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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">HQPVLVQjcQ7w3fWHrRxFg4L</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2026000201401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240572</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Fundamentos da Pericardite Aguda: Estado da Arte</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0608-149X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mangas</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriel de Moraes</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0004-7596-1014</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rodriguez</surname>
            <given-names>Jose Gregorio Valero</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-0710-8014</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Alexandre Ranzeiro de Bragan&#231;a dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6510-6998</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Flavia Nunes Benicio de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-8347-1212</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Felipe Leite da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Giovane Leal de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chivaca</surname>
            <given-names>Alberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6304-7557</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jessen</surname>
            <given-names>Neusa Perina de Jesus</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>&#194;ngelo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Central de Maputo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Maputo</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="MZ">Mo&#231;ambique</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Central de Maputo, Maputo &#8211; Mo&#231;ambique</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Eduardo Mondlane</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Maputo</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="MZ">Mo&#231;ambique</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo &#8211; Mo&#231;ambique</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Gabriel de Moraes Mangas</bold> &#8226; Universidade Federal Fluminense &#8211; Av. Marqu&#234;s de Paran&#225;, 303. CEP <postal-code>24220-900</postal-code>, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>gabrielmangas@gmail.com</email>, <email>gabrielmangas@id.uff.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial Conflito de Interesse</label>
          <p>Dr. Evandro Tinoco j&#225; foi palestrante dos laborat&#243;rios AstraZeneca, Boehringer, Novartis, Ach&#233; e Bristol Myers Squibb. Atuou como membro do conselho consultivo dos laborat&#243;rios Alnylam e Pfizer</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Nat&#225;lia Olivetti</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>17</day>
        <month>04</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>123</volume>
      <issue>2</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20240572</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>23</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>10</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>01</month>
          <year>2026</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A pericardite aguda &#233; uma inflama&#231;&#227;o do peric&#225;rdio, o revestimento que envolve o cora&#231;&#227;o, sendo a condi&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria card&#237;aca mais comum. A doen&#231;a afeta frequentemente adultos jovens e pode se manifestar com gravidade vari&#225;vel. A pericardite pode ter diversas causas, incluindo infec&#231;&#245;es virais, doen&#231;as autoimunes, condi&#231;&#245;es p&#243;s-infarto e, recentemente, infec&#231;&#245;es por SARS-CoV-2 ou vacinas contra a COVID-19. Nos pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, especialmente na &#193;frica, a tuberculose &#233; a principal causa de pericardite, frequentemente associada ao HIV. O diagn&#243;stico baseia-se em crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos, como dor no peito e altera&#231;&#245;es no eletrocardiograma e pode ser apoiado por exames de imagem, como ecocardiograma, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca e tomografia computadorizada. A identifica&#231;&#227;o da etiologia &#233; crucial para o tratamento personalizado, embora, muitas vezes, a causa espec&#237;fica n&#227;o seja identificada. Novas pesquisas t&#234;m destacado o papel do inflamassoma NLRP3 na fisiopatologia da pericardite, o que pode abrir caminho para novas terapias. Al&#233;m disso, avan&#231;os tecnol&#243;gicos e a intelig&#234;ncia artificial s&#227;o discutidos como ferramentas promissoras para melhorar o manejo da pericardite.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Pericardite Aguda</kwd>
        <kwd>Iinflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Diagn&#243;stico</kwd>
        <kwd>Tratamento</kwd>
        <kwd>Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de Financiamento</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="6"/>
        <table-count count="6"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="44"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A pericardite aguda &#233; a patologia inflamat&#243;ria card&#237;aca mais comum, com uma incid&#234;ncia estimada em 27,7 a cada 100.000 pessoas no mundo Ocidental.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No continente africano, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica da evid&#234;ncia existente mostrou que a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as peric&#225;rdicas varia muito de acordo com a popula&#231;&#227;o estudada, tendo sido encontradas preval&#234;ncias de cerca de 1,1% em indiv&#237;duos com queixas card&#237;acas, entre 3,3% e 6,8% em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e at&#233; 46,5% em pacientes infectados pelo HIV e com sintomas card&#237;acos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora geralmente siga um curso benigno e autolimitado, a pericardite pode apresentar-se com quadros graves. A condi&#231;&#227;o frequentemente afeta adultos jovens, com recorr&#234;ncia comum.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> O progn&#243;stico est&#225; associado &#224; idade do paciente e &#224; etiologia da pericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Diante disso, uma abordagem multidisciplinar, envolvendo uma colabora&#231;&#227;o entre cardiologistas, reumatologistas, oncologistas, imunologistas e infectologistas, pode resultar em melhores desfechos para os pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Os avan&#231;os no entendimento fisiopatol&#243;gico da pericardite aguda revelaram o papel central do inflamassoma NLRP3 e da subsequente libera&#231;&#227;o de interleucinas (IL-1&#945; e IL-1&#946;) no desenvolvimento da resposta inflamat&#243;ria.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Esse processo fisiopatol&#243;gico tem sido alvo de novas abordagens terap&#234;uticas para a pericardite, como o antagonista do receptor IL-1, rilonacept.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nesse contexto, a presente revis&#227;o visa destacar os recentes avan&#231;os no tratamento, diagn&#243;stico, fatores progn&#243;sticos, fisiopatologia e as atuais diretrizes acerca da pericardite aguda. Ademais, ser&#225; discutido o potencial papel de novas tecnologias, por meio da intelig&#234;ncia artificial, no desenvolvimento de uma melhor conduta em rela&#231;&#227;o aos pacientes com pericardite.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Foi realizada uma revis&#227;o narrativa sobre pericardite, conduzida por meio de uma busca eletr&#244;nica estruturada. A estrat&#233;gia de busca foi delineada com o uso de descritores controlados (MeSH/DeCS) combinados por operadores booleanos (AND, OR), abrangendo estudos publicados em ingl&#234;s, portugu&#234;s ou espanhol no per&#237;odo de janeiro de 2010 a agosto de 2024. As buscas foram realizadas nas bases de dados MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, LILACS/IBECS e Embase, e inclu&#237;dos estudos prim&#225;rios, relatos de casos, revis&#245;es sistem&#225;ticas, revis&#245;es narrativas e estudos qualitativos. Adicionalmente, foram identificados artigos relevantes por meio da revis&#227;o das refer&#234;ncias bibliogr&#225;ficas dos estudos selecionados e da busca complementar na web, a fim de captar publica&#231;&#245;es n&#227;o localizadas na busca inicial. Foram exclu&#237;dos aqueles que n&#227;o abordaram o diagn&#243;stico ou o manejamento de pericardite. Os termos de busca utilizados inclu&#237;ram: "Pericarditis"; "Pericardite"; "Acute Pericarditis"; "Pericardite Aguda"; "Inflammation"; "Inflama&#231;&#227;o"; "Diagnosis"; "Diagn&#243;stico"; "Diagnostic Imaging"; "Imagem Diagn&#243;stica"; "Therapeutics"; "Tratamento"; "Treatment"; "Anti-inflammatory agents"; "Follow-Up Studies"; "Acompanhamento"; "Monitoring"; "Long-term follow-up"; "Artificial Intelligence"; "Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial"; "Machine Learning"; "Aprendizado de M&#225;quina". Dada a natureza do estudo como uma revis&#227;o narrativa, sem envolvimento direto de seres humanos ou animais, n&#227;o foi necess&#225;ria a aprova&#231;&#227;o por um comit&#234; de &#233;tica.</p>
      <fig id="f3">
        <caption>
          <title>Mapa conceitual sobre etiologia, quadro cl&#237;nico, diagn&#243;stico e tratamento medicamentoso da pericardite aguda. AINEs: anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o esteroidais; IL-1: interleucina-1; PET-CT: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons associada &#224; tomografia computadorizada: RM: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica; TC: tomografia computadorizada.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20240572-40572-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      <sec>
        <title>Etiofisiopatologia</title>
        <p>O saco peric&#225;rdico &#233; composto por duas camadas: a visceral e a parietal. A camada visceral, composta por c&#233;lulas mesoteliais peric&#225;rdicas, adere diretamente ao epic&#225;rdio, enquanto a camada parietal, mais fibrosa, fornece suporte estrutural. As c&#233;lulas mesoteliais peric&#225;rdicas s&#227;o essenciais para o funcionamento adequado do cora&#231;&#227;o. Elas desempenham um papel crucial na lubrifica&#231;&#227;o, na prote&#231;&#227;o e na regula&#231;&#227;o da inflama&#231;&#227;o no peric&#225;rdio. Altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o das c&#233;lulas mesoteliais podem levar a diversas condi&#231;&#245;es, como pericardite, derrame peric&#225;rdico e tamponamento card&#237;aco. Entretanto, a dor referida no ombro &#233; devido &#224;s fibras somatossensoriais do nervo fr&#234;nico que inervam o peric&#225;rdio parietal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A pericardite &#233; a forma mais comum de doen&#231;a do peric&#225;rdio e &#233; definida como a inflama&#231;&#227;o das camadas do peric&#225;rdio. Ela pode estar associada ao derrame peric&#225;rdico e resultar em tamponamento card&#237;aco. Essa doen&#231;a pode ser uma manifesta&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca isolada ou resultado de uma desordem sist&#234;mica.</p>
        <p>A pericardite pode ter diversas etiologias, tanto infecciosas quanto n&#227;o infecciosas, ou ser idiop&#225;tica (Figura Central).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Como ilustrado na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>, a pericardite pode ser causada por infec&#231;&#227;o (viral, bacteriana, mic&#243;tica e parasit&#225;ria), doen&#231;as autoimunes, doen&#231;as metab&#243;licas, p&#243;s-infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, trauma, s&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-pericardiotomia, neoplasias, p&#243;s-radioterapia e medicamentos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Dentre as etiologias, as mais comuns s&#227;o as causas infecciosas, predominando a pericardite viral (80% a 85% dos casos aproximadamente).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Nesse caso, a inflama&#231;&#227;o decorre da a&#231;&#227;o direta do v&#237;rus ou da resposta imune do organismo a esse agente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Outrossim, quadro cl&#237;nico de aparente infec&#231;&#227;o viral recente (infec&#231;&#227;o do trato respirat&#243;rio superior ou gastroenterite) foi documentado em aproximadamente 40% dos pacientes com pericardite aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Principais agentes etiol&#243;gicos da pericardite aguda</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="none">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiologia</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Detalhamento</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Observa&#231;&#245;es importantes</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Infecciosa</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Viral, bacteriana, mic&#243;tica e parasit&#225;ria</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>80% a 85% de todos os casos s&#227;o virais.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Cerca de 40% dos pacientes com pericardite aguda t&#234;m hist&#243;ria de infec&#231;&#227;o recente (via a&#233;rea superior ou gastrointestinal).</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Os casos ocasionados por infec&#231;&#227;o bacteriana podem ter origem de pneumonia, febre reum&#225;tica, empiema, dissemina&#231;&#227;o hematog&#234;nica, p&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca/tor&#225;cica.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, 70% a 80% dos casos &#233; devido &#224; tuberculose.</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <label>&#8211;</label>
                      <p>Infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV &#233; fator de risco.</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Doen&#231;a autoimune</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">L&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico,<break/> artrite reumatoide, esclerodermia, polimiosite e dermatomiosite</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Doen&#231;a metab&#243;lica</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipotireoidismo, hiperlipidemia e<break/> diabetes mellitus</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Afetam de forma indireta o peric&#225;rdio por meio de rea&#231;&#245;es inflamat&#243;rias ou metab&#243;litos t&#243;xicos &#224;s c&#233;lulas do peric&#225;rdio.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rea&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pode ocorrer precoce (3 dias p&#243;s), denominada pericardite epistenoc&#225;rdica, ou tardiamente (3 semanas a 6 meses) devido &#224; autoimunidade, sendo denominada s&#237;ndrome de Dressler.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Trauma</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Objeto externo</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Principalmente em t&#243;rax</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>S&#237;ndrome p&#243;s-pericardiotomia</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rea&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria local ou sist&#234;mica</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Tem se tornado mais comum com aumento das interven&#231;&#245;es.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Neoplasias</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Invas&#227;o tumoral ou linf&#225;tica</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dissemina&#231;&#227;o hematog&#234;nica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Radioterapia</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Danos direto ao tecido (c&#233;lulas do peric&#225;rdio), rea&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria,<break/> fibrose e dano vascular</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Principalmente em c&#226;ncer tor&#225;cico, especialmente em c&#226;ncer de mama, pulm&#227;o e linfoma</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Medicamentoso</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiotoxicidade devido &#224; radioterapia e quimioterapia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Inibidores de imuno-checkpoints s&#227;o drogas de uso recente que podem estar associadas &#224; pericardite.</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Insufici&#234;ncia renal</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pericardite ur&#234;mica ou associada &#224; di&#225;lise</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Cerca de 20% evoluem para derrame peric&#225;rdico.</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Ademais, para a defini&#231;&#227;o da etiologia, dados epidemiol&#243;gicos locais devem sempre ser considerados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Com base em evid&#234;ncias que existem em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos, os agentes etiol&#243;gicos mais prevalentes s&#227;o os v&#237;rus e, com frequ&#234;ncia, os casos de pericardite aguda s&#227;o precedidos por uma s&#237;ndrome gripal ou gastrointestinal. Observa-se, tamb&#233;m, aumento dos casos de pericardite aguda durante as esta&#231;&#245;es mais frias. Em um estudo prospectivo da Fran&#231;a, 55% dos casos foram de origem idiop&#225;tica e 20% ap&#243;s s&#237;ndrome de inj&#250;ria card&#237;aca. Essa &#250;ltima causa est&#225; aumentando progressivamente em pa&#237;ses desenvolvidos devido ao crescente n&#250;mero de procedimentos card&#237;acos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A pericardite p&#243;s-infarto pode ocorrer precocemente, nos 3 primeiros dias ap&#243;s o epis&#243;dio de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, sendo denominada pericardite epistenoc&#225;rdica, ou tardiamente &#8211; de 3 semanas a 6 meses &#8211; devido &#224; atividade autoimune, que recebe o nome de s&#237;ndrome de Dressler.</p>
        <p>Outrossim, a pericardite em pessoas vivendo com HIV pode ser devida a doen&#231;as infecciosas, n&#227;o infecciosas ou neopl&#225;sicas (sarcoma de Kaposi ou linfoma), podendo resultar em miopericardite. E nos casos de etiologia autoimune, a pericardite acontece principalmente nos casos de l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico, artrite reumatoide, esclerodermia, polimiosite e dermatomiosite. Outra causa comum de doen&#231;a peric&#225;rdica &#233; a insufici&#234;ncia renal, a qual evolui com o desenvolvimento de derrame em 20% dos casos, podendo manifestar-se como pericardite ur&#234;mica ou pericardite associada a di&#225;lise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outras poss&#237;veis causas a serem consideradas s&#227;o hipotireoidismo e c&#226;ncer. No caso das pericardites neopl&#225;sicas, elas s&#227;o consequ&#234;ncia da invas&#227;o tumoral ou linf&#225;tica, ou ocorrem por dissemina&#231;&#227;o hematog&#234;nica, ocorrendo, ent&#227;o, tanto na forma prim&#225;ria quanto na metast&#225;tica, ou mesmo como resultado de radioterapia para c&#226;nceres tor&#225;cicos. Atualmente, a pericardite por inibidores de imuno-checkpoints tem alguns poucos casos descritos na literatura.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Outro mecanismo associado &#224; pericardite aguda em um paciente oncol&#243;gico envolve a cardiotoxicidade decorrente de medicamentos radioter&#225;picos e mais recentemente inibidores de imuno-checkpoints.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Entretanto, quando de etiologia bacteriana, normalmente, a pericardite cursa com derrame peric&#225;rdico, e sua origem pode derivar de situa&#231;&#245;es como pneumonia, febre reum&#225;tica, empiema, dissemina&#231;&#227;o hematog&#234;nica, p&#243;s-cirurgia card&#237;aca ou tor&#225;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nos pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, a elevada preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;as infecciosas como o HIV, associada &#224; pobreza e aos fracos sistemas de sa&#250;de existentes contribui para que as doen&#231;as infecciosas tenham um papel importante no espectro da etiologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Numa an&#225;lise de estudos que avaliaram a etiologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em v&#225;rios pa&#237;ses da &#193;frica subsaariana, a pericardite foi encontrada em 3% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> No estudo The Sub-Saharan Africa Survey of Heart Failure (THESUS&#8211;HF) incluindo 1.006 pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca de 9 pa&#237;ses africanos, 6,8% apresentaram derrame peric&#225;rdico com tamponamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Ressalta-se ainda que, em pa&#237;ses em desenvolvimento, a principal etiologia da pericardite &#233; a tuberculose, alcan&#231;ando 70% a 80% dos casos ou 90% entre os pacientes HIV positivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em &#193;frica em particular, uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica das evid&#234;ncias dispon&#237;veis mostrou que poucos estudos reportaram sobre a etiologia da doen&#231;a peric&#225;rdica e a maior parte deles incluiu uma amostra pequena de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Entre os estudos publicados, a tuberculose foi a causa de doen&#231;a peric&#225;rdica mais frequentemente observada e a infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV foi o principal fator de risco; entretanto, a tuberculose foi a principal etiologia tamb&#233;m em pacientes n&#227;o infectados pelo HIV. Em um estudo de base ecocardiogr&#225;fica realizado num hospital terci&#225;rio de Dar es Salaam, foi avaliado o padr&#227;o de anomalias card&#237;acas encontradas em doentes infectados pelo HIV e que se apresentaram com sintomas card&#237;acos. O diagn&#243;stico ecocardiogr&#225;fico mais comum foi derrame peric&#225;rdico, presente em 41,2% dos participantes do estudo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> No entanto, em grande parte dos casos reportados, a etiologia da doen&#231;a peric&#225;rdica n&#227;o foi encontrada e nos restantes casos as neoplasias e doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas como o l&#250;pus eritematoso sist&#234;mico foram as etiologias mais encontradas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m das mais conhecidas etiologias da pericardite aguda, duas novas importantes etiologias t&#234;m sido descritas nos &#250;ltimos 2 anos. S&#227;o elas a infec&#231;&#227;o por SARS-CoV-2 e a vacina contra a COVID-19, especialmente a vacina de RNAm. Com essas duas novas etiologias, a pericardite que cursa com miocardite tem ganhado mais relev&#226;ncia. A pericardite esteve presente em 1,5% dos casos de COVID-19 e &#233; mais comum em indiv&#237;duos mais velhos. Embora seja uma etiologia poss&#237;vel de pericardite, os dados atuais evidenciam que os benef&#237;cios da vacina&#231;&#227;o contra as infec&#231;&#245;es respirat&#243;rias contrabalan&#231;am preocupa&#231;&#245;es sobre a poss&#237;vel, mas definitivamente rara, pericardite induzida por vacina&#231;&#227;o. Ademais, o curso cl&#237;nico da pericardite por essa etiologia n&#227;o se difere quando comparado ao quadro comum de pericardite viral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No per&#237;odo do diagn&#243;stico da pericardite, a infec&#231;&#227;o viral n&#227;o pode ser confirmada pela sorologia de anticorpos, j&#225; que os anticorpos IgM n&#227;o s&#227;o mais detectados. T&#233;cnicas moleculares, como Rea&#231;&#227;o em Cadeia da Polimerase (PCR), no fluido peric&#225;rdico ou no tecido depois de uma pericardiocentese ou de uma bi&#243;psia peric&#225;rdica, respectivamente, poderia ser capaz de identificar o agente etiol&#243;gico, mas &#233; uma abordagem invasiva e n&#227;o recomendada para uma desordem que geralmente segue um curso benigno. Segundo diretrizes recentes, a identifica&#231;&#227;o rotineira do agente viral n&#227;o &#233; recomendada j&#225; que n&#227;o afeta as decis&#245;es de tratamento e o progn&#243;stico, com exce&#231;&#227;o do v&#237;rus da hepatite C e do HIV. Os termos pericardite viral e idiop&#225;tica s&#227;o tratados como sin&#244;nimos, assumindo-se etiologia viral presumida na forma idiop&#225;tica. Em suma, a identifica&#231;&#227;o da etiologia subjacente &#233; de suma import&#226;ncia para o desenvolvimento de um plano personalizado de tratamento da pericardite, sendo recomend&#225;vel que se pesquise a presen&#231;a de pericardite em pacientes que apresentem doen&#231;as sist&#234;micas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; fisiopatologia molecular e celular, novos ensaios cl&#237;nicos em roedores t&#234;m mostrado que o inflamassoma NLRP1 (dom&#237;nio NACHT, repeti&#231;&#227;o rica em leucina e pirina 1) e a IL-1&#946; possuem importante papel no desenvolvimento da inflama&#231;&#227;o da pericardite aguda e em sua recorr&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Os inflamassomas s&#227;o plataformas compostas por prote&#237;nas que controlam a resposta inflamat&#243;ria e coordenam as defesas antimicrobianas do organismo. Eles s&#227;o ativados por meio da detec&#231;&#227;o de microrganismos patog&#234;nicos e sinais de perigo no citoplasma das c&#233;lulas, ativando a caspase-1, que produz citocinas e induz a piroptose das c&#233;lulas, por meio da ativa&#231;&#227;o da gasdermina D. Os inflamassomas, em sua ativa&#231;&#227;o exacerbada, est&#227;o relacionados com numerosas desordens inflamat&#243;rias heredit&#225;rias e adquiridas, como a pericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Essas evid&#234;ncias devem guiar os pr&#243;ximos estudos que visam investigar o mecanismo de desenvolvimento da pericardite que, por muitas vezes, n&#227;o possui etiologia definida, sendo denominada idiop&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico</title>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico da pericardite aguda deve incluir dois dos seguintes quadros: dor peric&#225;rdica, atrito peric&#225;rdico, nova eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST ou depress&#227;o do segmento PR no eletrocardiograma (ECG), ou o aparecimento de novo ou o agravamento de um derrame peric&#225;rdico (demonstrado por um m&#233;todo de cardioimagem) (Figura Central).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A dor peric&#225;rdica &#233; aguda, retrosternal e, tipicamente, piora com a inspira&#231;&#227;o ou tosse e com o dec&#250;bito e melhora quando o paciente se senta ereto ou inclinado para frente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Ela pode ainda se irradiar para o topo das esc&#225;pulas, bra&#231;os, pesco&#231;o ou mand&#237;bula.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> No exame f&#237;sico, al&#233;m do atrito peric&#225;rdico, que pode ser auscultado na borda esternal esquerda, podem ser encontradas febre baixa e outras manifesta&#231;&#245;es, caso a doen&#231;a de base aja sistemicamente. N&#227;o existe biomarcador espec&#237;fico para pericardite; no entanto, biomarcadores de inflama&#231;&#227;o, como prote&#237;na C-reativa, est&#227;o aumentados em 80% dos casos e a troponina pode estar levemente elevada, caso a inflama&#231;&#227;o tenha atingido o mioc&#225;rdio &#8211; quadro que passa a ser chamado miopericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Por outro lado, o diagn&#243;stico etiol&#243;gico &#233; um desafio e em muitos casos n&#227;o se encontra a causa da pericardite. Inclusive no caso espec&#237;fico de suspeita de pericardite tuberculosa, o diagn&#243;stico definitivo tem sido dif&#237;cil, o que levou ao estudo da acur&#225;cia de novos testes de diagn&#243;stico incluindo o teste de PCR quantitativo (Xpert MTB/RIF), o interferon gama n&#227;o estimulado (uIFN&#947;), a adenosina desaminase peric&#225;rdica (ADA) e o lipoarabinomanano peric&#225;rdico e urin&#225;rio (LAM). Em um estudo comparativo entre o teste Xpert MTB/RIF, ADA peric&#225;rdica e uIFN&#947;, o ensaio uIFN&#947; apresentou maior precis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica podendo ser o teste de primeira linha para o diagn&#243;stico de pericardite tuberculosa. Adicionalmente, maior sensibilidade e especificidade &#233; conseguida com a combina&#231;&#227;o de Xpert MTB/RIF com ADA ou uIFN&#947;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Por outro lado, a LAM urin&#225;ria ou peric&#225;rdica mostrou baixa sensibilidade, mas alta especificidade para o diagn&#243;stico de pericardite tuberculosa e a LAM urin&#225;ria mostrou maior sensibilidade em pacientes infectados pelo HIV com CD4 &#8804; 100 c&#233;lulas/mm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> No entanto, o acesso a estes testes diagn&#243;sticos apresenta-se como outro desafio importante nos pa&#237;ses africanos, onde a entidade assume maior import&#226;ncia na etiologia das pericardites. Assim sendo, quando se consegue colher o l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico, a cultura do l&#237;quido continua sendo o teste diagn&#243;stico mais utilizado e a ADA continua sendo tamb&#233;m o teste bioqu&#237;mico mais utilizado. No entanto, a cultura leva pelo menos 3 semanas para produzir resultados e a ADA tem limitado valor como teste confirmat&#243;rio de diagn&#243;stico. Al&#233;m disso, nestas &#225;reas de alta endemicidade para tuberculose, o teste cut&#226;neo de tuberculina positivo apenas reflete a exposi&#231;&#227;o aos ant&#237;genos do <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic>, n&#227;o discernindo com precis&#227;o a doen&#231;a ativa, e por isso tem valor limitado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Exames de imagem podem ser &#250;teis no diagn&#243;stico e acompanhamento da pericardite aguda, especialmente ecocardiografia, resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca (RMC) e tomografia computadorizada (TC) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Na aus&#234;ncia de uma efus&#227;o peric&#225;rdica de volume suficiente, a radiografia convencional normalmente n&#227;o apresenta altera&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>A, B) Ecocardiograma de janela apical de 4 c&#226;maras e janela paraesternal eixo curto, respectivamente, mostrando a presen&#231;a de derrame e bastante fibrina no espa&#231;o peric&#225;rdico (setas). C, D, E, F) Resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica mostrando extensa fibrose de padr&#227;o n&#227;o isqu&#234;mico em regi&#245;es mesoc&#225;rdica e subepic&#225;rdica.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20240572-40572-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A ecocardiografia deve ser o exame de imagem de primeira escolha, por ser um m&#233;todo acess&#237;vel, de baixo custo e de r&#225;pida execu&#231;&#227;o, capaz de fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es fundamentais sobre a espessura do peric&#225;rdio, a presen&#231;a e o volume do derrame peric&#225;rdico, bem como seu impacto hemodin&#226;mico no enchimento card&#237;aco (tamponamento peric&#225;rdico). O exame tamb&#233;m pode identificar massas aderidas &#224; cavidade peric&#225;rdica, trab&#233;culas de fibrina, conte&#250;do com densidade sugestiva de trombo no l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico e formas localizadas de derrame, como frequentemente observado no p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio de cirurgia card&#237;aca (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). O ecocardiograma pode ser normal trazendo como diagn&#243;stico uma pericardite seca, que pode estar presente em 30% dos pacientes. Adicionalmente, pequenos derrames peric&#225;rdicos podem acontecer em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis; portanto, o diagn&#243;stico de pericardite deve ser feito com cautela. Apesar de alguns pacientes com pericardite aguda apresentarem ecocardiograma sem altera&#231;&#245;es, esse exame &#233; muito &#250;til para diagnosticar presen&#231;a de efus&#227;o peric&#225;rdica e seu tamanho, fisiologia do tamponamento e envolvimento do mioc&#225;rdio, como numa miopericardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f2">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Esquema de tratamento medicamentoso da pericardite.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20240572-40572-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        <p>A pericardite tuberculosa, por exemplo, apresenta-se geralmente com derrame, muitas vezes em tamponamento, e por vezes j&#225; em fase de pericardite constritiva, podendo tamb&#233;m apresentar-se em forma de miopericardite (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). O importante estudo Investigation of the Management of Pericarditis in Africa (IMPI Africa) recrutou 185 pacientes de 15 hospitais de tr&#234;s pa&#237;ses da &#193;frica Subsaariana que estavam no in&#237;cio do tratamento para pericardite tuberculosa. Destes, 79,5% apresentavam pericardite efusiva, 15,1% efusiva-constritiva e 5,4% constritiva ou aguda seca, e 40% dos pacientes apresentavam caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas de infec&#231;&#227;o pelo HIV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Se os resultados da ecocardiografia forem inconclusivos ou houver apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica at&#237;pica, ou se o m&#233;dico quiser investigar causas espec&#237;ficas, como malignidade ou tuberculose, TC ou RMC podem ser utilizadas. Na TC podemos observar a espessura, calcifica&#231;&#227;o, derrames peric&#225;rdicos regionais e, atrav&#233;s da densidade do l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico, podemos diferenciar se &#233; um transudato, exsudato ou sangue e, ocasionalmente, a presen&#231;a de massa pr&#243;xima ao peric&#225;rdio, como tumores de pulm&#227;o e mama. Um recurso muito &#250;til na RMC &#233; o realce tardio de gadol&#237;nio (RTG), uma t&#233;cnica que permite a detec&#231;&#227;o de inflama&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica com sensibilidade de 94% a 100%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O PET-CT com 18F-FDG &#233; um exame mais comumente utilizado no contexto da oncologia, no entanto, provou-se &#250;til, na medida em que, no contexto de pericardite aguda com efus&#227;o peric&#225;rdica, uma maior absor&#231;&#227;o de FDG pelo peric&#225;rdio est&#225; associada a maior risco de recorr&#234;ncia e pode ser &#250;til na caracteriza&#231;&#227;o da pericardite recorrente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico diferencial</title>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico diferencial da pericardite aguda &#233; essencial devido &#224; sua sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de sintomas com v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas e n&#227;o card&#237;acas. Dor tor&#225;cica s&#250;bita &#233; um sintoma comum, mas n&#227;o espec&#237;fico, e pode ser causada por diversas condi&#231;&#245;es, incluindo infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, embolia pulmonar, dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, al&#233;m de dist&#250;rbios gastrointestinais e musculoesquel&#233;ticos. A avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial inclui exames f&#237;sicos detalhados e an&#225;lise dos sintomas do paciente. Exames laboratoriais, como dosagem de troponina e prote&#237;na C-reativa, s&#227;o &#250;teis para diferenciar a pericardite aguda de um infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> O ECG frequentemente revela eleva&#231;&#227;o difusa do segmento ST, infra de PR e os est&#225;gios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos da pericardite aguda, um achado cl&#225;ssico, embora n&#227;o espec&#237;fico, da doen&#231;a. A pericardite, classicamente, est&#225; associada a altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG que evoluem em quatro est&#225;gios (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t2">
          <label>Tabela 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG conforme progress&#227;o da pericardite</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="none">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Est&#225;gios</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Est&#225;gio 1</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Eleva&#231;&#227;o difusa do segmento ST e depress&#227;o do segmento PR com altera&#231;&#245;es rec&#237;procas na deriva&#231;&#227;o aVR (ocorre durante as primeiras 2 semanas)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Est&#225;gio 2</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Normaliza&#231;&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es do segmento ST; achatamento generalizado da onda T (1 a 3 semanas)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Est&#225;gio 3</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">As ondas T achatadas tornam-se invertidas (3 a v&#225;rias semanas)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Est&#225;gio 4</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O ECG volta ao normal (v&#225;rias semanas em diante)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>A radiografia de t&#243;rax pode mostrar aumento do tamanho do cora&#231;&#227;o ou derrame pleural associado. A ecocardiografia &#233; uma ferramenta valiosa para avaliar a presen&#231;a de derrame peric&#225;rdico e de altera&#231;&#245;es na fun&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca, mas pode n&#227;o ser conclusiva por si s&#243;. Em casos de suspeita persistente ou quando o diagn&#243;stico n&#227;o &#233; claro, a RMC ou a TC pode ser &#250;til para avaliar as estruturas card&#237;acas com mais detalhes. A exclus&#227;o do infarto do mioc&#225;rdio &#233; um dos principais desafios no diagn&#243;stico diferencial. Em pacientes com suspeita de pericardite aguda e fatores de risco para doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, pode ser necess&#225;ria a realiza&#231;&#227;o de angiografia coronariana para descartar obstru&#231;&#245;es coron&#225;rias.</p>
        <p>Ademais, &#233; importante considerar o diagn&#243;stico diferencial de necrose da gordura epiperic&#225;rdica (EFN). Assim como na pericardite aguda, a EFN pode apresentar dor tor&#225;cica como sintoma principal, o que pode dificultar o diagn&#243;stico preciso. Dessa forma, &#233; importante avaliar as diferen&#231;as na localiza&#231;&#227;o da dor, visto que na NFE &#233; geralmente mais pleur&#237;tica e localizada na regi&#227;o precordial, enquanto na pericardite a dor pode ser mais difusa e se irradiar para o pesco&#231;o, ombros e costas, com altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG. A EFN geralmente n&#227;o causa altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG, por&#233;m a pericardite pode apresentar altera&#231;&#245;es como eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST e depress&#227;o do PR, al&#233;m de febre, fadiga e atrito peric&#225;rdico, que s&#227;o menos frequentes na NFE. A TC &#233; o exame de escolha para diagnosticar a EFN, pois evidencia a &#225;rea de inflama&#231;&#227;o da gordura ao redor do cora&#231;&#227;o. Contudo, a RM e exames laboratoriais podem auxiliar tamb&#233;m.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>&#201; importante considerar outras condi&#231;&#245;es que podem mimetizar a pericardite aguda, como miocardite, embolia pulmonar e doen&#231;as gastrointestinais. Cada uma dessas condi&#231;&#245;es apresenta caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas distintas e exames espec&#237;ficos que auxiliam no diagn&#243;stico diferencial preciso. A avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica cuidadosa e a considera&#231;&#227;o de uma variedade de condi&#231;&#245;es que podem se manifestar de forma semelhante &#224; pericardite aguda s&#227;o cruciais para um manejo cl&#237;nico eficaz e preciso. A integra&#231;&#227;o de exames cl&#237;nicos, laboratoriais e de imagem desempenha papel fundamental na abordagem diagn&#243;stica diferencial desses casos.</p>
        <p>Por fim, o uso de crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos inadequados pode levar ao sobrediagn&#243;stico da pericardite aguda. O derrame do peric&#225;rdio em pequenos volumes, a dor tor&#225;cica e os biomarcadores elevados podem ser encontrados em pessoas h&#237;gidas, n&#227;o indicando necessariamente a presen&#231;a de uma doen&#231;a. O sobrediagn&#243;stico da pericardite aguda pode levar a tratamentos desnecess&#225;rios, como a administra&#231;&#227;o de anti-inflamat&#243;rios ou corticosteroides, que podem prejudicar a qualidade de vida do paciente, al&#233;m de elevar o custo para o sistema de sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento</title>
        <p>As principais diretrizes sobre pericardite &#8211; ESC (2015), ACC/AHA (2020) e SBC (2013) &#8211; apresentam semelhan&#231;as no tratamento de primeira linha, mas divergem em aspectos importantes da abordagem e da estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t3">
          <label>Tabela 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Compara&#231;&#227;o entre as diretrizes ESC (2015), ACC/AHA (2020) e SBC (2013) para o tratamento da pericardite aguda</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="none">
            <colgroup width="25%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Aspecto</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">ESC (2015)</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">ACC/AHA (2020)</th>
                <th align="left" valign="middle">SBC (2013)</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>AINEs</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ibuprofeno 600 a 800 mg<break/> 3 vezes/dia ou aspirina 750 a 1000 mg 3 vezes/dia por 1 a 2 semanas, com desmame gradual</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ibuprofeno, aspirina ou indometacina por 2 a 4 semanas, com desmame gradual ap&#243;s remiss&#227;o dos sintomas</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Ibuprofeno 600 mg 3 vezes/dia ou aspirina 1000 mg<break/> 3 vezes/dia por 1 a 2 semanas, com redu&#231;&#227;o progressiva</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Colchicina</bold>
                  <break/>
                  <bold>(epis&#243;dio agudo)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">0,5 a 1,0 mg/dia por 3 meses, ajustada por peso e toler&#226;ncia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">0,5 a 1,0 mg/dia por 3 meses, com ajuste de dose por peso</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recomenda&#231;&#227;o classe IIa, evid&#234;ncia B. Dose: 1 mg/dia<break/> (0,5 mg 2 vezes/dia) por 3 meses. N&#227;o indicada universalmente</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Colchicina (recorrente)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">0,5 a 1,0 mg/dia por 6 meses</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">0,5 a 1,0 mg/dia por 6 meses, com ajuste por peso</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recomendada por 6 meses em casos de pericardite recorrente</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Evitar atividade f&#237;sica</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">N&#227;o especificado</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recomendado evitar esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico durante o tratamento</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recomendado repouso cl&#237;nico, sem defini&#231;&#227;o objetiva de tempo ou intensidade</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Corticoide &#8211; indica&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Reservado para contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou falha a AINEs/colchicina, pericardite autoimune ou ur&#234;mica</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Reservado para contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou falha a AINEs/colchicina, ou pericardite associada a doen&#231;as espec&#237;ficas</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recomendado em casos refrat&#225;rios a AINEs/colchicina, pericardite autoimune ou ur&#234;mica</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Corticoide &#8211; dose e tempo</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Prednisona 0,2 a 0,5 mg/kg/dia, com desmame lento e uso conjunto com colchicina</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Prednisona ou equivalente em dose baixa (0,2 a 0,5 mg/kg/dia), com retirada gradual e associa&#231;&#227;o &#224; colchicina</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Prednisona 1 mg/kg/dia por<break/> 2 semanas, com desmame<break/> em 4 a 6 semanas e<break/> associa&#231;&#227;o &#224; colchicina</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Risco de recorr&#234;ncia com corticoide</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Uso precoce e isolado associado a maior risco de recorr&#234;ncia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Uso precoce e isolado associado a maior risco de recorr&#234;ncia</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Uso isolado pode aumentar risco de recorr&#234;ncia; recomenda-se evitar</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Imunobiol&#243;gicos (inibidores de IL-1)</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">N&#227;o especificado</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Recomendados em casos refrat&#225;rios ou corticodependentes (ex.: anakinra, rilonacept)</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">N&#227;o mencionados</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">
                  <bold>Crit&#233;rios de interna&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                </td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Considera fatores como febre, derrame volumoso, e miopericardite como de pior progn&#243;stico</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Define crit&#233;rios objetivos: febre &gt; 38 &#176;C, derrame volumoso, falha terap&#234;utica ap&#243;s 7 dias, miocardite</td>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Indica interna&#231;&#227;o em casos de tamponamento, febre alta, derrame importante ou<break/> etiologia grave</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN2">
              <p>AINEs: anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o esteroidais; IL-1: interleucina-1.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>As tr&#234;s orienta&#231;&#245;es recomendam o uso inicial de anti-inflamat&#243;rios n&#227;o esteroidais (AINEs) associados &#224; colchicina. A ESC prop&#245;e o uso de AINEs por 1 a 2 semanas, com desmame gradual, e colchicina por 3 meses no primeiro epis&#243;dio e 6 meses em recidivas, na dose habitual de 0,5 a 1,0 mg/dia, ajustada conforme o peso e a toler&#226;ncia (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref>). A ACC/AHA refor&#231;a o mesmo esquema de colchicina, com ajuste por peso corporal, e enfatiza a evita&#231;&#227;o de atividade f&#237;sica intensa durante o tratamento. Ambas as diretrizes de orienta&#231;&#227;o e os artigos recentes destacam que a adi&#231;&#227;o precoce da colchicina reduz significativamente a taxa de recorr&#234;ncia e previne complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O uso de corticosteroides, como prednisona ou prednisolona, &#233; reservado, segundo as tr&#234;s diretrizes, para casos com contraindica&#231;&#227;o ou falha no uso de AINEs e colchicina, ou para pericardite de etiologia autoimune ou ur&#234;mica. A ESC e a ACC/AHA alertam que o uso precoce e isolado de corticoides est&#225; associado a um maior risco de recorr&#234;ncia. Por isso, recomendam doses baixas (como 0,2 a 0,5 mg/kg/dia) e desmame progressivo, preferencialmente com colchicina associada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A diretriz brasileira, entretanto, n&#227;o especifica doses, tempo de uso nem estrat&#233;gias de desmame, o que pode limitar sua aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica em casos mais complexos.</p>
        <p>Uma diferen&#231;a not&#225;vel &#233; a &#234;nfase da ACC/AHA na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco. Ela prop&#245;e crit&#233;rios objetivos para interna&#231;&#227;o, como febre &gt; 38 &#176;C, derrames volumosos ou tamponamento, resposta inflamat&#243;ria persistente ap&#243;s uma semana de tratamento e evid&#234;ncia de miocardite.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> A ESC menciona fatores progn&#243;sticos de forma mais ampla.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, a ACC/AHA e a ESC introduzem estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas modernas, como o uso de bloqueadores de IL-1 (por exemplo, anakinra, rilonacept) e imunossupressores (como azatioprina) em casos refrat&#225;rios ou corticodependentes &#8211; recursos ainda n&#227;o contemplados na diretriz brasileira.</p>
        <p>Essa an&#225;lise refor&#231;a a necessidade de atualiza&#231;&#227;o da diretriz nacional, que permanece sem revis&#227;o h&#225; mais de uma d&#233;cada e n&#227;o incorpora abordagens modernas de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco, dura&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica ou imunomodula&#231;&#227;o, j&#225; adotadas por sociedades internacionais.</p>
        <p>Para pacientes com pericardite aguda refrat&#225;ria ao tratamento convencional, a terapia com imunossupressores, como a azatioprina ou o metotrexato, pode ser considerada em conjunto com outros medicamentos, embora essa abordagem necessite de mais estudos para definir seu papel exato e seguran&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Em &#193;frica, o ensaio randomizado controlado IMPI &#233; uma refer&#234;ncia, tendo sido o primeiro a investigar o papel dos esteroides na pericardite tuberculosa. Os resultados mostraram que, entre os pacientes HIV negativos com pericardite tuberculosa, a prednisolona reduziu a incid&#234;ncia de pericardite constritiva. No entanto, houve um aumento significativo na incid&#234;ncia de cancro associado ao HIV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da terapia farmacol&#243;gica, repouso relativo tamb&#233;m &#233; frequentemente recomendado durante o per&#237;odo agudo da doen&#231;a. A restri&#231;&#227;o de exerc&#237;cios &#233; fundamental como terapia para todos os pacientes durante os sintomas e por pelo menos 3 meses para atletas; o atleta pode retornar &#224;s atividades esportivas competitivas somente ap&#243;s os sintomas terem desaparecido e os testes diagn&#243;sticos (ou seja, prote&#237;na C-reativa, ECG e ecocardiograma) estiverem normalizados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Monitoramento pr&#243;ximo e avalia&#231;&#227;o regular s&#227;o essenciais para controlar a pericardite aguda, especialmente em casos mais graves ou complicados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> &#201; fundamental ressaltar que o tratamento da pericardite aguda deve ser personalizado, considerando a gravidade dos sintomas, a presen&#231;a de condi&#231;&#245;es subjacentes e as caracter&#237;sticas individuais do paciente. Diretrizes cl&#237;nicas frequentemente atualizadas oferecem orienta&#231;&#245;es precisas para garantir o manejo eficaz e seguro dessa condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Embora geralmente seja autolimitada, a pericardite pode levar &#224; incapacidade significativa a curto prazo. Formas complexas da doen&#231;a demandam aten&#231;&#227;o especial. As principais complica&#231;&#245;es a serem consideradas incluem: persist&#234;ncia dos sintomas, recorr&#234;ncia, tamponamento card&#237;aco (cerca de 1% dos casos) e constri&#231;&#227;o peric&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> O tratamento das formas complexas da pericardite visa aliviar os sintomas, prevenir a recorr&#234;ncia e monitorar poss&#237;veis complica&#231;&#245;es. As principais medidas incluem o uso de AINEs e, em casos mais graves, podem ser utilizados corticoides ou colchicina, al&#233;m da cardiovigil&#226;ncia por meio de ECG, ecocardiograma e exames laboratoriais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Cada caso de pericardite complexa deve ser avaliado individualmente por um cardiologista experiente, que ir&#225; definir o melhor plano de tratamento e acompanhamento, proporcionando ao paciente uma melhor qualidade de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Perspectiva futura</title>
        <p>Aprimorar o conhecimento fisiopatol&#243;gico da pericardite aguda &#233; essencial para explorar novas op&#231;&#245;es de tratamento, uma vez que a compreens&#227;o detalhada dos mecanismos subjacentes &#224; doen&#231;a pode identificar alvos terap&#234;uticos espec&#237;ficos e abrir portas para interven&#231;&#245;es mais eficazes (Figura Central). A investiga&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua sobre os processos inflamat&#243;rios e imunol&#243;gicos envolvidos na pericardite aguda tem potencial para revolucionar o manejo cl&#237;nico da condi&#231;&#227;o. Um exemplo promissor &#233; o tratamento inovador por meio da via de a&#231;&#227;o da IL-1, que evidencia como o avan&#231;o do conhecimento cient&#237;fico pode levar ao desenvolvimento de novas terapias. Este tratamento direcionado &#224; IL-1 demonstra a capacidade de modular a resposta inflamat&#243;ria, proporcionando uma abordagem mais precisa e eficaz para os pacientes, reduzindo os sintomas e prevenindo recorr&#234;ncias. Assim, a integra&#231;&#227;o de novas descobertas cient&#237;ficas no campo da pericardite aguda pode transformar significativamente as estrat&#233;gias terap&#234;uticas, melhorando a qualidade de vida dos pacientes e otimizando os resultados cl&#237;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A melhor caracteriza&#231;&#227;o de casos subagudos &#233; fundamental para identificar o tratamento mais adequado para esses pacientes. O sobrediagn&#243;stico da pericardite aguda indica que diversos par&#226;metros, como o volume de pequenos derrames peric&#225;rdicos, podem n&#227;o ser precisos para o diagn&#243;stico. &#201;, portanto, necess&#225;rio aprimorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de agravamento da doen&#231;a e utilizar novas ferramentas de diagn&#243;stico, como a TC, o PET e a RMC. Multimodalidade em cardioimagem &#233; extremamente &#250;til para afastar casos que foram equivocadamente diagnosticados com pericardite aguda a partir de um derrame peric&#225;rdico discreto ou pequeno com uma dor t&#237;pica n&#227;o caracter&#237;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A intelig&#234;ncia artificial (IA), especialmente por meio de algoritmos de aprendizado profundo (<italic>deep learning</italic>), tem emergido como uma ferramenta promissora para o diagn&#243;stico de pericardite aguda, sobretudo no contexto da emerg&#234;ncia, onde a diferencia&#231;&#227;o entre pericardite e infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com supradesnivelamento do segmento ST representa um desafio cl&#237;nico relevante. A sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de manifesta&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas entre essas condi&#231;&#245;es pode levar a erros diagn&#243;sticos, com consequ&#234;ncias terap&#234;uticas graves. Nesse cen&#225;rio, pesquisadores da Escola de Medicina do Centro M&#233;dico de Defesa Nacional de Taip&#233;, em Taiwan, desenvolveram um modelo de aprendizado profundo baseado em ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es que superou cardiologistas e algoritmos comerciais na detec&#231;&#227;o de pericardite aguda. O modelo atingiu sensibilidade de 78,9% e especificidade de 97,7%. Al&#233;m da fun&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, o modelo tamb&#233;m demonstrou potencial progn&#243;stico. Pacientes que foram falsamente classificados como pericardite, mas n&#227;o atendiam aos crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos para tal, apresentaram risco significativamente maior de hospitaliza&#231;&#227;o por causas card&#237;acas em at&#233; tr&#234;s dias, sugerindo que o modelo pode identificar padr&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos subcl&#237;nicos preditores de eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar dos resultados promissores, limita&#231;&#245;es importantes ainda restringem a aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica desses modelos. Entre elas est&#227;o: a necessidade de valida&#231;&#227;o externa em amostras populacionais diversas, o car&#225;ter retrospectivo e unic&#234;ntrico do estudo original e o desafio da "caixa-preta" dos modelos de aprendizado profundo, cuja interpreta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica ainda &#233; limitada. Al&#233;m disso, pacientes com pericardite cr&#244;nica, tamponamento card&#237;aco ou outras condi&#231;&#245;es com apresenta&#231;&#245;es semelhantes foram exclu&#237;dos do treinamento, o que pode comprometer a generaliza&#231;&#227;o do algoritmo para diferentes formas de manifesta&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
        <p>Ainda assim, a incorpora&#231;&#227;o de IA ao diagn&#243;stico de pericardite representa uma fronteira inovadora, com aplicabilidade futura em ambientes de emerg&#234;ncia, em unidades remotas e at&#233; mesmo por meio de dispositivos vest&#237;veis. Em conjunto com a telemedicina e o monitoramento remoto, esses sistemas poder&#227;o, futuramente, contribuir n&#227;o apenas para o diagn&#243;stico precoce, mas tamb&#233;m para o acompanhamento longitudinal e para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco individualizada em pacientes com pericardite.</p>
        <p>Institui&#231;&#245;es com o objetivo de defesa e informa&#231;&#227;o sobre a pericardite, tanto para pacientes quanto para profissionais de sa&#250;de, t&#234;m sido cruciais no cen&#225;rio atual, destacando-se a Pericarditis Alliance, fundada em 2020. Essa institui&#231;&#227;o &#233; composta por pacientes que enfrentaram desafios significativos para obter um diagn&#243;stico correto e um tratamento eficaz, unindo-se a prestigiados profissionais de sa&#250;de e pesquisadores na miss&#227;o de avan&#231;ar no diagn&#243;stico e no tratamento da pericardite. O trabalho da Pericarditis Alliance abrange pesquisa, educa&#231;&#227;o e apoio, &#225;reas em que ainda h&#225; uma car&#234;ncia consider&#225;vel de conscientiza&#231;&#227;o, investiga&#231;&#227;o e advocacia sobre as causas, a preven&#231;&#227;o e o tratamento da pericardite cr&#244;nica, complicada ou recorrente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Institui&#231;&#245;es como a Pericarditis Alliance desempenham um papel fundamental na amplia&#231;&#227;o do conhecimento e na melhoria dos cuidados de sa&#250;de, especialmente em &#225;reas subexploradas, como a pericardite. O crescimento cont&#237;nuo destas organiza&#231;&#245;es &#233; fundamental para transformar o cen&#225;rio do manejo da pericardite, contribuindo para um futuro com diagn&#243;sticos e tratamentos melhores.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em conclus&#227;o, o tratamento da pericardite aguda est&#225; em constante evolu&#231;&#227;o, com uma variedade de op&#231;&#245;es terap&#234;uticas dispon&#237;veis. O foco principal continua sendo o al&#237;vio dos sintomas, a preven&#231;&#227;o de recorr&#234;ncias e de complica&#231;&#245;es, garantindo uma abordagem abrangente e personalizada para cada paciente. Novas pesquisas e descobertas certamente continuar&#227;o a aprimorar o manejo cl&#237;nico desta condi&#231;&#227;o.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1">
        <label>Fontes de Financiamento</label>
        <p>O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o Acad&#234;mica</label>
        <p>N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado</label>
        <p>Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial</label>
        <p>Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
    <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
      <title>Disponibilidade de Dados</title>
      <p>Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
    </sec>
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        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0003-0710-8014</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Santos</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Alexandre Ranzeiro de Bragan&#231;a dos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6510-6998</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Souza</surname>
            <given-names>Flavia Nunes Benicio de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0006-8347-1212</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Luis Felipe Leite da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Azevedo</surname>
            <given-names>Giovane Leal de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Chivaca</surname>
            <given-names>Alberto</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6304-7557</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Jessen</surname>
            <given-names>Neusa Perina de Jesus</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>&#194;ngelo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7452-3870</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Evandro Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Maputo</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="MZ">Mozambique</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Central de Maputo, Maputo &#8211; Mozambique</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Maputo</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="MZ">Mozambique</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo &#8211; Mozambique</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Niter&#243;i</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Complexo Hospitalar de Niter&#243;i, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Gabriel de Moraes Mangas</bold> &#8226; Universidade Federal Fluminense &#8211; Av. Marqu&#234;s de Paran&#225;, 303. Postal Code <postal-code>24220-900</postal-code>, Niter&#243;i, RJ &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>gabrielmangas@gmail.com</email>, <email>gabrielmangas@id.uff.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest</label>
          <p>Dr. Evandro Tinoco has been a speaker for the laboratories AstraZeneca, Boehringer, Novartis, Ach&#233;, and Bristol Myers Squibb. He served as a member of the advisory board of the laboratories Alnylam and Pfizer.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Nat&#225;lia Olivetti</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Acute pericarditis is an inflammation of the pericardium, the lining that surrounds the heart. It is the most common inflammatory heart condition. The disease frequently affects young adults and can manifest with varying severity. Pericarditis can have diverse causes, including viral infections, autoimmune diseases, post-infarction conditions, and, more recently, SARS-CoV-2 infections or COVID-19 vaccines. In developing countries, especially in Africa, tuberculosis is the leading cause of pericarditis, often associated with HIV. Diagnosis is based on clinical criteria, such as chest pain and electrocardiographic changes, and it can be supported by imaging studies such as echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging, and computed tomography. Identification of etiology is crucial to personalized treatment, although the specific cause is often unidentified. New research has highlighted the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathophysiology of pericarditis, which may pave the way for new therapies. Furthermore, technological advancements and artificial intelligence are discussed as promising tools to improve the management of pericarditis.</p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Acute Pericarditis</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Diagnosis</kwd>
        <kwd>Treatment</kwd>
        <kwd>Artificial Intelligence</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Acute pericarditis is the most common inflammatory heart disease, with an estimated incidence of 27.7 per 100,000 people in the Western world.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In the African continent, a systematic review of existing evidence showed that the prevalence of pericardial diseases varies greatly according to the population studied, with prevalences of around 1.1% found in individuals with cardiac complaints, between 3.3% and 6.8% in patients with heart failure, and up to 46.5% in HIV-infected patients with cardiac symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although it generally follows a benign and self-limiting course, pericarditis can present with severe symptoms. The condition frequently affects young adults, with frequent recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Prognosis is associated with the patient's age and the etiology of pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Therefore, a multidisciplinary approach, involving collaboration between cardiologists, rheumatologists, oncologists, immunologists, and infectious disease specialists, may result in better patient outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Advances in the pathophysiological understanding of acute pericarditis have revealed the central role of the NLRP3 inflammasome and the subsequent release of interleukins (IL-1&#945; and IL-1&#946;) in the development of the inflammatory response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> This pathophysiological process has been the target of new therapeutic approaches to pericarditis, including the IL-1 receptor antagonist, rilonacept.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Within this context, this review aims to highlight recent advances in treatment, diagnosis, prognostic factors, pathophysiology, and current guidelines regarding acute pericarditis. Furthermore, the review discusses the potential role of emerging technologies that use artificial intelligence in developing better management strategies for patients with pericarditis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>A narrative review on pericarditis was conducted by means of a structured electronic search. The search strategy was designed using controlled descriptors (MeSH/DeCS) combined with Boolean operators (AND, OR), encompassing studies published in English, Portuguese, or Spanish from January 2010 to August 2024. Searches were performed in the following databases: MEDLINE/PubMed, Cochrane Library, LILACS/IBECS, and Embase. The search included primary studies, case reports, systematic reviews, narrative reviews, and qualitative studies. Additionally, relevant articles were identified through manual screening of the reference lists of selected studies and a supplementary web search to capture publications not located in the initial search. Publications that did not address the diagnosis or management of pericarditis were excluded. The following search terms were used: "Pericarditis"; "Pericardite"; "Acute Pericarditis"; "Pericardite Aguda"; "Inflammation"; "Inflama&#231;&#227;o"; "Diagnosis"; "Diagn&#243;stico"; "Diagnostic Imaging"; "Imagem Diagn&#243;stica"; "Therapeutics"; "Tratamento"; "Treatment"; "Anti-inflammatory agents"; "Follow-Up Studies"; "Acompanhamento"; "Monitoring"; "Long-term follow-up"; "Artificial Intelligence"; "Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial"; "Machine Learning"; "Aprendizado de M&#225;quina". Given the nature of the study, as a narrative review that did not directly involve humans or animals, approval by an ethics committee was not required.</p>
        <fig id="f6">
          <caption>
            <title>Conceptual map of the etiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and medical treatment of acute pericarditis. CT: computed tomography; IL-1: interleukin-1; MRI: magnetic resonance imaging; NSAIDs: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; PET-CT: positron emission tomography combined with computed tomography.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20240572-40572-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        <sec>
          <title>Etiology and pathophysiology</title>
          <p>The pericardial sac consists of two layers: the visceral and the parietal. The visceral layer, composed of pericardial mesothelial cells, adheres directly to the epicardium, whereas the more fibrous parietal layer provides structural support. Pericardial mesothelial cells are essential for the proper functioning of the heart. They play a crucial role in lubrication, protection, and regulation of inflammation within the pericardium. Alterations in mesothelial cell function can lead to several conditions, including pericarditis, pericardial effusion, and cardiac tamponade. Referred shoulder pain is due to somatosensory fibers of the phrenic nerve that innervate the parietal pericardium.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Pericarditis is the most common form of pericardial disease and is defined as inflammation of the pericardial layers. It may be associated with pericardial effusion and result in cardiac tamponade. The disease can be an isolated cardiac manifestation or the result of a systemic disorder.</p>
          <p>Pericarditis can have diverse etiologies, both infectious and non-infectious, or it can be idiopathic (Central Illustration).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> As illustrated in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref>, pericarditis can be caused by infection (viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic), autoimmune diseases, metabolic disorders, myocardial infarction, trauma, post-pericardiotomy syndrome, neoplasms, radiotherapy, and medications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The most common etiologies are infectious causes, with viral pericarditis predominating (approximately 80% to 85% of cases).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> In this case, inflammation results from the direct action of the virus or the body's immune response to the agent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Furthermore, a clinical presentation of apparent recent viral infection (upper respiratory tract infection or gastroenteritis) has been documented in approximately 40% of patients with acute pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Main etiological agents of acute pericarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="none">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Etiology</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Details</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Important observations</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Infectious</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>80% ato 85% of all cases are viral.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Approximately 40% of patients with acute pericarditis have a history of recent infection (upper respiratory tract or gastrointestinal tract)</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>Cases caused by bacterial infection may originate from pneumonia, rheumatic fever, empyema, hematogenous dissemination, or post-cardiac/thoracic surgery.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>In developing countries, 70% to 80% of cases are due to tuberculosis.</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <label>&#8211;</label>
                        <p>HIV infection is a risk factor.</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Autoimmune diseases</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, polymyositis, and dermatomyositis</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"/>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Metabolic disorders</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hypothyroidism, hyperlipidemia, and diabetes mellitus</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Metabolic disorders indirectly affect the pericardium through inflammatory reactions or metabolites that are toxic to pericardial cells.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Acute myocardial infarction</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Inflammatory reaction</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">It may occur early (3 days afterwards), known as peri-infarction pericarditis, or late (3 weeks to 6 months) due to autoimmunity, known as Dressler syndrome.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Trauma</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">External object</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mainly in the thorax</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Post-pericardiotomy syndrome</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Local or systemic inflammatory reaction</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">This etiology has become more common with an increasing number of interventions.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Neoplasms</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Tumor or lymphatic invasion</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hematogenous dissemination</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Radiotherapy</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Direct tissue damage<break/> (pericardial cells), inflammatory reaction, fibrosis, and vascular damage</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Mainly in thoracic cancer, especially breast, lung, and lymphoma</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Medications</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Cardiotoxicity due to radiotherapy or chemotherapy</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Immune checkpoint inhibitors are recently used drugs that may be associated with pericarditis.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Kidney failure</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Uremic pericarditis or pericarditis associated with dialysis</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Approximately 20% of cases progress to pericardial effusion.</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Furthermore, local epidemiological data should always be considered when defining etiology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Based on evidence from developed countries, the most prevalent etiological agents are viruses, and cases of acute pericarditis are frequently preceded by a flu-like or gastrointestinal syndrome. An increase in cases of acute pericarditis is also observed during colder seasons. In a prospective study in France, 55% of cases were of idiopathic origin, and 20% followed a heart injury syndrome. The latter cause is progressively increasing in developed countries due to the growing number of cardiac procedures.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Post-infarction pericarditis can occur early, within the first 3 days after the acute myocardial infarction episode, which is known as peri-infarction pericarditis, or late (from 3 weeks to 6 months afterwards), due to autoimmune activity, which is known as Dressler syndrome.</p>
          <p>Moreover, pericarditis in people living with HIV can be due to infectious, non-infectious, or neoplastic diseases (Kaposi's sarcoma or lymphoma), which can result in myopericarditis. In cases of autoimmune etiology, pericarditis occurs mainly in cases of systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, scleroderma, polymyositis, and dermatomyositis. Another common cause of pericardial disease is kidney failure, which progresses to the development of effusion in 20% of cases, and may manifest as uremic pericarditis or dialysis-associated pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Other possible causes to be considered are hypothyroidism and cancer. Neoplastic pericarditis is a consequence of tumor or lymphatic invasion, or it occurs through hematogenous dissemination, thus occurring in both primary and metastatic forms, or even as a result of radiotherapy for thoracic cancers. There are currently only a few cases of pericarditis due to immune checkpoint inhibitors described in the literature.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Another mechanism associated with acute pericarditis in oncology patients involves cardiotoxicity resulting from radiotherapy drugs and, more recently, immune checkpoint inhibitors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In contrast, when the etiology is bacterial, pericarditis normally presents with pericardial effusion, and its origin may be related to situations such as pneumonia, rheumatic fever, empyema, hematogenous dissemination, or the postoperative period following cardiac or thoracic surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In developing countries, the high prevalence of infectious diseases such as HIV, associated with poverty and weak existing health systems, contributes to infectious diseases playing an important role in the spectrum of heart failure etiology. An analysis of studies that assessed the etiology of heart failure in several sub-Saharan African countries found pericarditis in 3% of cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> In the Sub-Saharan Africa Survey of Heart Failure (THESUS&#8211;HF) study, which included 1,006 patients with heart failure from 9 African countries, 6.8% presented with pericardial effusion with tamponade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> It is also noteworthy that, in developing countries, the main etiology of pericarditis is tuberculosis, reaching 70% to 80% of cases or 90% among HIV-positive patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In Africa in particular, a systematic review of the available evidence showed that few studies reported on the etiology of pericardial disease, and most of them included a small sample of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Among published studies, tuberculosis was the most frequently observed cause of pericardial disease, and HIV infection was the main risk factor; however, tuberculosis was also the main etiology in patients not infected with HIV. An echocardiographic-based study conducted at a tertiary hospital in Dar es Salaam assessed the pattern of cardiac anomalies found in HIV-infected patients presenting with cardiac symptoms. The most common echocardiographic diagnosis was pericardial effusion, present in 41.2% of study participants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> However, in most reported cases, the etiology of pericardial disease was not found, and in the remaining cases, neoplasms and systemic diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus were the most frequently found etiologies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition to the most widely known etiologies of acute pericarditis, two important new etiologies have been described in the past 2 years, namely, SARS-CoV-2 infection and the COVID-19 vaccine, especially the mRNA vaccine. With these two new etiologies, pericarditis that occurs in association with myocarditis has gained more relevance. Pericarditis was present in 1.5% of COVID-19 cases, and it is more common in older individuals. Although it is a possible etiology of pericarditis, current data show that the benefits of vaccination against respiratory infections outweigh concerns about possible, but definitely rare, vaccine-induced pericarditis. Furthermore, the clinical course of pericarditis due to this etiology does not differ when compared to the common presentation of viral pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>During the diagnostic period of pericarditis, viral infection cannot be confirmed by antibody serology, given that IgM antibodies are no longer detectable. Molecular techniques, such as polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests performed on pericardial fluid or tissue after pericardiocentesis or pericardial biopsy, respectively, could identify the etiological agent, but this is an invasive approach, and it is not recommended for a disorder that generally follows a benign course. According to recent guidelines, routine identification of the viral agent is not recommended, as it does not affect treatment decisions and prognosis, with the exception of hepatitis C virus and HIV. The terms viral and idiopathic pericarditis are treated synonymously, presuming a viral etiology in the idiopathic form. In summary, identification of the underlying etiology is of paramount importance for developing a personalized treatment plan for pericarditis, and it is recommended that pericarditis be investigated in patients with systemic diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding molecular and cellular pathophysiology, new clinical trials in rodents have shown that the NLRP1 (NACHT, leucine-rich repeat, and pyrin domain 1) inflammasome and IL-1&#946; play an important role in the development of acute pericarditis inflammation and its recurrence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Inflammasomes are platforms composed of proteins that control the inflammatory response and coordinate the body's antimicrobial defenses. They are activated by the detection of pathogenic microorganisms and danger signals in the cytoplasm of cells, activating caspase-1, which produces cytokines and induces pyroptosis of cells through the activation of gasdermin D. Exacerbated activation of inflammasomes is related to numerous hereditary and acquired inflammatory disorders, such as pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> This evidence should guide further studies aimed at investigating the mechanism of development of pericarditis, which often has no defined etiology and is therefore termed idiopathic.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Diagnosis</title>
          <p>As shown in the Central Illustration, diagnosis of acute pericarditis should include at least two of the following criteria: pericardial pain, pericardial friction rub, new ST-segment elevation or PR-segment depression on electrocardiography (ECG), or the appearance of a new or worsening pericardial effusion (demonstrated by a cardiac imaging method).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Pericardial pain is acute and retrosternal; it typically worsens with inspiration, coughing, or lying down and improves when the patient sits upright or leans forward.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> It may also radiate to the top of the scapulae, arms, neck, or jaw.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Upon physical examination, in addition to pericardial friction rub, which may be auscultated at the left sternal border, low-grade fever and other manifestations may be found if the underlying disease is systemically present. There is no specific biomarker for pericarditis; however, biomarkers of inflammation, such as C-reactive protein, are increased in 80% of cases, and troponin may be mildly elevated if the inflammation has reached the myocardium, defining myopericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>On the other hand, etiological diagnosis is challenging, and in many cases the cause of pericarditis remains undetermined. Even in the specific context of suspected tuberculous pericarditis, definitive diagnosis has shown to be difficult, prompting studies on the accuracy of new diagnostic tests, including the quantitative PCR test (Xpert MTB/RIF), unstimulated interferon gamma (uIFN&#947;), pericardial adenosine deaminase (ADA), and pericardial and urinary lipoarabinomannan (LAM). In a comparative study between Xpert MTB/RIF, pericardial ADA, and uIFN&#947;, the uIFN&#947; assay demonstrated the highest diagnostic accuracy and may serve as the first-line test for the diagnosis of tuberculous pericarditis. Additionally, greater sensitivity and specificity are achieved by combining Xpert MTB/RIF with either ADA or uIFN&#947;.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Conversely, urinary or pericardial LAM showed low sensitivity but high specificity for diagnosis of tuberculous pericarditis, and urinary LAM showed greater sensitivity in HIV-infected patients with CD4 &#8804; 100 cells/mm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> However, access to these diagnostic tests poses another important challenge in African countries, where tuberculosis plays a more important role in the etiology of pericarditis. Therefore, when pericardial fluid can be collected, fluid culture remains the most widely used diagnostic test, and ADA remains the most widely used biochemical test. Nonetheless, culture requires at least 3 weeks to yield results, and ADA has limited value as a confirmatory diagnostic test. Moreover, in regions with high tuberculosis endemicity, a positive tuberculin skin test only reflects exposure to <italic>Mycobacterium tuberculosis</italic> antigens and does not accurately discern active disease, thus limiting its value.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Imaging studies can be useful in the diagnosis and follow-up of acute pericarditis, especially echocardiography, cardiac magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and computed tomography (CT), as shown in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figure 1</xref>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In the absence of a pericardial effusion with sufficient volume, conventional radiography normally shows no abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f4">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>A, B) Apical four-chamber and parasternal short-axis echocardiographic views, respectively, showing the presence of effusion and significant fibrin in the pericardial space (arrows). C, D, E, F) Magnetic resonance imaging showing extensive non-ischemic fibrosis in the mesocardial and subepicardial regions.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20240572-40572-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Echocardiography should be the first-choice imaging modality, as it is an accessible, low-cost, and quick method capable of providing essential information about pericardial thickness, the presence and volume of pericardial effusion, and its hemodynamic impact on cardiac filling (pericardial tamponade). Echocardiography can also identify masses adherent to the pericardial cavity, fibrin strands, content with density suggestive of thrombus in pericardial fluid, and localized forms of effusion, as frequently observed in the postoperative period following cardiac surgery (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>). Echocardiography may be normal, leading to a diagnosis of dry pericarditis, which may be present in up to 30% of patients. Additionally, small pericardial effusions can occur in healthy individuals; therefore, diagnosis of pericarditis should be made with caution. Although some patients with acute pericarditis present with normal echocardiograms, this examination is highly useful for diagnosing the presence and size of pericardial effusion, tamponade physiology, and myocardial involvement, as in cases of myopericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Medical treatment regimen for pericarditis.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-123-02-e20240572-40572-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          <p>Tuberculous pericarditis, for example, usually presents with effusion, often in tamponade, and sometimes already in the constrictive pericarditis phase; it may also present as myopericarditis (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Table 1</xref>). The important Investigation of the Management of Pericarditis in Africa (IMPI Africa) registry recruited 185 patients from 15 hospitals in three sub-Saharan African countries who were in the initial stages of treatment for tuberculous pericarditis. Of these, 79.5% presented with effusive pericarditis, 15.1% with effusive-constrictive pericarditis, and 5.4% with constrictive or acute dry pericarditis, and 40% of all patients presented with clinical characteristics of HIV infection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>If echocardiography findings are inconclusive, clinical presentation is atypical, or the physician wishes to investigate specific causes such as malignancy or tuberculosis, CT or cardiac MRI may be used. On CT, we can observe pericardial thickness, calcification, and regional effusions. The density of pericardial fluid allows differentiation between transudate, exudate, blood, or, occasionally, the presence of a mass adjacent to the pericardium, such as lung or breast tumors. A particularly useful resource in cardiac MRI is late gadolinium enhancement (LGE), a technique that enables detection of pericardial inflammation with a sensitivity of 94% to 100%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
          <p>PET-CT with 18F-FDG is an examination that is more commonly used in the context of oncology; however, it has proven useful to the extent that, in the context of acute pericarditis with pericardial effusion, greater absorption of FDG by the pericardium is associated with a higher risk of recurrence and may be useful in characterizing recurrent pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Differential diagnosis</title>
          <p>Differential diagnosis of acute pericarditis is essential due to its overlapping symptoms with various cardiac and non-cardiac conditions. Sudden chest pain is a common, but nonspecific symptom, and it can be caused by several conditions, including myocardial infarction, pulmonary embolism, aortic dissection, as well as gastrointestinal and musculoskeletal disorders. Initial assessment includes detailed physical examination and analysis of the patient's symptoms. Laboratory tests, such as troponin and C-reactive protein levels, are useful in differentiating acute pericarditis from myocardial infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> The ECG frequently reveals diffuse ST-segment elevation, PR depression, and the ECG stages of acute pericarditis, a classic, though nonspecific, finding of the disease. Pericarditis is classically associated with ECG changes that evolve in four stages (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Table 2</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Table 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Electrocardiogram changes according to progression of pericarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="none">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Stages</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram changes</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Stage 1</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Diffuse ST elevation and PR depression with reciprocal aVR changes (occurs during the first 2 weeks)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Stage 2</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Normalization of ST-segment changes; generalized T-wave flattening (1 to 3 weeks)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Stage 3</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">T waves become inverted (3 to several weeks)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Stage 4</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram returns to normal (several weeks onward)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Chest radiography may show an enlarged heart or associated pleural effusion. Echocardiography is a valuable tool for assessing the presence of pericardial effusion and changes in cardiac function, but it may not be conclusive on its own. In cases of persistent suspicion or when the diagnosis is unclear, cardiac MRI or CT may be useful to evaluate cardiac structures in more detail. Excluding myocardial infarction is one of the main challenges in differential diagnosis. In patients with suspected acute pericarditis and risk factors for coronary artery disease, coronary angiography may be necessary to rule out coronary obstruction.</p>
          <p>Moreover, it is important to consider the differential diagnosis of epipericardial fat necrosis (EFN). As with acute pericarditis, EFN may present with chest pain as the main symptom, which can make accurate diagnosis difficult. Therefore, it is important to assess the differences in pain location; in EFN, it is generally more pleuritic and located in the precordial region, whereas the pain in pericarditis may be more diffuse and radiate to the neck, shoulders, and back, with ECG changes. EFN generally does not alter ECG. Conversely, pericarditis may present with changes such as ST elevation and PR depression, as well as fever, fatigue, and pericardial friction rub, which are less frequent in EFN. CT is the examination of choice for diagnosing EFN, as it identifies areas of fat inflammation surrounding the heart. MRI and laboratory tests can also be helpful.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>It is important to consider other conditions that can mimic acute pericarditis, such as myocarditis, pulmonary embolism, and gastrointestinal diseases. Each of these conditions presents distinct clinical characteristics, and specific tests aid in accurate differential diagnosis. Careful diagnostic assessment and consideration of a variety of conditions that may manifest in a similar fashion to acute pericarditis are crucial for effective and accurate clinical management. The integration of clinical, laboratory, and imaging tests plays a fundamental role in the differential diagnostic approach to these cases.</p>
          <p>Finally, the use of inadequate diagnostic criteria can lead to overdiagnosis of acute pericarditis. Small-volume pericardial effusion, chest pain, and elevated biomarkers may also be found in healthy individuals, and they do not necessarily indicate the presence of disease. Overdiagnosis of acute pericarditis can lead to unnecessary treatments, such as the administration of anti-inflammatory drugs or corticosteroids, which can impair the patient's quality of life and increase costs for the healthcare system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment</title>
          <p>The main guidelines on pericarditis, ESC (2015), ACC/AHA (2020), and SBC (2013), show similarities regarding first-line treatment, but differ in important aspects regarding approach and risk stratification (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Table 3</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Table 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Comparison between ESC (2015), ACC/AHA (2020), and SBC (2013) guidelines for treatment of acute pericarditis</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="none">
              <colgroup width="25%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Aspect</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">ESC (2015)</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">ACC/AHA (2020)</th>
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">SBC (2013)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>NSAIDs</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Ibuprofen 600 to 800 mg<break/> 3 times/day or aspirin 750 to 1000 mg 3 times/day, for 1 to<break/> 2 weeks, with gradual weaning</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Ibuprofen, aspirin, or indomethacin for 2 to 4 weeks, with gradual weaning after remission of symptoms</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Ibuprofen 600 mg 3 times/day or aspirin 1000 mg<break/> 3 times/day for 1 to 2 weeks, with progressive reduction</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Colchicine</bold><break/> (acute episode)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">0.5 to 1.0 mg/day for 3 months, adjusted according to weight and tolerance</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">0.5 to 1.0 mg/day for 3 months, with dose adjustment for weight</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Class IIa recommendation, evidence B. Dose: 1 mg/day<break/> (0.5 mg twice daily) for 3 months. Not universally indicated</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Colchicine (recurring)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">0.5 to 1.0 mg/day for 6 months</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">0.5 to 1.0 mg/day for 6 months, adjusted for weight</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Recommended for 6 months in cases of recurrent pericarditis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Avoiding physical activity</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Not specified</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Recommends avoiding physical exertion during treatment</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Recommends clinical rest is recommended, without an objective definition of time or intensity</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Corticosteroids: indication</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Reserved for contraindication or failure to treat with NSAIDs/colchicine, autoimmune or uremic pericarditis</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Reserved for contraindication or failure to treat with NSAIDs/colchicine, or pericarditis associated with specific diseases</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Recommended in cases refractory to NSAIDs/colchicine, autoimmune or uremic pericarditis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Corticosteroids:</bold><break/> dose and duration</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Prednisone 0.2 to<break/> 0.5 mg/kg/day, with slow weaning and concomitant use with colchicine</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Prednisone or equivalent at a low dose (0.2 to 0.5 mg/kg/day), with gradual tapering and association with colchicine</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Prednisone 1 mg/kg/day for 2 weeks, with weaning at 4 to 6 weeks and association with colchicine</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Risk of recurrence with corticosteroids</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Early and isolated use associated with greater risk of recurrence</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Early and isolated use associated with greater risk of recurrence</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Isolated use can increase risk of recurrence; recommends avoiding</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle"><bold>Immunobiological agents</bold><break/> (IL-1 inhibitors)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Not specified</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Recommended in refractory or corticosteroid-dependent cases (e.g., anakinra, rilonacept)</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Not mentioned</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Hospitalization criteria</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Considers factors such as fever, large effusion, and myopericarditis as associated with worse prognosis</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Defines objective criteria:<break/> fever &gt; 38 &#176;C, large effusion, treatment failure after 7 days, myocarditis</td>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Indicates hospitalization in cases of tamponade, high fever, important effusion, or severe etiology</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>IL-1: interleukin-1; NSAIDs: non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>All three recommend the initial use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) combined with colchicine. The ESC proposes the use of NSAIDs for 1 to 2 weeks, with gradual weaning, and colchicine for 3 months in the first episode and 6 months in relapses, at the usual dose of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/day, adjusted according to weight and tolerance (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figure 2</xref>). The ACC/AHA reinforces the same colchicine regimen, adjusted for body weight, and emphasizes the avoidance of intense physical activity during treatment. Both guidelines and recent articles highlight that the early addition of colchicine significantly reduces recurrence and prevents complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
          <p>According to all three guidelines, the use of corticosteroids, such as prednisone or prednisolone, is reserved for cases with contraindication or failure in the use of NSAIDs and colchicine or for pericarditis of autoimmune or uremic etiology. The ESC and ACC/AHA warn that the early and isolated use of corticosteroids is associated with a higher risk of recurrence. Therefore, they recommend low doses (such as 0.2 to 0.5 mg/kg/day) and progressive weaning, preferably with associated colchicine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The Brazilian guideline, however, does not specify doses, duration of use, or weaning strategies, which may limit its clinical applicability in more complex cases.</p>
          <p>A noteworthy difference is the ACC/AHA guideline's emphasis on risk stratification. It proposes objective criteria for hospitalization, including fever &gt; 38 &#176;C, large effusions or tamponade, persistent inflammatory response after 1 week of treatment, and evidence of myocarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> The ESC mentions prognostic factors more broadly.</p>
          <p>Moreover, both the ACC/AHA and the ESC introduce modern therapeutic strategies, including the use of IL-1 blockers (e.g., anakinra, rilonacept) and immunosuppressants (e.g., azathioprine) in refractory or corticosteroid-dependent cases; these resources have yet to be included in the Brazilian guideline.</p>
          <p>This analysis reinforces the need to update the Brazilian guideline, which has remained unrevised for more than a decade and does not incorporate modern approaches to risk stratification, therapeutic duration, or immunomodulation, which have already been adopted by international societies.</p>
          <p>For patients with acute pericarditis refractory to conventional treatment, immunosuppressive therapy, such as azathioprine or methotrexate, may be considered in conjunction with other medications, although this approach requires further studies to define its exact role and safety.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> In Africa, the IMPI randomized controlled trial is a reference as the first to investigate the role of steroids in tuberculous pericarditis. The results showed that, among HIV-negative patients with tuberculous pericarditis, prednisolone reduced the incidence of constrictive pericarditis. However, there was a significant increase in the incidence of HIV-associated cancer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In addition to pharmacological therapy, relative rest is also frequently recommended during the acute phase. Exercise restriction is essential as therapy during symptoms in all patients and for at least 3 months in athletes; athletes may return to competitive sports activities only once symptoms have disappeared and diagnostic tests (i.e., C-reactive protein, ECG, and echocardiogram) are normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> Close monitoring and regular assessment are essential to control acute pericarditis, especially in more severe or complicated cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> It is crucial to emphasize that the treatment of acute pericarditis must be personalized, considering the severity of symptoms, the presence of underlying conditions, and individual patient characteristics. Frequently updated clinical guidelines offer precise guidance to ensure the effective and safe management of this condition.</p>
          <p>Even though generally self-limiting, pericarditis can lead to significant short-term disability. Complex forms of the disease require special attention. The main complications to be considered include persistent symptoms, recurrence, cardiac tamponade (approximately 1% of cases), and pericardial constriction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> Treatment of complex forms of pericarditis aims to relieve symptoms, prevent recurrence, and monitor possible complications. The main measures include use of NSAIDs; in more severe cases, corticosteroids or colchicine may be used, in addition to cardiac monitoring through ECG, echocardiogram, and laboratory tests.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Each case of complex pericarditis should be individually assessed by an experienced cardiologist, who will define the optimal treatment and follow-up plan, thus promoting better patient quality of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Future perspectives</title>
          <p>It is essential to enhance pathophysiological knowledge of acute pericarditis in order to explore new treatment options, given that detailed understanding of the disease's underlying mechanisms can identify specific therapeutic targets and open doors to more effective interventions (Central Illustration). Ongoing investigation into the inflammatory and immunological processes involved in acute pericarditis has the potential to revolutionize the clinical management of the condition. A promising example is innovative treatment through the IL-1 pathway of action, which illustrates how advances in scientific knowledge can lead to the development of new therapies. This IL-1&#8211;targeted treatment demonstrates the ability to modulate the inflammatory response, providing a more precise and effective approach for patients, reducing symptoms, and preventing recurrences. Thus, the integration of new scientific discoveries in the field of acute pericarditis can significantly transform therapeutic strategies, improving patient quality of life and optimizing clinical outcomes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>&#8211;<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Better characterization of subacute cases is fundamental in order to identify the most appropriate treatment for these patients. Overdiagnosis of acute pericarditis indicates that several parameters, for example, the volume of small pericardial effusions, may not be accurate for diagnosis. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the risk stratification of disease progression and employ new diagnostic tools, including CT, PET, and cardiac MRI. Multimodality in cardiac imaging is extremely useful in ruling out cases that have been mistakenly diagnosed with acute pericarditis based on a discrete or small pericardial effusion with typical, non-characteristic pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Artificial intelligence, especially deep learning algorithms, has emerged as a promising tool for diagnosis of acute pericarditis, particularly in emergency settings, where differentiating between pericarditis and ST-segment elevation acute myocardial infarction represents a significant clinical challenge. Overlapping ECG manifestations between these conditions can lead to diagnostic errors with severe therapeutic consequences. In this scenario, researchers at the School of Medicine of the National Defense Medical Center in Taipei, Taiwan, developed a 12-lead ECG-based deep-learning model that outperformed cardiologists and commercial algorithms in detecting acute pericarditis. The model achieved a sensitivity of 78.9% and a specificity of 97.7%. In addition to its diagnostic function, the model also demonstrated prognostic potential. Patients who were falsely classified as having pericarditis, but did not meet the clinical criteria for it, had a significantly higher risk of hospitalization for cardiac causes within 3 days, suggesting that the model can identify subclinical ECG patterns that predict cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite promising results, important limitations still restrict the clinical applicability of these models, including the following: the need for external validation in diverse population samples, the retrospective and single-center nature of the original study, and the "black box" challenge of deep learning models, whose clinical interpretation remains limited. Furthermore, patients with chronic pericarditis, cardiac tamponade, or other conditions with similar presentations were excluded from the training, which may compromise the generalization of the algorithm to different forms of disease manifestation.</p>
          <p>Nonetheless, the incorporation of artificial intelligence into the diagnosis of pericarditis represents an innovative frontier, with future applicability in emergency settings, remote units, and even by means of wearable devices. In conjunction with telemedicine and remote monitoring, in the future, these systems may contribute not only to early diagnosis but also to longitudinal follow-up and individualized risk stratification in patients with pericarditis.</p>
          <p>Institutions with the goal of advocating for and providing information about pericarditis, both for patients and healthcare professionals, have been crucial in the current scenario, especially the Pericarditis Alliance, founded in 2020. The institution is composed of patients who have faced significant challenges in obtaining a correct diagnosis and effective treatment, joining prestigious healthcare professionals and researchers in the mission of advancing the diagnosis and treatment of pericarditis. The Pericarditis Alliance's work encompasses research, education, and support, areas where there is still a considerable lack of awareness, investigation, and advocacy regarding the causes, prevention, and treatment of chronic, complicated, or recurrent pericarditis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> Institutions like the Pericarditis Alliance play a fundamental role in expanding knowledge and improving healthcare, especially in underexplored areas such as pericarditis. The continuing growth of these organizations is crucial to transforming the landscape of pericarditis management, contributing to a future with better diagnoses and treatments.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>In conclusion, the treatment of acute pericarditis is constantly evolving, with a variety of therapeutic options available. The main focus remains on symptom relief and prevention of recurrences and complications, ensuring a comprehensive and personalized approach for each patient. Further research and discoveries will certainly continue to enhance the clinical management of this condition.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn5">
          <label>Sources of funding</label>
          <p>There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <label>Study association</label>
          <p>This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p>This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence</label>
          <p>The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
      <sec sec-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <title>Data Availability Statement</title>
        <p>The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
      </sec>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
