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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">5Z7tPWMVfL6tPkgHMqRrnxC</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2026000200601</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00601</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250627</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Impacto da Obesidade em Pacientes com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente e Refrat&#225;ria: Um Estudo Transversal</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-5551-1371</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>B&#225;rbara Vict&#243;ria Peixoto Lima da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8552-0552</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bulh&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiano</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8779-1188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Improta-Caria</surname>
            <given-names>Alex Cleber</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2161-3696</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aras</surname>
            <given-names>Roque</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade Medicina da Bahia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Medicina da Bahia - Universidade Federal da Bahia (FMB-UFBA), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Medicina e Sa&#250;de</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Medicina e Sa&#250;de (PPGMS), Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Laborat&#243;rio de Bioqu&#237;mica e Biologia Molecular do Exerc&#237;cio</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Bioqu&#237;mica e Biologia Molecular do Exerc&#237;cio - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><bold>B&#225;rbara Vict&#243;ria Peixoto Lima da Costa &#8226;</bold> Universidade Federal da Bahia - Faculdade de Medicina da Bahia - Av. Reitor Miguel Calmon, S/N. CEP 40110-905, Canela, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil. E-mail: <email>barbarapeixotocosta@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>26</day>
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>02</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>123</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250627</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>09</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>11</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="pt">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A obesidade &#233; um grave problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica e est&#225; associada &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e ao desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Estimar a preval&#234;ncia de obesidade na popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes ambulatoriais com hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria ou resistente e sua rela&#231;&#227;o entre &#237;ndice de massa corporal e gravidade da hipertens&#227;o.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Foi realizado um estudo transversal em um ambulat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia para hipertens&#227;o arterial grave. Foram inclu&#237;dos pacientes com hipertens&#227;o resistente e refrat&#225;ria. Foram coletadas informa&#231;&#245;es relacionadas &#224;s caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas, medidas antropom&#233;tricas, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e diast&#243;lica, comorbidades, alcoolismo, tabagismo e sedentarismo. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram comparadas utilizando o teste t de Student ou Mann-Whitney, e as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram comparadas pelo teste do qui-quadrado. O teste de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson foi utilizado para medidas antropom&#233;tricas e press&#227;o arterial. Foi adotado n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Um total de 138 pacientes foi inclu&#237;do, dos quais 74,7% apresentavam hipertens&#227;o resistente e 25,3% hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria. Houve predomin&#226;ncia de mulheres e de indiv&#237;duos de etnia negra, representando 79,7% (p = 0,307) e 91,3% (p = 0,315), respectivamente. A m&#233;dia de idade foi de 64,7 &#177; 10,8 anos (p = 0,566). A obesidade (IMC &#8805; 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) esteve presente em 42% (p = 0,379), sendo mais frequente na hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria (51,4% vs. 38,8%). Valores mais elevados de IMC estiveram diretamente associados a um maior n&#250;mero de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos necess&#225;rios para o controle da press&#227;o arterial (r = 0,45; p &lt; 0,01). Al&#233;m disso, 74,6% dos pacientes apresentavam dislipidemia.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
          <p> Em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com hipertens&#227;o grave, a obesidade foi prevalente e impactou tanto na apresenta&#231;&#227;o quanto no controle dos n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Impacto da Obesidade em Pacientes com Hipertens&#227;o Arterial Resistente e Refrat&#225;ria: Um Estudo Transversal</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Diferentes n&#237;veis de obesidade contribuem para o desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria, tornando necess&#225;rio adaptar o uso de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos de acordo com o grau de obesidade. IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal.</attrib>
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      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Obesidade</kwd>
        <kwd>Preval&#234;ncia</kwd>
        <kwd>Hipertens&#227;o</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</funding-source>
          <award-id>2022/02339&#8211;4</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <award-group>
          <funding-source>Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo</funding-source>
          <award-id>2024/17783&#8211;2</award-id>
        </award-group>
        <funding-statement>Este estudo foi financiado, em parte, pela Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP), Brasil. Processos n&#186; 2022/02339&#8211;4 e n&#186; 2024/17783&#8211;2.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="31"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A obesidade &#233; definida pela Organiza&#231;&#227;o Mundial da Sa&#250;de como um ac&#250;mulo excessivo de gordura, com &#237;ndice de massa corporal (IMC) maior ou igual a 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>Esse dist&#250;rbio multifatorial tem sido reconhecido como um grave problema de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica global devido &#224; sua alta preval&#234;ncia, aos estilos de vida sedent&#225;rios e ao amplo consumo de alimentos ultraprocessados e hipercal&#243;ricos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Em 2015, 603,7 milh&#245;es de pessoas em todo o mundo foram afetadas, e a Associa&#231;&#227;o M&#233;dica Americana classificou a obesidade como uma doen&#231;a cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A obesidade &#233; considerada um fator de risco significativo para o desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, apneia do sono, diabetes mellitus tipo 2, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e hipertens&#227;o arterial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Assim, contribui para o processo ateroscler&#243;tico ao prejudicar a sensibilidade &#224; insulina e promover um estado inflamat&#243;rio arterial, que induz a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> al&#233;m de aumentar o perfil inflamat&#243;rio no cora&#231;&#227;o e em diversos &#243;rg&#227;os.</p>
      <p>A obesidade est&#225; envolvida na ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e est&#225; associada ao desenvolvimento de hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A hipertens&#227;o resistente (HR) refere-se a pacientes cuja press&#227;o arterial (PA) permanece n&#227;o controlada (&#8805; 140/90 mmHg), apesar do uso de tr&#234;s ou mais classes de medicamentos, sendo um deles obrigatoriamente um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico; ou &#224;queles cuja PA s&#243; &#233; controlada com quatro ou mais f&#225;rmacos. J&#225; a hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria (HRf) corresponde a uma forma mais grave, envolvendo pacientes que n&#227;o conseguem controlar os n&#237;veis de PA mesmo com cinco ou mais medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, incluindo a espironolactona.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Pacientes com HRf apresentam maior preval&#234;ncia de les&#227;o em &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo quando comparados &#224;queles com HR, sendo mais propensos a apresentar taxa de filtra&#231;&#227;o glomerular reduzida, albumin&#250;ria, diabetes, acidente vascular cerebral (AVC) e doen&#231;a arterial coronariana (DAC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, estudos demonstraram que indiv&#237;duos com IMC superior a 40 t&#234;m sete vezes mais chances de serem hipertensos em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos eutr&#243;ficos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>No entanto, poucos estudos avaliaram a preval&#234;ncia da obesidade na HRf. Assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar o impacto e a preval&#234;ncia da obesidade em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com HR ou HRf e a rela&#231;&#227;o entre IMC e controle da PA.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Delineamento do estudo</title>
        <p>Este &#233; um estudo descritivo, transversal, com abordagem quantitativa e descritiva, realizado em um ambulat&#243;rio de refer&#234;ncia para hipertens&#227;o arterial grave em um hospital p&#250;blico de aten&#231;&#227;o terci&#225;ria.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo</title>
        <p>A amostra foi selecionada por conveni&#234;ncia, composta por pacientes em tratamento de HR e HRf. Por se tratar de uma amostra de conveni&#234;ncia, n&#227;o foi realizado c&#225;lculo formal do tamanho da amostra. Todos os pacientes eleg&#237;veis foram inclu&#237;dos consecutivamente durante consultas de acompanhamento de rotina no ambulat&#243;rio de hipertens&#227;o grave, no per&#237;odo de junho de 2018 a mar&#231;o de 2020. Os dados foram coletados por meio de entrevistas e revis&#227;o de prontu&#225;rios m&#233;dicos. A PA foi medida com esfigmoman&#244;metro aneroide em ambos os membros superiores, com o paciente sentado, ap&#243;s cinco minutos de repouso, de acordo com a t&#233;cnica padronizada descrita pelas Diretrizes Americanas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os valores registrados referem-se &#224; m&#233;dia das medidas obtidas em ambos os bra&#231;os. Foram inclu&#237;dos pacientes com HR &#8211; definida como PA maior ou igual a 140/90 mmHg durante o uso de tr&#234;s ou mais classes de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos nas doses m&#225;ximas recomendadas ou toleradas, incluindo um diur&#233;tico tiaz&#237;dico; ou pacientes com PA controlada (&lt;140/90 mmHg) que necessitavam de quatro ou mais medicamentos. Tamb&#233;m foram inclu&#237;dos pacientes com HRf &#8211; aqueles com PA n&#227;o controlada (&#8805;140/90 mmHg), apesar do uso de cinco ou mais f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos, incluindo espironolactona e um diur&#233;tico de longa a&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O peso foi aferido utilizando uma balan&#231;a calibrada, e a altura, por meio de um estadi&#244;metro. O IMC foi calculado dividindo-se o peso do paciente (Kg) pelo quadrado da altura (m<sup>2</sup>). A obesidade foi definida como IMC &#8805;30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, o sobrepeso como IMC &#8805;25 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, e o peso normal como IMC entre 18,5 e 24,9 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>. A obesidade foi classificada em tr&#234;s categorias: obesidade grau 1 (IMC 30,0&#8211;34,9 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>), obesidade grau 2 (IMC 35,0&#8211;39,9 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>) e obesidade grau 3 (IMC &#8805;40 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>).</p>
        <p>A circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal foi medida utilizando uma fita m&#233;trica posicionada no ponto m&#233;dio entre a borda inferior da &#250;ltima costela e a crista il&#237;aca. A obesidade abdominal foi definida como circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura maior que 94 cm em homens ou maior que 80 cm em mulheres.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A rela&#231;&#227;o cintura/altura (RCA) tamb&#233;m foi calculada dividindo-se a circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura pela altura. Os dados coletados inclu&#237;ram idade, sexo, altura, peso, press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS), press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica (PAD), press&#227;o arterial m&#233;dia, circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal, n&#237;veis de creatinina, presen&#231;a de diabetes mellitus, dislipidemia, relatos de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva (ICC), DAC, AVC, depress&#227;o, medicamentos em uso, consumo de &#225;lcool, tabagismo e inatividade f&#237;sica.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</title>
        <p>Os dados foram inseridos em uma planilha do Microsoft Excel<sup>&#174;</sup> 2016 e analisados no software Jamovi<sup>&#174;</sup>. As vari&#225;veis cont&#237;nuas foram apresentadas como m&#233;dia &#177; desvio padr&#227;o, e as vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas como frequ&#234;ncia absoluta e percentual relativo.</p>
        <p>Para avaliar a distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis, foram utilizadas estat&#237;sticas descritivas, an&#225;lise gr&#225;fica, assimetria, curtose e o teste de normalidade (Shapiro-Wilk). Para comparar os grupos HR e HRf, aplicou-se o teste t de Student ou o teste de Mann-Whitney, de acordo com a distribui&#231;&#227;o das vari&#225;veis quantitativas, e o teste do qui-quadrado para vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas.</p>
        <p>O teste de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson foi aplicado para analisar as correla&#231;&#245;es entre vari&#225;veis antropom&#233;tricas e de PA. Foi adotado n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia de p &lt; 0,05.</p>
        <p>Todos os participantes assinaram o termo de consentimento livre e esclarecido para participa&#231;&#227;o no estudo. O projeto foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa do Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos (HUPES/UFBA), sob o protocolo n&#186; 81701717.6.0000.0049.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <p>Um total de 138 pacientes foi analisado, dos quais 74,7% apresentavam HR e 25,3% HRf. Houve predomin&#226;ncia de indiv&#237;duos idosos (&#8805;60 anos), do sexo feminino e de pacientes de ascend&#234;ncia africana em ambos os grupos, conforme detalhado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. A idade m&#233;dia geral foi 64,7 anos. Esse padr&#227;o reflete as caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas da popula&#231;&#227;o local atendida em nosso ambulat&#243;rio terci&#225;rio, que &#233; conhecido por ter maior propor&#231;&#227;o de mulheres idosas e indiv&#237;duos de ascend&#234;ncia africana, em conson&#226;ncia com as caracter&#237;sticas epidemiol&#243;gicas locais e os dados de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica. A preval&#234;ncia de obesidade (IMC &#8805;30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>) na amostra foi de 42,0%, com Intervalo de Confian&#231;a (IC) de 95% entre 33,8% e 50,2%.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas demogr&#225;ficas e cl&#237;nicas dos pacientes</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="20%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                <th style="font-weight:normal">Total 138 (100%)</th>
                <th>Hipertens&#227;o Resistente 103 (74.7%)</th>
                <th>Hipertens&#227;o refrat&#225;ria 35 (25.3%)</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Sexo feminino</td>
                <td align="center">110 (79,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">80 (77,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">30 (85,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,307</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Etnia negra</td>
                <td align="center">126 (91,3%)</td>
                <td align="center">91 (88,3%)</td>
                <td align="center">35 (100%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,315</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade &#8805; 60 anos</td>
                <td align="center">97 (70,3%)</td>
                <td align="center">74 (71,8%)</td>
                <td align="center">23 (65,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,493</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade (m&#233;dia)</td>
                <td align="center">64,7 &#177; 10,8</td>
                <td align="center">65 &#177; 11,1</td>
                <td align="center">63,8 &#177; 10</td>
                <td align="center">0,566</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC (Kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                <td align="center">29,8 &#177; 6,1</td>
                <td align="center">28,6 (25,6-32,8)</td>
                <td align="center">30,1 (27,4-33,3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,194</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">152,4 &#177; 30,6</td>
                <td align="center">150 (139-168)</td>
                <td align="center">154 (142-170)</td>
                <td align="center">0,342</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAD (mmHg)</td>
                <td align="center">85,3 &#177; 17,3</td>
                <td align="center">84 (76,3-93)</td>
                <td align="center">88,5 (80,3-99,8)</td>
                <td align="center">0,059</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura (cm)</td>
                <td align="center">98,5 &#177; 15,3</td>
                <td align="center">97,4 &#177; 15,7</td>
                <td align="center">102 &#177; 13,5</td>
                <td align="center">0,141</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Rela&#231;&#227;o Cintura/Altura (RCA)</td>
                <td align="center">0,63 &#177; 0,1</td>
                <td align="center">0,6 (0,6-0,7)</td>
                <td align="center">0,7 (0,6-0,7)</td>
                <td align="center">0,177</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Creatinina (mg/dL)</td>
                <td align="center">1,01 &#177; 0,3</td>
                <td align="center">0,9 (0,8-1,1)</td>
                <td align="center">0,9 (0,8-1,3)</td>
                <td align="center">0,120</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Diabetes Mellitus</td>
                <td align="center">71 (51,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">51 (49,5%)</td>
                <td align="center">20 (57,1%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,435</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>S&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica</td>
                <td align="center">98 (71%)</td>
                <td align="center">72 (69,9%)</td>
                <td align="center">26 (74,3%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,581</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Dislipidemia</td>
                <td align="center">103 (74,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">74 (71,8%)</td>
                <td align="center">29 (82,9%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,400</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>ICC pr&#233;via</td>
                <td align="center">23 (16,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">15 (14,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (22,9%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,389</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>DAC pr&#233;via</td>
                <td align="center">38 (27,5%)</td>
                <td align="center">23 (22,3%)</td>
                <td align="center">15 (42,9%)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,019</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>AVC pr&#233;vio</td>
                <td align="center">24 (17,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">14 (13,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">10 (28,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">
                  <bold>0,043</bold>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Depress&#227;o</td>
                <td align="center">30 (21,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">22 (21,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">8 (22,9%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,853</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Obesidade</td>
                <td align="center">58 (42%)</td>
                <td align="center">40 (38,8%)</td>
                <td align="center">18 (51,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,379</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Consumo de &#225;lcool</td>
                <td align="center">26 (18,8%)</td>
                <td align="center">21 (20,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">5 (14,3%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,425</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Hist&#243;ria de tabagismo</td>
                <td align="center">38 (27,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">28 (27,2%)</td>
                <td align="center">10 (28,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,836</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Tabagismo atual</td>
                <td align="center">5 (3,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">3 (2,9%)</td>
                <td align="center">2 (5,7%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,443</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Inatividade f&#237;sica</td>
                <td align="center">67 (48,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">49 (47,6%)</td>
                <td align="center">18 (51,4%)</td>
                <td align="center">0,693</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>
                <italic>IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica; RCA: rela&#231;&#227;o cintura/altura; ICC: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; AVC: acidente vascular cerebral.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao IMC, a m&#233;dia geral foi de 29,8 &#177; 6,1 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, com os pacientes com HRf apresentando valores numericamente mais elevados. A circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal m&#233;dia tamb&#233;m foi numericamente maior entre os pacientes com HRf em compara&#231;&#227;o aos com HR, e a RCA seguiu tend&#234;ncia semelhante. Os valores detalhados est&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>. A PAS m&#233;dia foi de 152,4 &#177; 30,6 mmHg, com valores semelhantes entre os grupos. A PAD m&#233;dia foi de 85,3 &#177; 17,3 mmHg, numericamente mais elevada no grupo HRf.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; presen&#231;a de comorbidades, 16,7% apresentavam ICC, 17,4% tinham hist&#243;rico de AVC, 21,7% apresentavam depress&#227;o, 27,5% tinham DAC, 51,4% eram portadores de diabetes mellitus, 71% apresentavam s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e 74,6% dislipidemia. N&#227;o houve diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao diabetes mellitus, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, dislipidemia, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e depress&#227;o. No entanto, a DAC e o AVC pr&#233;vio foram mais prevalentes no grupo HRf (42,9% vs 22,3% e 28,6% vs 13,6%, respectivamente). Os n&#237;veis de creatinina foram ligeiramente mais elevados nos pacientes com HRf em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes com HR &#8211; mediana de 0,9 mg/dL (IQR: 0,8-1,3) versus 0,9 mg/dL (IQR: 0,8&#8211;1,1), respectivamente (p = 0,120), conforme mostrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o aos fatores de estilo de vida, a inatividade f&#237;sica foi proeminente, afetando quase metade da amostra (48,6%). O consumo de &#225;lcool apresentou preval&#234;ncia de 18,8%, e o tabagismo de 27,7%, embora apenas 3,6% dos participantes fossem fumantes atuais. Entre os indiv&#237;duos com HR e HRf, a preval&#234;ncia de obesidade foi de 38,8% e 51,4%, respectivamente. Na distribui&#231;&#227;o geral das categorias de IMC, 2,2% dos participantes estavam abaixo do peso, 19% tinham peso normal, 36,5% apresentavam sobrepeso, 26,3% obesidade grau I, 11% obesidade grau II e 5,1% obesidade grau III.</p>
      <p>Ao estratificar as categorias de IMC por sexo, verificou-se que entre os homens, 28,6% tinham peso normal, 28,6% apresentavam sobrepeso, 32,1% obesidade grau I e 10,7% obesidade grau II. Entre as mulheres, 2,7% estavam abaixo do peso, 11,9% tinham peso normal, 38,2% apresentavam sobrepeso, 24,5% foram classificadas com obesidade grau I, 10,9% com obesidade grau II e 6,4% com obesidade grau III (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Distribui&#231;&#227;o das categorias de &#237;ndice de massa corporal por sexo.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20250627-50627-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Uma an&#225;lise da m&#233;dia do IMC em rela&#231;&#227;o ao n&#250;mero de agentes anti-hipertensivos utilizados revelou uma tend&#234;ncia linear e progressiva. Pacientes em uso de tr&#234;s medicamentos apresentaram m&#233;dia de IMC de 28,2; aqueles em uso de quatro medicamentos tiveram m&#233;dia de 30,4; cinco medicamentos corresponderam a m&#233;dia de 30,6; seis medicamentos a m&#233;dia de 30,1; sete medicamentos a m&#233;dia de 30,5; e oito medicamentos a m&#233;dia de 35,5. Esses valores est&#227;o resumidos na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Estat&#237;sticas descritivas &#8211; n&#250;mero de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos em rela&#231;&#227;o ao &#205;ndice de Massa Corporal (IMC), distribu&#237;dos por grupos de hipertens&#227;o</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="14%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>HR (3 medicamentos)</th>
                <th>HR (4 medicamentos)</th>
                <th>HRf (5 medicamentos)</th>
                <th>HRf (6 medicamentos)</th>
                <th>HRf (7 medicamentos)</th>
                <th>HRf (8 medicamentos)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>n (pacientes)</td>
                <td align="center">40</td>
                <td align="center">63</td>
                <td align="center">25</td>
                <td align="center">7</td>
                <td align="center">1</td>
                <td align="center">2</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC (Kg/m<sup>2</sup>), mean &#177; SD</td>
                <td align="center">28,2 &#177; 5,8</td>
                <td align="center">30,4 &#177; 6,2</td>
                <td align="center">30,7 &#177; 4,5</td>
                <td align="center">30,1 &#177; 10,9</td>
                <td align="center">30,5</td>
                <td align="center">35,5 &#177; 8,8</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>
                <italic>HR: hipertens&#227;o resistente; HRf: hipertens&#227;o resistente ou refrat&#225;ria. Para sete medicamentos, somente um paciente foi inclu&#237;do (n&#227;o se aplica o desvio padr&#227;o).</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, o teste de correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson foi empregado para avaliar as correla&#231;&#245;es entre as vari&#225;veis, incluindo sua signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica e proporcionalidade (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>). As correla&#231;&#245;es entre idade e peso, idade e PAD, peso e circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal, IMC e circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal, PAS e PAD foram estatisticamente significativas. Todas as correla&#231;&#245;es foram diretamente proporcionais, exceto as correla&#231;&#245;es entre idade e peso, e idade e PAD, que foram inversamente proporcionais.</p>
      <p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson entre medidas antropom&#233;tricas e press&#227;o arterial</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead>
              <tr>
                <th align="left">Pares de vari&#225;veis</th>
                <th>Coeficiente de correla&#231;&#227;o (r)</th>
                <th>Valor p</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade &#215; Peso</td>
                <td align="center">-0,323</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Idade &#215; PAD</td>
                <td align="center">-0,268</td>
                <td align="center">0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>Peso &#215; Circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura</td>
                <td align="center">0,766</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>IMC &#215; Circunfer&#234;ncia da cintura</td>
                <td align="center">0,798</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td>PAS &#215; PAD</td>
                <td align="center">0,716</td>
                <td align="center">&lt; 0,001</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN3">
              <p>
                <italic>*IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica.</italic>
              </p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
      </p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Mapa de calor da correla&#231;&#227;o de Pearson entre medidas antropom&#233;tricas e vari&#225;veis de press&#227;o arterial; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; PAD: press&#227;o arterial diast&#243;lica.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20250627-50627-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>A obesidade &#233; um importante fator de risco e contribui para complica&#231;&#245;es nas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com hipertens&#227;o grave, a obesidade foi prevalente e impactou na apresenta&#231;&#227;o e no controle dos n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial. A literatura mostra que indiv&#237;duos obesos t&#234;m risco significativamente maior de desenvolver hipertens&#227;o de dif&#237;cil controle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Isso se deve a mecanismos fisiopatol&#243;gicos como ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico, reten&#231;&#227;o de s&#243;dio e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica, que exacerbam o processo ateroscler&#243;tico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> No presente estudo, a preval&#234;ncia de obesidade, considerando todos os indiv&#237;duos com IMC maior ou igual a 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, foi de 42%, confirmando a associa&#231;&#227;o previamente observada em outros estudos que indicam que pacientes com IMC elevado t&#234;m maior probabilidade de desenvolver HR ou HRf.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nossos resultados mostram uma distribui&#231;&#227;o estratificada entre as diferentes categorias de gravidade da obesidade, medida pelo IMC. Dos pacientes, 26,3% foram classificados como obesidade grau 1, 11% como obesidade grau 2 e 5,1% como obesidade grau 3, refor&#231;ando essa rela&#231;&#227;o, consistente com o estudo de Vildoso et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> que observaram em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com HR um IMC m&#233;dio de 31,01 &#177; 5,60 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, com altera&#231;&#245;es significativas no perfil lip&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Observamos uma predomin&#226;ncia de mulheres (80%), com n&#237;veis mais elevados de press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica e IMC em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens. Tamb&#233;m vale destacar a maior idade dos participantes; 71% tinham 60 anos ou mais, o que, nas mulheres, sugere que a menopausa pode influenciar a rela&#231;&#227;o entre hipertens&#227;o e obesidade por meio da redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de estrog&#234;nio, levando &#224; perda da prote&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular, aumento da adiposidade e resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em conson&#226;ncia com nossos resultados, Sun et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> relataram, em uma coorte de 156 624 mulheres americanas p&#243;s-menopausa, que a obesidade central, mesmo em indiv&#237;duos com peso normal, esteve associada a maior risco de mortalidade por doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, sugerindo a influ&#234;ncia da gordura visceral nesses eventos.</p>
      <p>De forma semelhante, Ferreira-Campos et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> relataram que mulheres em uso de terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o hormonal apresentaram menores chances de hipertens&#227;o (OR=0,59; IC95%: 0,41&#8211;0,85) em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;quelas que nunca a utilizaram.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; cor da pele, &#233; importante destacar que os afrodescendentes foram prevalentes em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o (91%), refletindo as caracter&#237;sticas &#233;tnicas da cidade e do estado onde o estudo foi conduzido, sugerindo maior gravidade na apresenta&#231;&#227;o da hipertens&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Essa abordagem &#233; particularmente relevante porque os dados sobre obesidade, HR e HRf em popula&#231;&#245;es afrodescendentes no Brasil s&#227;o escassos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> A maioria dos estudos sobre HR foi realizada em popula&#231;&#245;es predominantemente caucasianas, limitando a generaliza&#231;&#227;o de seus achados para o contexto brasileiro. Ao analisar esse grupo sub-representado, nosso estudo fornece uma vis&#227;o sobre a preval&#234;ncia e o impacto da obesidade em pacientes afrodescendentes.</p>
      <p>&#201; importante destacar que a m&#233;dia da RCA foi de 0,63 &#177; 0,1, acima do valor de corte de 0,5, indicando alto risco de desenvolvimento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares ou metab&#243;licas. Os n&#237;veis de creatinina e as medidas antropom&#233;tricas, incluindo IMC e circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal, foram numericamente maiores em pacientes com HRf em compara&#231;&#227;o &#224;queles com HR, embora as diferen&#231;as n&#227;o tenham sido estatisticamente significativas. O estudo de Modolo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> relatou valores de creatinina de 1,15 &#177; 0,73 <italic>vs</italic>. 1,01 &#177; 0,41 e IMC de 32,1 &#177; 5,6 vs 31,9 &#177; 6,9, destacando a presen&#231;a de obesidade na maioria das amostras.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, o aumento do IMC foi diretamente proporcional ao n&#250;mero de medicamentos anti-hipertensivos utilizados, conforme mostrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>, indicando que pacientes obesos tendem a necessitar de mais f&#225;rmacos para o controle adequado da press&#227;o arterial. Esse achado &#233; consistente com o estudo de Cataldi et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> que discute a efic&#225;cia limitada da monoterapia em pacientes com hipertens&#227;o relacionada &#224; obesidade. Kotchen<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> explora ainda a rela&#231;&#227;o entre obesidade e hipertens&#227;o, observando que 60-70% dos casos de hipertens&#227;o em adultos podem estar associados ao excesso de adiposidade, resist&#234;ncia insul&#237;nica e disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial. Ele tamb&#233;m enfatiza que o manejo cl&#237;nico de pacientes obesos hipertensos deve incluir modifica&#231;&#245;es no estilo de vida. Por outro lado, Park et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> destacam a exist&#234;ncia da pseudo-HR, que pode estar relacionada &#224; hipertens&#227;o do avental branco, subdosagem de medicamentos, baixa ades&#227;o ao tratamento e medidas imprecisas da press&#227;o arterial no consult&#243;rio.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m da obesidade, observamos alta preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>), como insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (16,7%), AVC pr&#233;vio (17,4%), DAC (27,5%), bem como diabetes mellitus (51,4%), s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica (71%), dislipidemia (74,6%) e depress&#227;o (21,7%). Esses achados est&#227;o em concord&#226;ncia com o estudo de Sim et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> que comparou indiv&#237;duos sem HR com aqueles com HR e verificou que o grupo com HR apresentava maior preval&#234;ncia de comorbidades, incluindo diabetes mellitus (48% vs 30%), doen&#231;a renal cr&#244;nica (45% vs 24%), doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica (41% vs 22%) e doen&#231;a cerebrovascular (16% vs 9%).</p>
      <p>A dislipidemia foi a comorbidade mais prevalente em nosso estudo; de forma semelhante, Wallace et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> demonstraram uma associa&#231;&#227;o direta entre os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de LDL-C e maior incid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Esses achados refor&#231;am a import&#226;ncia do controle do colesterol LDL na preven&#231;&#227;o de complica&#231;&#245;es cardiovasculares, especialmente em pacientes hipertensos, nos quais a dislipidemia representa um fator de risco significativo que deve ser abordado como parte do manejo cl&#237;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, as comorbidades foram mais prevalentes no grupo com HRf em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo com HR, conforme observado por Modolo et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> que relataram que a obesidade afetava 61% dos hipertensos refrat&#225;rios e 55% dos hipertensos resistentes. De forma semelhante, Cardoso e Salles<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> identificaram que o diagn&#243;stico de HRf estava associado a riscos significativamente maiores de desfechos adversos, mortalidade cardiovascular e incid&#234;ncia de AVC em compara&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes com HR.</p>
      <p>Esses achados enfatizam a import&#226;ncia da ades&#227;o adequada &#224; medica&#231;&#227;o, combinada a estrat&#233;gias voltadas para a perda de peso em pacientes com HR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> Uma meta-an&#225;lise de 25 ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados demonstrou que a redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial associada &#224; perda de peso foi proporcional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Al&#233;m da redu&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial, sugere-se que a perda de peso tamb&#233;m diminua o dano a &#243;rg&#227;os-alvo, reduza a excre&#231;&#227;o urin&#225;ria de albumina e promova a regress&#227;o da hipertrofia ventricular esquerda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Finalmente, nosso estudo apresenta algumas limita&#231;&#245;es que devem ser consideradas na interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos resultados. Em primeiro lugar, seu desenho transversal impede o estabelecimento de rela&#231;&#245;es causais entre obesidade e controle da hipertens&#227;o, restringindo os achados apenas a associa&#231;&#245;es. Al&#233;m disso, o uso de uma amostra de conveni&#234;ncia proveniente de um ambulat&#243;rio de aten&#231;&#227;o terci&#225;ria limita a generaliza&#231;&#227;o dos resultados para outras popula&#231;&#245;es e contextos de sa&#250;de, especialmente aqueles com diferentes perfis demogr&#225;ficos ou cl&#237;nicos. A avalia&#231;&#227;o da obesidade foi baseada principalmente no IMC, que n&#227;o distingue entre massa de gordura e massa muscular magra. M&#233;todos mais precisos, como a an&#225;lise de bioimped&#226;ncia, poderiam fornecer uma melhor compreens&#227;o da composi&#231;&#227;o corporal e de sua rela&#231;&#227;o com o controle da press&#227;o arterial. Para mitigar essa limita&#231;&#227;o, inclu&#237;mos outras medidas antropom&#233;tricas &#8212; como circunfer&#234;ncia abdominal e RCA &#8211; que refletem a adiposidade central e est&#227;o mais estreitamente relacionadas ao risco cardiovascular.</p>
      <p>Apesar dessas limita&#231;&#245;es, o estudo oferece informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas sobre os perfis antropom&#233;tricos e cl&#237;nicos de pacientes com hipertens&#227;o grave, destacando a complexidade do manejo da press&#227;o arterial em indiv&#237;duos obesos. Vale ressaltar tamb&#233;m que este trabalho &#233; um dos poucos estudos que avaliam a preval&#234;ncia e o impacto da obesidade na HRf e HR em uma popula&#231;&#227;o brasileira, com predomin&#226;ncia de pacientes afrodescendentes e mulheres acima de 60 anos. Essas caracter&#237;sticas tornam os achados relevantes para a compreens&#227;o de grupos vulner&#225;veis que frequentemente est&#227;o sub-representados na pesquisa cl&#237;nica.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com hipertens&#227;o grave, a obesidade foi prevalente e impactou na apresenta&#231;&#227;o e no controle dos n&#237;veis de press&#227;o arterial. O aumento do IMC foi diretamente proporcional ao uso de m&#250;ltiplos medicamentos anti-hipertensivos, indicando que pacientes obesos tendem a necessitar de mais f&#225;rmacos para o controle adequado da press&#227;o arterial.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Este estudo foi financiado, em parte, pela Funda&#231;&#227;o de Amparo &#224; Pesquisa do Estado de S&#227;o Paulo (FAPESP), Brasil. Processos n&#186; 2022/02339&#8211;4 e n&#186; 2024/17783&#8211;2.</p>
      <p>Os autores gostariam de agradecer &#224; Dra. Carla Hil&#225;rio da Cunha Daltro pela valiosa assist&#234;ncia na an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica.</p>
    </ack>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica</label>
        <p>Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de gradua&#231;&#227;o de Barbara Costa pela Faculdade de Medicina - Universidade Federal da Bahia.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</label>
        <p>Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica do Hospital Professor Edgard Santos da Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA) sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 81701717.6.0000.0049. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013. O consentimento informado foi obtido de todos os participantes inclu&#237;dos no estudo.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</label>
        <p>Durante a prepara&#231;&#227;o deste trabalho, o(s) autor(es) usaram ChatGPT para revisar a tradu&#231;&#227;o do texto portugu&#234;s para o ingl&#234;s. Ap&#243;s o uso desta ferramenta/servi&#231;o, o(s) autor(es) revisaram e editaram o conte&#250;do conforme necess&#225;rio e assumem total responsabilidade pelo conte&#250;do do artigo publicado.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <label>Disponibilidade de Dados</label>
        <p>Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento</label>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250627i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Impact of Obesity on Patients with Resistant and Refractory Arterial Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-5551-1371</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Costa</surname>
            <given-names>B&#225;rbara Vict&#243;ria Peixoto Lima da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis and Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8552-0552</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bulh&#245;es</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Macedo</surname>
            <given-names>Cristiano</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8779-1188</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Improta-Caria</surname>
            <given-names>Alex Cleber</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2161-3696</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Aras</surname>
            <given-names>Roque</given-names>
            <suffix>J&#250;nior</suffix>
          </name>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Faculdade Medicina da Bahia - Universidade Federal da Bahia (FMB-UFBA), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Medicina e Sa&#250;de (PPGMS), Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Bioqu&#237;mica e Biologia Molecular do Exerc&#237;cio - Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>B&#225;rbara Vict&#243;ria Peixoto Lima da Costa&#8226;</bold> Universidade Federal da Bahia - Faculdade de Medicina da Bahia - Av. Reitor Miguel Calmon, S/N. Postal Code 40110-905, Canela, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil. E-mail: barbarapeixotocosta@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
          <p> No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Obesity is a serious public health problem and is associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the development of resistant or refractory hypertension.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> To estimate the prevalence of obesity in the population of outpatients with refractory or resistant hypertension and its relationship between body mass index and hypertension severity.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> A cross-sectional study was carried out in a referral outpatient clinic for severe arterial hypertension. Patients with resistant and refractory hypertension were included. Information related to demographic characteristics, anthropometric measurements, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, comorbidities, alcoholism, smoking, and sedentary lifestyle was collected. Continuous variables were compared using the Student&#8217;s t-test or Mann Whitney, and categorical variables were compared using the chi-square test. Pearson&#8217;s correlation test was used for anthropometric measurements and blood pressure. A significance level of p &lt; 0.05 was adopted.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> A total of 138 patients were collected, of whom 74.7% had resistant hypertension and 25.3% had refractory hypertension. There was a predominance of females and black ethnicities, representing 79.7% (p=0.307) and 91.3% (p=0.315), respectively. The mean age was 64.7&#177; 10.8 (p=0.566). Obesity (BMI &#8805; 30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) was present in 42% (p=0.379), being higher in refractory hypertension (51.4% vs. 38.8%). Higher body mass index values were directly associated with an increased number of antihypertensive medications required for blood pressure control (r = 0.45; p &lt; 0.01). Additionally, 74.6% of the patients had dyslipidemia (p=0.400).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusion</title>
          <p> In our population of patients with severe hypertension, obesity was prevalent and significantly influenced both the presentation and the control of blood pressure levels.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration</label>
            <caption>
              <title>: Impact of Obesity on Patients with Resistant and Refractory Arterial Hypertension: A Cross-Sectional Study</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Different levels of obesity contribute to the development of resistant or refractory hypertension, making it necessary to tailor the use of antihypertensive medications according to the degree of obesity. BMI: body mass index.</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20250627-50627-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Obesity</kwd>
        <kwd>Prevalence</kwd>
        <kwd>Hypertension</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Obesity is defined by the World Health Organization as an excessive accumulation of fat, with a body mass index (BMI) greater than or equal to 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> This multifactorial disorder has been addressed as a serious public health issue on a global scale, considering its high prevalence, sedentary lifestyle, and the consumption of ultra-processed and high-calorie foods.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> In 2015, 603.7 million people worldwide were affected, and it has been classified as a chronic disease by the American Medical Association.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Obesity is considered a significant risk factor for the development of cardiovascular diseases, sleep apnea, type 2 diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, and arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Thus, it contributes to the atherosclerotic process by impairing insulin sensitivity and promoting an arterial inflammatory state, which induces endothelial dysfunction,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> in addition to increasing the inflammatory profile in the heart and various organs.</p>
        <p>Obesity is involved in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and is associated with the development of resistant or refractory hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Resistant hypertension (RH) refers to patients whose blood pressure (BP) remains uncontrolled (&#8805; 140/90 mmHg), despite the use of three or more classes of drugs, one of which must be a thiazide diuretic; or those whose BP is controlled only with four or more medications. Refractory hypertension (RfH), on the other hand, refers to a more severe form, involving patients who are unable to control BP levels even with five or more antihypertensive drugs, including spironolactone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Patients with RfH show a higher prevalence of target organ damage when compared to those with RH, being more likely to present with lower glomerular filtration rate, albuminuria, diabetes, stroke, and coronary artery disease (CAD).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Moreover, studies have shown that individuals with a BMI greater than 40 are seven times more likely to be hypertensive when compared to eutrophic individuals.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>However, few studies have assessed the prevalence of obesity in RfH. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the impact and prevalence of obesity in a population of patients with RH or RfH and the relationship between BMI and BP control.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study design</title>
          <p>This is a descriptive, cross-sectional study with a quantitative and descriptive approach, conducted at a referral outpatient clinic for severe arterial hypertension in a public tertiary care hospital.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Study population</title>
          <p>The sample was selected by convenience, consisting of patients being treated for RH and RfH. As this was a convenience sample, no formal sample size calculation was performed. All eligible patients were consecutively included during routine follow-up visits at the severe hypertension outpatient clinic from June 2018 to March 2020. Data were collected through interviews and medical record reviews. BP was measured using an aneroid sphygmomanometer on both the right and left upper limbs, with the patient seated, after five minutes of rest, according to the standardized technique outlined by the American Guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The recorded values refer to the average of the measurements taken from both arms. Patients with RH were included &#8211; defined as BP greater than or equal to 140/90 mmHg while on three or more classes of antihypertensive medications at the maximum recommended or tolerated doses, including a thiazide diuretic, or patients with controlled BP (&lt;140/90 mmHg) requiring four or more medications. Patients with RfH were also included &#8211; those with uncontrolled BP (&#8805;140/90 mmHg) despite taking five or more antihypertensive drugs, including spironolactone and a long-acting diuretic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Weight was measured using a calibrated scale, and height using a stadiometer. BMI was calculated by dividing the patient&#8217;s weight (Kg) by the square of their height (m<sup>2</sup>). Obesity was defined as a BMI &#8805;30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, overweight as a BMI &#8805;25 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, and normal weight as a BMI between 18.5 and 24.9 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>. Obesity was classified into three categories: Grade 1 obesity (BMI 30.0&#8211;34.9 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>), Grade 2 obesity (BMI 35.0&#8211;39.9 kg/m<sup>2</sup>), and Grade 3 obesity (BMI &#8805;40 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>).</p>
          <p>Abdominal circumference was measured using a measuring tape placed at the midpoint between the lower edge of the last rib and the iliac crest. Abdominal obesity was defined as a waist circumference greater than 94 cm in men or greater than 80 cm in women.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> The waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) was also calculated by dividing waist circumference by height. Data collected included age, sex, height, weight, systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), mean arterial pressure, abdominal circumference, creatinine levels, presence of diabetes mellitus, dyslipidemia, reports of congestive heart failure (CHF), CAD, stroke, depression, medications in use, alcohol use, smoking, and physical inactivity.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Statistical analysis</title>
          <p>The data were entered into a Microsoft Excel<sup>&#174;</sup> 2016 spreadsheet and analyzed in the Jamovi<sup>&#174;</sup> software. Continuous variables were presented as mean &#177; standard deviation, and categorical variables as absolute frequency and relative percentage.</p>
          <p>To evaluate the distribution of the variables, descriptive statistics, graphical analysis, asymmetry, kurtosis, and the normality test (Shapiro-Wilk) were used. To compare the HR and HRf groups, the Student&#8217;s t-test or the Mann-Whitney test were applied, according to the distribution of quantitative variables, and the chi-square test for categorical variables.</p>
          <p>Pearson&#8217;s correlation test was applied to analyze the correlations between anthropometric and blood pressure variables. A significance level of p &lt; 0.05 was adopted.</p>
          <p>All participants signed the informed consent form to participate in the study. The project was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of Professor Edgard Santos University Hospital (HUPES/UFBA), under protocol number 81701717.6.0000.0049.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <p>A total of 138 patients were analyzed, of whom 74.7% had RH and 25.3% had RfH. There was a predominance of elderly individuals (&#8805;60 years), females, and patients of African descent in both groups, as detailed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>. The overall mean age was 64.7 years. This pattern reflects the demographic characteristics of the local population served by our tertiary outpatient clinic, which is known to have a higher proportion of elderly women and individuals of African descent, consistent with local epidemiological characteristics and public health data. The prevalence of obesity (BMI &#8805;30 kg/m<sup>2</sup>) in the sample was 42.0%, with a 95% confidence interval (CI) of 33.8% to 50.2%.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1001">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Demographic and clinical characteristics</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Characteristics</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">Total 138 (100%)</th>
                  <th>Resistant Hypertension 103 (74.7%)</th>
                  <th>Refractory Hypertension 35 (25.3%)</th>
                  <th>p-value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Female sex</td>
                  <td align="center">110 (79.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">80 (77.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">30 (85.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.307</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Black ethnicity</td>
                  <td align="center">126 (91.3%)</td>
                  <td align="center">91 (88.3%)</td>
                  <td align="center">35 (100%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.315</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age &#8805; 60 years</td>
                  <td align="center">97 (70.3%)</td>
                  <td align="center">74 (71.8%)</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (65.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.493</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age (mean)</td>
                  <td align="center">64.7 &#177; 10.8</td>
                  <td align="center">65 &#177; 11.1</td>
                  <td align="center">63.8 &#177; 10</td>
                  <td align="center">0.566</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)</td>
                  <td align="center">29.8 &#177; 6.1</td>
                  <td align="center">28.6 (25.6-32.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">30.1 (27.4-33.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.194</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SBP (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">152.4 &#177; 30.6</td>
                  <td align="center">150 (139-168)</td>
                  <td align="center">154 (142-170)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.342</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>DBP (mmHg)</td>
                  <td align="center">85.3 &#177; 17.3</td>
                  <td align="center">84 (76.3-93)</td>
                  <td align="center">88.5 (80.3-99.8)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.059</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Waist circumference (cm)</td>
                  <td align="center">98.5 &#177; 15.3</td>
                  <td align="center">97.4 &#177; 15.7</td>
                  <td align="center">102 &#177; 13.5</td>
                  <td align="center">0.141</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Waist-to-height ratio (WHtR)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.63 &#177; 0.1</td>
                  <td align="center">0.6 (0.6-0.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.7 (0.6-0.7)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.177</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Creatinine (mg/dL)</td>
                  <td align="center">1.01 &#177; 0.3</td>
                  <td align="center">0.9 (0.8-1.1)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.9 (0.8-1.3)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.120</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diabetes Mellitus</td>
                  <td align="center">71 (51.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center">51 (49.5%)</td>
                  <td align="center">20 (57.1%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.435</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Metabolic syndrome</td>
                  <td align="center">98 (71%)</td>
                  <td align="center">72 (69.9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">26 (74.3%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.581</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dyslipidemia</td>
                  <td align="center">103 (74.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">74 (71.8%)</td>
                  <td align="center">29 (82.9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.400</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Prior CHF</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (16.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (14.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (22.9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.389</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Prior CAD</td>
                  <td align="center">38 (27.5%)</td>
                  <td align="center">23 (22.3%)</td>
                  <td align="center">15 (42.9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.019</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Prior stroke</td>
                  <td align="center">24 (17.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center">14 (13.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (28.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>0.043</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Depression</td>
                  <td align="center">30 (21.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">22 (21.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center">8 (22.9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.853</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Obesity</td>
                  <td align="center">58 (42%)</td>
                  <td align="center">40 (38.8%)</td>
                  <td align="center">18 (51.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.379</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Alcohol use</td>
                  <td align="center">26 (18.8%)</td>
                  <td align="center">21 (20.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center">5 (14.3%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.425</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Smoking history</td>
                  <td align="center">38 (27.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">28 (27.2%)</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (28.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.836</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Current smoking</td>
                  <td align="center">5 (3.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">3 (2.9%)</td>
                  <td align="center">2 (5.7%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.443</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Physical inactivity</td>
                  <td align="center">67 (48.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">49 (47.6%)</td>
                  <td align="center">18 (51.4%)</td>
                  <td align="center">0.693</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1001">
                <p>
                  <italic>BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure; WHtR: waist-to-height ratio; CHF: congestive heart failure; CAD: coronary artery disease.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Regarding BMI, the overall average was 29.8 &#177; 6.1 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, with RfH patients showing numerically higher values. The average waist circumference was also numerically higher among RfH patients than RH patients, and the WHtR followed a similar trend. Detailed values are shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>. The mean SBP was 152.4 &#177; 30.6 mmHg, with similar values between the groups. The mean DBP was 85.3 &#177; 17.3 mmHg, numerically higher in the RfH group.</p>
        <p>Regarding the presence of comorbidities, 16.7% had CHF, 17.4% had a previous stroke, 21.7% had depression, 27.5% had CAD, 51.4% had diabetes mellitus, 71% had metabolic syndrome, and 74.6% had dyslipidemia. There was no statistically significant difference between the groups in relation to diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, dyslipidemia, heart failure, and depression. However, CAD and prior stroke were more prevalent in the RfH group (42.9% vs 22.3% and 28.6% vs 13.6%, respectively). Creatinine levels were slightly higher in patients with RfH compared to patients with RH &#8212; median of 0.9 mg/dL (IQR: 0.8&#8211;1.3) versus 0.9 mg/dL (IQR: 0.8&#8211;1.1), respectively (p = 0.120), as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>.</p>
        <p>Regarding lifestyle factors, physical inactivity was prominent, affecting nearly half of the sample (48.6%). Alcohol consumption had a prevalence of 18.8%, and smoking 27.7%, although only 3.6% of participants were current smokers. Among individuals with RH and RfH, the prevalence of obesity was 38.8% and 51.4%, respectively. In the overall distribution of BMI categories, 2.2% of participants were underweight, 19% had normal weight, 36.5% were overweight, 26.3% had class I obesity, 11% had class II obesity, and 5.1% had class III obesity.</p>
        <p>Stratifying BMI categories by sex revealed that among males, 28.6% had normal weight, 28.6% were overweight, 32.1% presented with class I obesity, and 10.7% with class II obesity. Among females, 2.7% were underweight, 11.9% had normal weight, 38.2% were overweight, 24.5% were classified as having class I obesity, 10.9% as class II obesity, and 6.4% as class III obesity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Distribution of body mass index categories by gender.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20250627-50627-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>An analysis of the mean BMI in relation to the number of antihypertensive agents used revealed a linear and progressive trend. Patients using three medications had a mean BMI of 28.2; those on four medications had a mean BMI of 30.4; five medications corresponded to a mean BMI of 30.6; six medications to a mean BMI of 30.1; seven medications to a mean BMI of 30.5; and eight medications to a mean BMI of 35.5. These values are summarized in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2001">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Descriptive Statistics &#8211; Number of antihypertensive medications in relation to body mass index (BMI), distributed by hypertension groups</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="14%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variables</th>
                  <th>RH (3 drugs)</th>
                  <th>RH (4 drugs)</th>
                  <th>RfH (5 drugs)</th>
                  <th>RfH (6 drugs)</th>
                  <th>RfH (7 drugs)</th>
                  <th>RfH (8 drugs)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>n (patients)</td>
                  <td align="center">40</td>
                  <td align="center">63</td>
                  <td align="center">25</td>
                  <td align="center">7</td>
                  <td align="center">1</td>
                  <td align="center">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>), mean &#177; SD</td>
                  <td align="center">28.2 &#177; 5.8</td>
                  <td align="center">30.4 &#177; 6.2</td>
                  <td align="center">30.7 &#177; 4.5</td>
                  <td align="center">30.1 &#177; 10.9</td>
                  <td align="center">30.5</td>
                  <td align="center">35.5 &#177; 8.8</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2001">
                <p>RH: resistant hypertension; RfH: refractory hypertension. For 7 medications, only one patient was included &#8212; standard deviation not applicable.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Furthermore, Pearson&#8217;s Correlation Test was employed to assess the correlations between variables, including their statistical significance and proportionality (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>). The correlations between age and weight, age and DBP, weight and waist circumference, BMI and waist circumference, SBP and DBP were statistically significant. All correlations were directly proportional, except for the correlations between age and weight, and age and DBP, which were inversely proportional.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3001">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Pearson correlation between anthropometric measurements and blood pressure</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Variable Pair</th>
                  <th>Correlation Coefficient (r)</th>
                  <th>p-value</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age &#215; Weight</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.323</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Age &#215; DBP</td>
                  <td align="center">-0.268</td>
                  <td align="center">0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Weight &#215; Waist circumference</td>
                  <td align="center">0.766</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>BMI &#215; Waist circumference</td>
                  <td align="center">0.798</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>SBP &#215; DBP</td>
                  <td align="center">0.716</td>
                  <td align="center">&lt; 0.001</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3001">
                <p>
                  <italic>*BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure.</italic>
                </p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Pearson correlation heatmap between anthropometric measurements and blood pressure variables. BMI: body mass index; SBP: systolic blood pressure; DBP: diastolic blood pressure.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20250627-50627-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Obesity is an important risk factor and contributor to complications in cardiovascular diseases. In our population of patients with severe hypertension, obesity was prevalent and impacted on the presentation and control of BP levels. The literature shows that obese individuals have a significantly higher risk of developing difficult-to-control hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> This is due to pathophysiological mechanisms such as sympathetic nervous system activation, sodium retention, and insulin resistance, which exacerbate the atherosclerotic process.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> In the present study, the prevalence of obesity, considering all individuals with a BMI greater than or equal to 30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>, was 42%, confirming the association previously observed in other studies that indicate patients with elevated BMI are more likely to develop RH or RfH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Our results show a stratified distribution among the different obesity severity categories measured by BMI. 26.3% were classified as having grade 1 obesity, 11% with grade 2 obesity, and 5.1% with grade 3 obesity, reinforcing this relationship, which is consistent with the study by Vildoso et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> who observed in a population of patients with RH an average BMI of 31.01 &#177; 5.60 kg/m<sup>2</sup>, with significant alterations in lipid profile.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>We observed a predominance of females (80%), with higher levels of systolic blood pressure and BMI compared to males. It is also worth highlighting the older age of participants; 71% were aged 60 years or older, which in women suggests that menopause may influence the relationship between hypertension and obesity through a reduction in estrogen levels, leading to loss of cardiovascular protection, increased adiposity, and insulin resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Consistent with our results, Sun et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> reported in a cohort of 156,624 postmenopausal American women that central obesity, even in individuals with normal weight, was associated with an increased risk of mortality from cardiovascular diseases, suggesting the influence of visceral fat on these events.</p>
        <p>Similarly, Ferreira-Campos et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> reported that women using hormone replacement therapy had lower odds of hypertension (OR=0.59; 95% CI: 0.41&#8211;0.85) compared to those who never used it.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Regarding skin color, it is important to note that Afro-descendants were prevalent in our population (91%), reflecting the ethnic characteristics of the city and state where the study was conducted, suggesting greater severity in the presentation of hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup>This approach is particularly relevant because data on obesity, RH and RfH in Afro-descendant populations in Brazil are scarce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Most studies on RH have been conducted in predominantly Caucasian populations, limiting the generalization of their findings to Brazilian environments. By analyzing this underrepresented group, our study provides insight into the prevalence and impact of obesity in patients of African descent.</p>
        <p>It is noteworthy that the mean WHR was 0.63 &#177; 0.1, which is above the cutoff value of 0.5, indicating a high risk of developing cardiovascular or metabolic diseases. Creatinine levels and anthropometric measures, including BMI and abdominal circumference, were numerically higher in patients with RfH compared to those with RH, although the differences were not statistically significant. The study by Modolo et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> reported creatinine values of 1.15 &#177; 0.73 vs 1.01 &#177; 0.41 and BMI of 32.1 &#177; 5.6 vs 31.9 &#177; 6.9, highlighting the presence of obesity in most of the samples.</p>
        <p>Furthermore, the increase in BMI was directly proportional to the number of antihypertensive drugs used, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>, indicating that obese patients tend to require more medications for adequate BP control. This finding is consistent with the study by Cataldi et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> which discusses the limited effectiveness of monotherapy in patients with obesity-related hypertension. Kotchen<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> further explores the relationship between obesity and hypertension, noting that 60&#8211;70% of adult hypertension cases may be associated with excess adiposity, insulin resistance, and endothelial dysfunction. He also emphasizes that the clinical management of obese hypertensive patients should include lifestyle modifications. Conversely, Park et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> highlight the existence of pseudo-RH, which may result from white coat hypertension, suboptimal dosing, poor medication adherence, and inaccurate office blood pressure measurements.</p>
        <p>In addition to obesity, we observed a high prevalence of cardiovascular diseases (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>), such as heart failure (16.7%), previous stroke (17.4%), CAD (27.5%), as well as diabetes mellitus (51.4%), metabolic syndrome (71%), dyslipidemia (74.6%), and depression (21.7%). These findings agree with the study by Sim et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> which compared individuals without RH to those with RH and found that the RH group had a higher prevalence of comorbidities, including diabetes mellitus (48% vs 30%), chronic kidney disease (45% vs 24%), ischemic heart disease (41% vs 22%), and cerebrovascular disease (16% vs 9%).</p>
        <p>Dyslipidemia was the most prevalent comorbidity in our study; similarly, Wallace et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> demonstrated a direct association between serum LDL-C levels and a higher incidence of cardiovascular diseases. These findings reinforce the importance of LDL cholesterol control in preventing cardiovascular complications, especially in hypertensive patients, where dyslipidemia represents a significant risk factor that must be addressed as part of clinical management.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Furthermore, comorbidities were more prevalent in the RfH group compared to the RH group, as observed by Modolo et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> who reported that obesity affected 61% of refractory hypertensives and 55% of resistant hypertensive patients. Similarly, Cardoso and Salles<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> identified that a diagnosis of RfH was associated with significantly higher risks of adverse outcomes, cardiovascular mortality, and stroke incidence compared to RH patients.</p>
        <p>These findings emphasize the importance of proper medication adherence combined with strategies aimed at weight loss in patients with RH.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> A meta-analysis of 25 randomized clinical trials demonstrated that the reduction in blood pressure associated with weight loss was proportional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> Beyond blood pressure reduction, weight loss has also been suggested to decrease target organ damage, reduce urinary albumin excretion, and promote regression of left ventricular hypertrophy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Finally, our study presents some limitations that should be considered when interpreting the results. First, its cross-sectional design prevents establishing causal relationships between obesity and hypertension control, restricting the findings to associations only. Additionally, the use of a convenience sample from a tertiary care outpatient clinic limits the generalizability of the results to other populations and healthcare settings, especially those with different demographic or clinical profiles. The assessment of obesity was primarily based on BMI, which does not differentiate between fat mass and lean muscle mass. More precise methods, such as bioimpedance analysis, could provide a better understanding of body composition and its relationship with blood pressure control. To mitigate this, we included other anthropometric measures &#8211; such as waist circumference and WHR &#8211; that reflect central adiposity and are more closely linked to cardiovascular risk.</p>
        <p>Despite these limitations, the study offers valuable insights into the anthropometric and clinical profiles of patients with severe hypertension, highlighting the complexity of managing blood pressure in obese individuals. It is also worth noting that this work is one of the few studies that evaluate the prevalence and impact of obesity on RfH and RH in a Brazilian population, with a predominance of Afro-descendant patients and women over 60 years of age. These characteristics make the findings relevant to understanding vulnerable groups that are often underrepresented in clinical research.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In our population of patients with severe hypertension, obesity was prevalent and impacted on the presentation and control of BP levels. Increase in BMI was directly proportional to the use of multiple antihypertensive medications, indicating that obese patients tend to require more drugs for adequate BP control.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>This study was financed, in part, by the S&#227;o Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP), Brasil. Process Number # 2022/02339&#8211;4 and # 2024/17783&#8211;2.</p>
        <p>The authors would like to thank Dra. Carla Hil&#225;rio da Cunha Daltro for her valuable assistance with the statistical analysis.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association</label>
          <p>This article is part of the thesis of graduation submitted by Barbara Costa, from Faculdade de Medicina &#8211; Universidade Federal da Bahia.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p>This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Hospital Professor Edgard Santos da Universidade Federal da Bahia (UFBA) under the protocol number 81701717.6.0000.0049. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013. Informed consent was obtained from all participants included in the study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
          <p>During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used ChatGPT for review the translation of the Portuguese text into English. After using this tool/service, the author(s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the content of the published article.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
          <label>Data Availability Statement</label>
          <p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding</label>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
