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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">ztcSKSr8pJbKNLZHvjqRFqp</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025001000303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00303</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250244</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Impacto dos Baixos N&#237;veis de Testosterona e SHBG sobre o Risco de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca: Uma Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica e Metan&#225;lise</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6242-0885</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Artioli</surname>
            <given-names>Thiago</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9879-7756</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Batista</surname>
            <given-names>Layane Bonfante</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-0190-6635</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Franchini</surname>
            <given-names>Kleber</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3835-6067</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Alencar</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Nunes de</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label> Thiago Artioli &#8226; Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia - Av. Dr. Dante Pazzanese, 500. CEP 04012-909, Vila Mariana, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brasil E-mail: <email>thiago.artioli48@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p>Marcio Bittencourt</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p>N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>14</day>
        <month>11</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>10</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>10</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250244</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>13</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>09</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>28</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> Estudos sugerem uma poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o entre baixos n&#237;veis de testosterona e globulina ligadora de horm&#244;nios sexuais (SHBG) e desfechos cardiovasculares adversos. No entanto, essa rela&#231;&#227;o ainda n&#227;o est&#225; claramente definida.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica teve como objetivo avaliar o valor preditivo dos n&#237;veis basais de testosterona, di-hidrotestosterona (DHT) e SHBG para a incid&#234;ncia de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC), oferecendo uma compreens&#227;o mais aprofundada da influ&#234;ncia hormonal sobre o risco de IC.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Realizamos uma busca abrangente nas bases de dados MEDLINE, Scopus e Web of Science para identificar estudos de coorte e estudos caso-controle aninhados que mediram os n&#237;veis hormonais em adultos sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de IC. O risco de vi&#233;s foi avaliado utilizando a ferramenta ROBINS-E. Raz&#245;es de risco (<italic>hazard risks</italic>, HRs) e raz&#245;es de chances (<italic>odds ratios</italic>, ORs) agrupadas foram estimadas por meio de modelos bivariados de efeitos aleat&#243;rios. Um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica de 0,05 foi adotado para todas as an&#225;lises.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Dos 1209 artigos analisados, 738 permaneceram ap&#243;s a remo&#231;&#227;o de duplicatas. Seis estudos, totalizando 233 474 participantes (11 663 mulheres), atenderam aos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o. A redu&#231;&#227;o de um desvio padr&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de testosterona foi modestamente associada ao aumento do risco de IC em homens (HR: 1,10; IC 95%: 1,03&#8211;1,17), mas n&#227;o em mulheres (HR: 1,05; IC 95%: 0,98&#8211;1,16). Compara&#231;&#245;es entre quartis ou quintis n&#227;o revelaram associa&#231;&#245;es significativas, e os n&#237;veis de SHBG n&#227;o foram preditores relevantes do risco de IC. A an&#225;lise bayesiana forneceu evid&#234;ncia fraca para essa associa&#231;&#227;o (fator de Bayes = 0,99).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> Esta metan&#225;lise sugere que n&#237;veis baixos de testosterona est&#227;o modestamente associados ao aumento do risco de IC em homens, destacando um aspecto potencialmente importante, por&#233;m pouco explorado, da sa&#250;de cardiovascular. A heterogeneidade nos desenhos dos estudos e nas caracter&#237;sticas das popula&#231;&#245;es, juntamente com as associa&#231;&#245;es fracas observadas, refor&#231;a a necessidade de investiga&#231;&#245;es mais rigorosas. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados bem estruturados s&#227;o essenciais para confirmar esses achados e esclarecer os mecanismos biol&#243;gicos subjacentes.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave:</title>
        <kwd>Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</kwd>
        <kwd>Testosterona</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarcadores</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Funding:</bold> The authors declare that the work was not subsidized.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="10"/>
        <table-count count="2"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="30"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) continua sendo um importante problema de sa&#250;de global, afetando mais de 60 milh&#245;es de pessoas em todo o mundo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Apesar dos avan&#231;os no tratamento da IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida (ICFER), os pacientes continuam enfrentando riscos significativos de progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a e desfechos adversos, mesmo com a terapia m&#233;dica orientada por diretrizes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Os mecanismos neuro-hormonais, especialmente a ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema nervoso simp&#225;tico e do sistema renina-angiotensina, s&#227;o centrais na progress&#227;o da IC e est&#227;o intimamente ligados &#224; morbidade e mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> As terapias com foco nesses sistemas melhoraram o manejo da IC. No entanto, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias crescentes de que a redu&#231;&#227;o na regula&#231;&#227;o de diversos horm&#244;nios e sinais metab&#243;licos tamb&#233;m contribui para a progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a.</p>
      <p>Aproximadamente 25% dos homens com IC cr&#244;nica apresentam defici&#234;ncia de testosterona, al&#233;m de n&#237;veis reduzidos do androg&#234;nio adrenal Desidroepiandrosterona (DHEA) e seu sulfato. Essas defici&#234;ncias est&#227;o correlacionadas com a gravidade da IC e associadas a sintomas como redu&#231;&#227;o da massa muscular, caquexia, depress&#227;o e fadiga.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Estudos recentes investigaram a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de testosterona, di-hidrotestosterona (DHT) e globulina ligadora de horm&#244;nios sexuais (SHBG, do ingl&#234;s <italic>sex hormone-binding globulin</italic>) com a IC, abrangendo tanto a ICFER quanto a IC com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada (ICFEP).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> No entanto, esses achados s&#227;o frequentemente contradit&#243;rios e carecem de uma an&#225;lise abrangente, deixando lacunas na compreens&#227;o dos impactos espec&#237;ficos das defici&#234;ncias hormonais sobre a IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Com o envelhecimento da popula&#231;&#227;o e o aumento da preval&#234;ncia de hipogonadismo, esclarecer o papel da testosterona e de horm&#244;nios relacionados na IC torna-se cada vez mais relevante. Esta revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica e metan&#225;lise busca avaliar quantitativamente o valor preditivo de n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos baixos de testosterona, DHT e/ou SHBG para o risco futuro de IC, oferecendo uma vis&#227;o mais clara sobre seu potencial como biomarcadores da progress&#227;o da IC e orientando futuras dire&#231;&#245;es de pesquisa.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <p>Este protocolo de revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica est&#225; registrado no Registro Prospectivo Internacional de Revis&#245;es Sistem&#225;ticas (PROSPERO) (n&#250;mero de registro CRD42024550371). O estudo n&#227;o recebeu financiamento externo, e os autores declaram n&#227;o haver conflitos de interesse. Todos os dados utilizados nesta revis&#227;o est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis com os autores.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Crit&#233;rios de elegibilidade dos estudos</title>
        <p>Foram inclu&#237;dos estudos de coorte ou estudos caso-controle aninhados que mediram os n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de testosterona, DHT e/ou SHBG em uma popula&#231;&#227;o geral sem hist&#243;rico de IC. Relatos de caso, revis&#245;es e metan&#225;lises foram exclu&#237;dos. Ao final do per&#237;odo de acompanhamento, indiv&#237;duos com n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos baixos de testosterona, DHT e/ou SHBG foram comparados &#224;queles com n&#237;veis normais quanto &#224; incid&#234;ncia de IC, incluindo ICFER e ICFEP. O ano de publica&#231;&#227;o e a dura&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica do acompanhamento n&#227;o foram considerados crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o. Estudos que n&#227;o mediram ou n&#227;o relataram os desfechos de interesse foram considerados ineleg&#237;veis.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Participantes</title>
        <p>A popula&#231;&#227;o do estudo consistiu em adultos com n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos basais de testosterona, DHT e/ou SHBG, que foram acompanhados posteriormente para o desenvolvimento de IC rec&#233;m-diagnosticada, incluindo ICFER ou ICFEP. Os horm&#244;nios foram medidos por meio de imunoensaio ou espectrometria de massa. Foram exclu&#237;dos pacientes com diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de IC ou Infarto do Mioc&#225;rdio (IM), mulheres gr&#225;vidas, pacientes com diagn&#243;stico atual ou anterior de c&#226;ncer (por exemplo, c&#226;ncer de pr&#243;stata) e aqueles em uso de terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o de testosterona.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Fonte de informa&#231;&#227;o e estrat&#233;gia de busca</title>
        <p>Realizamos uma busca abrangente nas bases de dados MEDLINE, Scopus e Web of Science. N&#227;o foram aplicadas restri&#231;&#245;es quanto ao ano de publica&#231;&#227;o ou idioma, garantindo um escopo inclusivo. Os termos de busca utilizados, incluindo palavras-chave e descritores MeSH, foram: testosterona, DHT, SHBG, IC, ICFER e ICFEP. Esta revis&#227;o segue as diretrizes do PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Sele&#231;&#227;o e coleta de dados</title>
        <p>T&#237;tulos e resumos foram avaliados de forma independente por dois revisores (T.A. e L.B.B.) para identificar estudos eleg&#237;veis, sendo quaisquer discord&#226;ncias resolvidas por um terceiro revisor. A triagem dos textos completos tamb&#233;m foi realizada de forma independente por dois pesquisadores (J.A. e A.S.). A extra&#231;&#227;o de dados, facilitada pelo software HubMeta,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> incluiu caracter&#237;sticas dos estudos como autoria, ano de publica&#231;&#227;o, pa&#237;s de origem e delineamento do estudo. As vari&#225;veis principais extra&#237;das inclu&#237;ram n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de testosterona, DHT e/ou SHBG; os m&#233;todos laboratoriais utilizados; tipo de estudo; desfechos avaliados; fatores de confus&#227;o ajustados; idade m&#233;dia da popula&#231;&#227;o estudada; tempo de seguimento; pa&#237;s do estudo e ano de publica&#231;&#227;o. Os estudos precisavam fornecer informa&#231;&#245;es suficientes para estimar uma raz&#227;o de risco (<italic>hazard ratio</italic> &#8211; HR) com Intervalo de Confian&#231;a de 95% (IC95%). Foram extra&#237;das as estimativas de HR ajustadas para o maior n&#250;mero poss&#237;vel de vari&#225;veis de confus&#227;o. As buscas e an&#225;lises foram realizadas de forma independente pelos investigadores. A tabula&#231;&#227;o dos dados foi feita utilizando o software Excel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Risco de vi&#233;s</title>
        <p>O risco de vi&#233;s foi avaliado utilizando a ferramenta <italic>Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies of Exposures</italic> (ROBINS-E).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lises de sensibilidade</title>
        <p>Nas an&#225;lises de sensibilidade pr&#233;-especificadas, foram examinados dados relacionados a diferentes m&#233;todos laboratoriais de dosagem dos n&#237;veis de testosterona, DHT e SHBG. Al&#233;m disso, para avaliar a influ&#234;ncia de cada estudo nas estimativas agrupadas, realizamos uma an&#225;lise de influ&#234;ncia <italic>leave-one-out</italic> (LOO), removendo sequencialmente um estudo por vez e recalculando a HR resumida. Essa abordagem foi utilizada para verificar a robustez dos achados frente &#224; variabilidade nas medi&#231;&#245;es laboratoriais.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>S&#237;ntese dos dados e medidas de efeito</title>
        <p>Em nossa metan&#225;lise, utilizamos um modelo bivariado de efeitos aleat&#243;rios para combinar as estimativas de raz&#227;o de chances (<italic>odds ratio</italic>) entre os estudos. Esse modelo foi escolhido por sua capacidade de considerar tanto a variabilidade dentro dos estudos quanto entre eles. As an&#225;lises foram realizadas utilizando os softwares R e OnlineMeta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Gr&#225;ficos de floresta (<italic>forest plots</italic>) foram gerados para representar visualmente a distribui&#231;&#227;o das raz&#245;es de chances entre os estudos e suas estimativas agrupadas, oferecendo um resumo gr&#225;fico claro dos resultados da metan&#225;lise. Um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica de 0,05 foi adotado para todas as an&#225;lises.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Estudos eleg&#237;veis</title>
        <p>Nossa busca inicial nas bases de dados resultou em 1209 artigos. Ap&#243;s a remo&#231;&#227;o de duplicatas, restaram 738 artigos. Ap&#243;s a triagem de t&#237;tulos e resumos, seguida da leitura completa dos textos, identificamos seis estudos para inclus&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> totalizando 233.474 participantes, dos quais 11.663 eram mulheres (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref>). Os motivos para exclus&#227;o est&#227;o detalhados nos <xref ref-type="sec" rid="suppl">arquivos suplementares</xref>.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Resumo dos estudos prospectivos inclu&#237;dos na metan&#225;lise</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Estudo</th>
                  <th>Pa&#237;s</th>
                  <th>Delineamento</th>
                  <th>N</th>
                  <th style="font-weight:normal">Mulheres (N)</th>
                  <th>Idade, m&#233;dia (SD)</th>
                  <th>Tempo de seguimento (anos)</th>
                  <th>Eventos (N)</th>
                  <th>Horm&#244;nios avaliados</th>
                  <th>Desfechos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Yeap et al.<sup>25</sup> 2022</td>
                  <td align="center">Reino Unido</td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte, prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">210700</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">58,0 (IQR: 50-53)</td>
                  <td align="center">9 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">1061</td>
                  <td align="center">Testosterona total e SHBG IIQ</td>
                  <td align="center">Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Njoroge et al.<sup>17</sup> 2022</td>
                  <td align="center">Estados Unidos</td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte, prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">1061</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">76,4 (5,1)</td>
                  <td align="center">9,6 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">368</td>
                  <td align="center">Redu&#231;&#227;o em 1 DP nos n&#237;veis de testosterona total e livre, e DHT e SHBG livre</td>
                  <td align="center">Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Zhao et al.<sup>24</sup> 2018</td>
                  <td align="center">Estados Unidos</td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte, prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">2834</td>
                  <td align="center">2834</td>
                  <td align="center">64,9 (8,9)</td>
                  <td align="center">12,1 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">103</td>
                  <td align="center">Aumento em 1 DP nos n&#237;veis de testosterona total, livre, estradiol, S-DHEA e SHBG</td>
                  <td align="center">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (ICFEP, ICFER)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Wehr et al.<sup>23</sup> 2011</td>
                  <td align="center">Alemanha</td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte, prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">2078</td>
                  <td align="center">0</td>
                  <td align="center">NA</td>
                  <td align="center">7,7 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">77</td>
                  <td align="center">Testosteronatotal e livre, IIQ e diminui&#231;&#227;o em 1 DP nos n&#237;veis de testosterona total, livre</td>
                  <td align="center">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, mortalidade</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sch&#228;fer et al.<sup>16</sup> 2021</td>
                  <td align="center">Finl&#226;ndia</td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte, prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">7855</td>
                  <td align="center">3990</td>
                  <td align="center">48,2 (22,6) homenes e 46,9 (21,0) mulheres</td>
                  <td align="center">13,8 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">564</td>
                  <td align="center">Testosterona total IIQ</td>
                  <td align="center">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Zhao et al.<sup>15</sup> 2020</td>
                  <td align="center">Estados Unidos</td>
                  <td align="center">Coorte, prospectivo</td>
                  <td align="center">8946</td>
                  <td align="center">4839</td>
                  <td align="center">62,8 (5,5) para mulheres</td>
                  <td align="center">19,2 anos</td>
                  <td align="center">1818</td>
                  <td align="center">Diminui&#231;&#227;o em 1 DP nos n&#237;veis de testosterona DHEA e SHBG livre</td>
                  <td align="center">Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (ICFEP, ICFER)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>DP: desvio padr&#227;o; IIQ: intervalo interquartil; SHBG: globulina ligadora de horm&#244;nios sexuais; DHT: di-hidrotestosterona; ICFER: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o reduzida; ICFEP: insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca com fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o preservada; DHEA: desidroepiandrosterona. Todos os estudos adotaram um n&#237;vel de signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica de 5%.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Esse processo de sele&#231;&#227;o e o diagrama de fluxo PRISMA est&#227;o apresentados na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>. Embora uma an&#225;lise dos efeitos da DHT tenha sido pr&#233;-especificada, ela n&#227;o foi realizada devido &#224; insufici&#234;ncia de dados.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Fluxograma PRISMA da sele&#231;&#227;o do estudo para nossa revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica. NA: N&#227;o se aplica.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Os estudos de Njoroge et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Wehr et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> e Yeap et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> focaram em popula&#231;&#245;es masculinas. Njoroge et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> demonstraram que a testosterona livre estava inversamente associada &#224; incid&#234;ncia de IC (HR: 1,14; IC95%: 1,01&#8211;1,28). Wehr et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> constataram que n&#237;veis baixos de testosterona livre estavam associados de forma independente ao aumento da mortalidade por IC. Yeap et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> relataram que concentra&#231;&#245;es mais baixas de testosterona total n&#227;o estavam associadas &#224; incid&#234;ncia de IC (HR: 1,15; IC95%: 0,91&#8211;1,45), mas concentra&#231;&#245;es mais baixas de SHBG estavam relacionadas a uma maior incid&#234;ncia de IC (HR: 0,69; IC 95%: 0,54&#8211;0,89). Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> focaram em mulheres p&#243;s-menop&#225;usicas e constataram que a testosterona total n&#227;o estava associada ao risco de eventos de IC (HR: 1,09; IC 95%: 0,90&#8211;1,34).</p>
        <p>Sch&#228;fer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> estudaram uma popula&#231;&#227;o ampla e descobriram que, ap&#243;s ajuste completo &#8212; incluindo &#237;ndice de massa corporal e rela&#231;&#227;o cintura-quadril &#8212; os n&#237;veis de testosterona n&#227;o foram preditivos de IC, tanto em homens [HR: 0,99; IC 95%: 0,70&#8211;1,42; p = 0,77 para o quartil mais baixo vs. o mais alto] quanto em mulheres [HR: 0,92; IC 95%: 0,64&#8211;1,33; p = 0,99 para o quartil mais baixo vs. o mais alto]. Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> relataram HRs para IC associadas &#224; diminui&#231;&#227;o de um desvio padr&#227;o na testosterona total log-transformada, DHEA-S e SHBG. Em homens, os HRs foram 1,10 (IC 95%: 1,03&#8211;1,17), 1,07 (IC 95%: 1,00&#8211;1,15) e 1,04 (IC 95%: 0,96&#8211;1,11), respectivamente. Em mulheres, os HRs foram 1,05 (IC 95%: 0,99&#8211;1,13), 1,17 (IC 95%: 1,09&#8211;1,24) e 0,93 (IC 95%: 0,85&#8211;1,01), respectivamente.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Resumo da estimativa</title>
        <p>Testamos nossa hip&#243;tese de que os n&#237;veis hormonais basais poderiam indicar um risco aumentado de progress&#227;o para IC. Para a testosterona total, empregamos duas abordagens anal&#237;ticas: an&#225;lise por desvio padr&#227;o e compara&#231;&#227;o por quartis/quintis. Ao avaliar a redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de testosterona em um desvio padr&#227;o, encontramos uma HR agrupada de 1,10 (IC 95%: 1,03&#8211;1,17), com um I<sup>2</sup> de 0. Ao analisar a mesma hip&#243;tese em mulheres, o HR foi de 1,05 (IC 95%: 0,98&#8211;1,16), com um I<sup>2</sup> de 46% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figura 2</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f03">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de testosterona e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca por um desvio padr&#227;o, representada em gr&#225;ficos de floresta (forest plots) e gr&#225;ficos de funil (funnel plots).** ET: efeito do tratamento; EP: erro padr&#227;o; IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a; VI: vari&#226;ncia inversa.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf02.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Na compara&#231;&#227;o por quartis/quintis, n&#227;o foram encontradas associa&#231;&#245;es estatisticamente significativas em homens ou mulheres. Isso sugere que os n&#237;veis de testosterona total, quando analisados por quartis ou quintis, n&#227;o predizem significativamente o risco de IC. Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; SHBG, estudos que avaliaram redu&#231;&#245;es de um desvio padr&#227;o relataram HRs n&#227;o significativas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">Figura 3</xref>), indicando que altera&#231;&#245;es nos n&#237;veis de SHBG n&#227;o s&#227;o um preditor confi&#225;vel do risco de IC. De modo geral, a an&#225;lise sugere que, embora os n&#237;veis de testosterona total possam ter algum valor preditivo para IC em homens, o mesmo n&#227;o pode ser afirmado conclusivamente para mulheres, e os n&#237;veis de SHBG n&#227;o parecem ser um indicador significativo para nenhum dos sexos.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f04">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Redu&#231;&#227;o dos n&#237;veis de globulina ligadora de horm&#244;nios sexuais (SHBG) e desenvolvimento de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca por um desvio padr&#227;o, representados em gr&#225;ficos de floresta (forest plots) e gr&#225;ficos de funil (funnel plots).** ET: efeito do tratamento; EP: erro padr&#227;o; IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a: VI: vari&#226;ncia inversa.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf03.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise de sensibilidade</title>
        <p>Realizamos duas an&#225;lises de influ&#234;ncia pr&#233;-especificadas do tipo LOO &#8212; uma para a meta-estimativa da testosterona total e outra para a meta-estimativa da SHBG (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="suppl02">Figuras Suplementares S1</xref> e <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="suppl03">S2</xref>). A omiss&#227;o sequencial de cada estudo na an&#225;lise da testosterona total resultou em HRs agrupadas que variaram apenas modestamente, de 1,07 a 1,11. A menor estimativa pontual foi observada ap&#243;s a exclus&#227;o de Njoroge et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> (2022) (HR agrupado = 1,07; IC 95%: 0,99&#8211;1,15), enquanto a maior ocorreu com a exclus&#227;o de Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> (2020, mulheres) (HR agrupado = 1,11; IC 95%: 1,03&#8211;1,20). Nenhuma coorte individual alterou substancialmente a dire&#231;&#227;o ou a signific&#226;ncia estat&#237;stica da associa&#231;&#227;o em homens.</p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise LOO paralela para SHBG produziu HRs agrupadas variando de 0,97 a 1,02, com todos os intervalos de confian&#231;a cruzando a unidade. A exclus&#227;o de Yeap et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> (2022) deslocou a estimativa mais afastada do valor nulo (HR = 0,97; IC 95%: 0,90&#8211;1,05), enquanto a omiss&#227;o de Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> (2020, homens) aproximou ligeiramente a estimativa da unidade (HR = 1,02; IC 95%: 0,94&#8211;1,10).</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o</title>
        <p>Avaliamos o risco de vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o utilizando gr&#225;ficos de funil, conforme ilustrado nas <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03">Figuras 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04">3</xref>. A simetria dos gr&#225;ficos sugere aus&#234;ncia de vi&#233;s de publica&#231;&#227;o significativo. O risco de vi&#233;s em cada estudo inclu&#237;do foi avaliado por meio da ferramenta ROBINS-E (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05">Figura 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f05">
            <label>Figura 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Risco de Vi&#233;s segundo a ferramenta ROBINS-E; D1: devido a fatores de confus&#227;o; D2: decorrente da mensura&#231;&#227;o da exposi&#231;&#227;o; D3: sele&#231;&#227;o dos participantes; D4: devido a interven&#231;&#245;es ap&#243;s a exposi&#231;&#227;o; D5: devido a dados ausentes; D6: decorrente da medida do desfecho; D7: na sele&#231;&#227;o do resultado reportado. Julgamento: &#8220;&#8211;&#8221;: algumas preocupa&#231;&#245;es; &#8220;+&#8221;: baixo risco de vi&#233;s.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf04.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Ao longo dos anos, a rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de testosterona e as doen&#231;as cardiovasculares tem sido controversa, com estudos apresentando resultados conflitantes. Nossa an&#225;lise sugere que a testosterona pode exercer efeitos tanto ben&#233;ficos quanto adversos sobre o sistema cardiovascular, os quais podem se contrabalan&#231;ar, resultando em um impacto geral m&#237;nimo. Essa complexidade &#233; ainda mais evidenciada pelo papel da testosterona como pr&#243;-horm&#244;nio que se converte em estradiol, um horm&#244;nio que tamb&#233;m influencia a sa&#250;de cardiovascular. A aus&#234;ncia de uma associa&#231;&#227;o clara em nosso estudo destaca a complexa intera&#231;&#227;o entre os fatores hormonais na sa&#250;de cardiovascular, o que justifica estudos adicionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Em indiv&#237;duos com IC, a congest&#227;o hep&#225;tica pode elevar os n&#237;veis de SHBG, reduzindo assim a testosterona livre. Embora os n&#237;veis de testosterona diminuam com o aumento da gravidade da IC &#8212; sugerindo um poss&#237;vel papel protetor &#8212; nossos achados n&#227;o sustentam um impacto cl&#237;nico significativo dessas altera&#231;&#245;es hormonais. Tratamentos com testosterona ex&#243;gena t&#234;m apresentado resultados variados, geralmente provenientes de estudos de curto prazo com amostras reduzidas, sem evid&#234;ncias claras de benef&#237;cios cardiovasculares. Isso sugere que n&#237;veis baixos de testosterona end&#243;gena podem ser mais indicativos de um estado geral de sa&#250;de comprometido do que uma causa direta da IC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Nossa an&#225;lise revelou que uma redu&#231;&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de testosterona total equivalente em um desvio padr&#227;o esteve modestamente associada a um aumento no risco de IC em homens (HR: 1,10; IC 95%: 1,03&#8211;1,17), mas n&#227;o em mulheres. No entanto, ao comparar os n&#237;veis de testosterona entre quartis ou quintis, n&#227;o encontramos associa&#231;&#227;o significativa em nenhum dos sexos. Essa discrep&#226;ncia evidencia os desafios em estabelecer rela&#231;&#245;es causais em estudos observacionais. Efeitos de pequena magnitude e a possibilidade de vieses m&#237;nimos anularem riscos relativos estatisticamente significativos refor&#231;am a necessidade de uma interpreta&#231;&#227;o cautelosa.</p>
      <p>Al&#233;m disso, nossa an&#225;lise Bayesiana indicou evid&#234;ncia muito fraca para a hip&#243;tese alternativa, com um Fator de Bayes de aproximadamente 0,9885. Isso sugere que a associa&#231;&#227;o observada entre baixos n&#237;veis de testosterona e aumento do risco de IC em homens n&#227;o &#233; fortemente sustentada pelos dados. No entanto, esses achados oferecem <italic>insights</italic> valiosos para o debate cont&#237;nuo sobre o papel da testosterona na sa&#250;de cardiovascular. Embora os n&#237;veis de testosterona isoladamente possam n&#227;o ser um forte preditor de risco para IC, sua intera&#231;&#227;o com outros fatores fisiol&#243;gicos merece mais investiga&#231;&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Limita&#231;&#245;es</title>
        <p>Esta metan&#225;lise apresenta v&#225;rias limita&#231;&#245;es. A heterogeneidade nos desenhos dos estudos e nas caracter&#237;sticas das popula&#231;&#245;es introduziu uma variabilidade substancial, o que pode afetar a generaliza&#231;&#227;o de nossos achados. Com apenas seis estudos inclu&#237;dos, lidar com diferentes medidas de desfecho foi desafiador e exigiu an&#225;lises adicionais n&#227;o planejadas. Por exemplo, em um dos estudos (Wehr et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>) inclu&#237;dos em nossa metan&#225;lise, o desfecho prim&#225;rio foi a mortalidade relacionada &#224; IC, e n&#227;o o diagn&#243;stico incidente de IC. Embora os pacientes desse estudo tivessem diagn&#243;stico confirmado de IC antes do &#243;bito, o uso da mortalidade como substituto da incid&#234;ncia pode ter levado &#224; subestima&#231;&#227;o do n&#250;mero total de eventos de IC. Ainda assim, as an&#225;lises de sensibilidade excluindo esse estudo apresentaram resultados semelhantes, refor&#231;ando a robustez de nossos achados. Apesar dessas limita&#231;&#245;es, nosso estudo ressalta a necessidade de protocolos de pesquisa mais padronizados em estudos futuros, a fim de melhorar a comparabilidade e a generaliza&#231;&#227;o dos resultados.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m disso, devido ao n&#250;mero limitado de estudos inclu&#237;dos, testes estat&#237;sticos para assimetria dos gr&#225;ficos de funil &#8212; como os testes de Egger e Begg &#8212; n&#227;o foram realizados, pois esses m&#233;todos s&#227;o conhecidos por apresentar baixo poder estat&#237;stico quando h&#225; menos de dez estudos dispon&#237;veis, podendo gerar resultados pouco confi&#225;veis. Por isso, optamos pela inspe&#231;&#227;o visual dos gr&#225;ficos de funil, que &#233; o m&#233;todo recomendado nessas condi&#231;&#245;es.</p>
        <p>Embora estudos com diagn&#243;sticos pr&#233;vios de IC ou IM tenham sido exclu&#237;dos, o risco de confundimento residual permanece. Vari&#225;veis n&#227;o mensuradas, como predisposi&#231;&#245;es gen&#233;ticas, fatores de estilo de vida e tratamentos m&#233;dicos concomitantes, podem influenciar tanto os n&#237;veis de testosterona quanto os desfechos relacionados &#224; IC, potencialmente enviesando as associa&#231;&#245;es observadas. Pesquisas futuras devem buscar incluir essas vari&#225;veis para isolar com maior precis&#227;o os efeitos dos n&#237;veis de testosterona sobre o risco de IC.</p>
        <p>Por fim, o tamanho de efeito modesto observado e as evid&#234;ncias limitadas da an&#225;lise Bayesiana sugerem que a relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica da associa&#231;&#227;o entre baixos n&#237;veis de testosterona e o risco de IC permanece incerta. Ainda assim, nossos achados fornecem uma base para futuras pesquisas que explorem essas associa&#231;&#245;es com mais profundidade, especialmente em popula&#231;&#245;es maiores e mais diversas. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados bem conduzidos s&#227;o particularmente necess&#225;rios para confirmar essas associa&#231;&#245;es e esclarecer os poss&#237;veis mecanismos subjacentes.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>Esta metan&#225;lise teve como objetivo quantificar o valor preditivo de baixos n&#237;veis s&#233;ricos de testosterona, DHT e SHBG no desenvolvimento futuro de IC, incluindo tanto ICFER quanto ICFEP. Ap&#243;s um rigoroso processo de triagem, seis estudos foram inclu&#237;dos. A an&#225;lise revelou que uma redu&#231;&#227;o de um desvio padr&#227;o nos n&#237;veis de testosterona esteve modestamente associada a um aumento no risco de IC em homens, mas n&#227;o em mulheres. Os n&#237;veis de SHBG n&#227;o foram preditores significativos de risco de IC (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>).</p>
      <p>
        <fig id="f01">
          <label>Figura Central:</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Impacto dos Baixos N&#237;veis de Testosterona e SHBG sobre o Risco de Insufici&#234;ncia Card&#237;aca: Uma Revis&#227;o Sistem&#225;tica e Metan&#225;lise</title>
          </caption>
          <attrib>Impacto de baixos n&#237;veis de testosterona e globulina ligadora de horm&#244;nios sexuais (SHBG) no risco de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. N&#237;veis baixos de testosterona est&#227;o modestamente associados ao aumento do risco de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca em homens, enquanto os n&#237;veis de SHBG n&#227;o foram preditores significativos de risco de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. IC: intervalo de confian&#231;a; HR: raz&#227;o de risco.</attrib>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf05.tif"/></fig>
      </p>
      <p>Embora nossos achados indiquem uma poss&#237;vel associa&#231;&#227;o entre baixos n&#237;veis de testosterona e aumento do risco de IC em homens, as evid&#234;ncias permanecem fracas, conforme demonstrado pela an&#225;lise Bayesiana. A heterogeneidade entre os estudos e os pequenos tamanhos de efeito dificultam ainda mais a interpreta&#231;&#227;o. Esses resultados refor&#231;am a necessidade de pesquisas mais robustas para esclarecer o papel da testosterona baixa e da SHBG no desenvolvimento da IC. Ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados bem desenhados s&#227;o especialmente necess&#225;rios para confirmar essas associa&#231;&#245;es e elucidar os mecanismos subjacentes.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec id="suppl" sec-type="supplementary-material">
      <title>Material suplementar</title>
      <supplementary-material id="suppl01" mime-subtype="vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet" mimetype="application">
        <label>Folha 1 - supplementarytable_ex</label>
        <media mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/ztcSKSr8pJbKNLZHvjqRFqp/da4aac8d98c550f6fe83854827a4c461b863aa30.xlsx"/>
      </supplementary-material>
      <supplementary-material id="suppl02" mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application">
        <label>Figure S1</label>
        <media mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/ztcSKSr8pJbKNLZHvjqRFqp/2da91131c41d06a5b95c85edbd6081e266aeab0e.pdf"/>
      </supplementary-material>
      <supplementary-material id="suppl03" mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application">
        <label>Figure S2</label>
        <media mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/ztcSKSr8pJbKNLZHvjqRFqp/73f434b1980d96d440ca4839e2edb8265cf341ab.pdf"/>
      </supplementary-material>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
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        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Thiago Artioli &#8226; Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia - Av. Dr. Dante Pazzanese, 500. Postal Code 04012-909, Vila Mariana, S&#227;o Paulo, SP - Brazil E-mail: thiago.artioli48@gmail.com </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="coi-statement">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p>Marcio Bittencourt</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Studies suggest a possible link between low levels of testosterone and sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG) and adverse cardiovascular outcomes; however, this relationship remains poorly defined.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> This systematic review aimed to evaluate the predictive value of baseline levels of testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and SHBG for the incidence of heart failure (HF), providing deeper insight into the hormonal influence on HF risk.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> We conducted a comprehensive search of the MEDLINE, Scopus, and Web of Science databases to identify cohort and nested case-control studies that measured hormone levels in adults without prior HF. Risk of bias was assessed using the ROBINS-E tool. Pooled hazard ratios (HRs) and odds ratios (ORs) were estimated using bivariate random-effects models. A statistical significance level of 0.05 was applied to all analyses.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> Out of 1,209 articles screened, 738 remained after deduplication. Six studies, including 233,474 participants (11,663 women), met the inclusion criteria. A one standard deviation decrease in testosterone levels was modestly associated with an increased risk of HF in men (HR 1.10, 95% CI: 1.03-1.17), but not in women (HR 1.05, 95% CI: 0.98-1.16). Comparisons across quartiles or quintiles did not reveal significant associations, and SHBG levels were not significant predictors of HF risk. Bayesian analysis provided weak evidence for the association (Bayes factor = 0.99).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> This meta-analysis suggests that low testosterone levels are modestly associated with an increased risk of HF in men, highlighting a potentially important yet underexplored aspect of cardiovascular health. The heterogeneity in study designs and population characteristics, combined with the weak associations observed, underscores the need for further rigorous investigation. Well-designed randomized controlled trials are essential to confirm these findings and to elucidate the underlying biological mechanisms.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords:</title>
        <kwd>Heart Failure</kwd>
        <kwd>Testosterone</kwd>
        <kwd>Biomarkers</kwd>
        <kwd>Risk Factors</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <funding-group>
        <funding-statement><bold>Fontes de financiamento:</bold> O presente estudo n&#227;o teve fontes de financiamento externas.</funding-statement>
      </funding-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Heart failure (HF) remains a major global health issue, affecting over 60 million people worldwide.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> Despite advances in treating HF with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF), patients continue to face significant risks of disease progression and adverse outcomes, even with guideline-directed medical therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Neurohormonal mechanisms, particularly the activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the renin-angiotensin system, are central to HF progression and closely linked to morbidity and mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Therapies targeting these systems have improved HF management. However, there is growing evidence that downregulation of various hormones and metabolic signals also contributes to HF progression.</p>
        <p>Approximately 25% of men with chronic HF exhibit testosterone deficiency, along with reduced levels of the adrenal androgen dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) and its sulfate. These deficiencies correlate with HF severity and are linked to symptoms such as reduced muscle mass, cachexia, depression, and fatigue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Recent studies have investigated the relationship between serum testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels, and HF, encompassing both HFrEF and HF with preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> However, these findings are often contradictory and lack comprehensive analysis, leaving gaps in our understanding of the specific impacts of hormonal deficiencies on HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup></p>
        <p>As the population ages and hypogonadism becomes more prevalent, elucidating the role of testosterone and related hormones in HF is of growing importance. This systematic review and meta-analysis seeks to quantitatively evaluate the predictive value of low serum levels of testosterone, DHT, and/or SHBG for future HF risk, providing clearer insights into their potential as biomarkers for HF progression and informing future research directions.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <p>This systematic review protocol is registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO): registration number CRD42024550371. The study received no external funding, and the authors declare no competing interests. All data used in this review are available from the authors.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Study eligibility criteria</title>
          <p>We included cohort or nested case-control studies that measured serum levels of testosterone, DHT and/or SHBG in a general population with no history of HF. Case reports, reviews, and meta-analysis were excluded. At the end of the follow-up period, individuals with low serum levels of testosterone, DHT and/or SHBG were compared to those with normal levels regarding the incidence of HF, including HFrEF and HFpEF. The year of publication and specific follow-up duration were not considered exclusion criteria. Studies that did not measure or reported the outcomes of interest were deemed ineligible.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Participants</title>
          <p>The study population consisted of adults with baseline serum levels of testosterone, DHT and/or SHGB, who were subsequently followed for the development of newly diagnosed HF, including HFrEF or HFpEF. The hormones were measured using immunoassay or mass spectrometry. We excluded patients with a previous diagnosis of HF or myocardial infarction, pregnant women, patients with a current or past diagnosis of cancer (e.g., prostate cancer), and those undergoing testosterone replacement therapy.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Information source and search strategy</title>
          <p>We conducted a comprehensive search of MEDLINE, Scopus and Web of Science. No restrictions were applied regarding publication year or language, ensuring an inclusive scope. Keywords and MeSH terms used in the search included testosterone, DHT, SHBG, HF, HFrEF and HFpEF. This review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) Guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Selection and data collection</title>
          <p>Titles and abstracts were independently screened by two reviewers (T.A. and L.B.B.) to identify eligible studies, with any disagreements resolved by a third reviewer. Full-text screening was also conducted independently by two researchers (J.A. and A.S.). Data extraction, facilitated by HubMeta software,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> included study characteristics such as authorship, publication year, country of origin and study design. Key variables extracted included serum levels of testosterone, DHT and/or SHBG; the assays used; study design; outcomes assessed; confounders adjusted for mean age of the study population; follow-up duration; country of study and year of publication. Studies were required to provide sufficient information to estimate a hazard ratio (HR) with a 95% confidence interval (CI). We extracted the HR estimates that were adjusted for the highest number of potential confounding variables. Searches and analyses were performed independently by the investigators. Data tabulation was conducted using Excel Software.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Risk of bias</title>
          <p>The risk of bias was assessed using the Risk Of Bias In Non-randomized Studies - of Exposures (ROBINS-E) tool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sensitivity analyses</title>
          <p>In prespecified sensitivity analyses, we analyzed data related to various laboratory measures of testosterone, DHT, and SHBG levels. In addition, to evaluate the influence of each individual study on the pooled estimates, we performed a leave-one-out (LOO) influence analysis, by sequentially removing one study at a time and recalculating the summary HR. This approach was used to evaluate the robustness of our findings in light of variability in laboratory measurements.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data synthesis and effect measures</title>
          <p>In our meta-analysis, we employed a bivariate random-effects model to pool odds ratio estimates across studies. This model was selected for its ability to account for both within-study and between-study variability. The analyses were conducted using the R / OnlineMeta software.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Forest plots were generated to visually display distribution of the odds ratio across studies and their pooled estimates, providing a clear graphical summary of the meta-analysis results. A statistical significance level of 0.05 was applied to all analyses.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Eligible Studies</title>
          <p>Our initial database search yielded 1,209 articles. After deduplication, 738 articles remained. Following title and abstract screening, and full-text review, we identified six studies for inclusion,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> comprising a total of 233,474 participants, of whom 11,663 were women (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref>). Reasons for exclusion are detailed in the <xref ref-type="sec" rid="suppl_en">supplementary files</xref>.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Summary of prospective studies included in meta-analysis</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Study</th>
                    <th>Country</th>
                    <th>Study Design</th>
                    <th>N</th>
                    <th style="font-weight:normal">Female (N)</th>
                    <th>Age, mean (SD)</th>
                    <th>Follow-up Duration (Years)</th>
                    <th>Events (N)</th>
                    <th>Hormones Evaluated</th>
                    <th>Outcomes</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Yeap et al. <sup>25</sup> 2022</td>
                    <td align="center">United Kingdom</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">210700</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">58.0 (IQR: 50-53)</td>
                    <td align="center">9.0 years</td>
                    <td align="center">1061</td>
                    <td align="center">Total testosterone and SHBG IQR</td>
                    <td align="center">Heart failure</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Njoroge et al. <sup>17</sup> 2022</td>
                    <td align="center">United States of America</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">1061</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">76.4 (5.1)</td>
                    <td align="center">9.6 years</td>
                    <td align="center">368</td>
                    <td align="center">Decrease in 1SD of total and Free testosterone, total and free DHT, SHBG</td>
                    <td align="center">Heart failure</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Zhao et al.<sup>24</sup> 2018</td>
                    <td align="center">United States of America</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2834</td>
                    <td align="center">2834</td>
                    <td align="center">64.9 (8.9)</td>
                    <td align="center">12.1 years</td>
                    <td align="center">103</td>
                    <td align="center">Increase in 1 SD of total and Free testosterone, Estradiol, S-DHEA and SHBG</td>
                    <td align="center">Heart failure (HFpEF, HFrEF)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Wehr et al.<sup>23</sup> 2011</td>
                    <td align="center">Germany</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">2078</td>
                    <td align="center">0</td>
                    <td align="center">NA</td>
                    <td align="center">7.7 years</td>
                    <td align="center">77</td>
                    <td align="center">Total and free testosterone IQR and decrease in 1 SD of total testosterone and free testosterone</td>
                    <td align="center">Heart failure mortality</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Schafer et al.<sup>16</sup> 2021</td>
                    <td align="center">Finland</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">7855</td>
                    <td align="center">3990</td>
                    <td align="center">48.2 (22.6) men and 46.9 (21.0) women</td>
                    <td align="center">13.8 years</td>
                    <td align="center">564</td>
                    <td align="center">Total testosterone IQR</td>
                    <td align="center">Heart failure</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Zhao et al.<sup>15</sup> 2020</td>
                    <td align="center">United States of America</td>
                    <td align="center">Prospective cohort</td>
                    <td align="center">8946</td>
                    <td align="center">4839</td>
                    <td align="center">62.8 (5.5) for women</td>
                    <td align="center">19.2 years</td>
                    <td align="center">1818</td>
                    <td align="center">Decrease in 1SD of Total Testosterone, DHEA and SHBG</td>
                    <td align="center">Heart failure (HFpEF, HFrEF)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>SD: standard deviation; IQR: interquartile range; SHBG: sex hormone-binding globulin; DHT: dihydrotestosterone; HFrEF: heart failure with reduced ejection fraction; HFpEF: heart failure with preserved ejection fraction; DHEA: dehydroepiandrosterone. All studies adopted 5% statistical significance.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>This selection process and the PRISMA flow diagram are presented in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>. Although an analysis of DHT effects was pre-specified, it was not performed due to insufficient data.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; PRISMA Flowchart of study selection for our systematic review. NA: Not applicable.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>Studies by Njoroge et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Wehr et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> and Yeap et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> focused on male population. Njoroge et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> demonstrated that free testosterone was inversely associated with incident HF (HR 1.14; 95% CI 1.01&#8211;1.28). Wehr et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> found that low free testosterone levels were independently associated with increased HF mortality. Yeap et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> reported that lower total testosterone concentrations were not associated with incident HF (HR, 1.15; 95%CI 0.91 &#8211; 1.45), but lower SHBG concentrations were linked to a higher incidence of HF (HR, 0.69; 95%CI 0.54 &#8211; 0.89). Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup>focused on post-menopausal women and found that total testosterone was not associated with risk for HF events (HR 1.09 [95% CI: 0.90 to 1.34]).</p>
          <p>Sch&#228;fer et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> studied a broad population and found that, after full adjustment &#8211; including for body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio &#8211; testosterone levels were not predictive of incident HF, neither in men [HR: 0.99; 95% CI: 0.70&#8211;1.42; p = 0.77 for lowest vs. highest quartile] nor in women [HR: 0.92; 95% CI: 0.64&#8211;1.33; p = 0.99 for lowest vs. highest quartile]. Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> reported HRs for HF associated with a one standard deviation (SD) decrease in log-transformed total testosterone, DHEA-S, and SHBG. In men, the HRs were 1.10 (95% CI: 1.03&#8211;1.17), 1.07 (95% CI: 1.00&#8211;1.15), and 1.04 (95% CI: 0.96&#8211;1.11), respectively. In women, the HRs were 1.05 (95% CI: 0.99&#8211;1.13), 1.17 (95% CI: 1.09&#8211;1.24), and 0.93 (95% CI: 0.85&#8211;1.01), respectively.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Summary estimate</title>
          <p>We tested our hypothesis that baseline hormone levels could indicate a higher risk of progressing to HF. For total testosterone, we employed two analytical approaches: standard deviation analysis and quartile/quintile comparison. Evaluating the decrement of testosterone levels by one standard deviation, we found a pooled HR of 1.10 (95% CI: 1.03-1.17), with an I<sup>2</sup> of 0. When analyzing the same hypothesis in women, the HR was 1.05 (95% CI: 0.98-1.16), with an I<sup>2</sup> of 46% (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figure 2</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f03001">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Decrement of testosterone levels and heart failure by one standard deviation in forest plots and funnel plots graphics. TE: treatment effect; SE: standard error; CI: confidence interval; IV: inverse variance.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>In the quartile/quintile comparison, no statistically significant associations were found in either men or women. This suggests that total testosterone levels, when analyzed across quartiles or quintiles, do not significantly predict the risk of HF. Regarding SHBG, studies evaluating decreases of one standard deviation reported non-significant hazard ratios (HRs) (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f04001">Figure 3</xref>), indicating that changes in SHBG levels are not a reliable predictor of HF risk. Overall, the analysis suggests that while total testosterone levels may have some predictive value for HF in men, the same cannot be conclusively stated for women, and SHBG levels do not appear to be a significant indicator for either sex.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f04001">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Decrement of sex hormone-binding globulin levels and HF development by one standard deviation in forest plots and funnel plots graphics. TE: treatment effect; SE: standard error; CI: confidence interval; IV: inverse variance.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf03-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Sensitivity analysis</title>
          <p>We performed two prespecified LOO influence analyses - one for the total testosterone meta-estimate and another for the SHBG meta-estimate (<xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="suppl02_en">Supplementary Figures S1</xref> and <xref ref-type="supplementary-material" rid="suppl03_en">S2</xref>). Sequential omission of each study from the total testosterone analysis yielded pooled HRs that varied only modestly, ranging from 1.07 to 1.11. The lowest point estimate was observed after excluding Njoroge et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> (2022), (pooled HR = 1.07, 95 % CI 0.99&#8211;1.15), whereas the highest occurred when Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> (2020, women) was excluded (pooled HR = 1.11, 95 % CI 1.03&#8211;1.20). No single cohort substantially altered the direction or statistical significance of the association in men.</p>
          <p>The parallel LOO analysis for SHBG produced pooled HRs ranging from 0.97 to 1.02, with all confidence intervals crossing unity. Excluding Yeap et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup> (2022) shifted the estimate furthest from the null (HR = 0.97, 95 % CI 0.90&#8211;1.05), whereas omission of Zhao et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> (2020, men) moved the estimate slightly toward unity (HR = 1.02, 95 % CI 0.94&#8211;1.10).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Publication bias</title>
          <p>We assessed the risk of publication bias using funnel plots, as illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">Figures 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f03001">3</xref>. The symmetry of the plots suggests no significant publication bias. We evaluated the risk of bias in each included study using the ROBINS-E tool (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f05001">Figure 4</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f05001">
              <label>Figure 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; ROBINS-E Risk of Bias. D1: due to confounding; D2: arising from measurement of the exposure; D3: selection of participants; D4: due to post-exposure interventions; D5: due to missing data; D6: arising from measurement of the outcome; D7: in selection of the reported result. Judgement: &#8220;-&#8220; some concerns; and &#8220;+&#8221; low risk of bias.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf04-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>Over the years, the relationship between testosterone levels and cardiovascular diseases has been contentious, with studies reporting conflicting results. Our analysis suggests that testosterone may exert both beneficial and adverse effects on the cardiovascular system, which could offset each other, resulting in a minimal overall impact This complexity is further highlighted by testosterone&#8217;s role as a pro-hormone that converts to estradiol, a hormone that also influences cardiovascular health. The lack of a clear-cut association in our study underscores the intricate interplay of hormonal factors in cardiovascular health, warranting further investigation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>In individuals with HF, liver congestion may elevate SHBG levels, thereby reducing free testosterone. Although testosterone levels decrease with increasing HF severity, suggesting a potential protective role, our findings do not support a significant clinical impact of these hormonal changes. Exogenous testosterone treatments have yielded mixed results, often derived from short-term studies with small sample sizes, and have failed to demonstrate clear cardiovascular benefits. This suggests that low endogenous testosterone levels may serve more as a marker of overall poor health rather than a direct cause of HF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Our analysis revealed that a decrease in total testosterone levels by one standard deviation was modestly associated with an increased risk of HF in men (HR: 1.10, 95% CI: 1.03-1.17) but not in women. However, when comparing testosterone levels across quartiles or quintiles, we found no significant association in either sex. This discrepancy highlights the challenges in establishing causal relationships in observational studies. Small effect sizes and the potential for minimal biases to negate statistically significant relative risks emphasize the need for cautious interpretation.</p>
        <p>Furthermore, our Bayesian analysis indicated very weak evidence for the alternative hypothesis, with a Bayes Factor of approximately 0.9885. This suggests that the observed association between low testosterone levels and increased HF risk in men is not strongly supported by the data<bold>.</bold> However, these findings offer valuable insights into the ongoing debate about the role of testosterone in cardiovascular health. While testosterone levels alone may not serve as a strong predictor of HF risk, their interaction with other physiological factors merits further investigation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>Limitations</title>
          <p>This meta-analysis has several limitations. Heterogeneity in study designs and population characteristics introduced considerable variability, which may affect the generalizability of our findings. With only six studies included, managing different outcomes posed challenges and required unplanned additional analyses. For example, in one of the studies (Wehr et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>) included in our metanalysis, the primary outcome was HF-related mortality, rather than incident HF diagnosis. Although patients in that study had confirmed HF prior to death, the use of mortality as a proxy for incidence may have led to an underestimation of the total number of HF events. However, sensitivity analyses excluding this study yielded similar results, supporting the robustness of our findings. Despite these limitations, our study highlights the need for more standardized research protocols in future studies to enhance comparability and generalizability.</p>
          <p>Additionally, due to the limited number of included studies, statistical tests for funnel plot asymmetry &#8211; such as Egger&#8217;s and Begg&#8217;s tests &#8211; were not performed, as these methods are known to have low statistical power when fewer than ten studies are available and may produce unreliable results. Consequently, we relied on visual inspection of funnel plots, which is the recommended approach under such conditions.</p>
          <p>Although studies with prior diagnoses of HF or myocardial infarction were excluded, residual confounding remains a concern. Unmeasured variables &#8211; Including genetic predispositions, lifestyle factors, and concurrent medical treatments &#8211; may influence both testosterone levels and HF outcomes, potentially biasing the observed associations. Future research should aim to account for these variables to more accurately isolate the effect of testosterone levels on HF risk.</p>
          <p>Lastly, the modest effect size observed and the limited evidence from the Bayesian analysis suggest that the clinical relevance of the association between low testosterone levels and HF risk remains uncertain. Nevertheless, our findings provide a basis for future research to investigate these associations more thoroughly, particularly in larger and more diverse populations. Well-designed randomized controlled trials are especially needed to validate these associations and uncover potential underlying mechanisms.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>This meta-analysis aimed to quantify the predictive value of low serum levels of testosterone, DHT, and SHBG on future HF, including both HFrEF and HFpEF. Following a rigorous screening process, six studies were included. The analysis revealed that a one standard deviation decrease in testosterone levels was modestly associated with an increased risk of HF in men, but not in women. SHBG levels were not significant predictors of HF risk (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Impact of Low Testosterone and SHBG Levels on Heart Failure Risk: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis</title>
              <p>Impact of Low Testosterone and SHBG Levels on Heart Failure Risk. Low testosterone levels are modestly associated with increased risk of heart failure in men, while sex hormone-binding globulin levels were not significant predictors of heart failure risk. CI: confidence interval; HR: hazard ratio; SHBG: sex hormone-binding globulin.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-10-e20250244-50244-gf05-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>Although our findings indicate some association between low testosterone levels and increased HF risk in men, the evidence remains weak, as shown by our Bayesian analysis. Study heterogeneity and small effect sizes further complicate interpretation. These results highlight the need for more robust research to fully understand the role of low testosterone and SHBG in HF development. Well-conducted randomized controlled trials are particularly necessary to confirm these associations and elucidate the underlying mechanisms.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec id="suppl_en" sec-type="supplementary-material">
        <title>Supplemental Materials</title>
        <supplementary-material id="suppl01_en" mime-subtype="vnd.openxmlformats-officedocument.spreadsheetml.sheet" mimetype="application">
          <label>Folha 1 - supplementarytable_ex</label>
          <media mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/ztcSKSr8pJbKNLZHvjqRFqp/da4aac8d98c550f6fe83854827a4c461b863aa30.xlsx"/>
        </supplementary-material>
        <supplementary-material id="suppl02_en" mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application">
          <label>Figure S1</label>
          <media mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/ztcSKSr8pJbKNLZHvjqRFqp/2da91131c41d06a5b95c85edbd6081e266aeab0e.pdf"/>
        </supplementary-material>
        <supplementary-material id="suppl03_en" mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application">
          <label>Figure S2</label>
          <media mime-subtype="pdf" mimetype="application" xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/ztcSKSr8pJbKNLZHvjqRFqp/73f434b1980d96d440ca4839e2edb8265cf341ab.pdf"/>
        </supplementary-material>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association:</label>
          <p> This study is not associated with any thesis or dissertation work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
          <p> This article does not contain any studies with human participants or animals performed by any of the authors.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-in-article">
          <label>Data Availability:</label>
          <p> The underlying content of the research text is contained within the manuscript.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="fn_ast1001">
          <label>*Supplemental Materials:</label>
          <p>For additional information Supplemental Material 1, please <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2025/12210/2025-0244_supplementary_table.xlsx">click here</ext-link>.</p>
          <p>For additional information Supplemental Material 2, please <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2025/12210/2025-0244_figureS1.pdf">click here</ext-link>.</p>
          <p>For additional information Supplemental Material 3, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2025/12210/2025-0244_figureS2.pdf">click here</ext-link>.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="financial-disclosure">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p> There were no external funding sources for this study.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
