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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">TtQp7rjQjg7WVG64rLJLZ9H</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025001100401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00401</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250290</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo de Revis&#227;o</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Complica&#231;&#245;es Esof&#225;gicas Graves ap&#243;s Abla&#231;&#227;o de Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial: Ainda Devemos Nos Preocupar?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3617-9589</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Borges</surname>
            <given-names>Anibal Pires</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brugada</surname>
            <given-names>Josep</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yanez</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Plutarco Guti&#233;rrez</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Soliz</surname>
            <given-names>Pablo da Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8232-3310</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Saffi</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Aurelio Lumertz</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0327-3392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silveira</surname>
            <given-names>Anderson Donelli da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1489-5349</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pimentel</surname>
            <given-names>Maur&#237;cio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito e Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Porto Alegre</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Institut Cl&#237;nic Cardiovascular</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Cl&#237;nic</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universitat de Barcelona</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Barcelona</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Espanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Institut Cl&#237;nic Cardiovascular (ICCV), Hospital Cl&#237;nic, Universitat de Barcelona, Institut d&#8217;Investigacions Biom&#232;diques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona &#8211; Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Ar-rhythmias Unit</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Sant Joan de D&#233;u</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">University of Barcelona</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Barcelona</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="ES">Espanha</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Ar-rhythmias Unit, Hospital Sant Joan de D&#233;u, University of Barcelona, Barcelona &#8211; Espanha</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label>Anibal Pires Borges Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, CEP 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>anibalpiresborges@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Mauricio Scanavacca</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>16</day>
        <month>01</month>
        <year>2026</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>11</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250290</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>29</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>20</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>20</day>
          <month>08</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) tem sido cada vez mais utilizada como uma estrat&#233;gia eficaz para o controle do ritmo, resultando na redu&#231;&#227;o da carga arr&#237;tmica, melhora da qualidade de vida e, em casos selecionados, diminui&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade. No entanto, por se tratar de um procedimento invasivo, envolve riscos inerentes. Complica&#231;&#245;es esof&#225;gicas graves, como perfura&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica ou f&#237;stula &#225;trio-esof&#225;gica, embora raras (com incid&#234;ncia variando de 0,025% a 0,113%), est&#227;o associadas a significativa morbidade e mortalidade. Diversos fatores de risco para les&#227;o esof&#225;gica foram identificados, incluindo caracter&#237;sticas relacionadas tanto ao paciente quanto ao procedimento. Para mitigar esses riscos durante a abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia (RF), v&#225;rias medidas preventivas foram adotadas, como o uso de cateteres com controle de for&#231;a de contato, aplica&#231;&#245;es de energia de alta pot&#234;ncia e curta dura&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m de estrat&#233;gias de prote&#231;&#227;o como monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica, dispositivos de deslocamento e t&#233;cnicas de resfriamento. Les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas profundas detectadas por endoscopia de vigil&#226;ncia s&#227;o consideradas precursoras de complica&#231;&#245;es mais graves e, portanto, merecem aten&#231;&#227;o especial. O monitoramento intensivo de pacientes com essas les&#245;es pode ser crucial para permitir o diagn&#243;stico precoce e a interven&#231;&#227;o oportuna, prevenindo a progress&#227;o para complica&#231;&#245;es mais graves. Embora a terapia por abla&#231;&#227;o com campo pulsado &#8211; que apresenta menor risco para o es&#244;fago e outras estruturas adjacentes &#8211; ainda n&#227;o esteja amplamente dispon&#237;vel, a implementa&#231;&#227;o de estrat&#233;gias eficazes de monitoramento pode melhorar significativamente os desfechos cl&#237;nicos e aumentar a seguran&#231;a dos pacientes no contexto da abla&#231;&#227;o por RF da FA.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Complica&#231;&#245;es Esof&#225;gicas Graves ap&#243;s Abla&#231;&#227;o de Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial: Ainda Devemos Nos Preocupar?</title>
            </caption>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/TtQp7rjQjg7WVG64rLJLZ9H/0a8389cdc097262c12997a8c78426002a86e6b21.png" specific-use="scielo-web"/>
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      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial</kwd>
        <kwd>F&#237;stula Esof&#225;gica</kwd>
        <kwd>Complica&#231;&#245;es P&#243;s-Operat&#243;rias</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="8"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="50"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A Fibrila&#231;&#227;o Atrial (FA) &#233; a arritmia sustentada mais prevalente em adultos, associada &#224; significativa morbidade e mortalidade, al&#233;m de impor uma carga substancial aos pacientes, profissionais de sa&#250;de e sistemas de sa&#250;de em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A abla&#231;&#227;o por cateter representa uma estrat&#233;gia terap&#234;utica chave no manejo da FA, com efic&#225;cia superior no controle do ritmo em compara&#231;&#227;o aos medicamentos antiarr&#237;tmicos. Ainda, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de melhora dos sintomas, aumento da qualidade de vida<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> e, em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida, redu&#231;&#227;o da mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Apesar de seus benef&#237;cios, a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA envolve riscos relacionados ao acesso vascular, manipula&#231;&#227;o de cateteres e entrega de energia no &#193;trio Esquerdo (AE), que est&#225; pr&#243;ximo de estruturas sens&#237;veis ao calor. Dados recentes indicam taxas de complica&#231;&#245;es entre 2,5% e 8%, com mortalidade em 30 dias inferior a 0,1%. A experi&#234;ncia do operador e maiores volumes de procedimentos est&#227;o associados a menos complica&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Ao longo dos anos, essas taxas de complica&#231;&#245;es diminu&#237;ram significativamente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Complica&#231;&#245;es graves da abla&#231;&#227;o de FA incluem perfura&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica e F&#237;stula &#193;trio-esof&#225;gica (FAE) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>), eventos tromboemb&#243;licos, tamponamento card&#237;aco, estenose das veias pulmonares, les&#227;o do nervo fr&#234;nico e complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f02">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>&#8211; Perfura&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial em um paciente que desenvolveu uma f&#237;stula &#225;trio-esof&#225;gica (imagem dos autores).</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-11-e20250290-50290-gf01.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Embora raras, les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas graves &#8211; especialmente perfura&#231;&#227;o e FAE &#8211; est&#227;o associadas &#224; elevada morbidade e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Compreender os fatores que contribuem para essas complica&#231;&#245;es &#233; essencial, especialmente considerando o car&#225;ter eletivo do procedimento. Essa preocupa&#231;&#227;o nos motivou a realizar uma revis&#227;o sobre o tema. A revis&#227;o incluiu publica&#231;&#245;es relevantes indexadas no PubMed entre 2004 e 2025, utilizando as seguintes palavras-chave: abla&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial, complica&#231;&#245;es esof&#225;gicas, FAE e Les&#245;es T&#233;rmicas Esof&#225;gicas (LTEs).</p>
      <sec>
        <title>F&#237;stula &#225;trio-esof&#225;gica: incid&#234;ncia, fisiopatologia e les&#245;es precursoras</title>
        <p>A FAE foi descrita pela primeira vez em 2004, com um caso relatado por Scanavacca et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> e dois por Pappone et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Entre esses casos iniciais, dois pacientes faleceram e um precisou de interven&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica de emerg&#234;ncia. Um registro brasileiro, abrangendo 8863 procedimentos realizados entre 2003 e 2015, identificou dez casos de FAE, correspondendo a uma incid&#234;ncia de 0,113%. Desses, sete foram fatais e dois sobreviventes apresentaram sequelas neurol&#243;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> No estudo POTTER-AF &#8211; o maior registro sobre essa complica&#231;&#227;o at&#233; o momento &#8211; foram relatados 138 casos de FAE entre 553 729 abla&#231;&#245;es, resultando em uma incid&#234;ncia de 0,025%. A taxa de mortalidade foi de 65,8%, com apenas 15,4% dos pacientes se recuperando sem sequelas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Embora a incid&#234;ncia relatada no estudo POTTER-AF seja menor do que a observada no registro brasileiro, ela destaca o impacto cl&#237;nico devastador dessa complica&#231;&#227;o, apesar dos avan&#231;os tecnol&#243;gicos nas t&#233;cnicas de abla&#231;&#227;o. Al&#233;m disso, a verdadeira incid&#234;ncia de FAE pode estar subestimada devido &#224;s pr&#225;ticas limitadas de rastreamento em muitos centros e &#224; aus&#234;ncia de dados abrangentes da Am&#233;rica Latina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A fisiopatologia precisa da FAE ainda n&#227;o &#233; completamente compreendida, mas acredita-se que a LTE sustentada durante a abla&#231;&#227;o do &#193;trio Esquerdo (AE) inicie a cascata que leva &#224; perfura&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica e &#224; forma&#231;&#227;o da f&#237;stula. Os mecanismos propostos incluem les&#227;o direta da mucosa causada pela energia t&#233;rmica, agravada pela doen&#231;a do refluxo gastroesof&#225;gico e pela motilidade esof&#225;gica prejudicada, possivelmente devido &#224; les&#227;o do plexo nervoso periesof&#225;gico durante o procedimento ou aos efeitos da anestesia geral.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O antro das Veias Pulmonares (VPs), localizado na Parede Posterior do AE (PPAE) e delimitado pelos quatro &#243;stios das VPs, &#233; o principal alvo durante a abla&#231;&#227;o circunferencial antral ampliada. Essa t&#233;cnica utiliza energia de radiofrequ&#234;ncia para criar bloqueio de condu&#231;&#227;o, induzindo descontinuidade muscular e isolando eletricamente as VPs. No entanto, a extens&#227;o das les&#245;es necess&#225;ria para um isolamento eficaz pode, inadvertidamente, aumentar o risco de dano t&#233;rmico &#224;s estruturas adjacentes, particularmente ao es&#244;fago.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A endoscopia digestiva alta p&#243;s-procedimento &#233; uma ferramenta valiosa para a identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce do comprometimento esof&#225;gico, com incid&#234;ncia relatada de LTEs em s&#233;ries recentes variando de 1,2% a 24,3%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> As LTEs s&#227;o consideradas les&#245;es precursoras de complica&#231;&#245;es mais graves. O sistema de classifica&#231;&#227;o mais amplamente adotado para LTEs foi proposto pelo grupo de Kansas City, com base em 30 estudos envolvendo 4473 pacientes, dos quais 3921 foram submetidos &#224; endoscopia ou c&#225;psula endosc&#243;pica dentro de sete dias ap&#243;s a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA. Nesta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica, a incid&#234;ncia geral de LTEs foi de 14,5% (570 casos), categorizados da seguinte forma:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> tipo 1 &#8211; eritema; tipo 2a &#8211; &#250;lcera superficial; tipo 2b &#8211; &#250;lcera profunda; tipo 3a &#8211; perfura&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica sem FAE; e tipo 3b &#8211; perfura&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica com FAE (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Classifica&#231;&#227;o Kansas City das les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas ap&#243;s a abla&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (adaptada de Yarlagadda et al., 2019)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Tipo</th>
                  <th align="left">Caracter&#237;stica</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>1</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Eritema</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>2a</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>&#218;lcera superficial</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>2b</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>&#218;lcera profunda</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>3a</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Perfura&#231;&#227;o sem comunica&#231;&#227;o com o &#225;trio</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">
                    <bold>3b</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td>Perfura&#231;&#227;o com f&#237;stula &#225;trio-esof&#225;gica</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Exemplos de les&#245;es t&#233;rmicas esof&#225;gicas (imagens dos autores).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-11-e20250290-50290-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Entre 428 pacientes com les&#245;es tipo 1 ou 2a, nenhum evoluiu para perfura&#231;&#227;o ou FAE. Em contraste, entre 142 pacientes com les&#245;es tipo 2b (&#250;lceras profundas), seis desenvolveram perfura&#231;&#245;es: cinco casos n&#227;o estavam associados &#224; FAE (um dos quais foi fatal), e um evoluiu para FAE (tamb&#233;m fatal). Um registro separado com 1802 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o da FA e avalia&#231;&#227;o endosc&#243;pica dentro de sete dias ap&#243;s o procedimento relatou uma incid&#234;ncia de 18% de LTEs (150 pacientes). Dentre esses, 98 apresentaram eritema ou eros&#245;es, enquanto 52 apresentaram &#250;lceras (les&#245;es profundas). A progress&#227;o para perfura&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica ou FAE ocorreu em cinco pacientes &#8211; todos com &#250;lceras profundas previamente identificadas como les&#245;es precursoras.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup>Esses achados ressaltam a import&#226;ncia da identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce e da vigil&#226;ncia rigorosa de pacientes com les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas profundas, que podem se beneficiar de interven&#231;&#245;es direcionadas para mitigar o risco de complica&#231;&#245;es graves.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatores de risco para les&#227;o t&#233;rmica esof&#225;gica</title>
        <p>Diversos fatores de risco para o desenvolvimento de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica ap&#243;s a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA foram relatados, embora os achados nem sempre tenham sido consistentes entre os estudos. Alguns desses fatores est&#227;o relacionados ao paciente e s&#227;o pr&#233;-existentes, enquanto outros s&#227;o relacionados ao procedimento e s&#243; identificados durante a abla&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatores de risco relacionados ao paciente</title>
        <p>V&#225;rios fatores de risco para LTE t&#234;m sido associados a caracter&#237;sticas anat&#244;micas do paciente. Em um estudo envolvendo 238 pacientes, uma menor dist&#226;ncia entre o AE e o es&#244;fago foi identificada como um preditor significativo de les&#227;o (3,0 mm vs. 4,4 mm; p = 0,012). Al&#233;m disso, a &#225;rea do AE, avaliada por Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica (RM) foi menor em pacientes que desenvolveram les&#227;o esof&#225;gica (24,92 &#177; 6,49 cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> vs. 29,53 &#177; 7,47 cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; p = 0,032), sugerindo que dimens&#245;es reduzidas do AE podem estar correlacionadas com espa&#231;os anat&#244;micos periesof&#225;gicos mais estreitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um estudo baseado em registro realizado por Ferraz et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> envolvendo 677 pacientes, demonstrou que um maior di&#226;metro do AE estava associado a um menor risco de LTE. Um aumento de 1 mm no di&#226;metro do AE correspondia a uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 7% na incid&#234;ncia de les&#227;o (raz&#227;o de chances [OR], 0,93; intervalo de confian&#231;a de 95% [IC], 0,88&#8211;0,99; p = 0,028).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Ainda, em uma coorte de 267 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o de FA sem monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica e com limite de pot&#234;ncia de 25 W aplicado &#224; PPAE, uma menor dist&#226;ncia entre o AE e o es&#244;fago &#8212; avaliada por tomografia computadorizada &#8212; tamb&#233;m foi associada a um risco aumentado de LTE. A dist&#226;ncia m&#233;dia entre o AE e o es&#244;fago nos pacientes que desenvolveram les&#227;o foi de 2,0 &#177; 0,3 mm, em compara&#231;&#227;o com 2,5 &#177; 0,7 mm naqueles sem les&#227;o. A an&#225;lise multivariada confirmou essa dist&#226;ncia como o &#250;nico preditor significativo de LTE (p = 0,0176).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre &#205;ndice de Massa Corporal (IMC) e LTE tamb&#233;m foi investigada. Em um estudo com 104 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o de FA com pot&#234;ncia m&#225;xima de 25 W e aplica&#231;&#245;es de 30 segundos na PPAE, a incid&#234;ncia de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica ou de nervo periesof&#225;gico assintom&#225;tica foi de 9,6%. Observou-se uma associa&#231;&#227;o significativa entre IMC baixo e maior risco de les&#227;o, com cada redu&#231;&#227;o de 1 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> no IMC correspondendo a um aumento de 24% no risco (raz&#227;o de chances [OR], 0,76; intervalo de confian&#231;a [IC] de 95%, 0,59&#8211;0,97; P &lt; 0,05). Todos os pacientes afetados tinham IMC inferior a 24,9 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em contraste, outro estudo n&#227;o encontrou associa&#231;&#227;o entre baixo IMC e les&#227;o esof&#225;gica em uma coorte de 20 pacientes com IMC &lt; 24,9 Kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o utilizando energia limitada (m&#225;ximo de 20 W na parede posterior do &#225;trio esquerdo), curta dura&#231;&#227;o (m&#225;ximo de 20 segundos) e temperatura esof&#225;gica controlada (&#8804;39&#176;C).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Mais recentemente, um estudo randomizado comparando dois tipos de sondas multissensoriais esof&#225;gicas de temperatura relatou uma incid&#234;ncia de 6,6% de LTE, com IMC significativamente menor nos pacientes que sofreram les&#227;o em compara&#231;&#227;o com aqueles que n&#227;o sofreram (21,4 &#177; 2,5 Kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> vs. 24,3 &#177; 3,4 Kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; p = 0,022).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Esses achados sugerem que certas caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes, identific&#225;veis antes do procedimento, podem predispor a um risco aumentado de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica. Pacientes com IMC mais baixo e aqueles com AE de tamanho menor ou anatomicamente normal podem apresentar maior risco de LTE durante a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fatores de risco relacionados ao procedimento</title>
        <p>Al&#233;m dos fatores relacionados ao paciente, diversas vari&#225;veis relacionadas ao procedimento t&#234;m sido associadas a um risco aumentado de LTE durante a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA.</p>
        <p>A eleva&#231;&#227;o da temperatura esof&#225;gica foi identificada como um fator de risco significativo em pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por Radiofrequ&#234;ncia (RF) com monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica. Em um estudo realizado por Halbfass et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> o monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica foi utilizado em 35% dos 832 procedimentos de abla&#231;&#227;o de FA. Uma temperatura esof&#225;gica m&#225;xima superior a 40,5 &#176;C foi um preditor independente de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica [raz&#227;o de chances (OR) 4,044; intervalo de confian&#231;a (IC) de 95%, 2,049&#8211;7,984; p &lt; 0,001]. Al&#233;m disso, quando esse limite de temperatura foi atingido, o risco relativo (RR) para o desenvolvimento de &#250;lceras profundas aumentou para 2,76.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em uma coorte de 88 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o de FA) com limita&#231;&#227;o de pot&#234;ncia guiada por temperatura durante as les&#245;es na PPAE, temperaturas &#8805; 42 &#176;C foram associadas a uma maior incid&#234;ncia de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica ([R] 3,96; IC de 95%, 1,94&#8211;8,07; p &lt; 0,006).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No estudo OPERA, 200 pacientes foram randomizados para receber abla&#231;&#227;o com ou sem monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica. A incid&#234;ncia geral de LTE foi de 10%, sem diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa entre os grupos. No entanto, entre os pacientes do grupo com monitoramento, nove dos dez que desenvolveram les&#227;o apresentaram temperaturas esof&#225;gicas m&#225;ximas superiores a 39 &#176;C, refor&#231;ando a associa&#231;&#227;o entre temperaturas elevadas e dano &#224; mucosa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um m&#233;todo alternativo para monitorar altera&#231;&#245;es t&#233;rmicas esof&#225;gicas &#233; a termografia por infravermelho, que permite avalia&#231;&#227;o em tempo real por meio de sensores infravermelhos. No estudo HEAT-AF, envolvendo 63 pacientes, aqueles com les&#245;es confirmadas por endoscopia apresentaram temperaturas esof&#225;gicas m&#225;ximas significativamente mais altas (56,3 &#177; 4,6 &#176;C vs. 45,7 &#177; 5,6 &#176;C). O aumento da temperatura, medido por termografia por infravermelho, foi preditor de LTE (OR de 1,52 por cada aumento de 1 &#176;C; IC de 95%, 1,14&#8211;2,05; p = 0,0008), demonstrando excelente acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica (AUC = 0,927).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recentemente, um modelo baseado em intelig&#234;ncia artificial foi desenvolvido para identificar padr&#245;es de varia&#231;&#227;o de temperatura associados &#224; les&#227;o esof&#225;gica. Em um estudo com 94 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por RF ou crioabla&#231;&#227;o, 11 desenvolveram les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas (10 ap&#243;s RF e 1 ap&#243;s crioabla&#231;&#227;o). Embora a temperatura m&#225;xima absoluta n&#227;o tenha se correlacionado com les&#227;o nos casos de RF, a taxa de aumento da temperatura no pico t&#233;rmico foi significativamente maior entre os pacientes que apresentaram les&#227;o (0,08 &#176;C/s vs. 0,02 &#176;C/s; p = 0,033).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A introdu&#231;&#227;o dos cateteres com For&#231;a de Contato (FC) reduziu significativamente a taxa de complica&#231;&#245;es graves associadas &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o da FA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Posteriormente, foi desenvolvido o &#205;ndice de Abla&#231;&#227;o (Ablation Index - AI) com o objetivo de otimizar ainda mais a seguran&#231;a e a durabilidade das les&#245;es, integrando par&#226;metros como CF, pot&#234;ncia e tempo. A efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a da abla&#231;&#227;o guiada por AI versus guiada por CF foram avaliadas em uma coorte de 200 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o da PPAE, com pot&#234;ncia limitada a 20&#8211;25 W e sem monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica. A FC alvo variou de 5 g a 40 g. Embora n&#227;o tenha sido observada diferen&#231;a significativa na incid&#234;ncia geral de LTE (6% no grupo FC vs. 5% no grupo AI), um AI&gt; 520 na PPAE foi identificado como preditor de les&#227;o (OR 3,84; p = 0,039).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> As les&#245;es ulcerativas profundas (&gt; 5 mm) foram associadas a AI &#8805; 520 (OR 7,05; p = 0,039), &#224; cria&#231;&#227;o de linhas adicionais de abla&#231;&#227;o no teto ou na PPAE (OR 5,19; p = 0,039), &#224; presen&#231;a de cardiopatia estrutural e a escores elevados de CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc. No entanto, n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel realizar an&#225;lise multivariada devido ao n&#250;mero limitado de eventos.</p>
        <p>Em um estudo realizado por Wolff et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> preditores adicionais de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica inclu&#237;ram valores mais altos do AI na PPAE (499 vs. 473; p = 0,04), maior n&#250;mero de pontos de abla&#231;&#227;o (61,5 vs. 48,2; p = 0,007) e maior for&#231;a m&#233;dia de contato (15,8 g vs. 13,6 g; p = 0,022).</p>
        <p>Um registro brasileiro publicado recentemente demonstrou que o uso de cateteres com ponta de 8 mm n&#227;o irrigados esteve significativamente associado a um risco aumentado de LTE (OR 3,13; IC de 95% 1,21&#8211;8,18; p = 0,019). Entre os 823 pacientes inclu&#237;dos na an&#225;lise, o &#250;nico que evoluiu para uma FAE havia sido submetido &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o com esse tipo de cateter.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em resumo, diversos fatores relacionados ao procedimento merecem aten&#231;&#227;o especial para reduzir o risco de LTE durante a abla&#231;&#227;o por RF da FA. Deve-se ter cautela diante de temperaturas esof&#225;gicas elevadas ou aumentos r&#225;pidos de temperatura, bem como na aplica&#231;&#227;o de FC excessiva ou valores elevados de AI na PPAE. Sempre que poss&#237;vel, recomenda-se o uso de cateteres irrigados com monitoramento de for&#231;a de contato, enquanto os cateteres n&#227;o irrigados com ponta de 8 mm devem ser evitados.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Medidas de prote&#231;&#227;o para reduzir o risco de les&#227;o t&#233;rmica esof&#225;gica</title>
        <p>Nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas, a abla&#231;&#227;o convencional por cateter para FA passou por avan&#231;os significativos tanto na t&#233;cnica quanto na tecnologia, com &#234;nfase em tr&#234;s dom&#237;nios principais: seguran&#231;a do paciente, efic&#225;cia do procedimento e efici&#234;ncia operacional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> No que diz respeito &#224; prote&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica, diversas estrat&#233;gias podem ser empregadas para mitigar o risco de LTE. Essas estrat&#233;gias incluem a sele&#231;&#227;o cuidadosa da fonte de energia, do tipo de cateter, da abordagem de abla&#231;&#227;o, al&#233;m da incorpora&#231;&#227;o de diferentes modalidades de monitoramento voltadas para a avalia&#231;&#227;o e prote&#231;&#227;o esof&#225;gica em tempo real.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fonte de energia para abla&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>A primeira decis&#227;o cr&#237;tica antes de realizar a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA envolve a escolha da fonte de energia apropriada. Entre as modalidades de energia t&#233;rmica &#8211; excluindo a Abla&#231;&#227;o por Campo Pulsado (Pulsed Field Ablation - PFA), que ser&#225; discutida separadamente &#8212; a abla&#231;&#227;o por RF parece estar associada a um risco mais elevado de envolvimento esof&#225;gico em compara&#231;&#227;o com a crioabla&#231;&#227;o. No estudo POTTER-AF, a incid&#234;ncia de FAE foi significativamente maior em pacientes tratados com abla&#231;&#227;o por RF do que com crioabla&#231;&#227;o (0,038% vs. 0,0015%, respectivamente; p &lt; 0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, em um estudo de coorte envolvendo 236 pacientes, Zhang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> demonstraram que a crioabla&#231;&#227;o esteve associada de forma independente a um risco reduzido de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica (OR 0,279; IC de 95% 0,108&#8211;0,723; p = 0,01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Cateter com for&#231;a de contato e abla&#231;&#227;o de alta pot&#234;ncia e curta dura&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Quando a energia por RF &#233; selecionada, o uso de um cateter com FC parece desempenhar um papel fundamental na redu&#231;&#227;o do risco de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica. No estudo RESCUE-AF, 89 pacientes foram randomizados para realizar abla&#231;&#227;o de FA utilizando um cateter com FC (limitado a &lt;20 g) ou um cateter sem FC. Nenhuma LTE foi observada no grupo com cateter FC, enquanto a incid&#234;ncia de LTE no grupo sem CF foi de 20%. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que limitar a FC durante a abla&#231;&#227;o pode prevenir efetivamente a les&#227;o esof&#225;gica sem comprometer a efic&#225;cia do procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o a estrat&#233;gias de entrega de energia, a t&#233;cnica de abla&#231;&#227;o de alta pot&#234;ncia e curta dura&#231;&#227;o (High-Power, Short-Duration - HPSD) tem sido proposta como uma forma de promover o aquecimento eficiente do tecido mioc&#225;rdico atrial, ao mesmo tempo em que minimiza os danos condutivos &#224;s estruturas adjacentes. Em um estudo envolvendo 687 pacientes, a HPSD (50 W por 5 segundos) foi comparada &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o convencional (&#8804;35 W na PPAE por 10-30 segundos), com a avalia&#231;&#227;o do envolvimento esof&#225;gico realizada por resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica 24 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento. Nenhum caso de FAE foi relatado, e as taxas de recorr&#234;ncia da FA ap&#243;s 2,5 anos foram semelhantes entre os grupos (42% vs. 41%; p = 0,57).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Outro estudo comparou a HPSD a 45 W por at&#233; seis segundos na PPAE com a abla&#231;&#227;o convencional a 20 W por at&#233; 30 segundos na mesma regi&#227;o, utilizando FC de 10-20 g e 10-30 g, respectivamente, em 355 pacientes. O grupo HPSD apresentou tempos significativamente menores de procedimento e aplica&#231;&#227;o de RF, al&#233;m de uma taxa mais alta de isolamento de primeira passagem, juntamente com uma eleva&#231;&#227;o reduzida da temperatura esof&#225;gica (38,1% vs. 84,5% no grupo convencional; p &lt; 0,0001). Al&#233;m disso, o grupo HPSD apresentou menor incid&#234;ncia de recorr&#234;ncia da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA) durante o acompanhamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No estudo Frankfurt AI-HP ESO-I,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> 122 pacientes foram submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o utilizando uma combina&#231;&#227;o de alta pot&#234;ncia (50 W) e configura&#231;&#245;es de IA de 550 para a parede anterior e 400 para a parede posterior, com monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica. A avalia&#231;&#227;o endosc&#243;pica foi realizada em pacientes cuja temperatura esof&#225;gica excedeu 39 &#176;C. Entre os 57 pacientes com temperaturas esof&#225;gicas elevadas, apenas dois (3,5%) apresentaram evid&#234;ncias de LTE e nenhum evoluiu para complica&#231;&#245;es clinicamente significativas. Os autores sugeriram que aplica&#231;&#245;es de alta pot&#234;ncia e curta dura&#231;&#227;o podem reduzir o risco de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica ao limitar o tempo total de aplica&#231;&#227;o, o aquecimento condutivo e abla&#231;&#245;es repetidas desnecess&#225;rias em &#225;reas n&#227;o cont&#237;guas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica</title>
        <p>Uma das estrat&#233;gias preventivas mais debatidas na abla&#231;&#227;o da FA &#233; o uso do monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica, o que levou a pr&#225;ticas heterog&#234;neas entre os operadores. O estudo OPERA, mencionado anteriormente, avaliou o monitoramento da temperatura intraesof&#225;gica utilizando a sonda multissensor SensiTherm&#8482; e constatou que seu uso n&#227;o reduziu a incid&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es esof&#225;gicas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> O estudo sugeriu que as temperaturas m&#225;ximas registradas pela sonda n&#227;o se correlacionaram com a ocorr&#234;ncia de les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas. No entanto, no grupo sem monitoramento de temperatura, as aplica&#231;&#245;es de RF na PPAE foram limitadas a 25W, valor significativamente menor em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo com controle de temperatura. Al&#233;m disso, o &#250;nico paciente do estudo que necessitou de terapia endosc&#243;pica para uma &#250;lcera esof&#225;gica profunda pertencia ao grupo sem monitoramento de temperatura.</p>
        <p>Outro dispositivo, a sonda multissensor CircaS-Cath&#8482;, foi avaliado em 36 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por RF para FA. Neste estudo, a entrega de energia era interrompida se a temperatura esof&#225;gica aumentasse &#8805; 0,2 &#176;C ou ultrapassasse 39 &#176;C. Na endoscopia de acompanhamento, apenas um paciente (3%) apresentou uma les&#227;o esof&#225;gica atribu&#237;da &#224; les&#227;o t&#233;rmica, enquanto quatro pacientes (11,1%) apresentaram les&#245;es traum&#225;ticas leves. Esses achados sugerem que o CircaS-Cath&#8482; pode estar associado a um baixo risco de LTE quando utilizado para guiar a entrega de energia durante a abla&#231;&#227;o. No entanto, um editorial subsequente levantou preocupa&#231;&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao estudo, especialmente quanto ao momento da realiza&#231;&#227;o da endoscopia e &#224; classifica&#231;&#227;o de certas les&#245;es como mec&#226;nicas, e n&#227;o t&#233;rmicas, em sua origem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um terceiro estudo randomizou 106 pacientes para receber monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica com um cateter de tr&#234;s sensores (J-Cath&#8482;) ou um cateter de cinco sensores (SensiTherm&#8482;). Embora o tempo de fluoroscopia tenha sido menor no grupo com cinco sensores, o n&#250;mero total de les&#245;es e o tempo geral de abla&#231;&#227;o foram maiores. N&#227;o foi observada diferen&#231;a significativa na incid&#234;ncia de LTE entre os grupos (5,8% vs. 7,4%, respectivamente; p = 1,0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar dos achados inconsistentes quanto &#224; efic&#225;cia do monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica na preven&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es, dados do registro POTTER-AF sugerem um poss&#237;vel benef&#237;cio em termos de sobrevida. Entre os pacientes que desenvolveram FAE, apenas 24,6% haviam sido submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o com termometria esof&#225;gica. No entanto, o uso de uma sonda de temperatura esteve associado de forma independente &#224; melhora na sobrevida (OR 0,231; IC de 95% 0,074&#8211;0,724; p = 0,012).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Considerando que os pacientes com controle de temperatura apresentaram temperatura m&#225;xima m&#233;dia elevada (40,2 &#177; 2,2 &#176;C), a vigil&#226;ncia intensificada quanto a sinais ou sintomas nesse grupo pode ter permitido o diagn&#243;stico precoce da FAE, contribuindo potencialmente para melhores desfechos cl&#237;nicos.</p>
        <p>Uma das limita&#231;&#245;es na avalia&#231;&#227;o da temperatura esof&#225;gica durante a abla&#231;&#227;o da FA &#233; a consider&#225;vel variabilidade entre os term&#244;metros, que s&#227;o convencionalmente posicionados apenas na orienta&#231;&#227;o craniocaudal. Consequentemente, os sensores podem n&#227;o registrar com precis&#227;o as regi&#245;es do es&#244;fago com as temperaturas mais elevadas. Para superar essa limita&#231;&#227;o, Leite et al. propuseram o monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica utilizando um cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o deflet&#237;vel posicionado no local mais pr&#243;ximo da les&#227;o, guiado por ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca. Em uma an&#225;lise piloto envolvendo 45 pacientes, com pot&#234;ncia limitada a 25W na PPAE e interrup&#231;&#227;o da abla&#231;&#227;o caso o aumento de temperatura excedesse &gt;2&#176;C, nenhuma LTE foi observada nas endoscopias realizadas at&#233; 48 horas ap&#243;s o procedimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> O uso de dispositivos deflet&#237;veis ou a simples visualiza&#231;&#227;o dos sensores por meio da ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca pode auxiliar na avalia&#231;&#227;o precisa da proximidade entre a abla&#231;&#227;o e o es&#244;fago.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Deslocamento esof&#225;gico</title>
        <p>Outra estrat&#233;gia de prote&#231;&#227;o que tem ganhado aten&#231;&#227;o &#233; o deslocamento esof&#225;gico, que envolve o reposicionamento mec&#226;nico do es&#244;fago para longe da zona de abla&#231;&#227;o, a fim de minimizar a exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; energia de RF.</p>
        <p>O estudo EASY AF<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> investigou essa abordagem randomizando pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o da FA para receberem o deslocamento esof&#225;gico com o dispositivo ESOlution&#8482; (S4 Medical Corp) ou sem deslocamento. O dispositivo combina suc&#231;&#227;o a v&#225;cuo com deflex&#227;o mec&#226;nica para reposicionar o es&#244;fago em tempo real. O estudo foi encerrado precocemente ap&#243;s a inclus&#227;o de 120 pacientes devido &#224; efic&#225;cia demonstrada da interven&#231;&#227;o. A incid&#234;ncia de LTE foi significativamente menor no grupo com deslocamento em compara&#231;&#227;o ao grupo controle (5,7% vs. 35,7%; p &lt; 0,0001). A an&#225;lise multivariada confirmou o deslocamento esof&#225;gico como um fator de prote&#231;&#227;o independente, reduzindo o risco de les&#227;o em 87% (OR 0,13; IC de 95%, 0,04&#8211;0,46; p = 0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
        <p>No entanto, um editorial sobre o estudo EASY AF levantou v&#225;rias preocupa&#231;&#245;es em rela&#231;&#227;o a essa estrat&#233;gia. O texto destacou o potencial de distor&#231;&#227;o da anatomia do AE, especialmente durante procedimentos prolongados, o que pode comprometer a precis&#227;o na localiza&#231;&#227;o dos &#243;stios das VPs e aumentar o risco de estenose dessas veias. Al&#233;m disso, o editorial apontou incertezas quanto &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o do nervo fr&#234;nico no contexto do deslocamento esof&#225;gico, indicando a necessidade de mais investiga&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Resfriamento esof&#225;gico</title>
        <p>O resfriamento esof&#225;gico tamb&#233;m tem sido explorado como uma estrat&#233;gia preventiva para reduzir o risco de les&#227;o t&#233;rmica durante a abla&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial (FA). O resfriamento pode ser realizado por meio de diferentes m&#233;todos, incluindo dispositivos dedicados ao resfriamento ou infus&#227;o direta via sonda g&#225;strica.</p>
        <p>Uma meta-an&#225;lise de estudos com pequenas amostras, totalizando 294 pacientes, n&#227;o encontrou diferen&#231;a significativa na incid&#234;ncia geral de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica entre os grupos que receberam resfriamento esof&#225;gico e os controles (15% vs. 19%; risco relativo [RR], 0,86; intervalo de confian&#231;a [IC] de 95%, 0,31&#8211;2,41). No entanto, foi observada uma redu&#231;&#227;o na incid&#234;ncia de les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas graves no grupo com resfriamento (1,5% vs. 9%; RR, 0,21; IC 95%, 0,05&#8211;0,80). Esse achado, contudo, n&#227;o foi confirmado ap&#243;s uma an&#225;lise de sensibilidade que excluiu o estudo que mais contribu&#237;a para a heterogeneidade. Foi observada uma variabilidade consider&#225;vel entre os estudos inclu&#237;dos quanto aos m&#233;todos de resfriamento esof&#225;gico, estrat&#233;gias de monitoramento de temperatura, momento da avalia&#231;&#227;o endosc&#243;pica e os tipos de t&#233;cnicas e ferramentas de abla&#231;&#227;o utilizadas. Al&#233;m disso, a defini&#231;&#227;o de les&#227;o grave variou entre os estudos, o que limita a possibilidade de se tirar conclus&#245;es definitivas sobre a efic&#225;cia protetora do resfriamento esof&#225;gico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O interesse pelo resfriamento esof&#225;gico aumentou recentemente ap&#243;s os resultados de uma ampla an&#225;lise temporal multic&#234;ntrica envolvendo 25 186 pacientes submetidos &#224; abla&#231;&#227;o por RF para FA em 30 centros. O estudo avaliou o impacto do resfriamento esof&#225;gico utilizando o dispositivo ensoETM&#8482; &#8211; um sistema de circuito fechado conectado a um trocador de calor que circula &#225;gua mantida a 4 &#176;C para regular ativamente a temperatura intraluminal do es&#244;fago. Entre 10 962 procedimentos realizados sem resfriamento, foram relatados 16 casos de FAE. Em contraste, nenhum caso de FAE foi observado entre os 14 224 procedimentos em que o resfriamento esof&#225;gico com o dispositivo ensoETM&#8482; foi utilizado. Vale destacar que mais de 70% dos procedimentos em ambas as coortes foram realizados utilizando protocolos de HPSD com pot&#234;ncia entre 40 e 50 W.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Abordagem para preven&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas graves durante a abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial: identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes de alto risco</title>
          <p>Em centros onde a abla&#231;&#227;o por RF continua sendo a principal estrat&#233;gia para o tratamento da FA, a identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes de alto risco &#8211; assim como o reconhecimento de fatores relacionados ao procedimento que aumentam a probabilidade de LTE &#8211; &#233; essencial para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de progress&#227;o para FAE (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
          <p>Propomos um fluxograma para a avalia&#231;&#227;o do envolvimento esof&#225;gico ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o por RF para FA (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>). O uso de cateter com FC deve ser padr&#227;o em todos os procedimentos. Al&#233;m disso, a abla&#231;&#227;o por HPSD parece oferecer um perfil de seguran&#231;a favor&#225;vel. A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o da temperatura intraesof&#225;gica, amplamente dispon&#237;vel, pode ser considerada uma estrat&#233;gia de primeira linha devido &#224; sua acessibilidade em compara&#231;&#227;o com os sistemas de resfriamento esof&#225;gico. A visualiza&#231;&#227;o dos sensores por meio de ecocardiografia intracard&#237;aca pode auxiliar na melhor avalia&#231;&#227;o da dist&#226;ncia entre o es&#244;fago e o cateter de abla&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04">
              <label>Figura 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Fluxograma para identifica&#231;&#227;o e monitoramento de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica ap&#243;s abla&#231;&#227;o por radiofrequ&#234;ncia da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial nos casos em que o monitoramento da temperatura esof&#225;gica &#233; utilizado; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; PPAE: parede posterior do &#225;trio esquerdo; LTE: les&#227;o t&#233;rmica esof&#225;gica; KCC: Classifica&#231;&#227;o de Kansas City; IBP: inibidor da bomba de pr&#243;tons.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-11-e20250290-50290-gf03.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>O deslocamento esof&#225;gico pode ser empregado seletivamente em cen&#225;rios de alto risco, como quando a dist&#226;ncia entre o &#225;trio esquerdo e o es&#244;fago &#233; m&#237;nima ou quando ocorre eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa da temperatura esof&#225;gica durante a abla&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>Fatores relacionados ao paciente associados ao aumento do risco de LTE incluem:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Dist&#226;ncia curta entre o AE e o es&#244;fago</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Dimens&#245;es menores do AE</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Baixo IMC</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Fatores relacionados ao procedimento incluem:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Temperatura esof&#225;gica elevada durante a abla&#231;&#227;o da PPAE</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Valores elevados de AI e/ou FC</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Na presen&#231;a de uma combina&#231;&#227;o desses fatores de risco, &#233; razo&#225;vel realizar uma esofagogastroduodenoscopia entre 24 e 72 horas ap&#243;s a abla&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Se o paciente n&#227;o apresentar fatores de risco, ou se forem identificadas les&#245;es leves [Classifica&#231;&#227;o de Kansas City (KCC) tipos 1 e 2a] na endoscopia de acompanhamento, o paciente &#233; considerado de baixo risco para FAE. Esses indiv&#237;duos podem receber alta com prescri&#231;&#227;o de um inibidor da bomba de pr&#243;tons.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Por outro lado, se forem observadas les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas profundas (KCC tipo 2b), o paciente deve ser classificado como de alto risco e permanecer hospitalizado para monitoramento rigoroso e interven&#231;&#227;o precoce, permitindo o diagn&#243;stico oportuno de uma poss&#237;vel FAE.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>A abla&#231;&#227;o por campo pulsado seria a solu&#231;&#227;o para todos os desafios relacionados a les&#245;es esof&#225;gicas na abla&#231;&#227;o da fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial?</title>
          <p>A PFA representa um avan&#231;o significativo no tratamento da FA e j&#225; se tornou uma realidade cl&#237;nica em diversos pa&#237;ses. Os resultados iniciais &#8211; especialmente em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; seguran&#231;a e &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de les&#245;es em tecidos colaterais &#8211; s&#227;o promissores. A PFA utiliza energia el&#233;trica n&#227;o t&#233;rmica, aplicada por meio de eletrodos de cateter, para induzir a eletropora&#231;&#227;o irrevers&#237;vel, criando microporos nas membranas dos cardiomi&#243;citos que levam &#224; morte celular seletiva, preservando os tecidos n&#227;o card&#237;acos adjacentes.</p>
          <p>Em tr&#234;s estudos multic&#234;ntricos &#8212; IMPULSE, PEFCAT e PEFCAT II &#8212; envolvendo um total de 121 pacientes com FA parox&#237;stica, n&#227;o foram relatadas complica&#231;&#245;es esof&#225;gicas. A taxa sobrevida livre de arritmia atrial ap&#243;s um ano foi de 84,5% com o uso de abla&#231;&#227;o otimizada por onda bif&#225;sica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O estudo ADVENT,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> um ensaio cl&#237;nico randomizado e controlado, comparou 305 pacientes tratados com PFA a 302 tratados com abla&#231;&#227;o t&#233;rmica convencional. A PFA demonstrou ser n&#227;o inferior em termos de efic&#225;cia e seguran&#231;a, com taxas de eventos adversos graves de 2,1% no grupo PFA versus 1,5% no grupo t&#233;rmico.</p>
          <p>Uma revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e meta-an&#225;lise de 18 estudos envolvendo 4998 pacientes comparou a PFA com a abla&#231;&#227;o t&#233;rmica (radiofrequ&#234;ncia e crioabla&#231;&#227;o). A PFA foi associada a uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 83% no risco de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica (OR 0,17; IC 95%, 0,06&#8211;0,46; p &lt; 0,01). No entanto, a PFA tamb&#233;m foi associada a um aumento de quase tr&#234;s vezes no risco de tamponamento card&#237;aco (OR 2,98; IC 95%, 1,27&#8211;7,00; p = 0,01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Outra meta-an&#225;lise comparou os desfechos em 497 pacientes tratados com PFA <italic>versus</italic> 1113 pacientes tratados com crioabla&#231;&#227;o em nove estudos. A incid&#234;ncia de eventos adversos maiores foi significativamente menor no grupo PFA (0,4% vs. 5,6%), mesmo ap&#243;s an&#225;lise de sensibilidade. Esse achado foi principalmente impulsionado por taxas mais altas de paralisia do nervo fr&#234;nico e complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares no grupo de crioabla&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O maior registro de seguran&#231;a da PFA at&#233; o momento, o estudo MANIFEST-17K, analisou dados de 17 642 pacientes tratados em 106 centros. N&#227;o foram relatados casos de les&#227;o esof&#225;gica grave, estenose das veias pulmonares ou paralisia persistente do nervo fr&#234;nico. Complica&#231;&#245;es maiores ocorreram em aproximadamente 1% dos casos, incluindo: tamponamento card&#237;aco (0,36%), complica&#231;&#245;es vasculares (0,3%), espasmo da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria (0,14%) e hem&#243;lise com insufici&#234;ncia renal aguda necessitando de di&#225;lise (0,03%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
          <p>At&#233; o momento, nenhum estudo cl&#237;nico envolvendo PFA demonstrou les&#227;o esof&#225;gica persistente detect&#225;vel por endoscopia ou t&#233;cnicas de imagem.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> Embora a PFA pare&#231;a oferecer prote&#231;&#227;o substancial ao es&#244;fago e &#224;s estruturas adjacentes, complica&#231;&#245;es emergentes como tamponamento card&#237;aco, espasmo coronariano, mioglobin&#250;ria e les&#227;o renal ainda requerem investiga&#231;&#227;o adicional.</p>
          <p>&#201; importante destacar que uma grande propor&#231;&#227;o das abla&#231;&#245;es de FA realizadas mundialmente ainda utiliza RF ou crioabla&#231;&#227;o, especialmente em regi&#245;es onde a PFA ainda n&#227;o est&#225; amplamente dispon&#237;vel &#8212; como na Am&#233;rica Latina. Al&#233;m disso, os dados de longo prazo sobre a seguran&#231;a e durabilidade da PFA continuam limitados, ressaltando a necessidade de monitoramento cont&#237;nuo e mais pesquisas.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
      <p>A abla&#231;&#227;o por RF continua sendo um tratamento confi&#225;vel e amplamente utilizado para FA na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica. No entanto, devido &#224; escassez de dados de longo prazo sobre a PFA e sua disponibilidade limitada em muitas regi&#245;es, ainda existem preocupa&#231;&#245;es quanto a complica&#231;&#245;es esof&#225;gicas graves, especialmente a FAE. LTE ocorrem em at&#233; aproximadamente um quarto dos casos, sendo influenciadas por fatores do paciente e do procedimento, e exigem classifica&#231;&#227;o adequada, endoscopia baseada em risco e estrat&#233;gias de prote&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      <p>A implementa&#231;&#227;o de um fluxograma estruturado para avalia&#231;&#227;o p&#243;s-abla&#231;&#227;o do envolvimento esof&#225;gico pode ser importante para a identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce de pacientes de alto risco, permitindo interven&#231;&#227;o imediata e aumentando significativamente a seguran&#231;a do paciente. A ado&#231;&#227;o desses protocolos de avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco e monitoramento pode reduzir a ocorr&#234;ncia de complica&#231;&#245;es potencialmente fatais.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica:</label>
        <p> Este artigo &#233; parte de tese de doutorado de Anibal Pires Borges pelo Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado:</label>
        <p> Este artigo n&#227;o cont&#233;m estudos com humanos ou animais realizados por nenhum dos autores.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial:</label>
        <p> Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
        <label>Disponibilidade de Dados:</label>
        <p> Os conte&#250;dos subjacentes ao texto da pesquisa est&#227;o contidos no manuscrito.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
        <p> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250290i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Review Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Severe Esophageal Complications Following Atrial Fibrillation Ablation: Should We Still Be Concerned?</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3617-9589</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Borges</surname>
            <given-names>Anibal Pires</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kalil</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brugada</surname>
            <given-names>Josep</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yanez</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Plutarco Guti&#233;rrez</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Soliz</surname>
            <given-names>Pablo da Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8232-3310</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Saffi</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Aurelio Lumertz</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0327-3392</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silveira</surname>
            <given-names>Anderson Donelli da</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1489-5349</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Pimentel</surname>
            <given-names>Maur&#237;cio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript and Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Porto Alegre, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Institut Cl&#237;nic Cardiovascular (ICCV), Hospital Cl&#237;nic, Universitat de Barcelona, Institut d&#8217;Investigacions Biom&#232;diques August Pi i Sunyer (IDIBAPS), Barcelona &#8211; Spain</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="ES">Spain</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Ar-rhythmias Unit, Hospital Sant Joan de D&#233;u, University of Barcelona, Barcelona &#8211; Spain</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label>Anibal Pires Borges Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Postal Code 90035-003, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil E-mail: anibalpiresborges@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p> Mauricio Scanavacca</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) ablation has been increasingly employed as an effective strategy for rhythm control, leading to a reduction in arrhythmia burden, improved quality of life, and, in selected cases, decreased mortality. However, as an invasive procedure, it carries inherent risks. Severe esophageal complications-such as esophageal perforation or atrioesophageal fistula- though rare (with an incidence ranging from 0.025% to 0.113%), are associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Multiple risk factors for esophageal injury have been identified, including both patient-related and procedure-related characteristics. To mitigate these risks during radiofrequency (RF) ablation, several preventive measures have been adopted, including the use of contact force catheters, high-power short-duration energy applications, and protective strategies such as esophageal temperature monitoring, displacement devices, and cooling techniques. Deep esophageal lesions detected through surveillance endoscopy are considered potential precursors to more serious complications and, therefore, warrant close attention. Enhanced monitoring of patients with such lesions may be crucial for enabling early diagnosis and timely intervention to prevent the progression to more severe complications. While pulsed field ablation therapy, which poses a lower risk to the esophagus and other surrounding structures, is not yet widely available, the implementation of robust monitoring strategies can significantly improve clinical outcomes and enhance patient safety in the context of RF AF ablation.</p>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Severe Esophageal Complications Following Atrial Fibrillation Ablation: Should We Still Be Concerned?</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-11-e20250290-50290-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Atrial Fibrillation</kwd>
        <kwd>Esophageal Fistula</kwd>
        <kwd>Postoperative Complications</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Sources of funding:</bold>There were no external funding sources for this study.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Atrial fibrillation (AF) is the most prevalent sustained arrhythmia in adults, associated with significant morbidity and mortality, and imposes a substantial burden on patients, healthcare providers, and health systems worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Catheter ablation represents a key therapeutic strategy in the management of AF, with superior efficacy in rhythm control compared to antiarrhythmic medications, and evidence of symptomatic improvement, quality of life enhancement,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> and, in patients with heart failure and reduced ejection fraction, mortality reduction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Despite its benefits, AF ablation involves procedural risks related to vascular access, catheter manipulation, and energy delivery in the left atrium (LA), which is close to thermally sensitive structures. Recent data indicate complication rates from 2.5% to 8%, with a 30-day mortality below 0.1%. Operator experience and higher procedural volumes are associated with fewer complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Over the years, the complication rates have markedly decreased.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Severe complications of AF ablation include esophageal perforation and atrioesophageal fistula (AEF) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>), thromboembolic events, cardiac tamponade, pulmonary vein stenosis, phrenic nerve injury, and vascular complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02001">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Esophageal perforation following atrial fibrillation ablation in a patient who developed an atrioesophageal fistula (image by the authors).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-11-e20250290-50290-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Although rare, major esophageal injuries &#8211; particularly perforation and AEF &#8211; are associated with significant morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Understanding the contributing factors to these complications is crucial, especially considering the elective nature of the procedure, which prompted us to conduct a review on the topic. This review included relevant publications indexed in PubMed from 2004 to 2025, using the following keywords: atrial fibrillation ablation, esophageal complications, AEF, and esophageal thermal injuries (ETIs).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Atrioesophageal fistula: incidence, pathophysiology, and precursor injuries</title>
          <p>AEF was first described in 2004, with one case reported by Scanavacca et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> and two by Pappone et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Among these initial cases, two patients died and one required emergent surgical intervention. A Brazilian registry, encompassing 8,863 procedures performed between 2003 and 2015, identified ten cases of AEF (incidence of 0.113%). Of these, seven were fatal and two survivors experienced neurological sequelae.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> In the <italic>POTTER-AF study</italic> &#8211; the largest registry on this complication to date &#8211; 138 cases of AEF were reported among 553,729 ablations, yielding an incidence of 0.025%. The mortality rate was 65.8%, with only 15.4% of patients recovering without sequelae.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Although the incidence reported in the <italic>POTTER-AF</italic> study is lower than that observed in the Brazilian registry, it underscores the devastating clinical impact of this complication despite advances in ablation technology. Additionally, the true incidence of AEF may be underestimated due to limited screening practices in many centers and a lack of comprehensive data from Latin America.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The precise pathophysiology of AEF remains incompletely understood, but ETI due to LA ablation is thought to initiate the cascade leading to esophageal perforation and fistula formation. Proposed mechanisms include direct mucosal injury from thermal energy, exacerbated by gastroesophageal reflux disease and impaired esophageal motility, potentially due to injury of the periesophageal nerve plexus during the procedure or under general anesthesia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The pulmonary vein (PV) antrum, situated in the posterior wall of the LA (LAPW) and bordered by the four PV ostia, is the primary target during wide antral circumferential ablation. This technique employs radiofrequency energy to create conduction block by inducing muscular discontinuity and electrically isolating the PVs. However, the extensive lesion sets required for effective isolation may inadvertently increase the risk of thermal damage to adjacent structures &#8211; particularly the esophagus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Post-procedural upper endoscopy is a valuable tool for early identification of esophageal involvement, with reported ETI incidence in recent series ranging from 1.2% to 24.3%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> ETIs are considered precursor lesions for more severe complications. The most widely adopted classification system for ETIs was proposed by the Kansas City group, based on 30 studies involving 4,473 patients, of whom 3,921 underwent endoscopy or capsule endoscopy within seven days of AF ablation. In this systematic review, the overall incidence of ETIs was 14.5% (570 cases), categorized as follows:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup> type 1 - erythema; type 2a - superficial ulcer; type 2b - deep ulcer; type 3a - esophageal perforation without AEF; and type 3b - esophageal perforation with AEF (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>, <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Kansas City Classification of Esophageal Injuries Following Atrial Fibrillation Ablation (adapted from Yarlagadda et al., 2019)</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Type</th>
                    <th align="left">Characteristic</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>1</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Erythema</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>2a</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Superficial ulcer</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>2b</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Deep ulcer</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>3a</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Perforation without communication with the atria</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">
                      <bold>3b</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td>Perforation with atrioesophageal fistula</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Examples of Esophageal Thermal Injuries (images by the authors).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-11-e20250290-50290-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Among 428 patients with type 1 or 2a lesions, none progressed to perforation or AEF. In contrast, among 142 patients with type 2b lesions (deep ulcers), six developed perforations: five cases were not associated with AEF (one of which was fatal), and one progressed to AEF (also fatal). A separate registry of 1,802 patients who underwent AF ablation and endoscopic evaluation within seven days post-procedure reported an 18% incidence of ETIs (150 patients). Among these, 98 exhibited erythema or erosions, while 52 presented with ulcers (deep lesions). Progression to esophageal perforation or AEF occurred in five patients&#8212;all of whom had deep ulcers previously identified as precursor lesions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> These findings underscore the importance of early identification and close surveillance of patients with deep esophageal lesions, who may benefit from targeted interventions to mitigate the risk of severe complications.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk factors for esophageal thermal injury</title>
          <p>Many risk factors for the development of esophageal injury following AF ablation have been reported, although findings have not always been consistent across studies. Some of these factors are patient-related and pre-existing, while others are procedural and only identified during ablation.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Patient-related risk factors</title>
          <p>Several risk factors for ETI have been associated with anatomical features of the patient. In a study involving 238 patients, a shorter LA&#8211;esophagus distance was identified as a significant predictor of injury (3.0 mm vs. 4.4 mm; p = 0.012). Additionally, the LA area measured by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) was smaller in patients who developed esophageal injury (24.92 &#177; 6.49 cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> vs. 29.53 &#177; 7.47 cm<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; p = 0.032), suggesting that reduced LA dimensions may correlate with narrower periesophageal anatomical spaces.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A registry-based study by Ferraz et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> involving 677 patients further demonstrated that a larger LA diameter was associated with a lower risk of ETI. Each 1 mm increase in LA diameter corresponded to a 7% reduction in injury incidence (odds ratio [OR], 0.93; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.88&#8211;0.99; p = 0.028).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Similarly, in a cohort of 267 patients who underwent AF ablation without esophageal temperature monitoring and with a power limit of 25 W applied to the left atrial posterior wall (LAPW), a shorter LA&#8211;esophagus distance &#8211; assessed via computed tomography &#8211; was also associated with a higher risk of ETI. The mean LA&#8211;esophagus distance in patients who developed injury was 2.0 &#177; 0.3 mm, compared to 2.5 &#177; 0.7 mm in those without injury. Multivariate analysis confirmed this distance as the only significant predictor of ETI (p = 0.0176).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The association between body mass index (BMI) and ETI has also been explored. In a study involving 104 patients who underwent AF ablation with a maximum power of 25 W and 30-second applications to the LAPW, the incidence of asymptomatic esophageal or periesophageal nerve injury was 9.6%. A significant association was observed between low BMI and injury risk, with each 1 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> reduction in BMI increasing the risk by 24% (OR, 0.76; 95% CI, 0.59&#8211;0.97; P &lt; 0.05). All affected patients had a BMI &lt; 24.9 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In contrast, another study found no association between low BMI and esophageal injury in a cohort of 20 patients with BMI &lt; 24.9 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> who underwent ablation using limited energy (maximum 20W on the LAPW), short duration (maximum 20 seconds), and controlled esophageal temperature (&#8804;39&#176;C).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> More recently, a randomized study comparing two types of multisensor esophageal temperature probes reported a 6.6% incidence of ETI, with BMI significantly lower in patients who sustained injury compared to those who did not (21.4 &#177; 2.5 Kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> vs. 24.3 &#177; 3.4 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>; p = 0.022).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>These findings suggest that certain patient characteristics, identifiable before the procedure, may predispose to an increased risk of esophageal injury. Specifically, patients with lower BMI and those with a smaller or anatomically normal-sized LA may be at higher risk for ETI during AF ablation.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Procedure-related risk factors</title>
          <p>In addition to patient-related factors, several procedure-related variables have been associated with an increased risk of ETI during AF ablation.</p>
          <p>Esophageal temperature elevation has been identified as a significant risk factor in patients undergoing radiofrequency (RF) ablation with esophageal temperature monitoring. In a study by Halbfass et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> esophageal temperature monitoring was employed in 35% of 832 AF ablation procedures. A maximum esophageal temperature &gt; 40.5 &#176;C was an independent predictor of esophageal injury (OR 4.044; 95% CI 2.049&#8211;7.984; p &lt; 0.001). Moreover, when this temperature threshold was reached, the relative risk (RR) for the development of deep ulcers increased to 2.76.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Similarly, in a cohort of 88 patients undergoing AF ablation with temperature-guided power limitation during LAPW lesions, temperatures &#8805; 42 &#176;C were associated with a higher incidence of esophageal injury (RR 3.96; 95% CI 1.94&#8211;8.07; p &lt; 0.006).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the <italic>OPERA</italic> study, 200 patients were randomized to receive ablation either with or without esophageal temperature monitoring. The overall ETI incidence was 10%, with no statistically significant difference between groups. However, among patients in the monitoring arm, nine of ten who developed injury had peak esophageal temperatures &gt; 39 &#176;C, reinforcing the association between elevated temperatures and mucosal damage.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
          <p>An alternative method of monitoring esophageal thermal changes is infrared thermography (IRT), which enables real-time assessment using infrared sensors. In the <italic>HEAT-AF</italic> study involving 63 patients, those with endoscopically confirmed injuries exhibited significantly higher peak esophageal temperatures (56.3 &#177; 4.6 &#176;C vs. 45.7 &#177; 5.6 &#176;C). Temperature elevation, as measured by IRT, was predictive of ETI (OR 1.52 per 1 &#176;C increase; 95% CI 1.14&#8211;2.05; p = 0.0008), with excellent diagnostic accuracy (area under the curve [AUC] = 0.927).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Recently, an artificial intelligence-based model has been developed to identify temperature variation patterns associated with esophageal injury. In a study of 94 patients undergoing RF or cryoablation, 11 developed esophageal injuries (10 following RF, 1 following cryoablation). Although absolute peak temperature did not correlate with injury in RF cases, the rate of temperature rise at the thermal peak was significantly greater among those with injury (0.08 &#176;C/s vs. 0.02 &#176;C/s; p = 0.033).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The introduction of contact force (CF) catheters has significantly reduced the rate of severe complications related to AF ablation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> Subsequently, the ablation index (AI) was developed to further enhance procedural safety and lesion durability by integrating parameters such as CF, power, and duration. The effectiveness and safety of AI-guided versus CF-guided ablation were evaluated in 200 patients undergoing LAPW ablation with power limited to 20&#8211;25 W and without esophageal temperature monitoring. The target CF ranged from 5 g to 40 g. Although no significant difference in overall ETI incidence was observed (6% in the CF group vs. 5% in the AI group), an AI &gt; 520 on the LAPW was found to be a predictor of injury (OR 3.84; p = 0.039).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> Specifically, deep ulcerative lesions (&gt; 5 mm) were associated with AI &#8805; 520 (OR 7.05; p = 0.039), the creation of additional ablation lines on the roof or LAPW (OR 5.19; p = 0.039), presence of structural heart disease, and elevated CHA<sub>2</sub>DS<sub>2</sub>-VASc scores. However, multivariate analysis could not be performed due to the small number of events.</p>
          <p>In a study by Wolff et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> additional predictors of esophageal injury included higher AI values on the LAPW (499 vs. 473; p = 0.04), a greater number of ablation points (61.5 vs. 48.2; p = 0.007), and higher mean contact force (15.8 g vs. 13.6 g; p = 0.022).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A recently published Brazilian registry demonstrated that the use of non-irrigated 8 mm-tip catheters was significantly associated with an increased risk of ETI (OR 3.13; 95% CI 1.21&#8211;8.18; p = 0.019). Among the 823 patients included in the analysis, the only individual who progressed to an AEF had undergone ablation using this catheter type.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In summary, several procedure-related factors warrant close attention in order to reduce the risk of ETI during radiofrequency RF ablation for AF. Caution should be exercised in the presence of elevated esophageal temperatures or rapid temperature increases, as well as when excessive CF or high AI values are applied to the LAPW. Whenever feasible, the use of irrigated catheters with contact force monitoring is recommended, while non-irrigated 8 mm-tip catheters should be avoided.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Protective measures to reduce the risk of esophageal thermal injury</title>
          <p>Over the past decades, conventional catheter ablation for AF has undergone significant advancements in both technique and technology, with emphasis on three primary domains: patient safety, procedural efficacy, and operational efficiency.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup> Regarding esophageal protection, several strategies can be employed to mitigate the risk of ETI. These include careful selection of the energy source, catheter type, ablation approach, and the incorporation of various monitoring modalities aimed at real-time esophageal assessment and protection.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Ablation energy source</title>
          <p>The first critical decision prior to performing AF ablation involves selecting the appropriate energy source. Among thermal energy modalities &#8211; excluding pulsed field ablation (PFA), which will be discussed separately &#8211; RF ablation appears to carry a higher risk of esophageal involvement compared to cryoablation. In the <italic>POTTER-AF</italic> study, the incidence of AEF was significantly greater in patients treated with RF ablation than with cryoablation (0.038% vs. 0.0015%, respectively; p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Additionally, in a cohort study involving 236 patients, Zhang et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup> demonstrated that cryoablation was independently associated with a reduced risk of esophageal injury (OR 0.279; 95% CI, 0.108&#8211;0.723; p = 0.01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Contact force catheter and high-power short-duration ablation</title>
          <p>When RF energy is selected, the use of a CF catheter appears to play a critical role in reducing the risk of esophageal injury. In the <italic>RESCUE-AF</italic> study, 89 patients were randomized to undergo AF ablation using either a CF catheter (restricted to &lt;20 g) or a non-CF catheter. No ETIs were observed in the CF catheter group, whereas the incidence of ETI in the non-CF group was 20%. The authors concluded that limiting CF during ablation may effectively prevent esophageal injury without compromising procedural efficacy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Regarding energy delivery strategies, the high-power short-duration (HPSD) ablation technique has been proposed to achieve efficient heating of atrial myocardial tissue while minimizing conductive damage to adjacent structures. In a study involving 687 patients, HPSD ablation (50 W for 5 seconds) was compared to conventional ablation (&#8804;35W on the LAPW for 10&#8211;30 seconds) Esophageal involvement was assessed by magnetic resonance imaging 24 hours post-procedure. No cases of AEF were reported, and AF recurrence rates at 2.5 years were similar between groups (42% vs. 41%; p = 0.57).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Another study compared HPSD ablation at 45 W for up to six seconds on the LAPW with conventional ablation at 20 W for up to 30 seconds on the LAPW, using a CF of 10&#8211;20 g and 10&#8211;30 g, respectively, in 355 patients. The HPSD group demonstrated significantly shorter procedure and RF application times, as well as a higher rate of first-pass isolation, along with a reduced elevation in esophageal temperature (38.1% vs. 84.5% in the conventional group; p &lt; 0.0001). Additionally, the HPSD group showed a lower incidence of AF recurrence during follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the <italic>Frankfurt AI-HP ESO-I</italic> study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup> 122 patients underwent ablation using a combination of high power (50 W) and AI settings of 550 for the anterior wall and 400 for the posterior wall, with esophageal temperature monitoring. Endoscopic evaluation was performed in patients whose esophageal temperature exceeded 39 &#176;C. Among the 57 patients with elevated esophageal temperatures, only two (3.5%) exhibited evidence of ETI, and none progressed to clinically significant complications. The authors suggested that high-power, short-duration applications may reduce the risk of esophageal injury by limiting overall application time, conductive heating, and unnecessary repeat ablations in non-contiguous areas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Esophageal temperature monitoring</title>
          <p>One of the most debated preventive strategies in AF ablation is the use of esophageal temperature monitoring, which has led to heterogeneous practices among operators. The previously mentioned <italic>OPERA</italic> study evaluated intraesophageal temperature monitoring using the multi-sensor SensiTherm&#8482; probe and found that its use did not reduce the incidence of esophageal complications.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> The study suggested that peak temperatures recorded by the probe did not correlate with the occurrence of esophageal lesions. However, in the group without temperature monitoring, RF applications in the LAPW were limited to 25W, which was significantly lower compared to the group with temperature control. Additionally, the only patient in the study who required endoscopic therapy for a deep esophageal ulcer belonged to the group without temperature monitoring.</p>
          <p>Another device, the CircaS-Cath&#8482; multi-sensor probe, was assessed in 36 patients undergoing RF ablation for AF. In this study, energy delivery was interrupted if esophageal temperature increased by &#8805; 0.2 &#176;C or exceeded 39 &#176;C. On follow-up endoscopy, only one patient (3%) exhibited an esophageal lesion attributed to thermal injury, while four patients (11.1%) had minor traumatic lesions. These findings suggest that the CircaS-Cath&#8482; may be associated with a low risk of ETI when used to guide energy delivery during ablation. However, a subsequent editorial raised methodological concerns regarding the study, particularly the timing of endoscopy and the classification of certain lesions as mechanical rather than thermal in origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref></sup></p>
          <p>A third study randomized 106 patients to receive esophageal temperature monitoring with either a three-sensor catheter (J-Cath&#8482;) or a five-sensor catheter (SensiTherm&#8482;). While fluoroscopy time was shorter in the five-sensor group, the total number of lesions and overall ablation time were greater. No significant difference in ETI incidence was observed between the groups (5.8% vs. 7.4%, respectively; p = 1.0).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite inconsistent findings regarding the efficacy of esophageal temperature monitoring in preventing injury, data from the <italic>POTTER-AF</italic> registry suggest a potential survival benefit. Among patients who developed AEF, only 24.6% had undergone ablation with esophageal thermometry. However, the use of a temperature probe was independently associated with improved survival (OR 0.231; 95% CI 0.074&#8211;0.724; p = 0.012).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Given that patients with temperature control had an elevated mean maximum temperature (40.2 &#177; 2.2&#176;C), increased surveillance for signs or symptoms in this group may have enabled earlier diagnosis of AEF, thereby potentially improving patient outcomes.</p>
          <p>One of the limitations in assessing esophageal temperature during AF ablation is the considerable variability among thermometers, which are conventionally positioned only in a craniocaudal orientation. Consequently, sensors may not accurately document the esophageal regions with the highest temperatures. To address this limitation, Leite et al. proposed monitoring esophageal temperature using a deflectable ablation catheter placed at the site closest to the lesion, guided by intracardiac echocardiography. In a pilot analysis involving 45 patients, with power limited to 25W in the LAPW and ablation interrupted if temperature increases exceeded &gt;2&#176;C, no ETI were observed on endoscopies performed within 48 hours post-procedure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref></sup> The use of deflectable devices or solely visualizing the sensors via intracardiac echocardiography may assist in accurately assessing the proximity of the ablation to the esophagus.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Esophageal displacement</title>
          <p>Another protective strategy that has gained attention is esophageal displacement, which involves mechanically repositioning the esophagus away from the ablation zone to minimize exposure to RF energy.</p>
          <p>The <italic>EASY AF</italic> study<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup> investigated this approach by randomizing patients undergoing AF ablation to receive esophageal displacement using the ESOlution&#8482; device (S4 Medical Corp) or no displacement. The device combines vacuum suction with mechanical deflection to achieve real-time repositioning of the esophagus. The study was terminated early after the enrollment of 120 patients due to the demonstrated efficacy of the intervention. The incidence of ETI was significantly lower in the displacement group compared to the control group (5.7% vs. 35.7%; p &lt; 0.0001). Multivariate analysis confirmed esophageal displacement as an independent protective factor, reducing the risk of injury by 87% (odds ratio [OR] 0.13; 95% CI, 0.04&#8211;0.46; p = 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
          <p>However, an editorial commentary on the <italic>EASY AF</italic> trial raised several concerns regarding this strategy. It highlighted the potential for distortion of LA anatomy, particularly during prolonged procedures, which may compromise the accuracy of PV ostia localization and increase the risk of PV stenosis. Additionally, the editorial noted uncertainty surrounding phrenic nerve function assessment in the context of esophageal displacement, warranting further investigation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Esophageal cooling</title>
          <p>Esophageal cooling has also been explored as a preventive strategy to reduce the risk of thermal injury during AF ablation. Cooling can be achieved through various methods, including dedicated cooling devices or direct infusion via a gastric tube.</p>
          <p>A meta-analysis of small-sample studies totaling 294 patients found no significant difference in the overall incidence of esophageal injury between groups receiving esophageal cooling and controls (15% vs. 19%; RR, 0.86; 95% CI, 0.31&#8211;2.41). However, a reduction in the incidence of severe esophageal injuries was observed in the cooling group (1.5% vs. 9%; RR, 0.21; 95% CI, 0.05&#8211;0.80). This result, however, was not confirmed after a sensitivity analysis excluding the study contributing most to heterogeneity. Variability was observed among the included studies with respect to esophageal cooling methods, temperature monitoring strategies, timing of endoscopic assessment, and the types of ablation techniques and tools employed. Additionally, the definition of severe injury varied across studies, limiting the ability to draw definitive conclusions regarding the protective efficacy of esophageal cooling.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Interest in esophageal cooling has recently increased following the results of a large multicenter temporal analysis involving 25,186 patients who underwent RF ablation for AF across 30 centers. The study assessed the impact of esophageal cooling using the ensoETM&#8482; device, a closed-loop system connected to a heat exchanger that circulates water maintained at 4 &#176;C to actively control intraluminal esophageal temperature. Among 10,962 procedures performed without cooling, 16 cases of AEF were reported. In contrast, no cases of AEF occurred among the 14,224 procedures in which esophageal cooling with the ensoETM&#8482; device was employed. Notably, over 70% of procedures in both cohorts were performed using AAPCD protocols (40&#8211;50 W).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>Approach to preventing severe esophageal injury during radiofrequency atrial fibrillation ablation: identification of high-risk patients</title>
            <p>In centers where RF ablation remains the predominant strategy for AF, identifying high-risk patients &#8211; as well as recognizing procedural factors that increase the likelihood of ETI &#8211; is essential for stratifying the risk of progression to AEF (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Figure</xref>).</p>
            <p>We propose a flowchart for the assessment of esophageal involvement following RF AF ablation (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>). The use of a CF catheter should be standard in all procedures. Additionally, HPSD ablation appears to offer a favorable safety profile. Intraesophageal temperature monitoring, which is widely available, may be considered a first-line strategy due to its accessibility compared to esophageal cooling systems. Visualization of the sensors via intracardiac echocardiography may assist in better assessing the distance between the esophagus and the ablation catheter.</p>
            <p>
              <fig id="f04001">
                <label>Figure 3</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>&#8211; Flowchart for the identification and monitoring of esophageal injury following radiofrequency atrial fibrillation ablation in cases where esophageal temperature monitoring is employed; LA: left atrium; BMI: body mass index; LAPW: left atrial posterior wall; ETI: esophageal thermal injury; KCC: Kansas City Classification; PPI: proton pump inhibitor.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-11-e20250290-50290-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
            </p>
            <p>Esophageal displacement may be selectively employed in high-risk scenarios, such as when the LA-esophagus distance is minimal or when significant esophageal temperature elevation occurs during ablation.</p>
            <p>Patient-related factors associated with increased risk of ETI include:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Short LA&#8211;esophagus distance</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Smaller LA dimensions</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Low body mass index</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Procedure-related risk factors include:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Elevated esophageal temperature during ablation of the LAPW</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>High AI and/or CF values</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>In the presence of a combination of these risk factors, it is reasonable to perform esophagogastroduodenoscopy between 24 and 72 hours after ablation.</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>If the patient presents no risk factors, or if mild lesions (Kansas City Classification [KCC] types 1 and 2a) are identified on follow-up endoscopy, the patient is considered at low risk for AEF. These individuals may be discharged with a prescription for a proton pump inhibitor.</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Conversely, if deep esophageal lesions (KCC 2b) are present, the patient should be classified as high risk and remain hospitalized for close monitoring and early intervention to allow for prompt diagnosis of potential AEF.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>Could Pulsed Field Ablation be the solution to all esophageal injury-related challenges in AF ablation?</title>
            <p>PFA represents a significant advancement in the field of AF ablation and has already become a clinical reality in several countries. Initial results &#8211; particularly in terms of safety and the reduction of collateral tissue injury &#8211; are promising. PFA employs non-thermal electrical energy delivered via catheter electrodes to induce irreversible electroporation, creating micropores in cardiomyocyte membranes that lead to selective cell death while sparing adjacent non-cardiac tissues.</p>
            <p>In three multicenter studies &#8211; <italic>IMPULSE</italic>, <italic>PEFCAT</italic>, and <italic>PEFCAT II</italic> &#8211; involving a total of 121 patients with paroxysmal AF, no esophageal complications were reported. Freedom from atrial arrhythmia at one year was 84.5% following optimized biphasic waveform ablation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The <italic>ADVENT</italic> trial,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup> a pivotal randomized controlled study, compared 305 patients treated with PFA to 302 treated with conventional thermal ablation. PFA was shown to be non-inferior in both efficacy and safety, with serious adverse event rates of 2.1% in the PFA group versus 1.5% in the thermal group.</p>
            <p>A systematic review and meta-analysis of 18 studies including 4,998 patients compared PFA to thermal ablation (RF and cryoablation). PFA was associated with an 83% reduction in esophageal injury risk (OR 0.17; 95% CI, 0.06&#8211;0.46; p &lt; 0.01). However, PFA was also associated with a nearly threefold increase in the risk of cardiac tamponade (OR 2.98; 95% CI, 1.27&#8211;7.00; p = 0.01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Another meta-analysis compared outcomes in 497 patients treated with PFA versus 1,113 patients treated with cryoablation across nine studies. The incidence of major adverse events was significantly lower in the PFA group (0.4% vs. 5.6%), even after sensitivity analysis. This finding was primarily driven by higher rates of phrenic nerve palsy and vascular complications in the cryoablation group.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The largest PFA safety registry to date, the <italic>MANIFEST-17K</italic> study, analyzed data from 17,642 patients treated across 106 centers. No cases of severe esophageal injury, pulmonary vein stenosis, or persistent phrenic nerve paralysis were reported. Major complications occurred in approximately 1% of cases, including: cardiac tamponade (0.36%), vascular complications (0.3%), coronary artery spasm (0.14%), hemolysis with acute renal failure requiring dialysis (0.03%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref></sup></p>
            <p>To date, no clinical studies involving PFA have demonstrated persistent esophageal injury detectable via endoscopy or imaging techniques.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref></sup> While PFA appears to offer substantial protection to the esophagus and surrounding structures, emerging complications such as cardiac tamponade, coronary spasm, myoglobinuria, and renal injury require further investigation.</p>
            <p>Importantly, a large proportion of AF ablations worldwide are still performed using RF or cryoablation, particularly in regions where PFA is not yet widely available&#8212;such as Latin America. Moreover, long-term data on the safety and durability of PFA remain limited, highlighting the need for continued surveillance and research.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusions</title>
        <p>RF ablation remains a reliable and widely used treatment for AF in clinical practice. However, due to limited long-term data on PFA and its limited availability in many regions, concerns about severe esophageal complications, particularly AEF, still persist. Esophageal thermal injuries occur in up to approximately one quarter of cases, influenced by patient and procedural factors, and require proper classification, risk-based endoscopy, and protective strategies.</p>
        <p>Implementing a structured flowchart for post-ablation assessment of esophageal involvement may be important for early identification of high-risk patients, enabling prompt intervention and significantly enhancing patient safety. The adoption of these risk assessment and monitoring protocols can reduce the occurrence of life-threatening complications.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association:</label>
          <p> This article is part of the PhD submitted by Anibal Pires Borges, from Programa de P&#243;s-Gradua&#231;&#227;o em Ci&#234;ncias Cardiovasculares da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate</label>
          <p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
          <label>Data Availability Statement:</label>
          <p> The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
