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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">jSqsmMDptbSJMvKmNYDmm5G</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025001200401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250111</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>I - Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Auton&#244;mica Cardiovascular em Indiv&#237;duos Saud&#225;veis</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3456-8433</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maciel</surname>
            <given-names>Benedito Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6952-9031</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gallo-Jr</surname>
            <given-names>Louren&#231;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1090-8165</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Schmidt</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8651-8833</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marin-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados e An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">USP</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, USP, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label> Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto Laborat&#243;rio de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, USP - S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>marin_neto@yahoo.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Bettencourt, Nuno</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>30</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>12</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250111</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>19</day>
          <month>02</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>08</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>11</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>Esta primeira parte da revis&#227;o apresenta quase 60 anos de experi&#234;ncia de nosso laborat&#243;rio na padroniza&#231;&#227;o de testes auton&#244;micos cardiovasculares em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. A ampla gama de testes inclui bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico dos sistemas simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico, avalia&#231;&#227;o da sensibilidade barorreflexa por meio de epis&#243;dios transit&#243;rios de hipertens&#227;o e hipotens&#227;o, manobra de Valsalva, teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica, exerc&#237;cios isom&#233;tricos e din&#226;micos, imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua fria, arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria, an&#225;lise da variabilidade da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia e exames de imagem com <sup>123</sup>I-metaiodobenzilguanidina. A fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica foi avaliada com base nas respostas aos testes em condi&#231;&#245;es basais em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. A an&#225;lise tamb&#233;m aborda adapta&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas ao treinamento de resist&#234;ncia e ao envelhecimento, fornecendo uma estrutura de refer&#234;ncia para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de disfun&#231;&#245;es auton&#244;micas envolvendo componentes parassimp&#225;ticos e adren&#233;rgicos em pacientes com diversas condi&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas, conforme discutido na segunda parte desta revis&#227;o.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Fun&#231;&#227;o Auton&#244;mica Cardiovascular em Indiv&#237;duos Saud&#225;veis (I)</title>
            </caption>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/jSqsmMDptbSJMvKmNYDmm5G/89dc0a8ae31e26c64b5e1eb0d63a92f8024f0082.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
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            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as do Sistema Nervoso Aut&#244;nomo</kwd>
        <kwd>Frequ&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Simp&#225;tico</kwd>
        <kwd>Sistema Nervoso Parassimp&#225;tico</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de financiamento:</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="30"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, uma complexa rede neural auton&#244;mica, tanto anat&#244;mica quanto funcional, regula as fun&#231;&#245;es cronotr&#243;pica, lusitr&#243;pica, dromotr&#243;pica e inotr&#243;pica do cora&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Esta primeira parte da revis&#227;o re&#250;ne os achados de estudos realizados em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. O conhecimento derivado desses estudos constitui a base para compreender como a disfun&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico cardiovascular contribui para a fisiopatologia de diversas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas. Os achados relacionados a tais disfun&#231;&#245;es em condi&#231;&#245;es anormais s&#227;o discutidos na segunda parte desta publica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>Nesta revis&#227;o, baseamo-nos em mais de 55 anos de experi&#234;ncia de nosso laborat&#243;rio com o uso de testes padronizados para avaliar a fisiologia auton&#244;mica card&#237;aca em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis e a disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica em humanos com diversas condi&#231;&#245;es fisiopatol&#243;gicas. Embora a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica cardiovascular possa ser avaliada por meio de registros diretos de nervos ou t&#233;cnicas baseadas em imagem &#8212; como a capta&#231;&#227;o ventricular de <sup>123</sup>I-metaiodobenzilguanidina (<sup>123</sup>I-MIGB) &#8212;, nosso trabalho concentrou-se principalmente nas respostas da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (FC) a diversos est&#237;mulos mediados pelas influ&#234;ncias auton&#244;micas sobre o n&#243; sinusal.</p>
      <p>A ampla gama de testes examinou diferentes aspectos do controle auton&#244;mico card&#237;aco em condi&#231;&#245;es de repouso, durante bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico dos ramos parassimp&#225;tico e/ou simp&#225;tico do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico e em resposta a manobras fisiol&#243;gicas padronizadas, conforme descrito a seguir.</p>
      <p>Nos diferentes estudos, os grupos de indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis variaram de 8 a 23 participantes, com idade m&#233;dia entre 27 e 31 anos (faixa et&#225;ria: 19 a 43 anos). Todos os participantes eram do sexo masculino e foram considerados saud&#225;veis ap&#243;s uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica abrangente. Nenhum deles fazia uso de medica&#231;&#245;es no momento dos testes.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Testes funcionais para avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica cardiovascular</title>
        <p>Para avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica cardiovascular em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, padronizamos o uso de testes em condi&#231;&#245;es basais de repouso e ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico dos ramos eferentes parassimp&#225;tico e simp&#225;tico do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>). Esses testes tamb&#233;m inclu&#237;ram a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos reflexos da FC em resposta a altera&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas e farmacol&#243;gicas da press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica (PAS).</p>
        <p>Resumidamente, ap&#243;s o registro basal da FC e da PAS com o indiv&#237;duo em posi&#231;&#227;o supina (geralmente ap&#243;s 20 minutos de repouso), os mesmos par&#226;metros foram medidos ap&#243;s administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de: a) sulfato de atropina (0,04 mg/kg, infundido lentamente a 0,25 mg/min); ou b) cloridrato de propranolol (0,2 mg/kg, infundido lentamente a 1 mg/min).</p>
        <p>Na maioria dos estudos, a FC e a PAS tamb&#233;m foram registradas ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o combinada de atropina e propranolol por via intravenosa, permitindo a determina&#231;&#227;o da FC intr&#237;nseca do n&#243; sinusal. As manobras fisiol&#243;gicas descritas nas se&#231;&#245;es seguintes desta revis&#227;o foram realizadas antes e depois de cada um desses tr&#234;s tipos de bloqueio auton&#244;mico farmacol&#243;gico.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Avalia&#231;&#227;o do controle barorreflexo da FC: fenilefrina, nitrito de amila e manobra de Valsalva<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> </title>
        <p>Todos os testes foram realizados com os participantes em posi&#231;&#227;o supina. Sob anestesia local, foi inserido um cateter venoso na veia antecubital e uma agulha Cournand 20G foi posicionada na art&#233;ria braquial. Um bolus intravenoso de 25 a 400 &#181;g de cloridrato de fenilefrina foi administrado, seguido por lavagem com 10 ml de solu&#231;&#227;o salina, com o objetivo de induzir um aumento de 20 a 30 mmHg na PAS. Para o teste com nitrito de amila, o conte&#250;do de duas ampolas (0,2 ml cada, 96% de nitrito de amila) foi inalado ao longo de dois ciclos respirat&#243;rios, com a meta de reduzir a PAS entre 10 e 30 mmHg abaixo do valor basal.</p>
        <p>A sensibilidade barorreflexa foi avaliada por meio da an&#225;lise das altera&#231;&#245;es reflexas agudas da FC, desencadeadas por varia&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias da PAS, conforme descrito a seguir.</p>
        <p>A manobra de Valsalva foi realizada por meio de uma expira&#231;&#227;o for&#231;ada contra resist&#234;ncia, garantindo que a glote permanecesse aberta durante o esfor&#231;o. A press&#227;o expirat&#243;ria foi mantida em 40 mmHg por 20 segundos. Durante os testes com fenilefrina, nitrito de amila e a manobra de Valsalva, ecocardiografia (ECG), PAS e press&#227;o oral foram registrados continuamente em velocidade de papel de 25 mm/s.</p>
        <p>Os dados obtidos no teste com fenilefrina foram analisados selecionando-se, para cada indiv&#237;duo, apenas as inje&#231;&#245;es que geraram linhas de regress&#227;o entre cada valor de PAS e o intervalo RR subsequente no ECG, desde que os coeficientes de correla&#231;&#227;o fossem estatisticamente significativos (p &lt; 0,05). As inclina&#231;&#245;es de 3 a 4 linhas de regress&#227;o foram ent&#227;o calculadas para obter a sensibilidade barorreflexa m&#233;dia de cada indiv&#237;duo, segundo o m&#233;todo descrito por Smith, Sleight et Pickering.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> A sensibilidade barorreflexa durante o teste com nitrito de amila foi quantificada tra&#231;ando os valores sequenciais decrescentes da PAS contra os intervalos RR correspondentes do ciclo card&#237;aco seguinte. A m&#233;dia de tr&#234;s testes foi calculada para cada indiv&#237;duo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As altera&#231;&#245;es da PAS durante a manobra de Valsalva foram registradas continuamente ao longo de todas as fases do teste. A manobra provoca uma redu&#231;&#227;o s&#250;bita da pr&#233;-carga card&#237;aca, devido &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o do retorno venoso, resultando em queda da PAS e ativando mecanismos compensat&#243;rios, como vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o arterial e taquicardia durante o esfor&#231;o expirat&#243;rio. Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, observa-se tipicamente uma recupera&#231;&#227;o parcial da PAS ainda durante a fase de esfor&#231;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A resposta cronotr&#243;pica foi expressa pela raz&#227;o de Valsalva, calculada pela raz&#227;o entre o maior intervalo RR observado na fase IV (p&#243;s-esfor&#231;o, quando ocorre o aumento de press&#227;o) e o menor intervalo RR verificado durante a fase II (fase hipotensiva do esfor&#231;o expirat&#243;rio). A m&#233;dia de tr&#234;s testes foi registrada para cada indiv&#237;duo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Todos os testes foram realizados antes e depois da administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de sulfato de atropina, conforme descrito anteriormente. A magnitude do aumento da FC ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o de atropina reflete o n&#237;vel de inibi&#231;&#227;o vagal t&#244;nica sobre o n&#243; sinusal.</p>
        <p>Uma vis&#227;o adicional sobre a influ&#234;ncia parassimp&#225;tica no cora&#231;&#227;o &#233; fornecida pelos valores de sensibilidade barorreflexa medidos durante epis&#243;dios transit&#243;rios de hipertens&#227;o e hipotens&#227;o induzidos farmacologicamente &#8212; por fenilefrina e nitrito de amila, respectivamente. Durante a manobra de Valsalva, a fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica parassimp&#225;tica &#233; avaliada principalmente pela bradicardia que ocorre imediatamente ap&#243;s o fim do esfor&#231;o expirat&#243;rio (fase IV), o que leva a uma redu&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria da FC abaixo do valor basal. Importante notar que o aumento precoce da FC observado durante a fase II n&#227;o decorre da ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica, mas sim da retirada parassimp&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A resposta adren&#233;rgica vasomotora &#233; refletida na recupera&#231;&#227;o da press&#227;o arterial durante as fases III e IV da manobra de Valsalva. Paralelamente &#224; retirada parassimp&#225;tica, o aumento da FC durante a fase de esfor&#231;o (fase II) tamb&#233;m representa a intensidade da ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica atuando sobre o n&#243; sinusal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o para avaliar o controle da FC pelos sistemas parassimp&#225;tico e adren&#233;rgico</title>
        <p>Para avaliar os efeitos hemodin&#226;micos do estresse ortost&#225;tico agudo sobre a regula&#231;&#227;o da FC e da PAS, indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis foram inclinados de forma r&#225;pida e passiva para uma posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica de 70&#176;, ap&#243;s permanecerem 20 minutos em posi&#231;&#227;o supina. Utilizou-se uma mesa de inclina&#231;&#227;o especializada para eliminar qualquer esfor&#231;o muscular, independentemente da posi&#231;&#227;o corporal. A FC instant&#226;nea foi monitorada por meio de um medidor linear de frequ&#234;ncia ativado por uma deriva&#231;&#227;o padr&#227;o do ECG, com ambos os sinais sendo exibidos e registrados em tempo real por um sistema de aquisi&#231;&#227;o online. A PAS foi registrada continuamente ap&#243;s a inser&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea de uma agulha de Cournand na art&#233;ria braquial ou femoral, conectada a um transdutor de press&#227;o com medidor de deforma&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Os par&#226;metros hemodin&#226;micos foram registrados enquanto os indiv&#237;duos permaneciam passivamente inclinados a 70&#176; por 5 minutos.</p>
        <p>O procedimento foi ent&#227;o repetido ap&#243;s administra&#231;&#227;o intravenosa de sulfato de atropina (0,04 mg/kg, infundido lentamente a 0,25 mg/min). Em uma sess&#227;o subsequente, realizada em outro dia, ap&#243;s o t&#233;rmino dos efeitos da atropina, a mudan&#231;a postural para a posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica foi repetida sob o efeito do cloridrato de propranolol (0,2 mg/kg, infundido lentamente a 1 mg/min). Dentro de 60 minutos ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o do propranoloWl, a atropina foi novamente administrada conforme descrito anteriormente. Um terceiro teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o foi ent&#227;o realizado para avaliar as respostas hemodin&#226;micas ao estresse postural sob duplo bloqueio auton&#244;mico &#8212; isto &#233;, com a FC intr&#237;nseca do n&#243; sinusal em a&#231;&#227;o, sem modula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica.</p>
        <p>O estresse ortost&#225;tico provoca ac&#250;mulo agudo de sangue no sistema venoso dos membros inferiores, tanto quando os indiv&#237;duos assumem ativamente a posi&#231;&#227;o ereta quanto quando s&#227;o passivamente inclinados a 70&#176;. Essa manobra leva &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do retorno venoso ao cora&#231;&#227;o e a uma queda r&#225;pida de 15 a 25% no volume sist&#243;lico e no d&#233;bito card&#237;aco. Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, mecanismos fisiol&#243;gicos compensat&#243;rios incluem taquicardia reflexa e vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o arteriolar sist&#234;mica. Ap&#243;s uma breve e leve queda da PAS, estabelece-se tipicamente um estado hemodin&#226;mico est&#225;vel, com a PAS m&#233;dia mantida em n&#237;veis semelhantes aos observados em posi&#231;&#227;o supina. A redu&#231;&#227;o do volume sist&#243;lico &#233;, portanto, compensada por um aumento da FC e pela eleva&#231;&#227;o da resist&#234;ncia vascular sist&#234;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, observa-se um aumento significativo da FC &#8212; de aproximadamente 15 a 25 batimentos por minuto &#8212; nos primeiros 10 segundos ap&#243;s a inclina&#231;&#227;o passiva para a posi&#231;&#227;o ereta. Essa resposta inicial &#233; mediada pela retirada parassimp&#225;tica, sendo abolida ap&#243;s a administra&#231;&#227;o de atropina. O bloqueio beta-adren&#233;rgico n&#227;o afeta significativamente esse aumento inicial da FC (nos primeiros 10 segundos); no entanto, reduz de forma marcante a eleva&#231;&#227;o da FC observada ap&#243;s 1 e 5 minutos de inclina&#231;&#227;o em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis. Esses achados sugerem uma resposta taquic&#225;rdica bif&#225;sica ao estresse ortost&#225;tico: a fase inicial &#233; predominantemente mediada pela retirada parassimp&#225;tica, enquanto a ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica passa a ser o principal mecanismo ap&#243;s o estabelecimento da estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica na posi&#231;&#227;o ereta.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua como teste do controle parassimp&#225;tico da FC</title>
        <p>Estudos pr&#233;vios demonstraram que a bradicardia induzida pelo mergulho ou pela imers&#227;o facial &#233; mediada pela via eferente parassimp&#225;tica, uma vez que pode ser abolida por vagotomia cir&#250;rgica ou administra&#231;&#227;o de atropina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Embora diversos receptores e vias aferentes possam contribuir para essa resposta, o impacto relativo de est&#237;mulos individuais &#8212; como a pr&#243;pria imers&#227;o, a temperatura da &#225;gua, o volume pulmonar, a apneia e a press&#227;o intrator&#225;cica &#8212; ainda n&#227;o foi totalmente esclarecido.</p>
        <p>Em nosso laborat&#243;rio, investigamos a resposta da FC &#224; imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua, tanto como manobra isolada quanto em combina&#231;&#227;o com apneia, em participantes saud&#225;veis. O objetivo foi definir as condi&#231;&#245;es sob as quais essa resposta poderia ser utilizada como um teste padronizado, simples, n&#227;o invasivo e reprodut&#237;vel da atividade parassimp&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>Foram avaliados os seguintes procedimentos:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (a) apneia de 10 segundos em ar, em diferentes volumes pulmonares; (b) imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua por 2 minutos a diferentes temperaturas (5&#176;C, 15&#176;C e 25&#176;C), com a respira&#231;&#227;o mantida por meio de um circuito a&#233;reo fechado; e (c) combina&#231;&#227;o de imers&#227;o facial e apneia em diferentes volumes pulmonares. Um subgrupo de participantes saud&#225;veis foi reavaliado ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico parassimp&#225;tico com sulfato de atropina (0,04 mg/kg de peso corporal).</p>
        <p>Nossos principais achados foram os seguintes: (a) a apneia em ar provocou respostas de FC dependentes do volume pulmonar; (b) a imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua induziu bradicardia transit&#243;ria, com efeito m&#225;ximo entre 20 e 30 segundos de imers&#227;o; (c) a temperatura da &#225;gua n&#227;o teve efeito apreci&#225;vel sobre a magnitude da bradicardia; (d) a combina&#231;&#227;o de imers&#227;o e apneia produziu respostas heterog&#234;neas da FC, sem qualquer potencializa&#231;&#227;o da bradicardia em compara&#231;&#227;o com cada manobra isoladamente; e (e) a atropina n&#227;o foi capaz de reduzir a magnitude da bradicardia induzida pela imers&#227;o facial em dois dos tr&#234;s indiv&#237;duos reavaliados ap&#243;s bloqueio parassimp&#225;tico.</p>
        <p>A variabilidade das respostas observadas neste estudo provavelmente se deve &#224; estimula&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea de m&#250;ltiplos receptores e vias aferentes durante as manobras. Como resultado, a resposta auton&#244;mica eferente depende da intera&#231;&#227;o complexa e imprevis&#237;vel entre esses mecanismos. Essa variabilidade representa um fator limitante para a padroniza&#231;&#227;o da imers&#227;o facial como m&#233;todo simples e reprodut&#237;vel para avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade parassimp&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, os resultados obtidos sob bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico sugerem que a via eferente vagal n&#227;o &#233; o &#250;nico fator respons&#225;vel pela bradicardia induzida pela imers&#227;o facial sem apneia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da FC durante exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico (EI) em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis</title>
        <p>O padr&#227;o de resposta da FC ao EI sustentado tem sido amplamente estudado e encontra-se bem caracterizado em humanos, com base em pesquisas anteriores corroboradas por nossos pr&#243;prios achados. A FC aumenta muito rapidamente no in&#237;cio da contra&#231;&#227;o isom&#233;trica, geralmente nos primeiros 500 milissegundos de esfor&#231;o. A magnitude desse aumento parece ser diretamente proporcional ao n&#237;vel relativo de tens&#227;o muscular gerada &#8212; isto &#233;, &#224; porcentagem da contra&#231;&#227;o volunt&#225;ria m&#225;xima (CVM) que o indiv&#237;duo consegue sustentar por um per&#237;odo limitado com determinado grupo muscular (por exemplo, membros superiores ou inferiores). Quando a contra&#231;&#227;o &#233; mantida, a FC continua a subir progressivamente, especialmente em n&#237;veis mais elevados de tens&#227;o muscular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A contribui&#231;&#227;o relativa de cada ramo eferente do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico para a taquicardia induzida pelo EI foi avaliada em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis por meio do m&#233;todo de preens&#227;o manual. O exerc&#237;cio foi realizado na CVM &#8212; definida como o maior n&#237;vel de tens&#227;o que o indiv&#237;duo conseguia sustentar por 10 segundos &#8212; e em n&#237;veis subm&#225;ximos de 75%, 50% e 25% da CVM, sustentados por 20, 40 e 10 segundos, respectivamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Os indiv&#237;duos eram mantidos sentados, com a m&#227;o direita posicionada para segurar a al&#231;a de um dinam&#244;metro isom&#233;trico. Os padr&#245;es respirat&#243;rios eram monitorados cuidadosamente para garantir respira&#231;&#227;o espont&#226;nea e regular por meio de um bocal conectado a uma v&#225;lvula tipo Hans Rudolph, com oclus&#227;o nasal mantida por um clipe nasal. A CVM (considerada como 100%) foi estabelecida individualmente e utilizada para calibrar os demais n&#237;veis de intensidade testados.</p>
        <p>O estudo foi conduzido tanto em condi&#231;&#245;es basais quanto ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico com atropina ou propranolol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Em condi&#231;&#245;es de controle, as respostas da FC ao EI foram dependentes da intensidade e da dura&#231;&#227;o, apresentando aumento progressivo durante a contra&#231;&#227;o sustentada. A taquicardia foi de in&#237;cio r&#225;pido e de magnitude substancial, especialmente em intensidades mais elevadas da preens&#227;o manual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> O bloqueio parassimp&#225;tico atenuou significativamente o aumento da FC observado nos primeiros 10 segundos de EI em todos os n&#237;veis de intensidade (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>). Em contraste, o bloqueio simp&#225;tico com propranolol reduziu de forma acentuada a resposta da FC ap&#243;s 10 segundos de esfor&#231;o a 75% e 50% da CVM (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>). Uma leve redu&#231;&#227;o da taquicardia tamb&#233;m p&#244;de ser observada ap&#243;s apenas 10 segundos de EI m&#225;ximo sob bloqueio simp&#225;tico. Esses achados indicam que a regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da FC durante o EI segue um padr&#227;o bif&#225;sico: a resposta inicial &#233; mediada principalmente pela retirada r&#225;pida do t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico, seguida por uma contribui&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica mais proeminente, que se torna mais evidente ap&#243;s 10 segundos de contra&#231;&#227;o sustentada &#8212; ou at&#233; um pouco antes, em intensidades m&#225;ximas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Respostas da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ao exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico em 100%, 75%, 50% e 25% da contra&#231;&#227;o volunt&#225;ria m&#225;xima em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, durante per&#237;odos de esfor&#231;o de 10, 20, 40 e 10 segundos, respectivamente, registrados em condi&#231;&#245;es controle e ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico parassimp&#225;tico com atropina (0,04 mg/kg de peso corporal; n = 12). Os valores s&#227;o expressos como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM, em intervalos de 10 segundos. O per&#237;odo de exerc&#237;cio est&#225; indicado pelas barras verticais.15 EPM: erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250111-50111-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Respostas da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca ao exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico em 100%, 75%, 50% e 25% da contra&#231;&#227;o volunt&#225;ria m&#225;xima em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, durante per&#237;odos de esfor&#231;o de 10, 20, 40 e 10 segundos, respectivamente, registrados em condi&#231;&#245;es controle e ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico simp&#225;tico com propranolol (0,2 mg/kg de peso corporal; n = 11). Os valores s&#227;o apresentados como m&#233;dia &#177; EPM em intervalos de 10 segundos. O per&#237;odo de exerc&#237;cio est&#225; indicado pelas barras verticais.15 EPM: erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250111-50111-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da FC durante exerc&#237;cio din&#226;mico (ED) em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis</title>
        <p>Estudos pr&#233;vios demonstraram que o in&#237;cio do ED &#233; acompanhado por um aumento r&#225;pido da FC. A natureza abrupta dessa taquicardia sugere um mecanismo regulador de origem neurog&#234;nica, com a resposta eferente predominantemente mediada pela retirada vagal ao n&#237;vel do n&#243; sinusal. Ap&#243;s essa fase inicial, a FC continua a subir de forma mais gradual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> Em nossas investiga&#231;&#245;es com indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino saud&#225;veis, avaliamos as contribui&#231;&#245;es relativas dos ramos simp&#225;tico e parassimp&#225;tico do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico na resposta de FC induzida pelo ED. O teste de exerc&#237;cio foi realizado antes e ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico com atropina ou propranolol. O ED foi executado em posi&#231;&#227;o sentada, utilizando-se um cicloerg&#244;metro eletromagn&#233;tico calibrado. Os indiv&#237;duos se exercitaram em cargas de trabalho de 25, 50 e 100 watts &#8212; cada uma sustentada por 4 minutos. Intervalos de repouso vari&#225;veis foram fornecidos entre os diferentes n&#237;veis de esfor&#231;o para permitir o retorno da FC ao valor basal. A cad&#234;ncia de pedalada foi mantida constante em 60 rota&#231;&#245;es por minuto. O ECG e a FC instant&#226;nea foram registrados continuamente desde 30 segundos antes do in&#237;cio do exerc&#237;cio at&#233; 1 minuto ap&#243;s sua finaliza&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>O bloqueio parassimp&#225;tico atenuou significativamente a resposta r&#225;pida da FC no in&#237;cio do exerc&#237;cio em todos os n&#237;veis de intensidade, enquanto o bloqueio simp&#225;tico afetou principalmente o aumento mais lento da FC durante a fase de 1 a 4 minutos, especialmente na carga de trabalho mais elevada<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>). Esses achados sustentam a hip&#243;tese de que a taquicardia induzida pelo ED &#233; mediada por um mecanismo bif&#225;sico: uma fase inicial impulsionada por retirada vagal r&#225;pida, seguida por um aumento gradual da atividade simp&#225;tica, que se torna mais pronunciado em intensidades mais altas de exerc&#237;cio.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Incrementos da frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (&#916;FC) induzidos por exerc&#237;cio din&#226;mico em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, com cargas de trabalho de 25, 50 e 100 watts, medidos nos seguintes intervalos de tempo: 0-10 s, 0-30 s, 30-60 s e 1-4 min. As barras representam os valores m&#233;dios &#177; EPM registrados antes (barras vazadas) e ap&#243;s bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico com atropina (0,04 mg/kg de peso corporal; n = 13, barras preenchidas) ou propranolol (0,2 mg/kg de peso corporal; n = 10, barras hachuradas). NS: n&#227;o significativo.19 EPM: erro padr&#227;o da m&#233;dia.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250111-50111-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Assim, o monitoramento cont&#237;nuo da FC durante todo o per&#237;odo do ED, em diferentes intensidades, oferece um m&#233;todo simples e n&#227;o invasivo para a avalia&#231;&#227;o funcional dos componentes parassimp&#225;tico e simp&#225;tico da regula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca auton&#244;mica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estudos combinando ED e EI em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis</title>
        <p>Nossas investiga&#231;&#245;es tamb&#233;m inclu&#237;ram indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis realizando a combina&#231;&#227;o de EI e ED. Este estudo exemplifica a abordagem do nosso laborat&#243;rio em integrar m&#250;ltiplos testes auton&#244;micos para melhor compreender as respostas fisiol&#243;gicas humanas. O objetivo principal foi utilizar o EI como ferramenta para avaliar os mecanismos subjacentes ao aumento da FC durante o ED.</p>
        <p>A intensidade do EI (preens&#227;o manual) foi padronizada para provocar aumento da FC principalmente por meio da retirada vagal. O EI foi realizado com um dinam&#244;metro com medidor de deforma&#231;&#227;o, de resposta linear, a 75% da CVM, sustentado por 10 segundos e repetido a cada 1 minuto. As respostas da FC ao EI foram avaliadas em condi&#231;&#245;es basais, durante o ED e ao longo da fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o correspondente.</p>
        <p>O ED foi realizado com os membros inferiores, em posi&#231;&#227;o sentada, em um cicloerg&#244;metro eletromagn&#233;tico por 4 minutos, com cargas de 55 e 105 watts, intercaladas com per&#237;odos de repouso. No protocolo combinado, o EI foi aplicado no in&#237;cio do ED, aos 1, 2 e 3 minutos durante o ED, e aos 0, 1, 2, 3 e 5 minutos da fase de recupera&#231;&#227;o.</p>
        <p>Os seguintes resultados foram observados: (1) o EI realizado durante o ED produziu consistentemente um aumento menor da FC em compara&#231;&#227;o ao EI isolado. Esse efeito foi mais evidente com carga de 105 W do que com 55 W, sugerindo que a retirada vagal ocorreu logo no in&#237;cio do ED e foi sustentada ao longo do esfor&#231;o de forma dependente da carga de trabalho; (2) durante o ED, o EI continuou a provocar aumentos adicionais da FC &#8212; mesmo na carga de 105 W, quando a FC j&#225; estava se elevando gradualmente apenas devido ao ED &#8212;, indicando que a taquicardia progressiva observada entre o primeiro e o quarto minuto do ED n&#227;o era atribu&#237;vel &#224; retirada vagal; (3) o protocolo padronizado de EI permitiu a avalia&#231;&#227;o funcional da din&#226;mica da retirada vagal durante o ED sem a necessidade de bloqueio auton&#244;mico farmacol&#243;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria como teste do controle auton&#244;mico da FC</title>
        <p>Como as varia&#231;&#245;es da FC durante a arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria s&#227;o mediadas principalmente pela via eferente vagal,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> padronizamos esse m&#233;todo como uma t&#233;cnica simples e quantific&#225;vel para avaliar a atividade parassimp&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>Nesse teste, os indiv&#237;duos eram mantidos sentados e instru&#237;dos a respirar em um espir&#244;metro de circuito fechado equipado com um potenci&#244;metro linear. Esse sistema permitia o registro simult&#226;neo do volume respirat&#243;rio por meio de um registrador t&#233;rmico e de um canal de um oscilosc&#243;pio de mem&#243;ria.</p>
        <p>O segundo canal do oscilosc&#243;pio era conectado a um gerador de fun&#231;&#245;es que produzia uma onda senoidal com amplitude e frequ&#234;ncia predeterminadas. Os indiv&#237;duos eram instru&#237;dos a sincronizar seu padr&#227;o respirat&#243;rio com o sinal senoidal gerado. O teste era realizado com frequ&#234;ncia de 6 ciclos por minuto, e o volume corrente era ajustado para 1 litro. Essa padroniza&#231;&#227;o provocava de forma confi&#225;vel uma arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria acentuada em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis.</p>
        <p>Durante todo o procedimento, o ECG, a FC instant&#226;nea e o volume corrente respirat&#243;rio eram registrados continuamente. Para cada indiv&#237;duo, a variabilidade m&#233;dia da FC (VFC) foi calculada como a diferen&#231;a entre a FC instant&#226;nea m&#225;xima e m&#237;nima ao longo de 9 ciclos respirat&#243;rios consecutivos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>VFC como teste da fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica</title>
        <p>Em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis, a VFC reflete principalmente a modula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica eferente do n&#243; sinusal. Durante muitos anos, a VFC foi expressa exclusivamente por medidas no dom&#237;nio do tempo, como valores m&#233;dios e desvios padr&#227;o, que quantificam a variabilidade com base nas flutua&#231;&#245;es dos intervalos RR. No entanto, a avalia&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva das contribui&#231;&#245;es relativas das atividades parassimp&#225;tica e simp&#225;tica para a VFC tornou-se poss&#237;vel por meio da an&#225;lise no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia, especificamente pela an&#225;lise da densidade espectral de pot&#234;ncia. Em condi&#231;&#245;es experimentais controladas, a an&#225;lise espectral da VFC &#233; uma ferramenta valiosa para investigar os mecanismos neurais que regulam a FC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise no dom&#237;nio da frequ&#234;ncia da VFC &#8212; baseada no processamento matem&#225;tico dos intervalos RR obtidos de registros de ECG em repouso &#8212; permite distinguir dois componentes espectrais principais: uma faixa de alta frequ&#234;ncia (<italic>high frequency</italic> [HF], 0,15-0,40 Hz), considerada um marcador da atividade parassimp&#225;tica, e uma faixa de baixa frequ&#234;ncia (<italic>low frequency</italic> [LF], 0,04-0,15 Hz), tradicionalmente associada &#224; modula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> No entanto, algumas evid&#234;ncias sugerem que o componente LF reflete influ&#234;ncias tanto simp&#225;ticas quanto vagais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>De modo geral, a mensura&#231;&#227;o da VFC oferece uma abordagem n&#227;o invasiva para avaliar a modula&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso auton&#244;mico em humanos, tanto em diferentes condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas quanto em uma ampla variedade de estados fisiopatol&#243;gicos cl&#237;nicos.</p>
        <p>Em nosso laborat&#243;rio, s&#233;ries temporais de intervalos RR foram obtidas por meio da digitaliza&#231;&#227;o de registros de ECG de Holter de 24 horas, com taxa de amostragem de 250 amostras por segundo, e armazenadas para an&#225;lise computadorizada. Os dados foram coletados com o objetivo de avaliar os efeitos do treinamento aer&#243;bico sobre a VFC durante a vig&#237;lia e o sono, em homens saud&#225;veis jovens e de meia-idade. A an&#225;lise espectral de pot&#234;ncia foi realizada utilizando o m&#233;todo autoregressivo ou a transformada r&#225;pida de Fourier (FFT). Para cada indiv&#237;duo, foram analisadas duas amostras com pelo menos 2 horas de dura&#231;&#227;o: uma correspondente ao per&#237;odo de menor FC durante o sono noturno (refletindo maior atividade parassimp&#225;tica) e outra ao per&#237;odo ap&#243;s o despertar (caracterizado por retirada parassimp&#225;tica e aumento da atividade simp&#225;tica). Foram documentadas duas faixas principais de frequ&#234;ncia no espectro dos intervalos RR: LF (0,03-0,15 Hz) e HF (0,15-0,40 Hz). A raz&#227;o entre os componentes LF e HF, comumente utilizada como &#237;ndice de equil&#237;brio simp&#225;tico-parassimp&#225;tico, tamb&#233;m foi calculada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cintilografia com 123I-MIBG para avalia&#231;&#227;o da inerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica mioc&#225;rdica</title>
        <p>As influ&#234;ncias simp&#225;ticas no n&#237;vel do mioc&#225;rdio ventricular podem ser avaliadas de forma mais precisa por meio da cintilografia com <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG, que permite examinar a inerva&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica mioc&#225;rdica. Em nosso laborat&#243;rio, os estudos cintilogr&#225;ficos foram realizados utilizando uma c&#226;mera gama de cabe&#231;a dupla, equipada com detectores retangulares de campo de vis&#227;o m&#233;dio e colimadores de uso geral para baixa energia.</p>
        <p>Os indiv&#237;duos foram avaliados em jejum, ap&#243;s um per&#237;odo de repouso de 1 hora, e ap&#243;s suspens&#227;o, por no m&#237;nimo 48 horas, de qualquer medica&#231;&#227;o que pudesse interferir na fun&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica. 1 mililitro de solu&#231;&#227;o saturada de Lugol foi administrado por via oral uma hora antes da inje&#231;&#227;o do radiof&#225;rmaco. Em seguida, um bolus intravenoso de 148 MBq de <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG de alta atividade espec&#237;fica foi administrado, seguido de lavagem com 50 ml de solu&#231;&#227;o salina, com o indiv&#237;duo em posi&#231;&#227;o ortost&#225;tica.</p>
        <p>As imagens de tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico foram adquiridas 2 horas ap&#243;s a inje&#231;&#227;o, utilizando uma &#243;rbita circular de 180&#176; (do anterior direito ao obl&#237;quo posterior esquerdo), com 32 proje&#231;&#245;es de 40 segundos cada. A aquisi&#231;&#227;o foi realizada com matriz de 64 &#215; 64 e tamanho de pixel de 0,6 cm. A discrimina&#231;&#227;o energ&#233;tica foi obtida com uma janela sim&#233;trica de 20% centrada no pico fotoel&#233;trico de 159 keV do <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG. As imagens foram corrigidas quanto &#224; uniformidade de campo e alinhamento do centro de rota&#231;&#227;o; os dados de proje&#231;&#227;o foram filtrados com filtro de Butterworth (pot&#234;ncia = 5,0; frequ&#234;ncia de corte = 0,25). Foram reconstru&#237;dos cortes tomogr&#225;ficos ortogonais padr&#227;o (eixo curto, eixo longo horizontal e eixo longo vertical). Para a an&#225;lise das imagens, utilizou-se um modelo padronizado de 17 segmentos da parede do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE), tanto em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis quanto em pacientes com doen&#231;as card&#237;acas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os m&#233;todos padronizados descritos nesta revis&#227;o para avalia&#231;&#227;o do controle auton&#244;mico da FC em indiv&#237;duos saud&#225;veis foram aplicados em nosso laborat&#243;rio para investigar diversas condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>), incluindo cardiopatia chag&#225;sica, prolapso da v&#225;lvula mitral, hipertireoidismo, p&#243;s-operat&#243;rio card&#237;aco e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Tamb&#233;m focamos em cen&#225;rios fisiol&#243;gicos, como treinamento de resist&#234;ncia e envelhecimento. Do ponto de vista cl&#237;nico, o teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o tem se mostrado particularmente &#250;til na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com diabetes, s&#237;ncope e outras desordens neurol&#243;gicas nas quais h&#225; suspeita de disfun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica. Entre todos os m&#233;todos estudados, a imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua foi o &#250;nico que n&#227;o demonstrou reprodutibilidade suficiente para uso cl&#237;nico rotineiro. Todas as demais abordagens apresentaram potencial de aplica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica em condi&#231;&#245;es nas quais a regula&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica da FC desempenha papel cr&#237;tico.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Efeitos esperados e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de diversos testes de fun&#231;&#227;o auton&#244;mica</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Teste</th>
                  <th align="left">Efeitos esperados</th>
                  <th align="left">Interpreta&#231;&#227;o</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico com atropina</td>
                  <td>Aumento da FC</td>
                  <td>Avalia a influ&#234;ncia parassimp&#225;tica sobre a FC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Bloqueio farmacol&#243;gico com propranolol</td>
                  <td>Redu&#231;&#227;o da FC</td>
                  <td>Avalia a influ&#234;ncia simp&#225;tica sobre a FC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sensibilidade barorreflexa</td>
                  <td>Aumento ou redu&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria farmacologicamente induzida (20-30 mmHg) da PAS, com redu&#231;&#227;o ou aumento reflexo da FC; permite correla&#231;&#227;o entre PAS e intervalo RR subsequente</td>
                  <td>A inclina&#231;&#227;o da linha de regress&#227;o indica a sensibilidade barorreflexa, refletindo o controle parassimp&#225;tico da FC</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Manobra de Valsalva</td>
                  <td>Ap&#243;s o fim do esfor&#231;o expirat&#243;rio, ocorre um aumento da PAS seguido de bradicardia reflexa abaixo do valor basal</td>
                  <td>A magnitude da bradicardia reflete a atividade do sistema nervoso parassimp&#225;tico</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Teste de inclina&#231;&#227;o a 70&#176;</td>
                  <td>Resposta bif&#225;sica da FC: taquicardia inicial (nos primeiros 10 segundos) devido &#224; retirada parassimp&#225;tica; taquicardia sustentada (1-5 minutos) devido &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Imers&#227;o facial em &#225;gua</td>
                  <td>Bradicardia</td>
                  <td>A variabilidade das respostas provavelmente se deve &#224; ativa&#231;&#227;o simult&#226;nea de m&#250;ltiplos receptores e vias aferentes. A resposta auton&#244;mica eferente resultante reflete a intera&#231;&#227;o imprevis&#237;vel desses mecanismos, o que limita a padroniza&#231;&#227;o do teste como m&#233;todo simples e reprodut&#237;vel para avaliar a atividade parassimp&#225;tica.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>EI sustentado</td>
                  <td>Aumento r&#225;pido da FC no in&#237;cio da contra&#231;&#227;o, com eleva&#231;&#227;o progressiva durante o esfor&#231;o sustentado</td>
                  <td>A regula&#231;&#227;o da FC segue um padr&#227;o bif&#225;sico: fase inicial mediada por retirada r&#225;pida do t&#244;nus parassimp&#225;tico, seguida por ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica significativa ap&#243;s 10 segundos de contra&#231;&#227;o isom&#233;trica.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ED</td>
                  <td>In&#237;cio r&#225;pido de taquicardia, seguido de aumento progressivo mais lento durante o esfor&#231;o sustentado</td>
                  <td>A taquicardia induzida pelo exerc&#237;cio din&#226;mico &#233; bif&#225;sica: come&#231;a com a retirada vaga (nos primeiros 10 segundos) e &#233; seguida por ativa&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica progressiva, especialmente entre 1-4 minutos em cargas mais elevadas.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Arritmia sinusal respirat&#243;ria</td>
                  <td>Varia&#231;&#227;o da FC durante respira&#231;&#227;o padronizada a 6 ciclos por minuto com volume corrente de 1 litro</td>
                  <td>A VFC &#233; mediada pela via eferente vagal</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>VFC</td>
                  <td>An&#225;lise espectral dos intervalos RR em repouso revela dois componentes principais: alta frequ&#234;ncia (0,15-0,40 Hz) e baixa frequ&#234;ncia (0,04-0,15 Hz)</td>
                  <td>O componente de alta frequ&#234;ncia &#233; um marcador da atividade parassimp&#225;tica; o de baixa frequ&#234;ncia sofre modula&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica, embora algumas evid&#234;ncias sugiram influ&#234;ncia combinada vagal e simp&#225;tica.</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Cintilografia com <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG</td>
                  <td>Avalia&#231;&#227;o cintilogr&#225;fica da inerva&#231;&#227;o adren&#233;rgica mioc&#225;rdica</td>
                  <td>Demonstra a integridade da inerva&#231;&#227;o simp&#225;tica no n&#237;vel ventricular do cora&#231;&#227;o</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p><sup>123</sup>I-MIGB: <sup>123</sup>I-metaiodobenzilguanidina; ED: exerc&#237;cio din&#226;mico; EI: exerc&#237;cio isom&#233;trico; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica; VFC: variabilidade da FC.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ack>
      <title>Agradecimentos</title>
      <p>Os autores dedicam sua gratid&#227;o &#224;s equipes m&#233;dica e t&#233;cnica que contribu&#237;ram como coautoras dos estudos prim&#225;rios citados nesta revis&#227;o.</p>
    </ack>
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              <given-names>AM</given-names>
            </name>
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              <surname>Chacon-Mikahil</surname>
              <given-names>MP</given-names>
            </name>
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              <surname>Martinelli</surname>
              <given-names>FS</given-names>
            </name>
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              <surname>Forti</surname>
              <given-names>VA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Silva</surname>
              <given-names>E</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Golfetti</surname>
              <given-names>R</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal>et al</etal>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effects of Aerobic Exercise Training on Heart Rate Variability during Wakefulness and Sleep and cardiorespiratory Responses of Young and Middle-Aged Healthy Men</article-title>
          <source>Braz J Med Biol Res</source>
          <year>2002</year>
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              <surname>Sarabanda</surname>
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      </ref>
    </ref-list>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica:</label>
        <p> N&#227;o h&#225; vincula&#231;&#227;o deste estudo a programas de p&#243;s-gradua&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado:</label>
        <p> Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial:</label>
        <p> Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
        <label>Disponibilidade de Dados:</label>
        <p> Todo o conjunto de dados que d&#225; suporte aos resultados deste estudo est&#225; dispon&#237;vel mediante solicita&#231;&#227;o ao autor correspondente (Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto).</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
        <p> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250111i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>I - Evaluation of Cardiovascular Autonomic Function in Healthy Individuals</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3456-8433</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Maciel</surname>
            <given-names>Benedito Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6952-9031</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gallo-Jr</surname>
            <given-names>Louren&#231;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1090-8165</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Schmidt</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8651-8833</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marin-Neto</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data and Statistical analysis</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, USP, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto Laborat&#243;rio de Hemodin&#226;mica e Cardiologia Intervencionista, Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeir&#227;o Preto, USP, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: marin_neto@yahoo.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p> No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
          <p><label>Editor responsible for the review:</label> Bettencourt, Nuno</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>This first part of the review presents nearly 60 years of experience from our laboratory in standardizing cardiovascular autonomic tests in healthy individuals. The wide range of tests includes pharmacological blockade of both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, baroreflex sensitivity assessment through transient hypertension and hypotension, the Valsalva maneuver, head-up tilt testing, isometric and dynamic exercise, facial immersion in cold water, respiratory sinus arrhythmia, heart rate variability analysis in the frequency domain, and imaging with <sup>123</sup>I-metaiodobenzylguanidine. Autonomic function was evaluated based on test responses under baseline conditions in healthy individuals. The analysis also covers physiological adaptations to endurance training and aging, providing a reference framework for identifying autonomic dysfunction involving both parasympathetic and adrenergic components in patients with various pathophysiological conditions, as discussed in the second part of this review.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>I - Evaluation of Cardiovascular Autonomic Function in Healthy Individuals</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250111-50111-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Autonomic Nervous System Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Rate</kwd>
        <kwd>Sympathetic Nervous System</kwd>
        <kwd>Parasympathetic Nervous System</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding:</bold> There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>In healthy individuals, a complex anatomical and functional autonomic neural network regulates cardiac chronotropic, lusitropic, dromotropic, and inotropic functions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> This first part of the review compiles findings from studies conducted in healthy individuals. The knowledge derived from these studies forms the foundation for understanding how dysfunction of the cardiovascular autonomic nervous system contributes to the pathophysiology of numerous clinical conditions. The findings related to such dysfunctions under abnormal conditions are discussed in the second part of this publication.</p>
        <p>In this review, we draw on over 55 years of expertise from our laboratory using standardized tests to assess cardiac autonomic physiology in healthy individuals and autonomic dysfunction in humans with various pathophysiological conditions. While cardiovascular autonomic function can be evaluated through direct nerve recordings or imaging-based techniques &#8212; such as ventricular uptake of <sup>131</sup>I-meta-iodobenzylguanidine &#8212; our work has primarily focused on heart rate (HR) responses to several stimuli mediated by autonomic influences on the sinus node.</p>
        <p>The broad range of tests examined different aspects of cardiac autonomic control under resting conditions, during pharmacological blockade of the parasympathetic and/or sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system, and in response to standardized physiological maneuvers, as described below.</p>
        <p>Across the different studies, the groups of healthy individuals ranged from 8 to 23 individuals, with an average age between 27 and 31 years (age range: 19 to 43 years). All participants were male and considered healthy after a comprehensive clinical evaluation. None were taking any medications at the time of testing.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Functional tests for evaluating cardiovascular autonomic function</title>
          <p>To assess cardiovascular autonomic function in healthy individuals, we standardized the use of tests under baseline resting conditions and following pharmacological blockade of the efferent parasympathetic and sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). These tests also included evaluating HR reflex responses to both physiological and pharmacological changes in systolic arterial pressure (SAP).</p>
          <p>Briefly, after baseline HR and SAP were recorded with the individual in a supine position (typically after 20 minutes of rest), the same parameters were measured following intravenous administration of either: a) atropine sulfate (0.04 mg/kg, infused slowly at 0.25 mg/min); or b) propranolol hydrochloride (0.2 mg/kg, infused slowly at 1 mg/min).</p>
          <p>In most studies, HR and SAP were also recorded after the combined administration of intravenous atropine and propranolol, allowing for the determination of intrinsic sinus node HR. The physiological maneuvers described in the following sections of this review were conducted before and after each of these three types of pharmacological autonomic blockade.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Evaluating baroreflex control of HR: phenylephrine, amyl nitrite, and Valsalva maneuver<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> </title>
          <p>All tests were conducted with participants in the supine position. Under local anesthesia, an indwelling catheter was inserted into an antecubital vein, and a 20G Cournand needle was placed into the brachial artery. An intravenous bolus of 25 to 400 &#181;g of phenylephrine hydrochloride was administered, followed by a 10 mL saline flush, to induce an increase of 20 to 30 mmHg in SAP. For the amyl nitrite test, the contents of two ampoules (0.2 mL each, 96% amyl nitrite) were inhaled over two respiratory cycles, aiming to reduce SAP by 10 to 30 mmHg below baseline.</p>
          <p>Baroreflex sensitivity was assessed by analyzing the acute reflex changes in HR triggered by transient variations in SAP, as described below.</p>
          <p>The Valsalva maneuver was performed through a forced expiration against resistance, ensuring that the glottis remained open during the strain. The expiratory pressure was maintained at 40 mmHg for 20 seconds. During the phenylephrine, amyl nitrite, and Valsalva tests, electrocardiography (ECG), SAP, and oral pressure were continuously recorded at a paper speed of 25 mm/s.</p>
          <p>Data obtained from the phenylephrine test were analyzed by selecting, for each individual, only those injections that produced regression lines correlating each SAP value with the subsequent RR interval on the ECG, provided the correlation coefficients were statistically significant (p &lt; 0.05). The slopes of 3 to 4 regression lines were averaged to yield the mean baroreflex sensitivity for each individual, following the method described by Smith, Sleight et Pickering.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Baroreflex sensitivity during the amyl nitrite test was quantified by plotting the sequentially decreasing SAP values against the corresponding RR intervals of the next cardiac cycle. The average of three tests was calculated for each individual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Changes in SAP during the Valsalva maneuver were continuously recorded throughout all phases of the test. The maneuver produces a sudden reduction in cardiac preload due to decreased venous return, resulting in a fall in SAP and triggering compensatory mechanisms such as arterial vasoconstriction and tachycardia during the expiratory strain. In healthy individuals, partial recovery of SAP typically occurs during the strain phase.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The chronotropic response was expressed as the Valsalva ratio, calculated by dividing the longest RR interval during phase IV (post-strain, when pressure overshoot occurs) by the shortest RR interval observed during phase II (the hypotensive phase of the expiratory effort). The mean of three tests was recorded for each individual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>All tests were performed before and after intravenous administration of atropine sulfate, as previously described. The extent of the HR increase following atropine administration reflects the level of tonic vagal restraint on the sinus node.</p>
          <p>Additional insight into parasympathetic cardiac influence is provided by baroreflex sensitivity values measured during transient hypertension and hypotension induced by pharmacological agents &#8212; phenylephrine and amyl nitrite, respectively. During the Valsalva maneuver, parasympathetic autonomic function is primarily assessed by the bradycardia that occurs immediately after release of the expiratory strain (phase IV), which leads to a transient HR reduction below baseline. Notably, the early HR increase observed during phase II is not driven by sympathetic activation, but rather by parasympathetic withdrawal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> The vasomotor adrenergic response is reflected in the recovery of blood pressure during phases III and IV of the Valsalva maneuver. In parallel with parasympathetic withdrawal, the HR increase during the strain phase (phase II) also represents the intensity of sympathetic activation acting on the sinus node.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Tilting test to evaluate HR control by the parasympathetic and adrenergic systems</title>
          <p>To assess the hemodynamic effects of acute orthostatic stress on HR and SAP regulation, healthy individuals were rapidly and passively tilted to a 70&#176; head-up position after resting in the supine position for 20 minutes. A specialized tilt table was used to eliminate any muscular effort regardless of body position. Instantaneous HR was monitored using a linear rate meter triggered by a standard ECG lead, with both signals displayed and recorded in real time via an online acquisition system. SAP was continuously recorded following percutaneous insertion of a Cournand needle into either the brachial or femoral artery, connected to a pressure strain-gauge transducer.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Hemodynamic parameters were recorded while individuals remained passively upright at 70&#176; for 5 minutes.</p>
          <p>The procedure was then repeated following intravenous administration of atropine sulfate (0.04 mg/kg, infused slowly at 0.25 mg/min). In a subsequent session, conducted on a different day after the effects of atropine had subsided, the postural shift to the upright position was repeated under the effect of propranolol hydrochloride (0.2 mg/kg, infused slowly at 1 mg/min). Within 60 minutes of propranolol administration, atropine was administered again as previously described. A third tilting test was then performed to assess the hemodynamic responses to postural stress under double autonomic blockade &#8212; i.e., with intrinsic sinus node HR in effect, free of autonomic modulation.</p>
          <p>Orthostatic stress causes acute pooling of blood in the lower body venous system, whether individuals actively assume the upright posture or are passively tilted to a 70&#176; head-up position. This maneuver leads to decreased venous return to the heart and a rapid 15-25% reduction in stroke volume and cardiac output. In healthy individuals, physiological compensatory mechanisms include reflex tachycardia and systemic arteriolar vasoconstriction. Following a brief, mild decrease in SAP, a hemodynamic steady state is typically established, with mean SAP maintained at levels similar to those observed in the supine position. The reduction in stroke volume is thus compensated by an increase in HR and enhanced systemic vascular resistance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In healthy individuals, a significant increase in HR &#8212; approximately 15 to 25 beats per minute &#8212; is observed within the first 10 seconds after passive tilting to the upright position. This initial response is mediated by parasympathetic withdrawal, as it is abolished following atropine administration. Beta-adrenergic blockade does not significantly affect this early (10-second) HR increase; however, it markedly reduces the HR elevation observed at 1 and 5 minutes of upright tilt in healthy individuals. These findings suggest a biphasic tachycardic response to orthostatic stress: the initial phase is driven primarily by parasympathetic withdrawal, while sympathetic activation becomes the predominant mechanism once hemodynamic stabilization is achieved in the upright position.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Facial water immersion as a test of parasympathetic HR control</title>
          <p>Previous studies have demonstrated that the bradycardia induced by diving or facial immersion is mediated by the efferent parasympathetic pathway, as it can be abolished by either surgical vagotomy or atropine administration.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> While several receptors and afferent pathways may contribute to this response, the relative impact of individual stimuli &#8212; such as immersion itself, water temperature, pulmonary volume, apnea, and intrathoracic pressure &#8212; has not been fully elucidated.</p>
          <p>In our laboratory, we investigated the HR response to facial immersion in water, both as an isolated maneuver and in combination with apnea, in healthy participants. The goal was to define the conditions under which this response could serve as a standardized, simple, noninvasive, and reproducible test of parasympathetic activity.</p>
          <p>The following procedures were evaluated:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> (a) (a) 10-second apnea in air at various lung volumes; (b) facial immersion in water for 2 minutes at different temperatures (5&#176;C, 15&#176;C, and 25&#176;C), with respiration maintained via a closed air circuit; and (c) a combination of facial immersion and apnea at different lung volumes. A subset of healthy participants was re-evaluated following pharmacological parasympathetic blockade with atropine sulfate (0.04 mg/kg body weight).</p>
          <p>Our main findings were as follows: (a) apnea in air elicited HR responses that were dependent on lung volume; (b) facial immersion in water induced transient bradycardia, with a peak effect observed between 20 and 30 seconds of immersion; (c) water temperature had no appreciable effect on the magnitude of bradycardia; (d) the combination of immersion and apnea produced heterogeneous HR responses, without any potentiation of bradycardia compared to each maneuver performed separately; and (e) atropine failed to reduce the magnitude of bradycardia induced by facial immersion in two of the three individuals re-evaluated after parasympathetic blockade.</p>
          <p>Variability in responses in this study was likely due to the simultaneous stimulation of multiple receptors and afferent pathways during the maneuvers. As a result, the autonomic efferent response depends on the complex and unpredictable net interaction among these mechanisms. This variability represents a limiting factor in the standardization of facial immersion as a simple and reproducible method for assessing parasympathetic activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Moreover, the results obtained under pharmacological blockade suggest that the vagal efferent pathway is not the sole contributor to the bradycardia induced by facial immersion without apnea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Autonomic regulation of HR during isometric exercise (IE) in healthy individuals</title>
          <p>The HR response pattern to sustained IE has been extensively studied and is well characterized in humans, based on previous research corroborated by our own findings. HR increases very rapidly at the onset of isometric contraction, typically within the first 500 milliseconds of exertion. The magnitude of this increase appears to be directly proportional to the relative level of muscle tension generated &#8212; i.e., the percentage of maximum voluntary contraction (MCV) that the individual can sustain for a limited period using a specific muscle group (e.g., upper or lower limb). When the contraction is maintained, HR continues to rise progressively, particularly at higher levels of muscle tension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The relative contribution of each efferent branch of the autonomic nervous system to the tachycardia induced by IE was evaluated in healthy individuals using the handgrip method. The exercise was performed at the MVC &#8212; defined as the greatest level of tension an individual could sustain for 10 seconds &#8212; and at submaximal levels of 75%, 50%, and 25% of MVC, sustained for 20, 40, and 10 seconds, respectively.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Individuals were seated, and the right hand was positioned to grip the handle of an isometric dynamometer. Respiratory patterns were closely monitored to ensure spontaneous, regular breathing through a mouthpiece connected to a Hans Rudolph-type valve, with nasal occlusion maintained using a nose clip. The MVC (considered 100%) was established for each individual and used to calibrate the other intensity levels tested.</p>
          <p>The study was conducted both under baseline conditions and after pharmacological blockade with atropine or propranolol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Under control conditions, HR responses to IE were intensity- and duration-dependent, showing a progressive increase during sustained contraction. The tachycardia was of rapid onset and substantial magnitude, particularly at higher intensities of handgrip.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Parasympathetic blockade significantly attenuated the HR increase observed during the first 10 seconds of exercise across all intensity levels (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>). In contrast, sympathetic blockade with propranolol markedly blunted the HR response after 10 seconds of effort at 75% and 50% MVC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>). A mild reduction in tachycardia could also be observed after just 10 seconds of maximal exertion under sympathetic blockade. These findings indicate that autonomic regulation of HR during IE follows a biphasic pattern: the initial response is primarily mediated by rapid parasympathetic withdrawal, followed by a prominent sympathetic contribution that becomes more apparent after 10 seconds of sustained contraction &#8212; or even slightly earlier at maximal intensity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Heart rate responses to isometric exercise at 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% of maximum voluntary contraction in healthy individuals, during 10, 20, 40, and 10 seconds of effort, respectively, recorded under control conditions and after pharmacological parasympathetic blockade with atropine (0.04 mg/kg body weight; n = 12). Values are expressed as mean &#177; SEM at 10-second intervals. The exercise period is indicated by vertical bars.15</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250111-50111-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Heart rate responses to isometric exercise at 100%, 75%, 50%, and 25% of maximum voluntary contraction in healthy individuals, during 10, 20, 40, and 10 seconds of effort, respectively, recorded under control conditions and after pharmacological sympathetic blockade with propranolol (0.2 mg/kg body weight; n = 11). Values are presented as mean &#177; SEM at 10-second intervals. The exercise period is indicated by vertical bars.15</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250111-50111-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Autonomic regulation of HR during dynamic exercise (DE) in healthy individuals</title>
          <p>Previous studies have shown that the onset of DE is accompanied by a rapid increase in HR. The abrupt nature of this tachycardia suggests a neurogenic regulatory mechanism, with the efferent response predominantly mediated by vagal withdrawal at the level of the sinus node. Following this initial phase, HR continues to rise more gradually.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> In our investigations involving healthy male individuals, we assessed the relative contributions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system to the HR response induced by DE. The exercise test was performed both before and after pharmacological blockade with either atropine or propranolol. DE was performed in the seated position by using a calibrated electromagnetic bicycle ergometer. Individuals exercised at workloads of 25, 50, and 100 watts &#8212; each sustained for 4 minutes. Variable rest intervals were provided between effort levels to allow HR to return to baseline. Pedaling speed was maintained at a constant rate of 60 revolutions per minute. ECG and instantaneous HR were continuously recorded from 30 seconds before exercise initiation to 1 minute after its completion.</p>
          <p>Parasympathetic blockade significantly attenuated the rapid HR response at the onset of exercise across all intensity levels, whereas sympathetic blockade primarily affected the slower HR increase during the 1-4 minute phase, particularly at the highest workload<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>). These findings support the hypothesis that the tachycardia induced by DE is mediated by a biphasic mechanism: an initial phase driven by rapid vagal withdrawal, followed by a gradual increase in sympathetic activity, which becomes more pronounced at higher exercise intensities.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Heart rate increments (&#916;HR) induced by dynamic exercise in healthy individuals at workloads of 25, 50, and 100 watts, measured at the following time intervals: 0-10 s, 0-30 s, 30-60 s, and 1-4 min. Bars represent mean &#177; SEM values recorded before (open bars) and after pharmacological blockade with atropine (0.04 mg/kg body weight; n = 13, closed bars) or propranolol (0.2 mg/kg body weight; n = 10, hatched bars). NS: not significant.19</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-12-e20250111-50111-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Therefore, continuous HR monitoring throughout the entire period of DE, across different intensity levels, provides a simple, noninvasive method for the functional evaluation of both parasympathetic and sympathetic components of cardiac autonomic regulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Studies combining DE and IE in healthy individuals</title>
          <p>Our investigations also included healthy individuals performing combined IE and DE. This study exemplifies our laboratory&#8217;s approach to integrating multiple autonomic tests to better understand human physiological responses. The primary aim was to use IE as a tool to evaluate the mechanisms underlying HR increases during DE.</p>
          <p>The intensity of the IE (handgrip) was standardized to elicit an HR increase primarily through vagal withdrawal. IE was performed using a strain-gauge dynamometer with a linear response at 75% of MVC, sustained for 10 seconds and repeated at 1-minute intervals. HR responses to IE were assessed under baseline conditions, during DE, and throughout the corresponding recovery phase.</p>
          <p>DE was performed using the lower limbs on a seated electromagnetic bicycle ergometer for 4 minutes at workloads of 55 and 105 watts, with rest intervals between efforts. In the combined protocol, IE was applied at the onset of DE, at 1, 2, and 3 minutes during DE, and at 0, 1, 2, 3, and 5 minutes into the recovery phase.</p>
          <p>The following results were observed: (1) IE performed during DE consistently produced a smaller increase in HR compared to IE alone. This effect was more pronounced at 105 W than at 55 W, suggesting that vagal withdrawal occurred at the very onset of DE and was sustained throughout the effort in a workload-dependent manner; (2) during DE, IE continued to elicit additional HR increases &#8212; even at the 105 W workload, where HR was already rising gradually due to DE alone &#8212; indicating that the progressive tachycardia observed between the first and fourth minute of DE was not attributable to vagal withdrawal; (3) The standardized IE protocol enabled the functional assessment of vagal withdrawal dynamics during DE without the need for pharmacological autonomic blockade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Respiratory sinus arrythmia as a test of autonomic HR control</title>
          <p>Since HR fluctuations during respiratory sinus arrhythmia are primarily mediated by the vagal efferent pathway,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> we standardized this method as a simple and quantifiable technique for evaluating parasympathetic activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> In this test, individuals were seated and instructed to breathe into a closed-circuit spirometer equipped with a linear potentiometer. This setup allowed simultaneous recording of respiratory volume using a thermal recorder and one channel of a storage oscilloscope.</p>
          <p>The second oscilloscope channel was connected to a function generator that produced a sinusoidal wave of predetermined amplitude and frequency. Individuals were instructed to match their breathing pattern to the sinusoidal signal generated. The test was conducted at a frequency of 6 cycles per minute, with the tidal volume adjusted to 1 liter. This standardization reliably elicited marked respiratory sinus arrhythmia in healthy individuals.</p>
          <p>Throughout the procedure, ECG, instantaneous HR, and respiratory tidal volume were continuously recorded. For each individual, mean HR variability (HRV) was calculated as the difference between the maximum and minimum instantaneous HR across nine consecutive respiratory cycles.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>HRV as a test of autonomic function</title>
          <p>In healthy individuals, HRV primarily reflects the efferent autonomic modulation of the sinus node. For many years, HRV was expressed solely through time-domain measures, such as mean values and standard deviations, which quantify variability based on RR interval fluctuations. However, the noninvasive assessment of the relative contributions of parasympathetic and sympathetic activity to HRV became possible through frequency-domain analysis, specifically via power spectral density analysis. Under controlled experimental conditions, spectral analysis of HRV is a valuable tool for investigating the neural mechanisms regulating HR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Frequency-domain analysis of HRV &#8212; based on mathematical processing of RR intervals from ECG recordings obtained at rest &#8212; can distinguish two primary spectral components: a high-frequency (HF) band (0.15-0.40 Hz), considered a marker of parasympathetic activity, and a low-frequency (LF) band (0.04-0.15 Hz), traditionally associated with sympathetic modulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> However, some evidence suggests that the LF component reflects both sympathetic and vagal influences.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Overall, HRV measurement provides a noninvasive approach to evaluate autonomic nervous system modulation in humans under various physiological conditions, as well as in a wide range of clinical pathophysiological states.</p>
          <p>In our laboratory, time series of RR intervals were obtained by digitizing 24-hour Holter ECG recordings at a sampling rate of 250 samples per second and storing them for computerized analysis. Data were collected to evaluate the effects of aerobic exercise training on HRV during wakefulness and sleep in young and middle-aged healthy men. Power spectral analysis was performed using either the autoregressive method or the fast Fourier transform. For each individual, two samples of at least 2 hours in duration were analyzed: one corresponding to the period with the lowest HR during nighttime (reflecting enhanced parasympathetic activity), and the other corresponding to the post-awakening period (characterized by parasympathetic withdrawal and increased sympathetic activity). Two major frequency bands in the RR interval spectrum were documented: LF (0.03-0.15 Hz) and HF (0.15-0.40 Hz). The ratio of LF to HF power, commonly used as an index of sympathetic-to-parasympathetic balance, was also calculated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>123I-metaiodobenzylguanidine (123I-MIBG) scintigraphy for evaluation of myocardial sympathetic innervation</title>
          <p>Sympathetic influences at the level of the ventricular myocardium can be more precisely assessed using <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG scintigraphy, which evaluates myocardial adrenergic innervation. In our laboratory, scintigraphy studies were performed using a dual-head gamma camera equipped with rectangular medium field-of-view detectors and low-energy, all-purpose collimators.</p>
          <p>Individuals were studied under fasting conditions, following a 1-hour rest period, and after discontinuation of any medications that could interfere with adrenergic function for at least 48 hours. 1 milliliter of saturated Lugol&#8217;s solution was administered orally 1 hour prior to radiotracer injection. A bolus of 148 MBq of high-specific-activity <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG was then injected intravenously, followed by a 50 mL saline flush, with individuals in the upright position.</p>
          <p>Single-photon emission computed tomography images were acquired 2 hours post-injection, using a 180&#176; circular orbit (from right anterior to left posterior oblique), with 32 projections at 40 seconds per projection. Acquisition was performed using a 64 &#215; 64 matrix with a pixel size of 0.6 cm. Energy discrimination was achieved with a 20% symmetric window centered at the 159 keV photopeak of <sup>123</sup>I-MIBG. Images were corrected for field uniformity and center-of-rotation alignment; projection data were filtered using a Butterworth filter (power = 5.0, cutoff frequency = 0.25). Standard orthogonal tomographic slices (short-axis, horizontal long-axis, and vertical long-axis) were reconstructed. A standardized 17-segment left ventricular (LV) wall model was used for image analysis in both healthy individuals and patients with disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The standardized methods described in this review for evaluating autonomic control of HR in healthy individuals were applied in our laboratory to investigate various clinical conditions (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>), including Chagas heart disease, mitral valve prolapse, hyperthyroidism, post-cardiac surgery, and heart failure. We also focused on physiological scenarios such as endurance training and aging. From a clinical perspective, the tilting test has been particularly useful in the evaluation of patients with diabetes, syncope, and other neurological disorders in which autonomic dysfunction is suspected. Among all the methods studied, facial immersion in water was the only one that did not demonstrate sufficient reproducibility for routine clinical use. All other approaches showed potential for clinical application in conditions where autonomic regulation of HR plays a critical role.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Expected effects and interpretation of several tests of autonomic function</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Test</th>
                    <th align="left">Expected Effects</th>
                    <th align="left">Interpretation</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pharmacological blockade with atropine</td>
                    <td>Increase in HR</td>
                    <td>Assesses parasympathetic influence on HR</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Pharmacological blockade with propranolol</td>
                    <td>Decrease in HR</td>
                    <td>Assesses sympathetic influence on HR</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Baroreflex sensitivity</td>
                    <td>Pharmacologically induced transient increase or decrease (20-30 mmHg) in SAP, with reflex decrease or increase in HR; allows correlation of each SAP value with the subsequent RR interval</td>
                    <td>Slope of the regression line indicates baroreflex sensitivity, reflecting parasympathetic control of HR</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Valsalva maneuver</td>
                    <td>After release of expiratory strain, SAP overshoot is followed by reflex bradycardia below baseline</td>
                    <td>Magnitude of bradycardia reflects parasympathetic nervous system activity</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>70&#176; head-up tilt test</td>
                    <td>Biphasic HR response: initial tachycardia (first 10 seconds) due to parasympathetic withdrawal; sustained tachycardia (1-5 minutes) due to sympathetic activation</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Facial water immersion</td>
                    <td>Bradycardia</td>
                    <td>Response variability is likely due to simultaneous activation of multiple receptors and afferent pathways. The resulting autonomic efferent output reflects the unpredictable net interaction of these mechanisms, limiting the test&#8217;s standardization as a simple and reproducible method for assessing parasympathetic activity.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sustained IE</td>
                    <td>Rapid increase in HR at the onset of contraction, with progressive elevation during sustained effort</td>
                    <td>HR regulation follows a biphasic pattern: the initial phase is driven by rapid parasympathetic withdrawal, followed by significant sympathetic activation after 10 seconds of isometric contraction.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>DE</td>
                    <td>Rapid onset of tachycardia followed by a slower progressive increase during sustained effort</td>
                    <td>Tachycardia induced by dynamic exercise is biphasic: it begins with vagal withdrawal (within 10 seconds) and is followed by progressive sympathetic activation, especially during the 1-4 minute period at higher workloads.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Respiratory sinus arrhythmia</td>
                    <td>HR variation during standardized breathing at a frequency of 6 cycles per minute with a tidal volume of 1 liter</td>
                    <td>HRV is mediated by the efferent vagal pathway.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HRV</td>
                    <td>Frequency-domain analysis of RR intervals under resting conditions reveals two main spectral components: high frequency (0.15-0.40 Hz) and low frequency (0.04-0.15 Hz)</td>
                    <td>The high-frequency component is a marker of parasympathetic activity; the low-frequency component is influenced by sympathetic modulation, though some evidence suggests combined vagal and sympathetic contributions.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td><sup>123</sup>I-MIBG scintigraphy</td>
                    <td>Scintigraphy assessment of myocardial adrenergic innervation</td>
                    <td>Demonstrates the integrity of sympathetic innervation at the ventricular level of the heart</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p><sup>123</sup>I-MIGB: <sup>123</sup>I-metaiodobenzylguanidine; HR: heart rate; SAP: systolic arterial pressure; IE: isometric exercise; DE: dynamic exercise; HRV: heart rate variability.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <ack>
        <title>Acknowledgments</title>
        <p>The authors gratefully acknowledge the medical and technical staff who contributed as co-authors to the primary studies cited in this review.</p>
      </ack>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association:</label>
          <p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics Approval and Consent to Participate:</label>
          <p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
          <label>Data Availability Statement:</label>
          <p> All datasets supporting the results of this study are available upon request from the corresponding author (Jos&#233; Antonio Marin-Neto).</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
