Post-transplant outcomes are generally favorable despite challenges from extracardiac involvement, such as skeletal muscle disease, which may affect rehabilitation. DD does not recur in the organ vascular graft, skeletal myopathy progresses very slowly after transplantation, and retinitis pigmentosa remains the major concern related to the systemic manifestations of the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Given the rarity of DD, available studies are predominantly observational and inherently prone to selection bias, especially in relation to prognostic outcomes.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Present and future directions in Danon disease research and therapeutics</title>
          <p>Our goal is to increase the early recognition of DD so that the prevention of possible complications such as cardiac transplantation or even sudden death becomes feasible, ultimately leading to more favorable patient outcomes. We also highlight the importance of genetic counseling, considering the mode of inheritance and how other individuals from both sexes may be affected. Genetic counseling should be offered as often as needed.</p>
          <p>Future research should focus on developing targeted therapies, such as gene therapy and pharmacological treatments, aimed at reducing autophagosome accumulation or improving LAMP2 protein function.</p>
          <p>Gene therapy has the potential to offer a long-term and even permanent solution to patients with DD, but we have to consider the challenges, such as the high cost, the treatment accessibility, and the response variability among patients. The cost must be considered, especially in countries with many individuals relying on the healthcare system.</p>
          <p>An ongoing first-in-human trial demonstrates that a low dose of RP-A501 gene therapy for DD was generally well-tolerated, conferred cardiac <italic>LAMP2B</italic> gene expression, and is associated with preliminary evidence of cardiac and clinical benefits.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup> The trial still has limitations with the small number of individuals receiving the treatment and the focus only on males with the condition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Danon disease: Summarizing current knowledge and future needs</title>
          <p>In summary, DD is a rare disorder that primarily affects the heart and skeletal muscles, and usually presents a more severe phenotype in males. Family history can reveal potentially affected individuals, and genetic testing is crucial.</p>
          <p>Our primary aim is to facilitate the dissemination of knowledge about DD to enable early diagnosis and support affected individuals. There is still a need for future research concerning the investigation of the underlying mechanisms of <italic>LAMP2</italic> isoforms to improve the array of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.</p>
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        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
          <label>Sources of funding</label>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <label>Study association</label>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
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        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
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        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
          <p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <title>Data Availability Statement</title>
        <p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
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