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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">WRB8CsmjMLHqm4gpH9n5JjS</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025001200402</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00402</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250112</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>II &#8211; Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Controle Auton&#244;mico da Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca em Diversas Condi&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3456-8433</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maciel</surname>
            <given-names>Benedito Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gallo-Jr</surname>
            <given-names>Louren&#231;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1090-8165</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Schmidt</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marin-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados e An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Ribeir&#227;o Preto</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Campus Ribeir&#227;o Preto, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label> Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto Laborat&#243;rio de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Invasiva, Faculdade de Medicina Ribeir&#227;o Preto, USP, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>marin_neto@yahoo.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Nuno Bettencourt</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p> N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>12</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250112</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Por meio da compara&#231;&#227;o das respostas de volunt&#225;rios normais, a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica em condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas anormais se focou na detec&#231;&#227;o de disautonomia envolvendo os sistemas parassimp&#225;tico e adren&#233;rgico em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica, p&#243;s-cirurgia card&#237;aca, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica, prolapso da valva mitral e hipertireoidismo. Em particular, o comprometimento auton&#244;mico observado em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas envolveu predominantemente o controle parassimp&#225;tico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ao n&#237;vel do n&#243; sinusal e a inerva&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica ao n&#237;vel ventricular do mioc&#225;rdio. Os dist&#250;rbios auton&#244;micos observados em pacientes com cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica s&#243; recentemente foram explorados em termos de sua relev&#226;ncia progn&#243;stica, e suas potenciais implica&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas para fins terap&#234;uticos ainda precisam ser investigadas.</p>
        <p>Ao longo das &#250;ltimas quase sete d&#233;cadas, nosso laborat&#243;rio acumulou expertise significativa utilizando diversos testes descritos acima para avaliar o controle auton&#244;mico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, agora com foco em diversas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas fisiopatol&#243;gicas. O efeito do treinamento f&#237;sico de resist&#234;ncia e do envelhecimento foi focado principalmente em estudos com volunt&#225;rios normais, cujas respostas basais serviram como controles a serem comparados durante testes empregados em indiv&#237;duos com algumas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas m&#243;rbidas. De longe, a fisiopatologia da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica envolvendo o sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo foi o assunto mais predominantemente estudado em nosso laborat&#243;rio, desde os primeiros estudos na d&#233;cada de 1960 at&#233; os estudos tardios recentemente publicados em peri&#243;dicos internacionais (Figura Central). Outras condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas focadas em nossos estudos foram prolapso da valva mitral, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, p&#243;s-cirurgia card&#237;aca e hipertireoidismo.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>II &#8211; Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Controle Auton&#244;mico da Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca em Diversas Condi&#231;&#245;es Cl&#237;nicas</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do controle auton&#244;mico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na disautonomia da doen&#231;a de Chagas.</attrib>
            <alternatives>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/WRB8CsmjMLHqm4gpH9n5JjS/6502df1beb688afa864e533efe764183368636a6.tif"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/WRB8CsmjMLHqm4gpH9n5JjS/ac2d656b94ee28ab85d679558746a70453ee9617.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/WRB8CsmjMLHqm4gpH9n5JjS/e729536353d95ea995439f61a23d1f92a6a45800.jpg" specific-use="scielo-web" content-type="scielo-267x140"/>
            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as do Sistema Nervoso Aut&#244;nomo</kwd>
        <kwd>Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Simp&#225;tico</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Parassimp&#225;tico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de financiamento:</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="20"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="44"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Disautonomia na doen&#231;a de Chagas</title>
      <p>De acordo com a denerva&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica anat&#244;mica descrita por v&#225;rios pesquisadores independentes relatando estudos morfol&#243;gicos, a regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica card&#237;aca anormal foi demonstrada conclusivamente em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas (DC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>V&#225;rios est&#237;mulos farmacol&#243;gicos e fisiol&#243;gicos foram utilizados para demonstrar uma regula&#231;&#227;o da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca parassimp&#225;tica notavelmente prejudicada. A inje&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de f&#225;rmacos anti-hipertensivos, como metaraminol e fenilefrina, demonstrou, em pacientes com DC, produzir um aumento transit&#243;rio compar&#225;vel da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica, sem um grau semelhante de bradicardia reflexa, em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos controle normais. Pacientes com DC tamb&#233;m n&#227;o responderam com aumento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de atropina. A disautonomia evidenciada com esses testes farmacol&#243;gicos foi corroborada por outros testes fisiol&#243;gicos, incluindo imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua, manobra de Valsalva, testes de inclina&#231;&#227;o da cabe&#231;a para cima e para baixo, arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria (ASR), preens&#227;o manual, exerc&#237;cio din&#226;mico (ED) gradual e an&#225;lise espectral de registros de Holter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> No geral, esses estudos mostraram que a maioria dos pacientes com DC geralmente s&#227;o privados da a&#231;&#227;o inibit&#243;ria t&#244;nica normalmente exercida pelo sistema parassimp&#225;tico no n&#243; sinusal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>). Al&#233;m disso, esses pacientes com DC n&#227;o possuem o mecanismo mediado vagalmente para responder com bradicardia ou taquicardia reflexa r&#225;pida por meio da retirada parassimp&#225;tica a altera&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias na press&#227;o arterial ou no retorno venoso. Al&#233;m disso, esses estudos abriram caminho para o conceito da DC como modelo experimental espont&#226;neo adequado para estudar uma cardiomiopatia com uma disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica espec&#237;fica no n&#237;vel do n&#243; sinusal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Efeitos do sulfato de atropina na frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (administra&#231;&#227;o venosa perif&#233;rica na dose de 0,04 mg/kg). Valores antes (C) e ap&#243;s o bloqueio vagal (A). Valores absolutos e m&#233;dios (painel esquerdo) e altera&#231;&#245;es incrementais individuais e m&#233;dias (painel direito).12</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>&#201; importante enfatizar que a disautonomia na DC &#233; um achado precoce na hist&#243;ria natural da doen&#231;a, visto que, por exemplo, respostas anormais da FC ao bloqueio parassimp&#225;tico intravenoso com atropina t&#234;m sido consistentemente demonstradas na DC, precedendo quaisquer sinais de disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica ventricular ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Em contraste, o bloqueio simp&#225;tico farmacol&#243;gico com propranolol intravenoso produziu graus semelhantes de eleva&#231;&#227;o da FC em pacientes com DC e controles normais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A sensibilidade do barorreflexo foi avaliada usando o m&#233;todo descrito por Pickering et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup>relacionando os intervalos de pulso batimento a batimento com os valores de press&#227;o sist&#243;lica imediatamente precedentes durante altera&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias na press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica induzidas por fenilefrina ou nitrito de amila. Em compara&#231;&#227;o com controles normais, tanto a bradicardia quanto a taquicardia observadas em pacientes com DC foram significativamente atenuadas. No entanto, a bradicardia reflexa r&#225;pida induzida pela hipertens&#227;o induzida por fenilefrina foi claramente mais deprimida do que a hipotens&#227;o da taquicardia reflexa r&#225;pida causada pelo nitrito de amila. Esses achados foram interpretados como indicativos de que o comprometimento auton&#244;mico em pacientes com DC afetou predominantemente o sistema parassimp&#225;tico &#8211; respons&#225;vel pela bradicardia, enquanto o sistema simp&#225;tico &#8211; respons&#225;vel pela taquicardia, que ocorre mais tarde, p&#244;de ser relativamente poupado<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f03">
          <label>Figura 2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Sensibilidade dos barorreceptores durante altera&#231;&#245;es agudas induzidas na resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica por fenilefrina e nitrito de amila. Observe as diferen&#231;as marcantes entre pacientes normais e portadores de doen&#231;a de Chagas card&#237;aca durante a hipertens&#227;o induzida por fenilefrina; as diferen&#231;as durante a hipotens&#227;o com nitrito de amila foram menos significativas.10</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf02.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Essas altera&#231;&#245;es cronotr&#243;picas atenuadas, utilizando testes farmacol&#243;gicos, foram corroboradas por aquelas observadas em resposta &#224; manobra de Valsalva (40 mmHg por 20 segundos) em pacientes com DC que n&#227;o apresentaram taquicardia em resposta &#224; infus&#227;o intravenosa de atropina. Apesar de apresentarem valores de sobretens&#227;o compar&#225;veis ap&#243;s a libera&#231;&#227;o da manobra de Valsalva, os pacientes com DC que n&#227;o apresentaram aumento da FC ap&#243;s a atropina tamb&#233;m n&#227;o apresentaram bradicardia absoluta, e houve tamb&#233;m um retorno mais tardio da press&#227;o arterial aos valores basais ap&#243;s a manobra de Valsalva<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f04">
          <label>Figura 3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Valores de press&#227;o arterial (m&#233;dia) e frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (m&#233;dia e desvio-padr&#227;o) durante a manobra de Valsalva (40 mm Hg por 20 segundos) em grupos de indiv&#237;duos normais (A; n = 18) e pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica (B; n = 14). Em compara&#231;&#227;o com controles normais, os pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es discretas na frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca durante o esfor&#231;o e aumento da press&#227;o arterial ap&#243;s a manobra de Valsalva. No grupo de pacientes chag&#225;sicos, n&#227;o h&#225; bradicardia absoluta e h&#225; tamb&#233;m um retorno mais tardio da press&#227;o arterial aos valores basais ap&#243;s o esfor&#231;o. Os pacientes chag&#225;sicos inclu&#237;dos neste estudo foram selecionados devido &#224; aus&#234;ncia de resposta cronotr&#243;pica &#224; atropina (0,04 mg/kg&#8211;1 intravenosamente).1</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf03.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>A taquicardia reflexa induzida pela mudan&#231;a da posi&#231;&#227;o supina para uma inclina&#231;&#227;o de 70&#176; da cabe&#231;a para cima foi estudada em indiv&#237;duos normais conscientes e pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica na aus&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Pacientes com DC apresentaram respostas de FC marcadamente diminu&#237;das durante os 10 segundos iniciais ap&#243;s a inclina&#231;&#227;o para a postura ereta. Uma resposta semelhante foi obtida em indiv&#237;duos normais ap&#243;s bloqueio parassimp&#225;tico com atropina. O bloqueio beta-adren&#233;rgico n&#227;o produziu um efeito significativo na resposta inicial da FC de indiv&#237;duos normais, mas o incremento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, em 1 e 5 minutos de inclina&#231;&#227;o, foi significativamente reduzido em indiv&#237;duos normais e abolido em pacientes. Esses resultados em pacientes com DC corroboram o que havia sido encontrado em indiv&#237;duos normais, de um modo bif&#225;sico de taquicardia provocado pela postura ereta: inicialmente, depende da retirada parassimp&#225;tica &#8211; um mecanismo mais deprimido nos pacientes &#8211; enquanto a estimula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica se torna o mecanismo tardio predominante para taquicardia na posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4</xref>). Nestes estudos tamb&#233;m foi observado que, embora menos acentuado, os pacientes com DC tamb&#233;m apresentam alguma depress&#227;o da resposta adren&#233;rgica &#224; inclina&#231;&#227;o vertical.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f05">
          <label>Figura 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Efeitos da inclina&#231;&#227;o de indiv&#237;duos normais (barras verdes) e pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas (barras azuis) para a posi&#231;&#227;o de cabe&#231;a erguida, antes e depois da administra&#231;&#227;o de atropina e propranolol. Em cada caso, o valor m&#233;dio &#233; indicado pela barra horizontal e o erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia pela linha horizontal na parte superior da barra. Delta FC = incremento da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, 10 s e 5 min ap&#243;s as mudan&#231;as posturais.12</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf04.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>No entanto, nem todos os pacientes com DC apresentam o controle parassimp&#225;tico anormal da FC descrito nos estudos acima. Que esse conceito &#233; verdadeiro foi demonstrado em outras investiga&#231;&#245;es do nosso laborat&#243;rio, quando as respostas hemodin&#226;micas ao exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico sustentado (preens&#227;o manual a 30% da capacidade volunt&#225;ria m&#225;xima) foram estudadas em diferentes grupos de pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica, todos sem insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca pr&#233;via ou atual. Um grupo (1) de pacientes apresentou comprometimento profundo do controle parassimp&#225;tico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, considerando que n&#227;o apresentaram taquicardia em resposta &#224; administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de atropina e nem bradicardia durante a fase IV da manobra de Valsalva. O outro grupo (2) apresentou regula&#231;&#227;o vagal normal da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, avaliada pelas respostas cronotr&#243;picas a esses testes. A altera&#231;&#227;o da FC induzida pelo teste de preens&#227;o manual foi significativamente menor no grupo 1 do que no grupo 2. As respostas pressoras e o &#237;ndice sist&#243;lico &#224; preens&#227;o manual foram de magnitude semelhante em ambos os grupos. O d&#233;bito card&#237;aco indexado para a &#225;rea de superf&#237;cie corporal aumentou durante a preens&#227;o manual no grupo 2, mas n&#227;o houve altera&#231;&#227;o significativa no grupo 1. As altera&#231;&#245;es na resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica medida foram significativamente maiores no grupo 1 do que no grupo 2. Este estudo tamb&#233;m demonstrou que o comprometimento parassimp&#225;tico est&#225; associado a efeitos adversos mais evidentes quando h&#225; depress&#227;o inotr&#243;pica do mioc&#225;rdio, como demonstrado pela sobrecarga hemodin&#226;mica causada por exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico em pacientes com cardiopatia chag&#225;sica. Nessas condi&#231;&#245;es, a resposta da press&#227;o arterial &#224; preens&#227;o manual &#233; predominantemente mediada por um aumento na resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica, em vez de um aumento no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06">Figura 5</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f06">
          <label>Figura 5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Altera&#231;&#245;es na frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC), press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica m&#233;dia (PAS), &#237;ndice card&#237;aco (IC) e resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica (RVS) evocadas pela preens&#227;o manual a 30% da contra&#231;&#227;o volunt&#225;ria m&#225;xima em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas com (c&#237;rculos) e sem comprometimento parassimp&#225;tico (tri&#226;ngulos). A signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica foi avaliada pelo teste-t de Student para amostras n&#227;o pareadas.13</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>O ED foi utilizado com um cicloerg&#244;metro eletromagn&#233;tico com frenagem, para avaliar as respostas da FC em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s outras vari&#225;veis cardiorrespirat&#243;rias (ventila&#231;&#227;o pulmonar (V), consumo de oxig&#234;nio (VO2), produ&#231;&#227;o de di&#243;xido de carbono (VCO2) e quociente respirat&#243;rio (QR)) comparando indiv&#237;duos normais com dois grupos de pacientes com DC cr&#244;nica (com e sem cardiomiopatia, ou seja, com a forma indeterminada da doen&#231;a). A evolu&#231;&#227;o temporal das respostas da FC ao aumento da carga de trabalho foi utilizada para avaliar as condi&#231;&#245;es funcionais dos sistemas eferentes card&#237;acos simp&#225;ticos e parassimp&#225;ticos. As an&#225;lises dos resultados mostraram que (a) o grupo de pacientes com DC e cardiomiopatia evidente (eletrocardiograma anormal, mesmo com tamanho card&#237;aco normal nas radiografias de t&#243;rax e sem insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca pr&#233;via) apresentou incrementos menores na FC (p &lt; 0,05) do que indiv&#237;duos normais durante os 10 s iniciais de cada carga de exerc&#237;cio (delta FC 0-10 s) de esfor&#231;o (componente r&#225;pido do aumento da FC); (b) as diferen&#231;as entre os indiv&#237;duos de controle normais e os pacientes com DC sem cardiomiopatia n&#227;o foram estatisticamente significativas; (c) as anormalidades nas respostas cronotr&#243;picas s&#227;o consistentes com o comprometimento da modula&#231;&#227;o eferente parassimp&#225;tica no n&#243; sinusal; (d) em contraste, a resposta lenta da FC (delta FC 1-4 min), que expressa o grau de estimula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica no n&#243; sinusal, foi compar&#225;vel nos tr&#234;s grupos estudados, mostrando assim respostas adren&#233;rgicas n&#227;o prejudicadas durante o ED no grupo de pacientes com a forma indeterminada de DC; e (e) os valores de VO2, VCO2 e QR foram normais em todas as cargas de trabalho em ambos os grupos de indiv&#237;duos com DC, sugerindo que a disfun&#231;&#227;o vagal n&#227;o afeta o transporte de oxig&#234;nio nesses n&#237;veis subm&#225;ximos de ED<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07">Figura 6</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f07">
          <label>Figura 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Altera&#231;&#245;es na frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca induzidas por exerc&#237;cio din&#226;mico em a) 0-10 s e b) 1-4 min em todas as cargas de trabalho (25, 50, 100 e 150 W) em indiv&#237;duos normais e em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas card&#237;aca e n&#227;o card&#237;aca. As linhas cont&#237;nuas indicam as medianas, as linhas tracejadas o primeiro e o terceiro quartis e as linhas verticais os dados mais extremos.14 CCC: Doen&#231;a de Chagas card&#237;aca; CNC: Doen&#231;a de Chagas n&#227;o card&#237;aca.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf06.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Tamb&#233;m utilizamos a an&#225;lise espectral de pot&#234;ncia da variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (VFC), uma t&#233;cnica n&#227;o invasiva extremamente confi&#225;vel para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia auton&#244;mica sobre o n&#243; sinusal em pacientes com DC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08">Figura 7</xref>). Uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na pot&#234;ncia da variabilidade cronotr&#243;pica noturna e matinal, afetando tanto os componentes de baixa quanto de alta frequ&#234;ncia, foi demonstrada pela an&#225;lise espectral de registros eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos de Holter de 24 horas em pacientes com DC. Assim, a atenua&#231;&#227;o de ambos os componentes durante a an&#225;lise espectral da variabilidade cronotr&#243;pica em pacientes com DC &#233; consistente com a ocorr&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica e parassimp&#225;tica. Al&#233;m disso, essa VFC anormal foi documentada em pacientes com DC em repouso, em p&#233; ou realizando exerc&#237;cios de preens&#227;o manual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f08">
          <label>Figura 7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Variabilidade espectral de 24 horas da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca registrada em indiv&#237;duos controle (NR) e em pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas cr&#244;nica (NA). M&#233;dia e desvio-padr&#227;o para os dois grupos. As barras verdes e em blocos indicam os valores de sono (noite) e vig&#237;lia (diurno), respectivamente. No sentido hor&#225;rio, a partir do canto superior esquerdo: TP (pot&#234;ncia total), LFP (pot&#234;ncia de baixa frequ&#234;ncia), HFP (pot&#234;ncia de alta frequ&#234;ncia) e LF/HF (raz&#227;o baixa/alta frequ&#234;ncia). Pacientes com doen&#231;a de Chagas apresentaram valores inferiores aos normais, al&#233;m da aus&#234;ncia da rela&#231;&#227;o LF/HF esperada ao despertar.28</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf07.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Como j&#225; foi apontado acima, a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica em pacientes com DC pode ser detectada antes do desenvolvimento da disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular e em todas as fases da doen&#231;a, mesmo naqueles indiv&#237;duos com as formas digestivas indeterminadas e isoladas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> No entanto, em alguns dos nossos estudos, houve uma tend&#234;ncia clara de pacientes apresentando disfun&#231;&#227;o cardiovascular parassimp&#225;tica apresentarem o envolvimento t&#237;pico do &#243;rg&#227;o digestivo da DC, ou seja, megaes&#244;fago e/ou megac&#243;lon, cuja fisiopatologia &#233; considerada principalmente devido &#224; denerva&#231;&#227;o intramural parassimp&#225;tica visceral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora a teoria neurog&#234;nica tenha sido proposta como o mecanismo patog&#234;nico fundamental para a cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> a patog&#234;nese da cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica &#233; definitivamente mais complexa, e a teoria neurog&#234;nica para a cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica encontrou v&#225;rios obst&#225;culos conceituais insol&#250;veis. Al&#233;m disso, a detec&#231;&#227;o de disautonomia card&#237;aca em todos esses estudos se baseou essencialmente na avalia&#231;&#227;o de respostas de FC prejudicadas, claramente causadas por danos no suprimento neuronal &#224;s estruturas sinoatriais. Portanto, dist&#250;rbios adren&#233;rgicos que ocorrem no n&#237;vel mioc&#225;rdico ventricular podem ter sido negligenciados. Um estudo mais detalhado de nosso laborat&#243;rio se concentrou na cintilografia com metaiodobenzilguanidina marcada com iodo-123 (<sup>123</sup>I-MIBG) para avalia&#231;&#227;o da inerva&#231;&#227;o nervosa simp&#225;tica mioc&#225;rdica e mostrou denerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica segmentar que foi detectada mesmo em pacientes com a forma indeterminada da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica, precedendo anormalidades no movimento da parede do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09">Figura 8</xref>). Um achado intrigante adicional desse estudo foi o aumento da taxa de elimina&#231;&#227;o de <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG observada em pacientes com fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> Isso pode ser resultado do aumento paradoxal da atividade simp&#225;tica card&#237;aca nos est&#225;gios iniciais da DC.</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f09">
          <label>Figura 8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Exemplos de estudos de cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica utilizando 123I-MIBG (coluna da esquerda) e estresse e/ou redistribui&#231;&#227;o de t&#225;lio-201 (colunas do centro e da direita, respectivamente). Representa&#231;&#227;o em mapa polar da porcentagem de capta&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (relacionada &#224; densidade m&#225;xima de contagem de pixels) (linha superior) e o resultado da an&#225;lise quantitativa mostrando &#225;reas de capta&#231;&#227;o reduzida (&gt; 2,5 DPs em compara&#231;&#227;o aos valores m&#233;dios do grupo controle) (linha inferior). (A) Homem de 37 anos, paciente com doen&#231;a de Chagas do grupo I (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE de 50%). A capta&#231;&#227;o reduzida de 123I-MIBG nas &#225;reas septais anteroseptal e apical est&#225; topograficamente relacionada ao dist&#250;rbio revers&#237;vel da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica. (B) Mulher de 54 anos, paciente com doen&#231;a de Chagas do grupo II (fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o do VE de 52%). Grande &#225;rea de capta&#231;&#227;o reduzida de 123I-MIBG nas paredes inferior, posterior e apical, topograficamente relacionada a defeito de perfus&#227;o fixo e/ou paradoxal moderado no estudo com t&#225;lio-201. Tamb&#233;m houve comprometimento grave da motilidade da parede nos segmentos envolvidos.23</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf08.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>&#201; digno de nota que a disautonomia circulat&#243;ria encontrada em muitos pacientes com DC difere de outras s&#237;ndromes que afetam o sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo (por exemplo, diabetes mellitus, amiloidose nervosa de Andrade), uma vez que nenhuma anormalidade significativa do controle vascular adren&#233;rgico que leve a sintomas ou evid&#234;ncia objetiva de hipotens&#227;o postural foi relatada nesses estudos. Al&#233;m disso, n&#227;o houve demonstra&#231;&#227;o clara de que o comprometimento auton&#244;mico per se seja prognosticamente relevante, e nenhuma implica&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica foi concebida. De fato, embora o comprometimento auton&#244;mico tenha sido h&#225; muito tempo hipotetizado como um mecanismo potencial que causa morte s&#250;bita em pacientes com DC,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> uma liga&#231;&#227;o entre a variabilidade reduzida da FC e um progn&#243;stico mais preocupante associado a um escore de Rassi alto,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> foi relatado apenas recentemente. Al&#233;m disso, investiga&#231;&#245;es recentes do nosso laborat&#243;rio forneceram evid&#234;ncias de que a extens&#227;o da denerva&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica mioc&#225;rdica irregular detectada com <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG est&#225; correlacionada com a ocorr&#234;ncia e a gravidade de arritmia ventricular maligna em pacientes com cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Vale ressaltar que o grau de comprometimento auton&#244;mico &#233; bastante vari&#225;vel de indiv&#237;duo para indiv&#237;duo no contexto da DC e, em muitos estudos, sua magnitude foi muito sutil; portanto, diferen&#231;as min&#250;sculas em compara&#231;&#227;o aos controles normais podem ter sido superinterpretadas. Comparando a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica do n&#243; sinusal detectada por muitos testes diferentes, com a disfun&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica do VE avaliada pela cintilografia com <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG, em diferentes grupos de DC estudados em nosso laborat&#243;rio, parece que cada um &#233; de natureza independente e n&#227;o interrelacionado. No geral, investiga&#231;&#245;es independentes apontam para quatro mecanismos patog&#234;nicos principais para explicar o desenvolvimento da cardiomiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica, um dos quais &#233;, sem d&#250;vida, a disautonomia, e o outro inclui dist&#250;rbios microvasculares, agress&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica dependente de parasitas e les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica imunomediada. Apesar de suas peculiaridades proeminentes, o papel dos dist&#250;rbios auton&#244;micos e dos dist&#250;rbios microcirculat&#243;rios &#233; provavelmente auxiliar entre as principais causas de dano mioc&#225;rdico cr&#244;nico. A patog&#234;nese da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica cr&#244;nica &#233;, em ess&#234;ncia, dependente de uma infec&#231;&#227;o sist&#234;mica de baixo grau, mas incessante, com rea&#231;&#227;o imunol&#243;gica adversa documentada. Portanto, a persist&#234;ncia parasit&#225;ria e os mecanismos imunol&#243;gicos est&#227;o inextricavelmente e causalmente relacionados &#224; agress&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica observada na fase cr&#244;nica da cardiopatia chag&#225;sica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em ess&#234;ncia, muitas investiga&#231;&#245;es que empregam diversos testes que avaliam o controle auton&#244;mico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, com m&#233;todos farmacol&#243;gicos e fisiol&#243;gicos, demonstraram dist&#250;rbios acentuados do sistema parassimp&#225;tico e, em menor grau, tamb&#233;m do sistema adren&#233;rgico em pacientes com todas as formas de DC cr&#244;nica. Al&#233;m disso, em n&#237;vel ventricular, dist&#250;rbios no sistema adren&#233;rgico puderam ser detectados e, mais relevante, essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem ter poss&#237;vel papel no desencadeamento ou agravamento de arritmias card&#237;acas.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca na s&#237;ndrome de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca cr&#244;nica devido a v&#225;rias etiologias</title>
      <p>Desde a d&#233;cada de 1970, duas investiga&#231;&#245;es independentes relataram controle parassimp&#225;tico e simp&#225;tico autonomicamente mediado anormal da FC em pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular ou insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva (ICC).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> No entanto, em contraste com o que foi encontrado em nossos estudos com pacientes cuja disautonomia era devida &#224; DC e ocorria na aus&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o contr&#225;til card&#237;aca, essas investiga&#231;&#245;es sobre ICC n&#227;o puderam relatar nenhuma evid&#234;ncia patol&#243;gica de anormalidades na inerva&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica card&#237;aca. Portanto, o comprometimento do controle barorreflexo da FC descrito em pacientes com ICC de qualquer etiologia poderia ser funcionalmente determinado, ser inespec&#237;fico e tamb&#233;m possivelmente revers&#237;vel. Para determinar se esse dist&#250;rbio nesse cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico de ICC poderia ser revers&#237;vel, nosso laborat&#243;rio se prop&#244;s a avaliar o controle cronotr&#243;pico card&#237;aco em pacientes com ICC cr&#244;nica classe IV de v&#225;rias etiologias antes e ap&#243;s a compensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica obtida por repouso no leito, restri&#231;&#227;o de sal, diur&#233;ticos e vasodilatadores. O manejo foi modificado 3 dias antes da segunda avalia&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica, de modo a restabelecer a mesma dieta e condi&#231;&#245;es farmacol&#243;gicas do estudo basal anterior. A compensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica documentada levou a uma redu&#231;&#227;o significativa na classe NYHA baseada em sintomas, peso corporal e congest&#227;o pulmonar e sist&#234;mica. As respostas m&#233;dias &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es da FC (batimentos/min) aumentaram significativamente ap&#243;s a compensa&#231;&#227;o em todos os pacientes testados com atropina, preens&#227;o manual (capacidade m&#225;xima de 30%) e inclina&#231;&#227;o da cabe&#231;a para cima (5 minutos). Uma inclina&#231;&#227;o barorreflexa acentuadamente atenuada foi confirmada no estado descompensado da ICC, de acordo com os testes com fenilefrina e nitrito de amila. Um aumento not&#225;vel na sensibilidade barorreflexa ocorreu ap&#243;s a compensa&#231;&#227;o, tanto nos testes com fenilefrina quanto com nitrito de amila. Esses achados documentaram, pela primeira vez na literatura, um componente revers&#237;vel do controle barorreflexo prejudicado da FC na ICC grave de etiologia inespec&#237;fica, possivelmente devido aos seus pronunciados efeitos congestivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em resumo, esta investiga&#231;&#227;o demonstrou que ap&#243;s a compensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, houve uma melhora significativa no controle auton&#244;mico da FC documentada por testes com atropina, preens&#227;o manual e inclina&#231;&#227;o da cabe&#231;a, bem como por um aumento not&#225;vel na sensibilidade do barorreflexo.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Controle auton&#244;mico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes tratados com cirurgia card&#237;aca sob circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea</title>
      <p>A sensibilidade do reflexo barorreflexo &#224; hipertens&#227;o transit&#243;ria foi determinada em pacientes antes (controle) e depois (72 horas) de opera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas abertas com circula&#231;&#227;o extracorp&#243;rea (CEC). Em todos os pacientes, a avalia&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria precoce da sensibilidade do barorreflexo mostrou valores que foram apreciavelmente diminu&#237;dos (p &lt; 0,01) em compara&#231;&#227;o com os valores de sensibilidade pr&#233;-operat&#243;ria (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 9</xref>). A sensibilidade embotada sugeriu comprometimento grave do controle barorreflexo do n&#243; sinoatrial na condi&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-operat&#243;ria. O controle barorreflexo prejudicado n&#227;o se correlacionou com altera&#231;&#245;es concomitantes na FC ou nas press&#245;es arteriais sist&#234;micas, atriais esquerda ou direita. Al&#233;m disso, a arritmia do n&#243; sinusal respirat&#243;rio estava ausente em todos os indiv&#237;duos. Em quatro pacientes, estudos subsequentes em 4, 8, 10 e 12 meses, respectivamente, ap&#243;s a opera&#231;&#227;o de cora&#231;&#227;o aberto, revelaram boa recupera&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade do barorreflexo e influ&#234;ncias respirat&#243;rias na varia&#231;&#227;o batimento a batimento. Esses achados apontam para um comprometimento ainda maior do controle fino da FC imposto pelas condi&#231;&#245;es das opera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas com CEC em pacientes submetidos a essa modalidade de cirurgia tor&#225;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f10">
          <label>Figura 9</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Valores individuais de sensibilidade do barorreflexo obtidos com fenilefrina e nitrito de amila durante a descompensa&#231;&#227;o (DECOMP.) e compensa&#231;&#227;o (COMP.) da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca congestiva.29</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf09.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Resumindo, este estudo mostrou que 72 horas ap&#243;s cirurgia card&#237;aca com CEC, os pacientes apresentaram comprometimento acentuado do controle barorreflexo do n&#243; sinoatrial e aboli&#231;&#227;o da ASR, mas apresentaram boa recupera&#231;&#227;o desses controles reflexos da FC entre 4 e 12 meses ap&#243;s a cirurgia.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes com hipertireoidismo</title>
      <p>Os mecanismos que controlam a FC em repouso no hipertireoidismo foram avaliados em pacientes antes e depois do tratamento com propiltiouracil. Os pacientes em repouso foram estudados em condi&#231;&#245;es basais e ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico auton&#244;mico em duas sess&#245;es experimentais: primeira sess&#227;o, usando propranolol (0,2 mg/kg de peso corporal); segunda sess&#227;o, usando atropina (0,04 mg/kg de peso corporal) seguida de propranolol (0,2 mg/kg de peso corporal). Todos os f&#225;rmacos bloqueadores farmacol&#243;gicos foram administrados por via intravenosa. A FC em repouso no in&#237;cio do estudo foi significativamente reduzida ap&#243;s o controle cl&#237;nico e laboratorial da doen&#231;a. Ap&#243;s o bloqueio duplo, a FC intr&#237;nseca foi reduzida ap&#243;s o tratamento (p &lt; 0,025). A redu&#231;&#227;o da FC causada pelo propranolol n&#227;o foi significativamente diferente antes e depois do controle cl&#237;nico do hipertireoidismo com propiltiouracil. Em contraste, a atropina induziu uma eleva&#231;&#227;o maior da FC ap&#243;s o tratamento do que antes do tratamento cl&#237;nico. Os presentes resultados n&#227;o sugerem participa&#231;&#227;o apreci&#225;vel do componente simp&#225;tico do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo na taquicardia do hipertireoidismo, pelo menos nas condi&#231;&#245;es do presente estudo. A pequena altera&#231;&#227;o observada na FC intr&#237;nseca, embora significativa, parece indicar que este n&#227;o &#233; o mecanismo mais importante envolvido na taquicardia exibida por pacientes com hipertireoidismo. Al&#233;m disso, nossos resultados sugerem que uma redu&#231;&#227;o importante na atividade eferente do componente parassimp&#225;tico participa dos mecanismos que modulam a FC em repouso no hipertireoidismo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Esta conclus&#227;o foi confirmada quando avaliamos a magnitude da ASR em pacientes com hipertireoidismo, antes e ap&#243;s o tratamento, mostrando que as altera&#231;&#245;es card&#237;acas induzidas por esta manobra fisiol&#243;gica aumentaram significativamente em todos os pacientes, indicando um comprometimento importante e revers&#237;vel da atividade vagal eferente sobre o n&#243; sinusal no hipertireoidismo humano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Tamb&#233;m investigamos a contribui&#231;&#227;o relativa dos componentes simp&#225;ticos e parassimp&#225;ticos do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo para a regula&#231;&#227;o da resposta cronotr&#243;pica ao ED na posi&#231;&#227;o sentada (por 4 min em cicloerg&#244;metro com freio eletromagn&#233;tico nos n&#237;veis de 5, 15, 25, 50, 75 W) que foi avaliado indiretamente em pacientes com tireotoxicose, antes e ap&#243;s o controle cl&#237;nico da doen&#231;a, e comparado a volunt&#225;rios normais, bem como sob bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico simp&#225;tico com propranolol (0,2 mg/kg de peso corporal).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      <p>A magnitude do aumento l&#237;quido na FC evocada por cada n&#237;vel de ED foi equivalente em pacientes normais e hipertireoidianos, mas nesses pacientes ocorreu um incremento atenuado no in&#237;cio do exerc&#237;cio, que depende de um mecanismo de retirada predominantemente vagal; em contraste, para cada carga de trabalho, ap&#243;s 30 s de esfor&#231;o, quando a contribui&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica se torna o mecanismo predominante para eleva&#231;&#227;o da FC, o incremento da FC foi maior em pacientes hipertireoidianos em compara&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos normais.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, documentamos que, em pacientes com hipertireoidismo, o bloqueio &#946;-adren&#233;rgico deprimiu a taquicardia ap&#243;s 30s de esfor&#231;o nos n&#237;veis de 15 e 50 W, enquanto em indiv&#237;duos normais esse efeito se manifestou apenas em 50 e 75 W. Al&#233;m disso, ap&#243;s a compensa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica da doen&#231;a, o padr&#227;o de resposta cronotr&#243;pica em pacientes tendeu a ser pr&#243;ximo ao demonstrado por indiv&#237;duos normais. Esses dados demonstram depress&#227;o da capacidade de retra&#231;&#227;o vagal durante o exerc&#237;cio em pacientes com hipertireoidismo, em associa&#231;&#227;o com uma maior ativa&#231;&#227;o do componente simp&#225;tico em rela&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos normais. Essas anormalidades funcionais parecem ser pelo menos parcialmente revers&#237;veis quando os pacientes s&#227;o controlados clinicamente com medicamentos antitireoidianos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em suma, esses estudos demonstraram que a taquicardia em repouso observada em pacientes com hipertireoidismo tem uma importante contribui&#231;&#227;o da redu&#231;&#227;o da atividade parassimp&#225;tica eferente no n&#243; sinusal, mas que essa contribui&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o depende da participa&#231;&#227;o significativa do componente simp&#225;tico do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo. Al&#233;m disso, eles documentam a depress&#227;o da atividade parassimp&#225;tica na taquicardia inicial do ED em pacientes com hipertireoidismo, bem como uma maior ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica na fase tardia do exerc&#237;cio em compara&#231;&#227;o com indiv&#237;duos normais.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Controle auton&#244;mico da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em pacientes com prolapso da valva mitral</title>
      <p>O controle auton&#244;mico da FC foi avaliado em pacientes com prolapso da v&#225;lvula mitral em compara&#231;&#227;o a indiv&#237;duos normais, com os m&#233;todos de avalia&#231;&#227;o da magnitude da ASR em repouso e as respostas cronotr&#243;picas ao ED. A arritmia sinusal foi de maior magnitude em pacientes com prolapso da v&#225;lvula mitral quando comparados ao grupo controle; no entanto, as diferen&#231;as atingiram signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica apenas na frequ&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria de 7 ciclos/min. Durante o ED na posi&#231;&#227;o sentada (25, 50, 100, 150 W durante 4 min de forma gradual), a resposta da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, seja em termos de taquicardia r&#225;pida precoce, dependente do vago (primeiros 10 s), ou taquicardia tardia, dependente do simp&#225;tico (1-4 min), n&#227;o foi significativamente diferente nos dois grupos estudados. Al&#233;m disso, nenhuma diferen&#231;a entre os grupos p&#244;de ser detectada em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; capacidade de exerc&#237;cio aer&#243;bico, avaliada pela medi&#231;&#227;o do limiar anaer&#243;bico. Assim, nossos resultados mostram que neste grupo de pacientes do sexo masculino com prolapso da valva mitral e alguma redu&#231;&#227;o da reserva card&#237;aca,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup>nenhuma anormalidade auton&#244;mica inquestion&#225;vel de significado fisiol&#243;gico p&#244;de ser detectada, uma vez que o controle simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico da FC permanece normal durante o ED.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ap&#243;s treinamento de exerc&#237;cios de resist&#234;ncia</title>
      <p>Indiv&#237;duos normais sedent&#225;rios foram submetidos a 10 semanas de treinamento f&#237;sico de resist&#234;ncia em cicloerg&#244;metro, ap&#243;s o qual apresentaram aumento do VO2m&#225;x e redu&#231;&#227;o da FC em repouso na posi&#231;&#227;o supina. O incremento da FC induzido pelo bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico do sistema parassimp&#225;tico com sulfato de atropina n&#227;o diferiu significativamente antes e depois do treinamento de resist&#234;ncia. A magnitude da ASR tamb&#233;m foi semelhante antes e depois do condicionamento f&#237;sico obtido com o treinamento de resist&#234;ncia. Resultados semelhantes foram demonstrados pela avalia&#231;&#227;o do teste de ASR quando indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios foram comparados a corredores de m&#233;dia dist&#226;ncia. Embora seja poss&#237;vel especular que a magnitude do valor da ASR n&#227;o reflita necessariamente altera&#231;&#245;es no t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico nas condi&#231;&#245;es estudadas, os resultados atuais mostram claramente que valores aumentados de ASR n&#227;o acompanham o aumento da capacidade de resist&#234;ncia. Al&#233;m disso, a resposta da FC ao bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico com atropina n&#227;o sugeriu qualquer participa&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica na bradicardia em repouso induzida pelo treinamento f&#237;sico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup>Portanto, os mecanismos respons&#225;veis pela bradicardia do treinamento de resist&#234;ncia em repouso em humanos permanecem controversos. Os dados dispon&#237;veis obtidos em c&#227;es com bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico duplo (atropina + propranolol) e a variabilidade da FC foram consistentes com aumento da atividade parassimp&#225;tica card&#237;aca, mas sem quaisquer altera&#231;&#245;es na frequ&#234;ncia do n&#243; sinusal intr&#237;nseco para explicar a bradicardia do treinamento em repouso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em nosso laborat&#243;rio, quando jovens sedent&#225;rios foram submetidos a 10 semanas de treinamento f&#237;sico de resist&#234;ncia, sentado em um cicloerg&#244;metro com freio eletromagn&#233;tico, um aumento de 15% no consumo m&#225;ximo de oxig&#234;nio (VO2m&#225;x) e uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 16% na FC de repouso foram documentados. Antes e depois do treinamento, esses volunt&#225;rios realizaram ED em um cicloerg&#244;metro em cargas de trabalho de 25, 50, 75, 100 e 150 W por 4 min em cada n&#237;vel de exerc&#237;cio. Indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis sedent&#225;rios tamb&#233;m foram comparados a atletas treinados (corredores de m&#233;dia dist&#226;ncia). Durante os primeiros 10s de exerc&#237;cio, um per&#237;odo em que a taquicardia &#233; mediada quase exclusivamente pela retirada vagal, os atletas apresentaram um aumento mais r&#225;pido na FC do que os indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios. A mesma tend&#234;ncia foi observada nos indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios ap&#243;s o per&#237;odo de treinamento, embora de menor magnitude. Durante a fase de ED em que a media&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica desempenha um papel importante (entre 30 s e 4 min), os atletas apresentaram menor aumento da FC do que os indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios, e o mesmo padr&#227;o de resposta foi observado no grupo sedent&#225;rio que passou pelo treinamento f&#237;sico de resist&#234;ncia. O aumento da FC em cada carga de trabalho de 0 a 4 minutos de ED foi menor em atletas do que em indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios e n&#227;o foi alterado pelo treinamento de resist&#234;ncia em indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios. Esses resultados sugerem que o treinamento aer&#243;bico diminui a contribui&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica lenta tardia e aumenta a contribui&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica r&#225;pida para a altera&#231;&#227;o da FC durante o ED, em compara&#231;&#227;o com a FC induzida pelas mesmas cargas de trabalho absolutas realizadas antes do treinamento aer&#243;bico. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es funcionais no controle auton&#244;mico da FC podem ou n&#227;o estar associadas a modifica&#231;&#245;es nos valores absolutos da FC, que aumentam do repouso ao final do exerc&#237;cio. Em contraste com o que ocorre em atletas, as adapta&#231;&#245;es auton&#244;micas observadas ap&#243;s o treinamento aer&#243;bico de curta dura&#231;&#227;o podem ocorrer durante o DE sem altera&#231;&#245;es na resposta geral da FC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Um padr&#227;o semelhante de adapta&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas ap&#243;s dez meses de treinamento aer&#243;bico foi documentado em homens sedent&#225;rios de meia-idade, que foi expresso principalmente como uma diminui&#231;&#227;o na influ&#234;ncia simp&#225;tica sobre a resposta da FC ao ED, que foi associada a um aumento na capacidade de transporte de oxig&#234;nio durante o esfor&#231;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Resumidamente, nossa investiga&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o indicou qualquer participa&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica na bradicardia em repouso induzida pelo treinamento f&#237;sico de resist&#234;ncia. No entanto, durante o ED, atletas treinados apresentaram uma contribui&#231;&#227;o parassimp&#225;tica aumentada para a altera&#231;&#227;o da FC em compara&#231;&#227;o com a FC induzida pelas mesmas cargas de trabalho absolutas realizadas anteriormente por indiv&#237;duos sedent&#225;rios. Al&#233;m disso, nossos resultados sugerem que o treinamento aer&#243;bico diminui a contribui&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica lenta tardia para a taquicardia.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica card&#237;aca em idosos saud&#225;veis</title>
      <p>A fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica foi avaliada em idosos saud&#225;veis por meio do monitoramento da FC instant&#226;nea e das altera&#231;&#245;es da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica em resposta &#224; manobra de Valsalva, exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico, teste de press&#227;o fria e administra&#231;&#227;o de fenilefrina e nitrito de amila, induzindo aumento ou diminui&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria aguda da press&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica e bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico com atropina. Apesar de uma ampla variedade de vari&#225;veis de confus&#227;o influenciarem as altera&#231;&#245;es do controle cardiovascular auton&#244;mico relacionadas &#224; idade, nossos resultados sugerem a ocorr&#234;ncia de comprometimento parassimp&#225;tico do controle da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, embora os mecanismos globais envolvidos permane&#231;am desconhecidos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>Considera&#231;&#245;es finais</title>
      <p>Os testes auton&#244;micos padronizados descritos aqui, que utilizamos ao longo de v&#225;rias d&#233;cadas, s&#227;o relativamente simples, reprodut&#237;veis e confi&#225;veis o suficiente para identificar disfun&#231;&#245;es na regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da FC na ampla variedade de condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas discutidas acima. Em geral, esses testes contribu&#237;ram para elucidar aspectos dos mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos ou fisiopatol&#243;gicos subjacentes nesses cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos. No entanto, os dist&#250;rbios auton&#244;micos detectados com esses testes n&#227;o representam necessariamente o mecanismo mais importante da patog&#234;nese dessas doen&#231;as ou da condi&#231;&#227;o fisiopatol&#243;gica sob investiga&#231;&#227;o. Por outro lado, tais testes podem ser &#250;teis para excluir disfun&#231;&#245;es auton&#244;micas cardiovasculares na maioria das condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, ou seja, para demonstrar que os indiv&#237;duos assim investigados s&#227;o de fato normais, ou mesmo que seu comportamento ainda est&#225; dentro da normalidade na presen&#231;a de estados patol&#243;gicos. Como j&#225; mencionado acima, na doen&#231;a card&#237;aca de Chagas, a implica&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica do comprometimento auton&#244;mico n&#227;o foi avaliada na ampla gama de investiga&#231;&#245;es descritas. Entretanto, uma investiga&#231;&#227;o recente do nosso laborat&#243;rio relatou a identifica&#231;&#227;o de um fator progn&#243;stico significativo na doen&#231;a card&#237;aca de Chagas cr&#244;nica, relacionado &#224; interrela&#231;&#227;o anormal entre os componentes de baixa e alta frequ&#234;ncia na VFC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, embora a disfun&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso aut&#244;nomo tenha sido bem documentada na fisiopatologia de diversas doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, a aplicabilidade cl&#237;nica desses achados para fins terap&#234;uticos &#233; muito restrita. Muito provavelmente, essa limita&#231;&#227;o est&#225; relacionada, pelo menos em parte, ao fato de que a maioria dos estudos avaliou essencialmente o controle anormal da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, enquanto &#233; uma hip&#243;tese razo&#225;vel que o significado progn&#243;stico adverso da disautonomia possa ser mais dependente de dist&#250;rbios no n&#237;vel ventricular. Assim, se descobriu que a inerva&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica anormal no n&#237;vel mioc&#225;rdico se correlaciona com arritmia ventricular maligna na DC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Como este &#233; de fato um achado intrigante, pesquisas adicionais s&#227;o necess&#225;rias para elucidar o papel da disautonomia na maioria dos cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos investigados at&#233; o momento.</p>
      <p>Tamb&#233;m &#233; digno de nota que os dados apresentados em rela&#231;&#227;o a v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es anormais devem refletir o conhecimento fisiopatol&#243;gico pr&#233;vio que existia quando os testes que avaliam o controle cardiovascular foram aplicados especificamente em nossos estudos. Portanto, se deve ter cautela ao traduzir esse conhecimento para os conceitos atuais. Por exemplo, pacientes com a chamada s&#237;ndrome do prolapso da v&#225;lvula mitral em nossos estudos est&#227;o agora inclu&#237;dos na s&#237;ndrome mais abrangente de disjun&#231;&#227;o do anel mitral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> Esse conceito envolve o importante aspecto fisiopatol&#243;gico referente &#224; possibilidade de arritmia maligna em alguns dos pacientes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> algo que n&#227;o foi adequadamente abordado em estudos recentes, mas pode estar associado &#224; ocorr&#234;ncia de disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica.</p>
      <p>Por fim, desde as primeiras investiga&#231;&#245;es, tanto em modelos animais experimentais quanto em humanos, a disautonomia card&#237;aca tem sido associada &#224; fisiopatologia da doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, com profundas implica&#231;&#245;es para o progn&#243;stico de pacientes que sofrem infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, a associa&#231;&#227;o da variabilidade anormal da FC com a disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular tem sido destacada em estudos recentes com pacientes diab&#233;ticos com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, o que justificaria uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais aprofundada para ser completamente compreendida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Os autores agradecem gentilmente aos assistentes m&#233;dicos e t&#233;cnicos que participaram como coautores nos artigos publicados citados nesta revis&#227;o.</p>
    </ack>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica:</label>
        <p> N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado:</label>
        <p> Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial:</label>
        <p> Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
        <label>Disponibilidade de Dados:</label>
        <p> Todo o conjunto de dados que d&#225; suporte aos resultados deste estudo est&#225; dispon&#237;vel mediante solicita&#231;&#227;o ao autor correspondente (Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto).</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
        <p> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250112i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>II &#8211; Evaluation of Autonomic Control of Heart Rate in Various Clinical Conditions</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3456-8433</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maciel</surname>
            <given-names>Benedito Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Gallo-Jr</surname>
            <given-names>Louren&#231;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1090-8165</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Schmidt</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Marin-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data and Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo &#8211; Campus Ribeir&#227;o Preto, Ribeir&#227;o Preto, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label>Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto Laborat&#243;rio de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Invasiva, Faculdade de Medicina Ribeir&#227;o Preto, USP, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: marin_neto@yahoo.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Nuno Bettencourt</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Through the comparison of responses of normal volunteers, assessment of autonomic function under abnormal clinical conditions focused on the detection of dysautonomia involving both the parasympathetic and adrenergic limbs in patients with Chagas heart disease, post-cardiac surgery, chronic heart failure, mitral valve prolapse, and hyperthyroidism. In particular, the autonomic impairment observed in Chagas disease patients involved predominantly the parasympathetic control of heart rate at the sinus node level, and the adrenergic innervation at the myocardial ventricular level. The autonomic derangements observed in Chagas cardiomyopathy patients have only recently been explored in terms of their prognostic relevance, and their potential clinical implications for therapeutic purposes remain to be investigated.</p>
        <p>Over the last nearly seven decades, our laboratory has accumulated significant expertise using several tests described above to evaluate autonomic control of heart rate, now focusing on various pathophysiological clinical conditions. The effect of endurance physical training and of aging was mostly focused on studies of normal volunteers whose responses at baseline served as controls to be compared during tests employed in individuals with some morbid clinical conditions. By far, the pathophysiology of Chagas heart disease involving the autonomic nervous system was the most predominant subject studied in our laboratory, since the early studies in the 1960s until the late studies just recently published in international journals (Central Illustration). Other pathological conditions focused on our studies were mitral valve prolapse, heart failure, post-cardiac surgery, and hyperthyroidism.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>II &#8211; Evaluation of Autonomic Control of Heart Rate in Various Clinical Conditions</title>
            </caption>
            <attrib>Evaluation of autonomic control of heart rate in various clinical conditions</attrib>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Autonomic Nervous System Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Rate</kwd>
        <kwd>Sympathetic Nervous System</kwd>
        <kwd>Parasympathetic Nervous System</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding:</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Dysautonomia in Chagas&#8217; disease</title>
        <p>Consistent with anatomic parasympathetic denervation described by several independent investigators reporting on morphological studies, abnormal cardiac autonomic regulation has been conclusively demonstrated in Chagas&#8217; disease (CD) patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Various pharmacological and physiological stimuli were used to show strikingly impaired parasympathetic heart rate (HR) regulation. The intravenous injection of hypertensive drugs such as metaraminol and phenylephrine was shown in patients with CD to produce comparable transient augmentation of SAP, without a similar degree of reflex bradycardia, in comparison to normal control individuals. CD patients also failed to respond with an HR increase to atropine intravenous administration. Dysautonomia evidenced with these pharmacological based tests was corroborated by other physiological tests that included facial water immersion, Valsalva maneuver, head-up and head-down tilt tests, respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), handgrip, graded dynamic exercise, and spectral analysis of Holter recordings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Overall, these studies showed that most CD patients are usually deprived of the tonic inhibitory action normally exerted by the parasympathetic system on the sinus node<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup>(<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>). Moreover, these CD patients lack the vagally mediated mechanism to respond with rapid reflex bradycardia or tachycardia through parasympathetic withdrawal to transient changes in blood pressure or venous return. Furthermore, these studies paved the way for the concept of Chagas disease as a spontaneous experimental model adequate for studying a cardiomyopathy with a specific autonomic dysfunction at the sinus node level.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Effects of atropine sulfate on heart rate (peripheral venous administration at the dose of 0.04 mg/ kg). Effect of atropine on heart rate in normal controls and individuals with chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy. Absolute and mean values (left panel) and individual and mean incremental changes (right panel).12</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>It is important to emphasize that dysautonomia in CD is an early finding in the natural history of the disease, since, for example, abnormal HR responses to intravenous parasympathetic blockade with atropine have been consistently shown in CD preceding any signs of ventricular systolic dysfunction or heart failure. In contrast, the pharmacological sympathetic blockade with intravenous propranolol produced similar degrees of HR elevation in CD patients and normal controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Baroreflex sensitivity was assessed using the method described by Pickering, Sleight et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> by relating the beat-to-beat pulse intervals to the immediately preceding systolic pressure values during transient changes in systemic arterial pressure induced by phenylephrine or amyl nitrite. In comparison to normal controls, both the bradycardia and the tachycardia observed in patients with CD were significantly blunted. However, the fast reflex bradycardia elicited by phenylephrine-induced hypertension was clearly more depressed than the fast reflex tachycardia hypotension caused by amyl nitrite. These findings were interpreted as indicating that the autonomic impairment in CD patients predominantly affected the parasympathetic limb &#8211; responsible for the bradycardia, whereas the sympathetic systemic &#8211; responsible for the tachycardia, occurring later, could be relatively spared<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>). These blunted chronotropic changes using pharmacological tests were corroborated by those observed in response to the Valsalva maneuver (40mm Hg for 20 seconds) in CD patients who showed no tachycardia in response to the intravenous atropine infusion. Despite having comparable pressure overshoot values after the Valsalva strain was released, CD patients who did not show HR increase after atropine also failed to have absolute bradycardia, and there was also a more delayed return of blood pressure to baseline values after the strain<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03001">
            <label>Figure 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Baroreceptor sensitivity during acutely induced alterations in systemic vascular resistance by phenylephrine and amyl nitrite. Note the striking differences between normal and patients with cardiac Chagas disease during phenylephrine-induced hypertension; differences during amyl nitrite hypotension were less significant.10</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04001">
            <label>Figure 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Arterial blood pressure (mean) and heart rate (mean and standard deviation) values during the Valsalva maneuver (40mm Hg for 20 seconds) in groups of normal individuals (A; n = 18) and patients with Chagas heart disease (B; n = 14). In comparison with normal controls, Chagas disease patients exhibit blunted heart rate changes during the strain and the blood pressure overshoot after the Valsalva maneuver. In the group of chagasic patients, there is no absolute bradycardia, and there is also a more delayed return of blood pressure to baseline values after the strain. The Chagas patients included in this study were selected because of no chronotropic response to atropine (0.04 mg/kg&#8722;1 intravenously).1</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>The reflex tachycardia induced by a change from the supine position to a 70<sup>o</sup> head-up tilt was studied in conscious normal individuals and patients with chronic Chagas&#8217; heart disease in the absence of cardiac failure. CD patients showed markedly decreased HR responses during the initial 10 s following tilt to upright posture. A similar response was obtained in normals after parasympathetic blockade with atropine. Beta-adrenergic blockade failed to produce a significant effect on the initial HR response of normals, but the HR increment, at 1 and 5 min of tilt, was significantly reduced in normals and abolished in patients. These results in CD patients corroborate what had been found in normal individuals, of a biphasic mode of tachycardia elicited by the upright posture: initially it depends on parasympathetic withdrawal &#8211; a mechanism mostly depressed in the patients &#8211; while sympathetic stimulation becomes the predominant late mechanism for tachycardia In the orthostatic position.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4</xref>) In these studies it also was seen that although less marked, CD patients additionally have some depression of the adrenergically mediated response to upright tilting.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05001">
            <label>Figure 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Effects of tilting normal subjects (green bars) and Chagas&#8217; patients (blue bars) to the head-up position, before and after atropine and propranolol administration. In each instance, the mean value is indicated by the horizontal bar, and the standard error of the mean by the horizontal line at the top of the bar. Delta HR = increment of heart rate, 10s and 5 min after postural changes.12</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>However, not all patients with CD exhibit the abnormal parasympathetic control of HR described in the studies above. That this concept is true was shown in other investigations from our laboratory, when hemodynamic responses to sustained isometric exercise (handgrip at 30% of maximum voluntary capacity) were studied in different groups of patients with Chagas&#8217;s heart disease, all without previous or current heart failure. One group (1) of patients had profound impairment of parasympathetic control of HR, considering that they had no tachycardia in response to intravenous administration of atropine and no bradycardia during phase IV of the Valsalva maneuver. The other group (2) showed normal vagal regulation of HR, as judged by chronotropic responses to these tests. The HR change elicited by the handgrip test was significantly lower in group 1 than in group 2. Pressor responses and stroke index to handgrip were of similar magnitude in both groups. Cardiac output indexed for the body surface area increased during handgrip in group 2, but there was no significant change in group 1. Changes in measured systemic vascular resistance were significantly higher in group 1 than in group 2. This study also showed that parasympathetic impairment is associated with more conspicuous and adverse effects when there is inotropic depression of the myocardium, as shown by hemodynamic overload caused by isometric exercise in patients with Chagas&#8217;s heart disease. In such conditions, the blood pressure response to handgrip is predominantly mediated by an increase in systemic vascular resistance rather than by an increase in cardiac output<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f06001">Figure 5</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f06001">
            <label>Figure 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Changes in heart rate (HR), mean systemic arterial pressure (SAP), cardiac index (ACI), and systemic vascular resistance (SVR) evoked by handgrip at 30% of maximal voluntary capacity in Chagas patients with (circles) and without parasympathetic impairment (triangles). Statistical significance was assessed by Student&#8217;s t-test for unpaired samples.13</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf06-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Dynamic exercise was used with an electromagnetic braked cycle ergometer, to assess HR responses in relation to the other cardio-respiratory variables (pulmonary ventilation (V), oxygen consumption (VO2), carbon dioxide production (VCO2), and respiratory quotient (RQ)) comparing normal subjects with two groups of patients with chronic CD (with and without cardiomyopathy, i.e. with the indeterminate form of the disease). The time course of HR responses to the increasing workload was used to assess the functional conditions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic cardiac efferent limbs. Analyses of the results showed that (a) the group of CD patients with overt cardiomyopathy (abnormal electrocardiogram, even with normal cardiac size on chest X-rays, and no previous heart failure), had lower HRs increments (p &lt; 0.05) than normal subjects during the initial 10 s of each exercise workload (delta HR 0-10 s) of effort (fast component of HR increase ); (b) differences between the normal control subjects and CD patients without cardiomyopathy were not statistically significant; (c) the abnormalities in the chronotropic responses are consistent with impairment of parasympathetic efferent modulation on the sinus node; (d) in contrast, the slow HR response (delta HR 1-4 min), which expresses the degree of sympathetic stimulation upon the sinus node, was comparable in the three groups studied, thus showing unimpaired adrenergic responses during dynamic exercise in the group of patients with the indeterminate form of CD; and (e) VO2, VCO2, and RQ values were normal at all workloads in both groups of individuals with CD, suggesting that vagal dysfunction does not affect oxygen transport at these submaximal levels of dynamic exercise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f07001">Figure 6</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f07001">
            <label>Figure 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Changes in heart rate induced by dynamic exercise at a) 0-10s and b) 1-4 min at all workloads (25, 50, 100, and 150W) in normal subjects and cardiac and non-cardiac Chagas disease patients. Solid lines denote medians, dashed lines the first and third quartiles, and vertical lines the most extreme data.14 CCC: cardiac Chagas disease; CNC: non-cardiac Chagas disease.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf07-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>We also used power spectral analysis of heart rate variability (HRV), a most reliable non-invasive technique for assessing autonomic influence upon the sinus node in patients with CD (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f08001">Figure 7</xref>). A significant reduction of the potency of night and morning chronotropic variability, affecting both the low-frequency and high-frequency components, was demonstrated by spectral analysis of electrocardiographic 24-hour Holter recordings in CD patients. Thus, the attenuation of both components during spectral analysis of chronotropic variability in CD patients is consistent with the occurrence of both sympathetic and parasympathetic dysfunction. Moreover, this abnormal HRV has been documented in CD patients at rest, standing, or undertaking handgrip exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f08001">
            <label>Figure 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Twenty-four-hour spectral variability of cardiac rate recorded in control subjects (N R) and in chronic Chagas disease patients (NA). Mean and standard deviation for the two groups. Green and block bars indicate sleeping (nighttime) and awakened (daytime) values, respectively. Clockwise from upper left: TP (total power), LFP (low frequency power), HFP (high frequency power), and LF/HF (ratio low/high frequency). Chagas patients showed lower values than normals, in addition to the lack of the expected LF/HF ratio, and awakening.28</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf08-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>As already pointed out above, the autonomic dysfunction in CD patients can be detected before the development of ventricular dysfunction and in all phases of the disease, even in those individuals with the indeterminate and isolated digestive forms<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> However, in some of our studies, there was a clear trend of patients showing parasympathetic cardiovascular dysfunction to have the typical CD digestive organ involvement, i.e., megaesophagus and or megacolon, whose pathophysiology is considered to be mostly due to visceral parasympathetic intramural denervation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Although the neurogenic theory had been proposed as the fundamental pathogenetic mechanism for Chagas&#8217; cardiomyopathy,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> the pathogenesis of Chagas cardiomyopathy is definitely more complex, and the neurogenic theory for Chagas cardiomyopathy met several unsolvable conceptual obstacles. In addition, detection of cardiac dysautonomia in all those studies was based essentially on assessing impaired HR responses, that was clearly caused by damage in the neuronal supply to the sinoatrial structures. Hence, adrenergic derangements occurring at the ventricular myocardial level may have been overlooked. A more detailed study from our laboratory focused on <sup>123</sup>iodine- metaiodobenzylguanidine (<sup>123</sup>I-MIBG) scintigraphy for evaluation of myocardial sympathetic nerve innervation and showed segmental sympathetic denervation that was detected even in patients with the indeterminate form of Chagas heart disease preceding left ventricular wall motion abnormalities<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f09001">Figure 8</xref>). An additional intriguing finding from that study was the increased <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG washout rate observed in patients with normal ventricular function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> This could be the result of paradoxically increased cardiac sympathetic activity at the early stages of Chagas disease.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f09001">
            <label>Figure 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Examples of myocardial scintigraphy studies using I-123-MIBG (left column) and stress and/or redistribution thallium-201 (center and right columns, respectively). Polar map representation of percent myocardial uptake (related to maximum pixel count density) (upper row) and the result of quantitative analysis depicting areas of reduced uptake (&gt;2.5 SDs in comparison to mean values of the control group) (lower row). (A) Thirty-seven-year-old man, group I Chagas&#8217; disease patient (LV ejection fraction 50%). Reduced I-123-MIBG uptake in anteroseptal and apical septal areas is topographically related to reversible myocardial perfusion disturbance. (B) Fifty-four-year-old woman, group II Chagas&#8217; disease (LV ejection fraction 52%). Large area of reduced I-123-MIBG uptake in the inferior, posterior, and apical walls that are topographically related to moderate fixed and/or paradox perfusion defect on the thallium-201 study. Severe wall motion impairment in the involved segments was also present.23</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf09-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>It is noteworthy that circulatory dysautonomia found in many patients with Chagas disease differs from other syndromes that affect the autonomic nervous system (e.g., diabetes mellitus, nervous Andrade amyloidosis), since no significant abnormality of the adrenergic vascular control that leads to symptoms or objective evidence of postural hypotension has been reported in those studies. Moreover, there has been no clear demonstration that autonomic impairment per se is prognostically relevant, and no therapeutic implications have been devised. In fact, although autonomic impairment has long been hypothesized as a potential mechanism causing sudden death in CD patients,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> a link between reduced HRV and a more ominous prognosis associated with a high Rassi score,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> has only recently been reported. Also, recent investigations from our laboratory provided evidence that the extent of patchy myocardial adrenergic denervation detected with <sup>123</sup>Iodine-MIBG is correlated with the occurrence and severity of malignant ventricular arrhythmia in patients with chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Of note, the degree of autonomic impairment is quite variable from individual to individual in the setting of CD, and in many studies, its magnitude was very subtle; thus, minuscule differences in comparison to normal controls may have been overinterpreted. Comparing the autonomic dysfunction of the sinus node detected by many different tests, with the sympathetic dysfunction of the left ventricle evaluated by <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG scintigraphy, in different groups of CD studied in our Lab, it seems that each one is of an independent nature and not interrelated. Overall, independent investigations point to 4 main pathogenetic mechanisms to explain the development of chronic Chagas cardiomyopathy, one of which is undoubtedly dysautonomia, and the other including microvascular disturbances, parasite-dependent myocardial aggression, and immune-mediated myocardial injury. Despite its prominent peculiarities, the role of autonomic derangements and microcirculatory disturbances is probably ancillary among the main causes of chronic myocardial damage. The pathogenesis of chronic Chagas heart disease is, in essence, dependent on a low-grade but incessant systemic infection with documented immune-adverse reaction. Hence, parasite persistence and immunological mechanisms are inextricably and causally related to myocardial aggression seen in the chronic phase of Chagas heart disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In essence, many investigations employing various tests assessing the autonomic control of HR, with pharmacological and physiological methods, have shown marked disturbances of the parasympathetic system, and, to a lesser extent, also of the adrenergic system in patients with all forms of chronic Chagas disease. In addition, at the ventricular level, derangements in the adrenergic system could be detected, and, more relevant, these alterations may bear possible roles in triggering or aggravating cardiac arrhythmia.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Autonomic regulation of heart rate in the syndrome of chronic heart failure due to various etiologies</title>
        <p>Since the decade of 1970 two independent investigations reported abnormal autonomically mediated parasympathetic and sympathetic control of the HR in patients with ventricular dysfunction or congestive heart failure (CHF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> However, in contrast to what had been found in our studies with patients whose dysautonomia was due to CD and occurred in the absence of cardiac contractile dysfunction, these investigations on CHF could not report on any pathological evidence of abnormalities in the cardiac anatomic innervation. Hence, the impairment of baroreflex control of HR described in patients with CHF of whatever etiology could be functionally determined, nonspecific, and also possibly reversible. To determine if this derangement in this clinical setting of CHF could be reversible, our laboratory set out to assess the cardiac chronotropic control in patients with class IV chronic CHF of various etiologies before and after clinical compensation achieved by bed rest, salt restriction, diuretics, and vasodilators. The management was modified 3 days before the second autonomic evaluation, so as to reestablish the same diet and pharmacologic conditions of the previous baseline study. Documented clinical compensation led to a significant reduction in symptom-based NYHA class, body weight, and pulmonary and systemic congestion. Mean HR changes responses (beats/min) significantly increased after compensation in all patients tested with atropine, handgrip (30% maximum capacity), and head up tilting (5 minutes). A markedly attenuated baroreflex slope was confirmed to occur in the decompensated state of CHF, according to both phenylephrine and amyl nitrite tests. A striking increase in baroreflex sensitivity occurred after compensation, in both phenylephrine and amyl nitrite tests. These findings documented, for the first time in the literature, a reversible component of impaired baroreflex control of HR in severe CHF of nonspecific etiology, possibly due to its pronounced congestive effects.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In summary, this investigation demonstrated that after clinical compensation of heart failure, there was a significant improvement in the autonomic control of HR documented by tests with atropine, handgrip, and head-up tilting, as well as by a remarkable increase in baroreflex sensitivity.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Autonomic control of heart rate in patients treated with cardiac surgery under extracorporeal circulation</title>
        <p>The sensitivity of the baroreceptor reflex to transient hypertension was determined in patients before (control) and after (72 hours) open cardiac operations with extracorporeal circulation (ECC). In all patients, early post-operative assessment of baroreflex sensitivity showed values that were appreciably decreased (p &lt; 0.01) as compared to the preoperative sensitivity values (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10001">Figure 9</xref>). The blunted sensitivity suggested severe impairment of baroreflex control of the sinoatrial node in the post-operative condition. The impaired baroreflex control did not correlate with concurrent alterations in HR or systemic arterial, left atrial, or right atrial pressures. In addition, respiratory sinus node arrhythmia was absent in all subjects. In four patients, subsequent studies at 4, 8, 10, and 12 months, respectively, after the open-heart operation, revealed good recovery of baroreflex sensitivity and respiratory influences on beat-to-beat variation. These findings point to further impairment of the fine control of HR imposed by the conditions of cardiac operations with ECC in patients undergoing this modality of thoracic surgery.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f10001">
            <label>Figure 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Individual baroreflex sensitivity values obtained with phenylephrine and amyl nitrite during decompensation (DECOMP.) and compensation (CGMP.) of congestive heart failure.29</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250112-50112-gf10-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Summarizing, this study showed that 72 hours after cardiac surgery with ECC, patients presented a marked impairment of the baroreflex control of the sinoatrial node and abolition of RSA, but presented a good recovery of these reflex controls of HR between 4 and 12 months after surgery.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart rate autonomic regulation in patients with hyperthyroidism</title>
        <p>The mechanisms that control resting HR in hyperthyroidism were evaluated in patients before and after treatment with propylthiouracil. Resting patients were studied under baseline conditions and following autonomic pharmacological blockade in two experimental sessions: first session, using propranolol (0.2 mg/kg body weight); second session, using atropine (0.04 mg/kg body weight) followed by propranolol (0.2 mg/kg body weight). All pharmacological blocking drugs were administered intravenously. Resting HR at baseline was significantly reduced after clinical and laboratory control of the disease. Following double blockade, the intrinsic HR was decreased after treatment (p &lt; 0.025). The reduction in HR caused by propranolol was not significantly different before and after clinical control of hyperthyroidism with propylthiouracil. In contrast, atropine induced a higher elevation of HR after treatment than before clinical treatment. The present results suggest no appreciable participation of the sympathetic component of the autonomic nervous system in the tachycardia of hyperthyroidism, at least under the conditions of the present study. The small change observed in intrinsic HR, although significant, seems to indicate that this is not the most important mechanism involved in the tachycardia exhibited by patients with hyperthyroidism. Moreover, our results suggest that an important reduction in the efferent activity of the parasympathetic component participates in the mechanisms that modulate resting HR in hyperthyroidism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> This conclusion was confirmed when we evaluated the magnitude of the RSA in patients with hyperthyroidism, before and after treatment, showing that heart changes induced by this physiological maneuver significantly increased in all patients, thus indicating an important and reversible impairment of the efferent vagal activity upon the sinus node in human hyperthyroidism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
        <p>We also investigated the relative contribution of the sympathetic and parasympathetic components of the autonomic nervous system to the regulation of the chronotropic response to dynamic exercise in seated position (for 4 min on electromagnetic braked cycle ergometer at levels of 5, 15, 25, 50, 75 W) that was evaluated indirectly in patients with thyrotoxicosis, before and after clinical control of the disease, and compared to normal volunteers, as well as under sympathetic pharmacological blockade with propranolol (0.2 mg/kg body weight).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The magnitude of the net increase in HR evoked by each level of dynamic exercise was equivalent in normal and hyperthyroid patients, but in these patients a blunted increment occurred at the beginning of the exercise, which depends on a predominantly vagal withdrawal mechanism; in contrast, for each workload, after 30 s of effort, when sympathetic contribution becomes more the predominant mechanism for HR elevation, HR increment was larger in hyperthyroid patients compared to normal subjects.</p>
        <p>In addition, we documented that in the hyperthyroidism patients, &#946;-adrenergic blockage depressed tachycardia after 30 s of effort at the 15 and 50 W levels, whereas in normal individuals this effect was only manifested at 50 and 75 W. Furthermore, after clinical compensation of the disease, the pattern of chronotropic response in patients tended to be close to that shown by normal subjects. These data demonstrate depression of the capacity for vagal withdrawal during exercise in hyperthyroid patients, in association with a greater activation of the sympathetic component in relation to normal subjects. These functional abnormalities seem to be at least partially reversible when the patients are controlled clinically with anti-thyroid drugs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In short, these studies showed that resting tachycardia observed in patients with hyperthyroidism has an important contribution of reduced efferent parasympathetic activity on the sinus node, but that it is not dependent on significant participation of the sympathetic component of the autonomous nerve system. Additionally, they document depression of parasympathetic activity in the initial tachycardia of the dynamic exercise in hyperthyroid patients, as well as a greater sympathetic activation in the later phase of the exercise compared to normal individuals.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart rate autonomic control in patients with mitral valve prolapse</title>
        <p>The autonomic control of HR was evaluated in patients with mitral valve prolapse compared to normal subjects, with the methods of assessing the magnitude of RSA at rest and the chronotropic responses to dynamic exercise. Sinus arrhythmia was of higher magnitude in patients with mitral valve prolapse when compared to the control group; however, the differences reached statistical significance only at a respiratory frequency of 7 cycles/min. During dynamic exercise in seated position (25, 50, 100, 150 W during 4 min in a stepwise manner), the HR response, either in terms of the early, vagus-dependent, fast tachycardia (first 10 s), or the late, sympathetic-dependent tachycardia (1-4 min) was not significantly different in the two groups studied. Also, no differences between the groups could be detected in regard to aerobic exercise capacity, as evaluated by measurement of the anaerobic threshold. Thus, our results show that in this group of male patients with mitral valve prolapse and some curtailment of cardiac reserve,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup> no unquestionable autonomic abnormality of physiological significance could be detected, since the sympathetic and parasympathetic control of HR remains normal during dynamic exercise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Heart rate autonomic regulation after endurance exercise training</title>
        <p>Sedentary normal subjects were submitted to 10 weeks of endurance physical training on a cycle-ergometer, after which they showed an increase in V<sub>O2</sub>max and a reduction in resting HR when resting in the supine position. The HR increment elicited by pharmacological blockade of the parasympathetic system with atropine sulphate was not significantly different before and after the endurance training. The magnitude of RSA was also similar before and after the physical conditioning attained with the endurance training. Similar results were shown by assessing the RSA test when sedentary individuals were compared with medium-distance athletic runners. Although it is possible to speculate that the magnitude of RSA value does not necessarily reflect changes in parasympathetic tonus under the conditions studied, the present results clearly show that augmented RSA values do not accompany increased endurance capacity. In addition, the HR response to pharmacological blockade with atropine did not suggest any parasympathetic participation in the resting bradycardia induced by physical training.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup> Therefore, the mechanisms responsible for the resting endurance training bradycardia in humans remain controversial. Available data obtained in dogs using double pharmacological blockade (atropine + propranolol) and HR variability were consistent with enhanced cardiac parasympathetic activity but without any changes in the intrinsic sinus node rate to explain resting training bradycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In our lab, when young sedentary subjects were submitted to 10 weeks of endurance physical training, seated on an electromagnetic braked cycle ergometer, a 15% increase in maximal oxygen consumption (VO2max) and a 16% reduction in resting HR were documented. Before and after training, these volunteers performed dynamic exercise (DE) on a cycle-ergometer at workloads of 25, 50, 75, 100, and 150 W for 4 min at each level of exercise. Sedentary healthy subjects were also compared to trained athletes (medium-distance runners). During the first 10 seconds of exercise, a period when tachycardia is mediated almost exclusively by vagal withdrawal, the athletes presented a more rapid increase in HR than sedentary subjects. The same tendency was observed in the sedentary individuals after the training period, although of a lesser magnitude. During the dynamic exercise phase in which sympathetic mediation plays an important role (between 30s and 4 min), the athletes presented lower HR increase than the sedentary individuals, and the same response pattern was observed in the sedentary group who underwent the endurance physical training. The HR increase at each workload from 0 to 4 min of dynamic exercise was lower in athletes than in sedentary subjects and was not changed by endurance training in sedentary subjects. These results suggest that aerobic training decreases the late slow sympathetic and increases the fast parasympathetic contribution to HR change during dynamic exercise in comparison with the HR elicited by the same absolute workloads performed before the aerobic training. These functional changes in the autonomic control of HR may or may not be associated with modifications of absolute HR values, which increase from rest to the end of exercise. In contrast to what happens in athletes, the autonomic adaptations observed after short-term aerobic training may occur during DE without changes in the overall HR response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A similar pattern of physiological adaptations after ten months of aerobic training was documented in sedentary middle-aged men, which was mainly expressed as a decrease in the sympathetic influence upon HR response to dynamic exercise, which was associated with an increase in oxygen transport capacity during effort.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Concisely, our investigation did not indicate any parasympathetic participation in the resting bradycardia induced by endurance physical training. However, during dynamic exercise, trained athletes showed an increased parasympathetic contribution to HR change in comparison with the HR elicited by the same absolute workloads performed before by sedentary subjects. In addition, our results suggest that aerobic training decreases the late slow sympathetic contribution to tachycardia.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cardiac autonomic function in healthy elderly people</title>
        <p>Autonomic function was evaluated in healthy elderly subjects by monitoring instantaneous HR and systemic arterial pressure changes in response to Valsalva Maneuver, isometric exercise, cold pressure test, phenylephrine and amyl nitrite administration, inducing acute transient increase or decrease in systemic arterial pressure, and pharmacological blockade with atropine. Despite the fact that a wide variety of confounding variables influences age-related changes of autonomic cardiovascular controlour results suggest the occurrence of parasympathetic impairment of HR control, although the global mechanisms involved remain unknown.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Closing remarks</title>
        <p>The standardized autonomic tests described here, which we have used over several decades, are relatively simple, reproducible, and reliable enough to identify dysfunction in the autonomic regulation of HR in the wide variety of clinical conditions discussed above. In general, these tests contributed to elucidating aspects of the underlying physiological or pathophysiological mechanisms in these clinical settings. However, the autonomic derangements detected with these tests do not necessarily represent the most important mechanism of the pathogenesis of these diseases or the pathophysiological condition under investigation. On the other hand, such tests can be useful to exclude cardiovascular autonomic dysfunction in most physiological conditions, that is, to demonstrate that the individuals thus investigated are indeed normal, or even that their behavior is still within normal range in the presence of disease states. As already mentioned above, in Chagas&#8217; heart disease, the prognostic implication of autonomic impairment has not been assessed in the wide range of investigations described. However, one recent investigation from our laboratory has reported the identification of a significant prognostic factor in chronic Chagas&#8217; heart disease as related to the abnormal interrelation between the low and high frequency components in the HRV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Moreover, even though the autonomic nervous system dysfunction has been well documented in the pathophysiology of several cardiovascular diseases, the clinical applicability of these findings for therapeutic purposes is very restricted. Most probably, this limitation is related, at least partially, to the fact that most studies evaluated essentially the abnormal control of HR, whereas it is a reasonable hypothesis that the adverse prognostic significance of dysautonomia may be more dependent on derangements at the ventricular level. Thus, abnormal adrenergic innervation at the myocardial level has been found to correlate with malignant ventricular arrhythmia in CD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Because this is indeed an intriguing finding, further research is warranted to elucidate the role of dysautonomia in most clinical settings investigated thus far.</p>
        <p>It is also noteworthy that the data presented in regard to various abnormal conditions must reflect the background pathophysiological knowledge that existed when the tests evaluating the cardiovascular control were applied, specifically in our studies. Thus, caution must be taken to translate that knowledge to current concepts. For example, patients with so-called mitral valve prolapse syndrome in our studies are now included in the most comprehensive syndrome of mitral annulus disjunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> This concept entails the important pathophysiological aspect concerning the possibility of malignant arrhythmia in some of the patients,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> something that has not been adequately addressed in recent studies but may be associated with the occurrence of autonomic dysfunction.</p>
        <p>Finally, since early investigations both in experimental animal models and in humans, cardiac dysautonomia has been linked to the pathophysiology of coronary artery disease, with profound implications for the prognosis of patients suffering myocardial infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> Also, the association of abnormal HRV with microvascular dysfunction has been highlighted in recent studies of diabetic patients with heart failure. It would warrant further evaluation to be completely understood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>The authors kindly thank the medical and technical assistants who participated as co-authors in the published papers cited in this review.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association:</label>
          <p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
          <p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
          <label>Data Availability:</label>
          <p> All datasets supporting the results of this study are available upon request from the corresponding author [Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto].</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
