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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">rLn3RmSgM5Gswg4kWTvm3WJ</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025000901204</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250620</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">01204</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Diretriz</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Diretriz Brasileira de Atendimento &#224; Dor Tor&#225;cica na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia &#8211; 2025</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6186-3537</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-3777-1947</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soeiro</surname>
            <given-names>Alexandre de Matos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1536-8425</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ornelas</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8379-6192</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Feitosa-Filho</surname>
            <given-names>Gilson Soares</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff7">
            <sup>7</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff8">
            <sup>8</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-2999-4961</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lopes</surname>
            <given-names>Renato D.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff9">
            <sup>9</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2581-1438</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lino</surname>
            <given-names>Danielli Oliveira da Costa</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff10">
            <sup>10</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4639-1003</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Furtado</surname>
            <given-names>Remo Holanda de Mendon&#231;a</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5523-1015</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Guimar&#227;es</surname>
            <given-names>H&#233;lio Penna</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Volschan</surname>
            <given-names>Andr&#233;</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff13">
            <sup>13</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7443-7270</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Gomes</surname>
            <given-names>Bruno Ferraz de Oliveira</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2447-2577</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Polanczyk</surname>
            <given-names>Carisi Anne</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff16">
            <sup>16</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4505-3344</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Rochitte</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9171-1224</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Serrano</surname>
            <given-names>Carlos Vicente</given-names>
            <suffix>Jr.</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7043-8874</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Virgens</surname>
            <given-names>Cl&#225;udio Marcelo Bittencourt das</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff17">
            <sup>17</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1466-9413</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mesquita</surname>
            <given-names>Claudio Tinoco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff18">
            <sup>18</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Menendez</surname>
            <given-names>Edgardo Jorge</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff19">
            <sup>19</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2936-2350</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Adam</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo Leal</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff20">
            <sup>20</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8505-3950</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mastrocola</surname>
            <given-names>Fabio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff21">
            <sup>21</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2924-7328</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silveira</surname>
            <given-names>F&#225;bio Serra</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff22">
            <sup>22</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8711-2432</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Felipe Souza Maia da</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff23">
            <sup>23</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff24">
            <sup>24</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7668-4224</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Dutra</surname>
            <given-names>Giovanni Possamai</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6465-0780</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Moreira</surname>
            <given-names>Humberto Graner</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff25">
            <sup>25</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8975-3812</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Barros</surname>
            <given-names>Isly Maria Lucena de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff26">
            <sup>26</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff27">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4598-5512</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Petriz</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Luiz Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff14">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1556-4314</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Roberto de Oliveira</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff28">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2279-1945</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marchini</surname>
            <given-names>Julio Flavio Meirelles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff11">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4823-9673</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ohe</surname>
            <given-names>Louis Nakayama</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff12">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-3090-9261</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lunardi</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Camila</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff30">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9413-3792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Mucio Tavares de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1382-6656</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Filgueiras</surname>
            <given-names>Nivaldo Menezes</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff31">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5538-7455</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silvestre</surname>
            <given-names>Odilson Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff32">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8121-5959</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Villela</surname>
            <given-names>Paolo Blanco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff15">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6020-7236</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soares</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Rog&#233;rio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff33">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4277-9134</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sampaio</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Paulo Nogueres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff34">
            <sup>34</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff35">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-7029-1740</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Ren&#233;e Sarmento de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff36">
            <sup>36</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8071-6516</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff35">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff37">
            <sup>37</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8911-9873</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Felicioni</surname>
            <given-names>Sandro Pinelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff29">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6583-6595</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Timerman</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7410-3147</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Leal</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiana de Carvalho Andreuci Torres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0201-6754</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mathias</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Hcor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Brazilian Clinical Research Institute</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Brazilian Clinical Research Institute, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>4</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>5</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Fel&#237;cio Rocho</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Fel&#237;cio Rocho, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>6</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff7">
          <label>7</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Santa Izabel</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff8">
          <label>8</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia da Bahia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff9">
          <label>9</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Duke University Medical Center</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Durham</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">EUA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Duke University Medical Center, Durham &#8211; EUA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff10">
          <label>10</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff11">
          <label>11</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff12">
          <label>12</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff13">
          <label>13</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff14">
          <label>14</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff15">
          <label>15</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff16">
          <label>16</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff17">
          <label>17</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal da Bahia</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos (HUPES), Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff18">
          <label>18</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal Fluminense</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff19">
          <label>19</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Churruca</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Churruca, Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff20">
          <label>20</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Adam Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Adam Cardiologia, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff21">
          <label>21</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff22">
          <label>22</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica do Cora&#231;&#227;o, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff23">
          <label>23</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff24">
          <label>24</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff25">
          <label>25</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff26">
          <label>26</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco (PROCAPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff27">
          <label>27</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade de Pernambuco</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff28">
          <label>28</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital S&#237;rio Liban&#234;s</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#237;rio Liban&#234;s, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff29">
          <label>29</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff30">
          <label>30</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff31">
          <label>31</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Estado da Bahia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado da Bahia (UNEB), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff32">
          <label>32</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Cl&#237;nica Silvestre Sant&#233;</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio Branco</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">AC</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica Silvestre Sant&#233;, Rio Branco, AC &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff33">
          <label>33</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini, Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff34">
          <label>34</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Hospital Samaritano</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Samaritano, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff35">
          <label>35</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff36">
          <label>36</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff37">
          <label>37</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Fonte Imagem</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Fonte Imagem, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code> . E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>01</day>
        <month>12</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>09</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250620</elocation-id>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xml:lang="en" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="54"/>
        <table-count count="84"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="255"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <table-wrap id="t41">
      <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
        <colgroup width="50%">
          <col/>
          <col/>
        </colgroup>
        <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
          <tr>
            <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Diretriz Brasileira de Atendimento &#224; Dor Tor&#225;cica na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia &#8211; 2025</th>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">O relat&#243;rio abaixo lista as declara&#231;&#245;es de interesse conforme relatadas &#224; SBC pelos especialistas durante o per&#237;odo de desenvolvimento deste posicionamento, 2024/2025.</th>
          </tr>
        </thead>
        <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Especialista</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Tipo de relacionamento com a ind&#250;stria</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Alexandre de Matos Soeiro</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Biomerieux.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Andr&#233; Volschan</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Outros relacionamentos <break/> Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC: <break/> - S&#243;cio de Cl&#237;nica Privada.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Bruno Ferraz de Oliveira Gomes</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Carisi Anne Polanczyk</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Eduardo Ornelas</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Bayer: Firialta; Novartis: Sybrava; Chiesi: Trimbow. <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Novartis: Sybrava; Daiichi Sankyo: &#225;cido bemped&#243;ico. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Chiesi: Trimbow.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Eduardo Rochitte</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Canon: Health Imaging Technology; GE: resson&#226;ncia e tomografia cardiovascular.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Vicente Serrano Jr.</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Cl&#225;udio Marcelo Bittencourt das Virgens</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Claudio Tinoco Mesquita</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Servier: doen&#231;a coronariana; Novartis: Pluvicto; Pfizer: amiloidose. <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - AstraZeneca: amiloidose; Alnylam: amiloidose.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Danielli Oliveira da Costa Lino</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Boehringer: Tenecteplase. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Boehringer: Tenecteplase.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Edgardo Jorge Menendez</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Eduardo Leal Adam</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Fabio Mastrocola</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: semaglutida.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">F&#225;bio Serra Silveira</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Felipe Souza Maia da Silva</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Gilson Soares Feitosa-Filho</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Amgen: Olpasiran; Idorsia: Selatogrel; Anthos: Abelacimabe; Jansen e Bayer: Milvexiana. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Servier/Trimetazidina: Inscri&#231;&#227;o em Congresso.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Giovanni Possamai Dutra</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">H&#233;lio Penna Guimar&#227;es</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Humberto Graner Moreira</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Pfizer: amiloidose e imuniza&#231;&#245;es; Novo Nordisk: obesidade e inflama&#231;&#227;o; Novartis: dislipidemia; Daichii-Sankyo: dislipidemia; Bayer: cardio-oncologia. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: obesidade.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Isly Maria Lucena de Barros</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Jo&#227;o Luiz Fernandes Petriz</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Servier: Vastarel.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Jos&#233; Roberto de Oliveira Silva Filho</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Chiesi: Trimbow; GSK: Vacinas; Libbs: ticagrelor, ramipril e candesartana; Biolab: vasopressina. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Daiichi Sankyo: prasugrel.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Julio Flavio Meirelles Marchini</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Louis Nakayama Ohe</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Abbott: Coroflow; BBraun: Sequent Please; Libbs: Artag; Meril: Stent.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o Hajjar</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Maria Camila Lunardi</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Mucio Tavares de Oliveira Junior</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Sanofi-Pasteur: Efluelda/influenza; Torrent: Iccor/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; Merck: Concor/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; Biolab: Simdax/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; GSK: Arexvy/v&#237;rus sincicial respirat&#243;rio; Pfizer: Abrysvo/v&#237;rus sincicial respirat&#243;rio; Ache: Edistride/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Sanofi-Pasteur: Efluelda/Influenza.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nivaldo Menezes Filgueiras Filho</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - AstraZeneca: Lokelma, Forxiga; Servier: Ades&#227;o/Acertanlo, Acertil; Boehringer: Jardiance. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Servier: Acertanlo; AstraZeneca: Lokelma.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Odilson Marcos Silvestre</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Paolo Blanco Villela</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - FQM: Exforge HCT. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - FQM: Flebon.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Paulo Rog&#233;rio Soares</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Merck: Glifage XR/ Concor; Libbs: programa de residentes; AstraZeneca: Forxiga. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - AstraZeneca: Congresso Europeu de 2024.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao <break/> departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, <break/> equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Bayer, Novartis, Idorsia, Roche Diagnostics.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Pedro Paulo Nogueres Sampaio</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Outros relacionamentos <break/> Participa&#231;&#227;o em comit&#234;s de compras de materiais ou f&#225;rmacos em institui&#231;&#245;es de sa&#250;de ou fun&#231;&#245;es assemelhadas: <break/> - Coordenador da Cardiologia do Hospital Samaritano.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Remo Holanda de Mendon&#231;a Furtado</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - AstraZeneca: Forxiga; Bayer: Firialta; Boehringer: Trayenta; Daiichi-Sankyo: Lixiana; Servier: Diamicron; Libbs: Artag; Novartis: Sybrava. <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Ach&#233;: consultoria de protocolo; Libbs: consultoria de protocolo; AstraZeneca: Insufici&#234;ncia cardiaca; Pfizer: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; Regeneron: fibrila&#231;&#227;o atrial; Viatris: infarto do mioc&#225;rdio; Brainfarma: analgesia; Bayer: c&#226;ncer de pr&#243;stata; Novartis: Insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; Roche: an&#225;lise estat&#237;stica. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Novartis: Sybrava.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Renato D. Lopes</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Pfizer, Daiichi Sankyo, Novo Nordisk, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb. <break/> B - Financiamento de pesquisas sob sua responsabilidade direta/pessoal (direcionado ao departamento ou institui&#231;&#227;o) provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Amgen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, GlaxoSmithKline, Medtronic, Pfizer, Sanofi-Aventis. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Pfizer, Daiichi Sankyo, Novo Nordisk, Novartis.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Ren&#233;e Sarmento de Oliveira</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Declara&#231;&#227;o financeira <break/> A - Pagamento de qualquer esp&#233;cie e desde que economicamente apreci&#225;veis, feitos a (i) voc&#234;, (ii) ao seu c&#244;njuge/ companheiro ou a qualquer outro membro que resida com voc&#234;, (iii) a qualquer pessoa jur&#237;dica em que qualquer destes seja controlador, s&#243;cio, acionista ou participante, de forma direta ou indireta, recebimento por palestras, aulas, atua&#231;&#227;o como proctor de treinamentos, remunera&#231;&#245;es, honor&#225;rios pagos por participa&#231;&#245;es em conselhos consultivos, de investigadores, ou outros comit&#234;s, etc. Provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: palestra semaglutida. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: semaglutida (Wegovy).</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o Lima</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Outros relacionamentos <break/> Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC: <break/> - S&#243;cio da Fonte Imagem.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Sandro Pinelli Felicioni</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Sergio Timerman</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Tatiana de Carvalho Andreuci Torres Leal</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Eli Lilly: Mounjaro.</td>
          </tr>
          <tr>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Wilson Mathias Junior</td>
            <td align="left" valign="middle">Nada a ser declarado</td>
          </tr>
        </tbody>
      </table>
    </table-wrap>
    <sec>
      <title>Sum&#225;rio</title>
      <list list-type="simple">
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</bold> 10</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.1. Relev&#226;ncia do Problema</bold> 10</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.2. Papel das Unidades de Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 11</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>1.3. Objetivos da Diretriz</bold> 11</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>2. M&#233;todos</bold> 12</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>2.1. Defini&#231;&#245;es das Recomenda&#231;&#245;es e Evid&#234;ncias</bold> 12</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>3. Atendimento Inicial</bold> 12</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.1. Crit&#233;rios de Inclus&#227;o no Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 12</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.1.1. Conceito de Primeiro Atendimento (First Medical Contact)</bold> 12</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.1.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Inicial de Poss&#237;veis Causas de Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 13</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.1.3. Crit&#233;rios Gerais de Elegibilidade para o Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 14</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.1.4. Crit&#233;rios Espec&#237;ficos para Abertura do Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica pela Enfermagem</bold> 14</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.1.5. Crit&#233;rios Subjetivos por Decis&#227;o M&#233;dica</bold> 14</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.2. O Que Fazer Ap&#243;s a Abertura do Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica?</bold> 15</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.2.1. Quando e Como Realizar a Avalia&#231;&#227;o Detalhada da Dor Tor&#225;cica (Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial)?</bold> 15</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.3. Melhores Pr&#225;ticas para o Tempo Porta-ECG</bold> 15</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.3.1. Import&#226;ncia do ECG nos primeiros 10 minutos</bold> 15</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.3.2. Como Medir o Tempo Porta-ECG</bold> 16</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.3.3. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para Obter o Tempo Porta-ECG ideal</bold> 16</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.4. Interpreta&#231;&#227;o do Eletrocardiograma</bold> 17</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.4.1. O Papel do Eletrocardiograma na Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes com Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 17</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.4.2. Qual a Sensibilidade de um Eletrocardiograma Isolado na Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes com Dor Tor&#225;cica? Qual o Ganho Adicional com Eletrocardiogramas Seriados?</bold> 18</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.4.3. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos da S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda ao Eletrocardiograma</bold> 18</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.4.4. Diagn&#243;sticos Diferenciais ao Eletrocardiograma</bold> 19</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>3.4.4.1. Altera&#231;&#245;es Prim&#225;rias e Secund&#225;rias de Repolariza&#231;&#227;o</bold> 19</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>3.4.4.2. Outros Diagn&#243;sticos ao Eletrocardiograma</bold> 19</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>3.4.4.3. Eletrocardiograma N&#227;o Diagn&#243;stico</bold> 19</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>3.5. Como &#233; Definido o Diagn&#243;stico de S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda?</bold> 22</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.1. Crit&#233;rios Atuais para Diagn&#243;stico de Angina Inst&#225;vel</bold> 22</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>3.5.2. Como Classificar a S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda pelo Eletrocardiograma?</bold> 22</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>4. Rota de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica ap&#243;s o ECG Inicial</bold> 22</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.1. Abordagem do Paciente com Crit&#233;rio de Instabilidade</bold> 23</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.1.1. Rotina Ecocardiogr&#225;fica em Paciente com Dor Tor&#225;cica e Instabilidade</bold> 27</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.2. Escores Cl&#237;nicos de Risco e Probabilidade Diagn&#243;stica</bold> 27</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.2.1. Escores Cl&#237;nicos para Casos de Suspeita de S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda</bold> 29</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.2.1.1. Em Qual Paciente Devo Aplicar o Escore HEART?</bold> 30</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.2.2. Escores Cl&#237;nicos para Casos de Suspeita de S&#237;ndromes A&#243;rticas Agudas</bold> 30</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.2.3. Escores Cl&#237;nicos para Casos de Suspeita de Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</bold> 30</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.2.4. Outros Diagn&#243;sticos Diferenciais</bold> 34</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.3. Algoritmos de Troponina</bold> 35</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.3.1. Aplica&#231;&#227;o e Interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos Marcadores de Inj&#250;ria (Les&#227;o) Mioc&#225;rdica</bold> 35</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.1.1. Qual o Marcador de Escolha para o Diagn&#243;stico de Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio?</bold> 35</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.1.2. Como Interpretar Exame de Troponina Alterado?</bold> 35</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.1.3. Como Interpretar Exames de Troponina Seriados?</bold> 35</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.1.4. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos de Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio</bold> 36</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.1.5. Qual o Tempo H&#225;bil para Descartar o Diagn&#243;stico de Infarto Agudo de Mioc&#225;rdio?</bold> 36</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.1.6. Qual o Algoritmo de Escolha?</bold> 36</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.3.2. Direcionamento Conforme Classifica&#231;&#227;o no Algoritmo</bold> 36</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.2.1. SCA Descartada (Rule-Out)</bold> 39</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.2.2. Admiss&#227;o Confirmada (Rule-In)</bold> 40</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.3.3. Direcionamento Inicial dos Casos em Zona Intermedi&#225;ria (Observa&#231;&#227;o)</bold> 41</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.3.4. O que Fazer nos Casos em que h&#225; Inj&#250;ria Mioc&#225;rdica mas Coron&#225;ria sem Obstru&#231;&#245;es?</bold> 42</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.3.4.1. Investiga&#231;&#227;o de Casos de Troponina Elevada sem Obstru&#231;&#227;o Coron&#225;ria (Troponin-Positive Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries - TINOCA ou TpNOCA)</bold> 42</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>4.4. Uso Racional de Testes N&#227;o Invasivos</bold> 42</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.4.1. O Papel do Teste de Esfor&#231;o</bold> 42</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.4.2. Ecocardiografia na Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 46</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.4.3. Cintilografia de Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica (SPECT) e Tomografia por Emiss&#227;o de P&#243;sitrons (PET-CT)</bold> 47</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.4.3.1. Indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso de Testes de Medicina Nuclear</bold> 47</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.4.3.2. Considera&#231;&#245;es Especiais em Mulheres com Dor Tor&#225;cica Aguda</bold> 49</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.4.4. Tomografia Computadorizada Cardiovascular</bold> 50</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.4.4.1. Descarte Triplo</bold> 52</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>4.4.5. Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Cardiovascular</bold> 52</p>
                  <list list-type="simple">
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.4.5.1. Detec&#231;&#227;o de Isquemia Mioc&#225;rdica</bold> 52</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.4.5.2. Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial de Troponina Positiva com Coron&#225;rias Normais (TINOCA / MINOCA)</bold> 53</p>
                    </list-item>
                    <list-item>
                      <p><bold>4.4.5.3. Miocardites</bold> 54</p>
                    </list-item>
                  </list>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>5. Modelo para Implanta&#231;&#227;o das Unidades de Dor Tor&#225;cica</bold> 55</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>5.1. Investiga&#231;&#227;o de S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda em Ambiente Pr&#233;-hospitalar</bold> 55</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.1.1. Percep&#231;&#227;o do Paciente e Rede Pr&#233;-hospitalar Organizada</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.1.2. Papel do Eletrocardiograma no Ambiente Pr&#233;-hospitalar</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.1.3. Papel da Troponina no Ambiente Pr&#233;-hospitalar</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.1.4. Papel dos Escores de Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de Risco</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.1.5. Outras Ferramentas Diagn&#243;sticas</bold> 55</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>5.2. Modelo para Implanta&#231;&#227;o das Unidades de Dor Tor&#225;cica: Evid&#234;ncias para Melhores Pr&#225;ticas</bold> 56</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.2.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente</bold> 57</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.2.2. Estrutura Organizacional e Recursos Humanos</bold> 58</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.2.3. Necessidades T&#233;cnicas</bold> 58</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.2.4. Terapias Espec&#237;ficas</bold> 59</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.2.5. Indicadores de Gest&#227;o</bold> 59</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>5.2.6. Avan&#231;os Tecnol&#243;gicos</bold> 59</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Suplemento</bold> 60</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S1</bold> 60</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S2</bold> 61</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S3</bold> 61</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S4</bold> 62</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S5</bold> 62</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S6</bold> 63</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S7</bold> 64</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Figura S8</bold> 64</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p><bold>Refer&#234;ncias</bold> 65</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <fig id="f18">
        <label>Figura S1</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Mulher de 52 anos atendida com resolu&#231;&#227;o da angina (dura&#231;&#227;o de 15 minutos). A) ECG na admiss&#227;o; B) ECG no momento de recorr&#234;ncia da angina evidenciando infradesnivelamento horizontal do segmento ST &gt; 0,5 mm, em DII, DIII, aVF, V3 a V6. Diagn&#243;stico de SCASSST.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f19">
        <label>Figura S2</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Homem de 73 anos, tabagista e dislipid&#234;mico com dor precordial em queima&#231;&#227;o de in&#237;cio h&#225; 30 minutos. Observar a presen&#231;a de infradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST de morfologia descendente, de forma difusa associada a supradesn&#237;vel em aVR &gt; 0,5 mm. Ap&#243;s administra&#231;&#227;o de nitrato sublingual, houve melhora da dor e revers&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es no segmento ST. Este padr&#227;o &#233; associado &#224; obstru&#231;&#227;o de TCE e/ou doen&#231;a de tr&#234;s vasos. Paciente deve ser submetido precocemente &#224; cinecoronariografia.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f20">
        <label>Figura S3</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Exemplos de dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta. A: observe que o fluxo (em azul) segue pela luz verdadeira. B: observe o aneurisma de aorta descendente. C: linha de dissec&#231;&#227;o visualizada. D: dissec&#231;&#227;o e aneurisma em aorta ascendente no corte paraesternal longitudinal.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f21">
        <label>Figura S4</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Sobrecarga press&#243;rica do VD sobre o VE. Repare que o VD tem di&#226;metros aumentados e empurra o septo interventricular em dire&#231;&#227;o ao VE.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f22">
        <label>Figura S5</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Exemplos de altera&#231;&#245;es provocadas pelo infarto. A: importante dilata&#231;&#227;o do VE com contraste espont&#226;neo em seu interior; B: insufici&#234;ncia mitral grave secund&#225;rio &#224; isquemia de m&#250;sculo papilar; C: comunica&#231;&#227;o interventricular p&#243;s-IAM. Em vermelho, observe o fluxo do VE para o VD.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f23">
        <label>Figura S6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Derrame peric&#225;rdico volumoso. A: janela paraesternal transversal, onde se observa l&#237;quido ao redor de todo cora&#231;&#227;o. B: janela subcostal, onde se observa o derrame ao redor de todo cora&#231;&#227;o.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f24">
        <label>Figura S7</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Fluxograma de atendimento ao paciente com dor tor&#225;cica e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f25">
        <label>Figura S8</label>
        <caption>
          <title>A cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de estresse f&#237;sico demonstrou defeitos de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica revers&#237;veis em territ&#243;rio da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria direita correspondendo a 20% do mioc&#225;rdio.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>1. Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <sec>
        <title>1.1. Relev&#226;ncia do Problema</title>
        <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares (DCVs) representam a principal causa de morte no Brasil e no mundo, sendo a s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (SCA) a principal causa espec&#237;fica de &#243;bito cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A SCA representa o espectro de manifesta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais da isquemia mioc&#225;rdica aguda e, de acordo com as defini&#231;&#245;es atuais, &#233; composta pela angina inst&#225;vel (AI) e pelo infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) sem (IAMSSST) ou com supradesnivelamento (eleva&#231;&#227;o) do segmento ST (IAMCSST), com frequ&#234;ncia de 30%, 34% e 36%, respectivamente, no registro ACCEPT (em portugu&#234;s, Registro de Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Pr&#225;tica Assistencial em S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nos Estados Unidos da Am&#233;rica (EUA), a preval&#234;ncia de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio (IAM) &#233; de aproximadamente 3% em adultos, sendo a doen&#231;a coronariana respons&#225;vel por cerca de 41% de todas as mortes cardiovasculares em 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> </sup> No Brasil, a preval&#234;ncia de IAM foi de cerca de 4,0% em pesquisa transversal envolvendo 7.260 indiv&#237;duos de diferentes etnias e regi&#245;es.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Do ponto de vista econ&#244;mico, o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio representa o mais alto custo financeiro entre as doen&#231;as card&#237;acas para o Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de (SUS) (R$ 22,4 bilh&#245;es/6,9 bilh&#245;es de d&#243;lares em 2015).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Tendo em vista que a SCA representa n&#227;o s&#243; a principal causa de morte na popula&#231;&#227;o em geral,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> mas tamb&#233;m a doen&#231;a cardiol&#243;gica de maior custo para o nosso sistema de sa&#250;de, a aplica&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos para diagn&#243;stico precoce, preciso e eficiente desses pacientes representa um conjunto de a&#231;&#245;es priorit&#225;rias em termos de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica.</p>
        <p>O principal sintoma de um paciente com quadro de SCA &#233; a dor tor&#225;cica. Estima-se que sejam vistos anualmente nas salas de emerg&#234;ncia dos EUA, cinco a oito milh&#245;es de indiv&#237;duos com dor tor&#225;cica (ou sintomas equivalentes que geram suspeita de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica aguda).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Este n&#250;mero representa cerca de 5% de todos os atendimentos emergenciais naquele pa&#237;s, demonstrando a relev&#226;ncia do problema para a sociedade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> </sup> Al&#233;m de ser uma queixa frequente no pronto-socorro (PS), a dor tor&#225;cica pode representar at&#233; 40% de admiss&#245;es hospitalares pelo departamento de emerg&#234;ncia, gerando alto custo para o sistema de sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> </sup> Apesar de a dor tor&#225;cica ser o sintoma mais comum no reconhecimento de um paciente com SCA, no ambiente do PS, apenas 5 a 20% dos pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica t&#234;m SCA, e mais da metade dos casos de dor tor&#225;cica n&#227;o tem causa card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> </sup> Uma atua&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida e assertiva para diagn&#243;stico e tratamento pode melhorar de forma significativa o progn&#243;stico desses pacientes e reduzir os custos no sistema de sa&#250;de.</p>
        <p>Em decorr&#234;ncia da elevada incid&#234;ncia dessa queixa em PS, o atendimento a pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica &#233; realizado por muitos m&#233;dicos e/ou centros de sa&#250;de que n&#227;o s&#227;o especializados em DCVs. Dessa maneira, &#233; fundamental a orienta&#231;&#227;o adequada de todas as unidades e profissionais para o melhor manejo desses casos, no sentido de oferecer um cuidado seguro ao paciente e eficiente para o sistema de sa&#250;de. Essa avalia&#231;&#227;o visa n&#227;o apenas o reconhecimento precoce dos casos de SCA, mas tamb&#233;m de outros diagn&#243;sticos que apresentam risco de &#243;bito na emerg&#234;ncia, como dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta e tromboembolismo pulmonar (TEP) &#8211; ou seja, embora a SCA seja a causa mais frequente de morte na popula&#231;&#227;o com dor tor&#225;cica, h&#225; outros diagn&#243;sticos potencialmente fatais e tempo-sens&#237;veis que tamb&#233;m devem ser considerados na avalia&#231;&#227;o desses pacientes.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.2. Papel das Unidades de Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
        <p>Na d&#233;cada de 60, foram estabelecidas as unidades coronarianas (UCOs), cujo objetivo principal era oferecer um ambiente seguro para confirma&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico e, principalmente, para o tratamento dos casos de IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> Essas unidades trouxeram um impacto cl&#237;nico relevante, com redu&#231;&#227;o de cerca de 50% na mortalidade nos casos de IAM, especialmente pelo reconhecimento precoce e tratamento eficaz de arritmias e da parada card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> </sup> Apesar do benef&#237;cio cl&#237;nico para os casos confirmados de IAM, a exist&#234;ncia de um ambiente mais seguro levou a uma conduta mais liberal na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, em que os m&#233;dicos tamb&#233;m internavam em UCO muitos casos n&#227;o confirmados, ou seja, pacientes apenas com a suspeita cl&#237;nica de SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> </sup> Como consequ&#234;ncia dessa abordagem baseada em julgamento cl&#237;nico subjetivo e heterog&#234;neo (ao inv&#233;s de protocolos objetivos), mais da metade dos pacientes internados nas UCOs n&#227;o tinham, na verdade, SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Dessa forma, grande parte desses leitos de alta complexidade e alto custo passaram a ser ocupados por pacientes de baixa probabilidade diagn&#243;stica e baixo risco de complica&#231;&#245;es, resultando n&#227;o somente em satura&#231;&#227;o das UCOs, mas tamb&#233;m em uma utiliza&#231;&#227;o inadequada de recursos.</p>
        <p>A aus&#234;ncia de protocolos que possibilitassem maior assertividade na sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes para interna&#231;&#227;o gerou tanto a situa&#231;&#227;o de superlota&#231;&#227;o das unidades coron&#225;rias, quanto um cen&#225;rio de risco elevado para altas inadvertidas, ou seja, liberar do PS um paciente com IAM n&#227;o reconhecido. Historicamente, nos EUA, de 1 a 10% dos pacientes que realmente estavam sofrendo um IAM acabavam sendo inapropriadamente liberados da sala de emerg&#234;ncia por n&#227;o terem a sua doen&#231;a reconhecida, e esse grupo, liberado de maneira inadvertida, apresentava maior risco de morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> </sup> Em locais com menores recursos e/ou cujos m&#233;dicos t&#234;m menor preparo para esse tipo de atendimento, a taxa de IAM n&#227;o reconhecida &#233; maior.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Dessa forma, embora a SCA represente uma menor parte dos casos de dor tor&#225;cica, na aus&#234;ncia de um atendimento sistematizado (protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica), o paciente se torna mais vulner&#225;vel a falhas no diagn&#243;stico (tanto subdiagn&#243;stico como sobrediagn&#243;stico), a despeito dos recursos dispon&#237;veis. Isso implica em maior risco de complica&#231;&#245;es fatais (riscos na libera&#231;&#227;o inadvertida de casos de IAM para casa) e maiores custos hospitalares (uso excessivo de uma unidade de alta complexidade, como a UCO, para pacientes de menor risco).</p>
        <p>Tendo em vista esse cen&#225;rio, as unidades de dor tor&#225;cica (UDTs) foram criadas em 1982.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> </sup> Elas n&#227;o representam necessariamente um espa&#231;o f&#237;sico dedicado ao atendimento da dor tor&#225;cica, mas s&#227;o prioritariamente fluxos e processos que permitem uma avalia&#231;&#227;o sistematizada e baseada nas melhores pr&#225;ticas para os pacientes que apresentam suspeita diagn&#243;stica de SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> </sup> Para isso, &#233; necess&#225;rio que a equipe de m&#233;dicos e enfermeiros esteja treinada e habituada ao manejo das urg&#234;ncias e emerg&#234;ncias cardiovasculares.</p>
        <p>Al&#233;m da import&#226;ncia no melhor direcionamento diagn&#243;stico, o protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica possibilita a r&#225;pida aplica&#231;&#227;o de terapias baseadas em evid&#234;ncias. Embora os diagn&#243;sticos potencialmente fatais representem habitualmente &lt; 10 a 20% dos casos de dor tor&#225;cica, tais situa&#231;&#245;es s&#227;o tempo-sens&#237;veis; portanto, quanto mais precoce o diagn&#243;stico, mais r&#225;pida ser&#225; a interven&#231;&#227;o e, por consequ&#234;ncia, mais vidas ser&#227;o salvas, especialmente em situa&#231;&#245;es como IAMCSST e dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda de aorta (DAA).</p>
        <p>Em resumo, o protocolo para atendimento sistematizado do paciente com dor tor&#225;cica ou sintoma suspeito de SCA visa:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Prover acesso f&#225;cil e priorit&#225;rio ao paciente com dor tor&#225;cica (ou sintoma equivalente) que procura a unidade de emerg&#234;ncia (atendimento inicial);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Fornecer uma estrat&#233;gia diagn&#243;stica e terap&#234;utica organizada na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia, objetivando rapidez e alta qualidade de cuidados para atingir os melhores desfechos poss&#237;veis para os pacientes e, ao mesmo tempo, tendo foco na efici&#234;ncia sobre o uso dos recursos dispon&#237;veis, ou seja, com entrega de valor em sa&#250;de (rota de investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e rota terap&#234;utica).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>1.3. Objetivos da Diretriz</title>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Fornecer orienta&#231;&#227;o pr&#225;tica para m&#233;dicos (cardiologistas ou n&#227;o) e equipe multiprofissional sobre a abordagem inicial dos pacientes com in&#237;cio agudo de dor tor&#225;cica (ou sintomas equivalentes), de acordo com as melhores pr&#225;ticas baseadas em evid&#234;ncias;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Estabelecer a rotina de atendimento de pacientes com suspeita de SCA (e seus diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais), minimizando os tempos para a realiza&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos diagn&#243;sticos e terap&#234;uticos cr&#237;ticos para o mais r&#225;pido restabelecimento do paciente;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Orientar a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de recursos, tendo como prisma a entrega de valor em sa&#250;de e que seja adapt&#225;vel ao cen&#225;rio de atendimento;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Orientar a coleta de informa&#231;&#245;es sobre a pr&#225;tica assistencial para que seja poss&#237;vel avaliar a qualidade do atendimento ao estabelecer metas mensur&#225;veis dos tempos envolvidos e das melhores pr&#225;ticas no protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica. Essa informa&#231;&#227;o &#233; fundamental para identificar lacunas no atendimento e avaliar o resultado de a&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;nuas da melhoria de qualidade.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>De uma forma resumida, h&#225; tr&#234;s grandes alvos na implementa&#231;&#227;o de um protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> ) que visam:</p>
        <table-wrap id="t1">
          <label>Tabela 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Objetivos do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica e a a&#231;&#227;o correspondente que &#233; necess&#225;ria para atingir cada objetivo</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="50%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle">Objetivos</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">A&#231;&#227;o</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Identificar, de forma precoce, pacientes com SCA (e outras doen&#231;as tempo-sens&#237;veis)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">ECG em at&#233; 10 minutos (repetir ECG, seriar marcadores e solicitar exames para diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais conforme indicado)</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Evitar altas inadvertidas e interna&#231;&#245;es desnecess&#225;rias</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Algoritmos de decis&#227;o (pathways) baseados nas melhores pr&#225;ticas</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Salvar vidas e reduzir sequelas (por exemplo, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca p&#243;s-infarto)</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle">Tratamento precoce baseado em evid&#234;ncias (seguir diretrizes de tratamento espec&#237;ficas, como as diretrizes de SCA)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN1">
              <p>SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>A excel&#234;ncia em indicadores sobre o processo de atendimento (por exemplo, m&#233;tricas de tempo para o diagn&#243;stico);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Melhor efici&#234;ncia para o sistema de sa&#250;de (m&#233;tricas que avaliem a aloca&#231;&#227;o apropriada de recursos);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Redu&#231;&#227;o nos percentuais de desfechos negativos para os casos confirmados de doen&#231;as potencialmente fatais (ex: reduzir desfechos como morte e disfun&#231;&#227;o ventricular na SCA).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>2. M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>2.1. Defini&#231;&#245;es das Recomenda&#231;&#245;es e Evid&#234;ncias</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es</title>
          <p><bold>Classe I:</bold> condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias conclusivas, ou, na sua falta, consenso geral de que o procedimento &#233; seguro e &#250;til/eficaz.</p>
          <p><bold>Classe II:</bold> condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias conflitantes e/ou diverg&#234;ncia de opini&#227;o sobre seguran&#231;a e utilidade/efic&#225;cia do procedimento.</p>
          <p><bold>Classe IIa:</bold> peso ou evid&#234;ncia/opini&#227;o a favor do procedimento. A maioria aprova.</p>
          <p><bold>Classe IIb:</bold> seguran&#231;a e utilidade/efic&#225;cia menos bem estabelecida, n&#227;o havendo predom&#237;nio de opini&#245;es a favor.</p>
          <p><bold>Classe III:</bold> condi&#231;&#245;es para as quais h&#225; evid&#234;ncias e/ou consenso de que o procedimento n&#227;o &#233; &#250;til/eficaz e, em alguns casos, pode ser prejudicial.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Evid&#234;ncias</title>
          <p><bold>N&#237;vel A:</bold> dados obtidos a partir de mais de um estudo randomizado, concordantes e/ou de metan&#225;lise robusta de estudos cl&#237;nicos randomizados.</p>
          <p><bold>N&#237;vel B:</bold> dados obtidos a partir de metan&#225;lise menos robusta, a partir de um &#250;nico estudo randomizado e/ou de estudos n&#227;o randomizados (observacionais).</p>
          <p><bold>N&#237;vel C:</bold> dados obtidos de opini&#245;es consensuais de especialistas e/ou pequenos estudos n&#227;o randomizados (observacionais).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>3. Atendimento Inicial</title>
      <sec>
        <title>3.1. Crit&#233;rios de Inclus&#227;o no Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1.1. Conceito de Primeiro Atendimento (First Medical Contact)</title>
          <p>O termo "first medical contact" (FMC) se refere ao primeiro contato com profissional/servi&#231;o de sa&#250;de, idealmente realizado no pr&#233;-hospitalar. A abordagem inicial dos pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica &#233; sempre feita no sentido de confirmar ou afastar o diagn&#243;stico de SCA ou de outra condi&#231;&#227;o potencialmente fatal (por exemplo, DAA). Em virtude dos in&#250;meros diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais, realizar o diagn&#243;stico adequado da dor tor&#225;cica tem sido um desafio para os m&#233;dicos que trabalham na linha de frente das emerg&#234;ncias, unidades de pronto atendimento e sistemas de ambul&#226;ncia pr&#233;-hospitalar.</p>
          <p>O profissional da emerg&#234;ncia, particularmente quem faz o atendimento inicial, diante de um paciente com queixa de dor tor&#225;cica, deve definir sobre o in&#237;cio urgente ou n&#227;o de terapias espec&#237;ficas, considerando que algumas patologias agudas t&#234;m risco imediato de &#243;bito, como s&#237;ndromes a&#243;rticas agudas (dissec&#231;&#227;o, aneurisma e hematoma), SCA (AI e IAM), TEP e pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo. Na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia, esse primeiro atendimento (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>first medical contact [FMC]</italic> ) pode ser realizado por um profissional m&#233;dico ou n&#227;o (por exemplo, enfermeiro da triagem).</p>
          <p>A rapidez do atendimento adequado &#233; fundamental e os sistemas de triagem nas unidades de emerg&#234;ncia baseados em algoritmos t&#234;m relev&#226;ncia neste processo. Um destes exemplos &#233; a triagem de Manchester que &#233; um protocolo de sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes que classifica o n&#237;vel de urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia por um c&#243;digo de cores. Essa metodologia surgiu em 1997, na cidade de Manchester, na Inglaterra, e, por sua efici&#234;ncia, rapidamente se tornou um sistema global. No entanto, esse modelo de triagem chegou de forma efetiva ao Brasil cerca de 10 anos depois, na tentativa de reduzir as filas em hospitais e poss&#237;veis perdas de pacientes que se encontravam em estados mais graves. O protocolo de Manchester funciona a partir de um c&#243;digo de cinco cores, atribu&#237;das &#224;s pulseiras de identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes, conforme visto na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Tendo em vista que todo paciente que se apresenta na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia com dor ou sintoma equivalente sugestivo de isquemia deve receber atendimento m&#233;dico dentro de 10 minutos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> portanto, ao aplicar a triagem de Manchester nos pacientes contemplados nesta diretriz, os profissionais da &#225;rea da sa&#250;de dever&#227;o estabelecer n&#237;veis de prioridade "vermelho" ou "laranja", garantindo agilidade e seguran&#231;a para esses pacientes (em ambos os casos, o ECG deve ser realizado nos primeiros 10 minutos). Estudos demonstraram a capacidade da enfermagem usando a triagem Manchester (TM) em detectar pacientes de alto risco com dor tor&#225;cica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> o impacto da utiliza&#231;&#227;o da TM na mortalidade em curto prazo de pacientes com SCA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup> a sensibilidade e especificidade da TM para pacientes com SCA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> e se esse sistema de triagem tem sido usado efetivamente em pacientes admitidos com diagn&#243;stico de SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup> Adapta&#231;&#245;es do protocolo de Manchester (ou equivalente) podem ser feitas de acordo com avalia&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;nuas da qualidade assistencial local e de acordo com as especificidades de cada servi&#231;o, tendo como objetivo a melhor <italic>performance</italic> na triagem desses pacientes.</p>
          <fig id="f1">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Triagem de Manchester &#8211; pulseiras de identifica&#231;&#227;o.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Finalmente, a inclus&#227;o adequada no protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica pode evitar a libera&#231;&#227;o inapropriada de pacientes com SCA e reduzir interna&#231;&#245;es e exames diagn&#243;sticos desnecess&#225;rios. O protocolo &#233; um guia que traz seguran&#231;a e evita variabilidade desnecess&#225;ria; entretanto, a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; um elemento fundamental para a melhor aplica&#231;&#227;o do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1.2. Avalia&#231;&#227;o Inicial de Poss&#237;veis Causas de Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
          <p>Ao avaliar um paciente com dor tor&#225;cica, deve-se considerar as causas que necessitam de conduta mais r&#225;pida, n&#227;o apenas por seu alto potencial de letalidade, mas tamb&#233;m pelo curto horizonte de tempo para interven&#231;&#227;o. N&#227;o existem sinais patogn&#244;micos de uma ou outra patologia e o ancoramento a uma &#250;nica doen&#231;a, mesmo que seja a doen&#231;a mais prevalente, levar&#225; a erros de conduta. Essa se&#231;&#227;o sugere uma l&#243;gica inicial de avalia&#231;&#227;o focada nas condi&#231;&#245;es que precisam ser manejadas de forma mais precoce.</p>
          <p>Dessa forma, a primeira causa em termos de gravidade &#233; a dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta. Apesar da preval&#234;ncia de dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta ser menor (um caso para cada 20 a 90 casos de IAM),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> </sup> contudo, se o diagn&#243;stico n&#227;o for considerado, nunca ser&#225; feito e a letalidade estimada &#233; de cerca de 50% em 48 horas. Al&#233;m disso, caso seja confundido com uma SCA, o uso inicial de antiagrega&#231;&#227;o ou anticoagula&#231;&#227;o (contraindicado nos casos de dissec&#231;&#227;o) ser&#225; delet&#233;rio para os pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> </sup></p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta: deve-se avaliar a presen&#231;a de fatores de risco para dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta, d&#233;ficits de perfus&#227;o (diferen&#231;a de pulso ou press&#227;o arterial) e alargamento de mediastino. Existem fluxogramas descritos abaixo, como o como o <italic>aortic dissection detection risk score</italic> (ADD-RS) e o <italic>aorta simplified score</italic> (AORTA), para auxiliar na tomada de decis&#227;o. O ADD-RS contou com a inclus&#227;o de pacientes brasileiros no Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o, melhorando sua aplicabilidade em nossa popula&#231;&#227;o. No caso de suspeita de dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta, qualquer antiagregante ou anticoagulante deve ser adiado at&#233; a confirma&#231;&#227;o ou descarte do diagn&#243;stico pelo fluxograma escolhido (vide mais detalhes na se&#231;&#227;o 4.2.2);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>SCA: a SCA &#233; a causa mais comum de dor tor&#225;cica potencialmente fatal e ser&#225; discutida em mais detalhes a partir da pr&#243;xima se&#231;&#227;o;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>TEP: esta &#233; outra causa de dor tor&#225;cica com potencial de letalidade alto. A dor tor&#225;cica do TEP &#233; descrita como pleur&#237;tica (aumenta com inspira&#231;&#227;o) e de in&#237;cio s&#250;bito. Situa&#231;&#245;es que promovem imobilidade, como les&#245;es/tratamentos ortop&#233;dicos ou outros p&#243;s-operat&#243;rios, aumentam a probabilidade de forma&#231;&#227;o de trombose venosa profunda com posterior emboliza&#231;&#227;o pulmonar. Escores como o Wells e Genebra (do ingl&#234;s, Geneva) podem ser usados para estratificar o risco de TEP e trilhar o fluxograma para o seu diagn&#243;stico. Caso seja indicada a dosagem de D-d&#237;mero, usar como ponto de corte para n&#237;vel "positivo" o valor &#8805;500 ng/mL (&#956;g/L) ou usar valor ajustado por idade (idade x 10 para pacientes a partir dos 50 anos), o qual ajuda na especificidade do ponto de corte do exame (se utilizar os crit&#233;rios YEARS, ponto de corte do D-d&#237;mero por ser 500 ou 1000 ng/mL de acordo, respectivamente, com a presen&#231;a ou a aus&#234;ncia de crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos do YEARS).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B39">39</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B40">40</xref> </sup> Al&#233;m disso, em pacientes com m&#233;dia ou alta probabilidade de TEP e sem sangramento, poder&#225; estar indicada indicada a primeira dose da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o plena (vide mais detalhes na se&#231;&#227;o 4.2.3);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Pneumot&#243;rax: o pneumot&#243;rax simples pode se apresentar como dor tor&#225;cica, que pode at&#233; ocorrer de forma espont&#226;nea em pacientes longil&#237;neos, mas geralmente &#233; um quadro benigno. J&#225; o pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo &#233; grave e deve ser tratado imediatamente. No entanto, comumente acontece no contexto do trauma, e sua identifica&#231;&#227;o e tratamento fazem parte da avalia&#231;&#227;o prim&#225;ria de casos de trauma tor&#225;cico ou politraumatismo. No ambiente intra-hospitalar, o pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo pode ocorrer como complica&#231;&#227;o de procedimentos como intuba&#231;&#227;o orotraqueal (perfura&#231;&#227;o traqueal) ou acesso venoso central;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Pericardiopatias: o tamponamento card&#237;aco pode ser referido como um desconforto tor&#225;cico. Pacientes com esse quadro se apresentam hipotensos ou em franco choque. A tr&#237;ade de Beck apresenta utilidade limitada. As sensibilidades dos componentes individuais da tr&#237;ade de Beck para tamponamento card&#237;aco s&#227;o baixas: hipotens&#227;o (26 &#177; 10%), sons card&#237;acos diminu&#237;dos (28 &#177; 7%) e press&#227;o venosa jugular elevada (76 &#177; 14%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup> Outro estudo encontrou sensibilidade ainda mais baixa para a tr&#237;ade de Beck.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup> A diferencia&#231;&#227;o desse quadro, em rela&#231;&#227;o a outros choques circulat&#243;rios, tornou-se muito mais f&#225;cil com a ultrassonografia &#224; beira-leito e permite o manejo guiado por ultrassom;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Condi&#231;&#245;es esof&#225;gicas graves: estas tamb&#233;m podem se manifestar como dor tor&#225;cica. A rotura esof&#225;gica com mediastinite &#233; um quadro bastante raro, com incid&#234;ncia relatada em 3 a cada 1.000.000,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup> geralmente associada a v&#244;mitos for&#231;ados em pacientes etilistas (s&#237;ndrome de Boerhaave). A avalia&#231;&#227;o e manejo precoce impactam o progn&#243;stico;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Outros diagn&#243;sticos: ap&#243;s exclus&#227;o dos diagn&#243;sticos iniciais, outros diagn&#243;sticos com potenciais riscos de complica&#231;&#245;es tamb&#233;m poder&#227;o ser estabelecidos, especialmente em cen&#225;rios de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;dica (eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina). Um exemplo seria a s&#237;ndrome do cora&#231;&#227;o partido, ou Takotsubo, que &#233; uma cardiomiopatia a qual, em 2/3 dos casos, pode estar associada a fatores emocionais ou org&#226;nicos fortes, como sepse ou hemorragia cerebral. Provoca uma disfun&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica intensa, habitualmente com preserva&#231;&#227;o dos segmentos basais do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE) (existem variantes tamb&#233;m). Muitas vezes, o quadro ser&#225; indistingu&#237;vel de uma s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda e o diagn&#243;stico ser&#225; retrospectivo. Em casos de choque cardiog&#234;nico, &#233; importante conhecer a associa&#231;&#227;o de at&#233; 1/5 dos casos com obstru&#231;&#227;o de via de sa&#237;da de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo, que pode se agravar com administra&#231;&#227;o de inotr&#243;picos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1.3. Crit&#233;rios Gerais de Elegibilidade para o Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
          <p>Todos os pacientes atendidos com origem domiciliar ou transferidos de outros servi&#231;os de sa&#250;de, que tenham hist&#243;ria de dor tor&#225;cica, ou sintoma equivalente, de in&#237;cio agudo, s&#227;o eleg&#237;veis para o protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1.4. Crit&#233;rios Espec&#237;ficos para Abertura do Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica pela Enfermagem</title>
          <p>Os crit&#233;rios gerais, citados acima, delimitam a popula&#231;&#227;o contemplada nesta diretriz. Entretanto, para que seja poss&#237;vel a abertura de um protocolo por diversos profissionais, como m&#233;dicos e enfermeiros, com n&#237;veis de experi&#234;ncia diferentes, devemos ter crit&#233;rios objetivos e de alta sensibilidade. Embora o objetivo geral deste tipo de crit&#233;rio seja oferecer seguran&#231;a, pela sua alta sensibilidade (para n&#227;o deixar que quantidade significativa de casos graves tenham atraso no reconhecimento), por outro lado, crit&#233;rios muito amplos podem gerar sobrecarga nas unidades de emerg&#234;ncia, por inclu&#237;rem pacientes com probabilidade muito baixa de serem beneficiados. Desse modo, os crit&#233;rios para abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica devem ser definidos de acordo com o objetivo espec&#237;fico do diagn&#243;stico precoce desejado, tendo um padr&#227;o m&#237;nimo a ser seguido ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabelas 2</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">3</xref> ).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Crit&#233;rios rotineiros para abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Qualquer dor ATUAL (vigente na admiss&#227;o) entre a cicatriz umbilical e a mand&#237;bula.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Qualquer dor tor&#225;cica que tenha durado mais de 10 minutos (mesmo que ausente na admiss&#227;o).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Esses crit&#233;rios rotineiros apresentam foco no reconhecimento de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda com oclus&#227;o coron&#225;ria e, portanto, com potencial benef&#237;cio para terapia de reperfus&#227;o, al&#233;m de diagn&#243;sticos de risco de letalidade (por exemplo, dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda de aorta).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Crit&#233;rios adicionais para abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Paciente assintom&#225;tico na admiss&#227;o, mas que apresenta relato de queixa de desconforto epig&#225;strico ou dor em bra&#231;os ou mand&#237;bula antes da entrada no pronto-socorro.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Equivalentes isqu&#234;micos (por exemplo: dispneia, diaforese e/ou PAS &lt; 90 mmHg) em pacientes acima dos 50 anos de idade e/ou com hist&#243;rico de diabetes ou doen&#231;a cardiovascular conhecida (por exemplo, hist&#243;ria de infarto, angioplastia e acidente vascular cerebral).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Solicita&#231;&#227;o ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica, na aus&#234;ncia dos crit&#233;rios acima (suspeita m&#233;dica de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda ou de outras condi&#231;&#245;es potencialmente fatais, como dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>PAS: press&#227;o arterial sist&#243;lica.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Tendo em vista que 10 a 30% dos pacientes com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda n&#227;o apresentam dor tor&#225;cica (especialmente idosos ou com comorbidades como diabetes),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> </sup> a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de crit&#233;rios mais sens&#237;veis que incluam equivalentes possibilita uma detec&#231;&#227;o mais ampla de casos. Essa amplia&#231;&#227;o deve ser acompanhada de uma avalia&#231;&#227;o para uso adequado dos recursos (ou seja, manter vigil&#226;ncia e a&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;nuas para evitar desperd&#237;cios e situa&#231;&#245;es de superlota&#231;&#227;o de unidades de dor tor&#225;cica).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1.5. Crit&#233;rios Subjetivos por Decis&#227;o M&#233;dica</title>
          <p>Conforme a &#250;ltima linha de recomenda&#231;&#227;o descrita na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> , al&#233;m dos casos que apresentam crit&#233;rios objetivos que permitem a r&#225;pida identifica&#231;&#227;o no atendimento de enfermagem, tamb&#233;m podem ser inclu&#237;dos no protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica os pacientes que, ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica, apresentem suspeita diagn&#243;stica de condi&#231;&#245;es que possam ser confundidas com SCA ou outros diagn&#243;sticos potencialmente fatais (como embolia pulmonar, dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta etc.).</p>
          <p>Manifesta&#231;&#245;es menos espec&#237;ficas como s&#237;ncope, fraqueza, confus&#227;o mental ( <italic>Delirium</italic> ), "indigest&#227;o", n&#225;useas e v&#244;mitos inexplicados tamb&#233;m podem ser considerados equivalentes, especialmente em pacientes de alto risco (idosos, diab&#233;ticos, antecedente de doen&#231;a cardiovascular). Nesses casos, pode ser solicitada abertura de protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica pelo m&#233;dico mesmo na aus&#234;ncia dos crit&#233;rios objetivos. Como h&#225; recomenda&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o de ECG de rotina nos casos de s&#237;ncope, essa manifesta&#231;&#227;o pode ser inclu&#237;da como um crit&#233;rio objetivo padr&#227;o para realizar ECG nos primeiros 10 minutos nas rotinas de pronto-atendimento (embora, n&#227;o necessariamente, deva-se prosseguir a investiga&#231;&#227;o de SCA, al&#233;m do ECG).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.2. O Que Fazer Ap&#243;s a Abertura do Protocolo de Dor Tor&#225;cica?</title>
        <p>Todo paciente atendido com quadro suspeito de SCA, ou seja, que preenche os crit&#233;rios de abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica, deve ser abordado como urg&#234;ncia/emerg&#234;ncia m&#233;dica, sendo encaminhado imediatamente para realiza&#231;&#227;o de eletrocardiograma (ECG), e a equipe m&#233;dica deve ser avisada para avaliar prontamente o caso e o ECG ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref> ). O paciente deve seguir, idealmente, o acr&#244;nimo MOVE:</p>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p>M: <underline>M</underline> onitoriza&#231;&#227;o com desfibrilador prontamente dispon&#237;vel.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>O2: Checar satura&#231;&#227;o de <underline>O</underline> 2 (oxigenioterapia se satura&#231;&#227;o &lt; 90%).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>V: Acesso <underline>v</underline> enoso (coletar sangue para exames laboratoriais durante a obten&#231;&#227;o do acesso).</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>E: <underline>E</underline> letrocardiograma em at&#233; 10 minutos, com avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica imediata.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <table-wrap id="t4">
          <label>Tabela 4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Conduta diagn&#243;stica inicial ap&#243;s abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Em pacientes com crit&#233;rios para abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica, deve-se realizar um eletrocardiograma de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es (idealmente, adicionar deriva&#231;&#245;es complementares), que deve ser avaliado por um m&#233;dico em at&#233; 10 minutos (tempo total desde o primeiro contato com profissional/servi&#231;o de sa&#250;de).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN5">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>No protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica, recomenda-se realizar o eletrocardiograma com paciente monitorizado (especialmente se sintoma persistente) ou, pelo menos, em ambiente que possua desfibrilador prontamente dispon&#237;vel.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2.1. Quando e Como Realizar a Avalia&#231;&#227;o Detalhada da Dor Tor&#225;cica (Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial)?</title>
          <p>Tendo em vista que a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial dos pacientes costuma ser na triagem de enfermagem da unidade de emerg&#234;ncia e que tamb&#233;m h&#225; uma recomenda&#231;&#227;o classe I para realizar ECG em at&#233; 10 minutos de rotina em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica (ou sintomas equivalentes), todo paciente com crit&#233;rio de abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica deve seguir para imediata realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG e acionamento m&#233;dico (em paralelo). Como essa regra vale tanto para quadros de dor "t&#237;pica" como "at&#237;pica" (nomes em desuso), a prioridade &#233; realizar o ECG rapidamente. A avalia&#231;&#227;o detalhada das caracter&#237;sticas da dor tor&#225;cica (e/ou sintomas equivalentes) deve ser feita em paralelo (n&#227;o deve atrasar o ECG).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.3. Melhores Pr&#225;ticas para o Tempo Porta-ECG</title>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.1. Import&#226;ncia do ECG nos primeiros 10 Minutos</title>
          <p>O ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es em repouso &#233; a ferramenta diagn&#243;stica de primeira linha na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com suspeita de SCA. Deve ser realizado em at&#233; 10 minutos ap&#243;s a chegada do paciente ao PS ou, idealmente, no primeiro contato com os servi&#231;os m&#233;dicos de emerg&#234;ncia, em ambiente pr&#233;-hospitalar, e ser imediatamente interpretado por um m&#233;dico qualificado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> </sup> Isso implica que a realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG pode preceder at&#233; mesmo a finaliza&#231;&#227;o de etapas fundamentais da avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, como uma anamnese detalhada e o exame f&#237;sico completo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Uma an&#225;lise de mais de 7.500 pacientes de um registro nos EUA e no Canad&#225; demonstrou que apenas 40% dos pacientes com IAMCSST receberam um ECG dentro de 10 minutos (tempo m&#233;dio de 14 minutos), e que um tempo porta-ECG (TPE) superior a 10 minutos foi associado a risco aumentado de IAM recorrente ou morte ( <italic>odds ratio</italic> 3,95, IC 95% 1,06-14,72, p = 0,04).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
          <p>O fundamento para essa abordagem consiste na evid&#234;ncia de que, na presen&#231;a de supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST de origem isqu&#234;mica (ou altera&#231;&#227;o equivalente), a obten&#231;&#227;o precoce do ECG resulta em rapidez na terapia de reperfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica e, consequentemente, em impacto positivo na morbidade e mortalidade. De fato, o aumento do TPE &#233; associado a um aumento do tempo porta-bal&#227;o para interven&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria percut&#226;nea<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup> e do tempo porta-agulha para fibrin&#243;lise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, o ECG realizado no atendimento pr&#233;-hospitalar, como em ambul&#226;ncias do Servi&#231;o de Atendimento M&#243;vel de Urg&#234;ncia (SAMU), pode auxiliar na redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de diagn&#243;stico e no adequado encaminhamento de pacientes com IAMCSST para centros capazes de realizar angioplastia prim&#225;ria de forma precoce, os quais podem receber o ECG antes da chegada da ambul&#226;ncia e, dessa forma, preparar-se para receber os pacientes diretamente na unidade de hemodin&#226;mica, sem a necessidade de uma "parada" no departamento de emerg&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.2. Como Medir o Tempo Porta-ECG</title>
          <p>O aspecto mais importante na decis&#227;o sobre quais par&#226;metros usar para o TPE &#233; escolher par&#226;metros objetivos, acess&#237;veis e confi&#225;veis nos respectivos servi&#231;os. Apesar do tempo "porta" remeter &#224; entrada do paciente na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia, nem sempre esse par&#226;metro &#233; facilmente acess&#237;vel para fins de controle de indicadores de qualidade. Recomenda-se usar os padr&#245;es descritos a seguir para compara&#231;&#227;o de indicadores.</p>
          <p>Tempo porta: um m&#233;todo muito utilizado &#233; o do FMC como tempo "porta", ou seja, o primeiro contato com um profissional da &#225;rea da sa&#250;de (habitualmente este atendimento inicial ocorre na triagem do PS). A utiliza&#231;&#227;o desse par&#226;metro permite tamb&#233;m compara&#231;&#245;es com servi&#231;os que seguem essa padroniza&#231;&#227;o, adotada internacionalmente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup> Um limitante seria o de eventuais atrasos entre o momento da entrada do paciente na unidade at&#233; a realiza&#231;&#227;o da triagem; portanto, mesmo que se adote o FMC como tempo "porta" (para fins de compara&#231;&#227;o com <italic>benchmarkings</italic> externos), &#233; muito importante monitorar tamb&#233;m o tempo pr&#233;-triagem (mesmo que seja para a&#231;&#245;es de melhoria interna de cada servi&#231;o).</p>
          <p>Tempo ECG: como dito, embora teoricamente o ideal fosse o momento da an&#225;lise do ECG (laudo*), nem sempre esses par&#226;metros est&#227;o dispon&#237;veis. Dessa forma, o hor&#225;rio registrado no ECG pode ser considerado, desde que esse dado esteja ajustado (monitoramento peri&#243;dico da enfermagem e engenharia cl&#237;nica do hor&#225;rio no aparelho) e que, na rotina do servi&#231;o, o ECG seja imediatamente entregue para o m&#233;dico &#8211; n&#227;o h&#225; benef&#237;cio algum para o paciente quando um ECG &#233; realizado nos primeiros 10 minutos, mas n&#227;o &#233; interpretado imediatamente.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3.3. Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para Obter o Tempo Porta-ECG Ideal</title>
          <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o do TPE, inicialmente &#233; recomendado que seja avaliado qual &#233; o tempo atual em seu servi&#231;o, de cada etapa &#8211; desde a entrada at&#233; a realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG &#8211;, para que haja um mapeamento de processos da pr&#225;tica local da institui&#231;&#227;o. Isso permitir&#225; um maior entendimento sobre quais interven&#231;&#245;es podem ter maior impacto nos seus processos mapeados. Deve-se tamb&#233;m realizar <italic>feedback</italic> cont&#237;nuo com toda a equipe envolvida, que inclui o m&#233;dico e equipe de enfermagem do departamento de emerg&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Uma estrat&#233;gia comumente relatada em implementa&#231;&#245;es bem-sucedidas envolve a adequa&#231;&#227;o da triagem para permitir um ECG dedicado na unidade com t&#233;cnico habilitado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> </sup> Sprockel et al. avaliaram 373 pacientes, 204 na fase pr&#233; e 169 na fase p&#243;s-interven&#231;&#227;o. A mediana do tempo foi de 16 minutos na fase anterior, e 41% dos casos foram inferiores a 10 minutos; ap&#243;s a implementa&#231;&#227;o da mudan&#231;a no processo de aten&#231;&#227;o &#224; dor tor&#225;cica, com disponibilidade de aparelho de ECG na triagem e t&#233;cnico exclusivo, a mediana foi de 5 minutos, com 63% dos casos abaixo de 10 minutos, o que apresentou diferen&#231;a estatisticamente significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Outra estrat&#233;gia comumente recomendada &#233; o treinamento da equipe de triagem tanto para priorizar a realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG nos casos com crit&#233;rios de abertura do protocolo como tamb&#233;m para melhorar o reconhecimento de sinais e sintomas da SCA que v&#227;o al&#233;m da dor tor&#225;cica t&#237;pica e incluem outros sintomas equivalentes (por exemplo, dor epig&#225;strica).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Phelan et al. identificaram inicialmente em seu servi&#231;o duas causas principais de TPE &gt; 10 minutos: (1) atraso priorit&#225;rio (por exemplo, conclus&#227;o de triagem e tarefas de entrada de dados de registro antes do ECG) e (2) falha em reconhecer pacientes com sintomas de SCA. Ap&#243;s as interven&#231;&#245;es, que inclu&#237;ram processo de prioriza&#231;&#227;o de pacientes para triagem, designa&#231;&#227;o de equipe para relizar ECG de forma imediata, <italic>feedback</italic> cont&#237;nuo e uma iniciativa educacional da equipe de triagem para identificar pacientes de alto risco, o tempo m&#233;dio para ECG reduziu significativamente, de 21,28 &#177; 5,49 minutos para 9,47 &#177; 2,48 minutos (p &lt; 0,033), representando uma melhora de 55%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Um estudo brasileiro realizado com o intuito de identificar os problemas na log&#237;stica do TPE identificou tr&#234;s problemas principais: 1) a demora entre a chegada ao hospital e o primeiro atendimento m&#233;dico (resolvida com o protocolo de triagem em hor&#225;rio integral); 2) a comunica&#231;&#227;o intra-hospitalar e falta de prioridade (melhoradas com o c&#243;digo padronizado); 3) o retardo diagn&#243;stico, agilizado com a presen&#231;a do m&#233;dico emergencista cardiologista.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Tamb&#233;m existem dados que sugerem que sexo, ra&#231;a, flu&#234;ncia, diabetes e tipo de sintomas est&#227;o associados a atrasos no diagn&#243;stico do IAMCSST. Uma coorte retrospectiva de 3 anos, com 676 pacientes em 10 hospitais dos EUA, identificou que o TPE &gt; 10 minutos, quando comparado com TPE &#8804; 10 minutos, era mais prov&#225;vel de ocorrer em mulheres (32,8% <italic>versus</italic> 22,6%, p = 0,005), negros (23,4% <italic>versus</italic> 12,4%, p = 0,005), pessoas sem ingl&#234;s fluente (24,6% <italic>versus</italic> 19,5%, p = 0,032), diab&#233;ticos (40,2% <italic>versus</italic> 30,2%, p = 0,010) e naqueles que com menos frequ&#234;ncia relataram dor no peito (63,3% <italic>versus</italic> 87,4%, p &lt; 0,001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em resumo, n&#227;o podemos afirmar que h&#225; uma &#250;nica estrat&#233;gia espec&#237;fica para redu&#231;&#227;o do TPE, mas sim uma combina&#231;&#227;o de a&#231;&#245;es que podem se adequar ao seu servi&#231;o ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t5">Tabela 5</xref> ). A maioria dos estudos lan&#231;ou m&#227;o de uma multiplicidade de interven&#231;&#245;es simult&#226;neas, o que muitas vezes dificulta a identifica&#231;&#227;o espec&#237;fica de uma melhor estrat&#233;gia isoladamente. Portanto, devemos mapear e entender o contexto local, identificar as dificuldades para, ent&#227;o, podermos implementar uma abordagem agrupada de forma eficiente, com o intuito principal de reduzir o TPE ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t6">Tabela 6</xref> ).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t5">
            <label>Tabela 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Principais a&#231;&#245;es para redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo porta-ECG</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">1. Mapeamento de processos para reconhecimento de falhas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">2. ECG dedicado com t&#233;cnico treinado na triagem</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">3. Treinamento da equipe da triagem para reconhecimento de sintomas suspeitos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">4. Organiza&#231;&#227;o de fluxo da triagem (diminuir burocracias e priorizar ECG nos casos com indica&#231;&#227;o)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">5. <italic>Feedback</italic> constante &#224; equipe do TPE</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN6">
                <p>ECG: eletrocardiograma; TPE: tempo porta&#8211;ECG.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t6">
            <label>Tabela 6</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Tempo porta-eletrocardiograma</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia devem monitorar o tempo porta-eletrocardiograma, realizar <italic>feedback</italic> cont&#237;nuo para a equipe respons&#225;vel por cada etapa do atendimento inicial e implementar a&#231;&#245;es de melhoria de acordo com as oportunidades identificadas.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.4. Interpreta&#231;&#227;o do Eletrocardiograma</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica (anamnese e exame f&#237;sico) pode ocorrer de forma concomitante &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o e interpreta&#231;&#227;o do ECG. Vale lembrar que casos de IAMCSST podem ser ocasionados por dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta tipo A com comprometimento coron&#225;rio. Dessa forma, embora o ECG seja realizado de forma imediata (primeiros 10 minutos), a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica deve ocorrer de forma paralela e, mesmo nos casos com crit&#233;rios inequ&#237;vocos no ECG, devemos ter aten&#231;&#227;o tamb&#233;m a outros diagn&#243;sticos possivelmente associados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.1. O Papel do Eletrocardiograma na Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes com Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
          <p>O ECG &#233; uma ferramenta diagn&#243;stica amplamente dispon&#237;vel, de baixo custo e de f&#225;cil interpreta&#231;&#227;o local (e at&#233; mesmo &#224; dist&#226;ncia), possibilitando seu uso em diversos sistemas de atendimento em sa&#250;de.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup> A realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG constitui uma etapa fundamental na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica (e sintomas equivalentes) em diferentes ambientes (sala de emerg&#234;ncia, pr&#233;-hospitalar). Baseado nos seus achados, podemos identificar pacientes que se beneficiam imediatamente da terapia de reperfus&#227;o, identificar a art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria envolvida e o local da obstru&#231;&#227;o, estratificar o risco e decidir a terapia inicial mais apropriada para cada caso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.2. Qual a Sensibilidade de um Eletrocardiograma Isolado na Avalia&#231;&#227;o de Pacientes com Dor Tor&#225;cica? Qual o Ganho Adicional com Eletrocardiogramas Seriados?</title>
          <p>Embora o ECG seja um exame de grande import&#226;ncia no diagn&#243;stico e tratamento da SCA, um &#250;nico ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es realizado no atendimento inicial do paciente com dor tor&#225;cica, apresenta baixa sensibilidade, podendo detectar menos de 50% dos IAMs (incluindo IAM com e sem supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>A isquemia mioc&#225;rdica aguda &#233; frequentemente associada a altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas no ECG. Eletrocardiogramas seriados podem trazer informa&#231;&#245;es relevantes e aumentar de maneira significativa a sensibilidade para at&#233; 70 a 90%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup> Algumas condi&#231;&#245;es, como oclus&#227;o da art&#233;ria circunflexa, podem cursar sem altera&#231;&#245;es significativas ao ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es, sendo indicada a realiza&#231;&#227;o das deriva&#231;&#245;es V7, V8 e V9 para pesquisa de altera&#231;&#245;es como as relacionadas ao infarto da parede "posterior"<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup> (termo em desuso, pois ap&#243;s estudos de resson&#226;ncia card&#237;aca mostrou-se tratar de por&#231;&#227;o da parede lateral).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup> Essa situa&#231;&#227;o sempre deve ser suspeitada, principalmente em pacientes que persistem com dor tor&#225;cica sugestiva de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica. Esses pacientes, com sintoma persistente e ECG inicial n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico, s&#227;o tamb&#233;m os que se recomenda repetir ECG com maior frequ&#234;ncia (a cada 10 a 20 minutos), com os eletrodos em posi&#231;&#227;o fixa, enquanto durar o sintoma ou esclarecer o diagn&#243;stico &#8211; com pelo menos 2 a 4 repeti&#231;&#245;es habitualmente &#8211; ou com o uso de registro cont&#237;nuo de ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es assistido por computador (se dispon&#237;vel) para detectar altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas no ECG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.3. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos da S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda ao Eletrocardiograma</title>
          <p>Do ponto de vista pr&#225;tico, tr&#234;s mensagens s&#227;o fundamentais.</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>ECG normal ou com altera&#231;&#245;es inespec&#237;ficas n&#227;o permite excluir SCA;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Eletrocardiogramas seriados aumentam a acur&#225;cia para o diagn&#243;stico de SCA;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Altera&#231;&#245;es sugestivas de isquemia aguda se baseiam, principalmente, em modifica&#231;&#245;es no segmento ST ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figura 2</xref> ) e/ou nas ondas T ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f3">Figura 3</xref> ); as altera&#231;&#245;es no segmento ST devem ser aferidas no ponto J, tendo como refer&#234;ncia o segmento PR como linha de base.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> </sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figura 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Representa&#231;&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es no segmento ST. A) segmento ST normal, B) infradesn&#237;vel horizontal e C) infradesn&#237;vel descendente do ST, descritos nos laudos eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos como corrente de les&#227;o subendoc&#225;rdica; D) supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST, mostrando a maneira correta de medi-lo.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <fig id="f3">
            <label>Figura 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Representa&#231;&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es na onda T. A) onda T normal, observar a assimetria com ascens&#227;o lenta e descenso mais r&#225;pido; B) a onda T isqu&#234;mica torna-se sim&#233;trica, invertida e de maior amplitude (isquemia subepic&#225;rdica ou p&#243;s-isquemia transmural); C) onda T de grande magnitude e sim&#233;trica, chamada de T hiperaguda (isquemia subendoc&#225;rdica), costuma preceder o aparecimento do supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST. A magnitude representa a &#225;rea (ou seja, onda T de base larga e que habitualmente apresenta tamb&#233;m maior amplitude).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>Os crit&#233;rios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos recomendados por esta diretriz para o diagn&#243;stico de SCA permitem n&#227;o apenas o diagn&#243;stico de SCA com e sem eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST, mas tamb&#233;m a defini&#231;&#227;o de oclus&#227;o coron&#225;ria e o risco do paciente ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 7</xref> ). Dessa forma, al&#233;m dos crit&#233;rios objetivos cl&#225;ssicos de eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST, algumas altera&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas t&#234;m sido identificadas como "equivalentes" &#224; SCA com eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST. Essas altera&#231;&#245;es podem indicar alta probabilidade de art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria oclu&#237;da, mesmo sem crit&#233;rios cl&#225;ssicos de SCA com eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST (SCACSST), sendo que a avalia&#231;&#227;o completa possibilita melhor embasamento para tomada de decis&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup> Detalhes sobre as evid&#234;ncias e racional de classifica&#231;&#227;o dos principais padr&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos est&#227;o descritos em artigo espec&#237;fico elaborado por parte dos autores desta diretriz.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t7">
            <label>Tabela 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas diagn&#243;sticas de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda (quando associadas a quadro cl&#237;nico compat&#237;vel)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">SCA com eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST (SCACSST) sem bloqueio de ramo esquerdo</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <italic>Eleva&#231;&#227;o nova do segmento ST (aferida no ponto J) em pelo menos 2 deriva&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;guas com os seguintes pontos de corte:</italic>
                    <break/>
                    <italic>&#8805; 2,5 mm nos homens &lt; 40 anos em V2 e V3</italic>
                    <break/>
                    <italic>&#8805; 2 mm nos homens &#8805; 40 anos em V2 e V3</italic>
                    <break/>
                    <italic>&#8805; 1,5 mm nas mulheres em V2 e V3</italic>
                    <break/>
                    <italic>&#8805; 1 mm nas demais deriva&#231;&#245;es (independentemente de idade ou sexo)*</italic>
                    <break/>
                    <italic>*No caso de deriva&#231;&#245;es complementares (V7, V8, V9, V3R, V4R), eleva&#231;&#227;o &#8805; 0,5 mm em pelo menos 2 deriva&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;guas pode ser considerada no diagn&#243;stico. Eleva&#231;&#245;es lim&#237;trofes em DI e aVL devem ser valorizadas, especialmente se depress&#227;o rec&#237;proca do ST nas deriva&#231;&#245;es inferiores.</italic>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda com eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST (SCACSST) em paciente com bloqueio de ramo esquerdo*</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8226; Eleva&#231;&#227;o concordante do segmento ST &#8805; 1 mm em deriva&#231;&#245;es com complexo QRS positivo <break/> &#8226; Depress&#227;o concordante do segmento ST &#8805; 1 mm (Sgarbossa em V1-V3) <break/> &#8226; Eleva&#231;&#227;o discordante do segmento ST &#8805; 5 mm em deriva&#231;&#245;es com complexo QRS negativo e/ou rela&#231;&#227;o ST/S com amplitude do desvio do segmento ST de pelo menos 25% da onda S anterior** <break/> <italic>*Bloqueio de ramo esquerdo novo isoladamente n&#227;o &#233; mais considerado necessariamente crit&#233;rio diagn&#243;stico para SCACSST, embora indique situa&#231;&#227;o de maior risco (correlacionar cl&#237;nica).</italic> <break/> <italic>**Valorizar tamb&#233;m raz&#227;o de ST/R discordante quando infradesnivelamento for pelo menos 25% da onda R anterior. No crit&#233;rio de Barcelona, desvio &#8805; 1 mm discordante pode ser considerado em deriva&#231;&#227;o com voltagem m&#225;xima (R/S) &#8804; 6 mm.</italic></td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Achados compat&#237;veis com oclus&#227;o coron&#225;ria, ou seja, equivalentes &#224; s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda com eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST (SCACSST)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; Infarto "posterior" (&#237;nfero-lateral). <break/> - Crit&#233;rios a serem avaliados em V1-V3 (habitualmente h&#225; um ou mais dos crit&#233;rios abaixo): <break/> Depress&#227;o do segmento ST <break/> Onda T positiva (terminal) nas deriva&#231;&#245;es anteriores <break/> Onda R proeminente e ampla (&gt; 30 ms), sendo habitualmente dominante (R&gt;S) em V2. <break/> - Confirmado por: <break/> Eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST de &#8805; 0,5 mm em pelo menos 1 das deriva&#231;&#245;es V7-V9</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; De Winter: <break/> - Ondas T altas, proeminentes e sim&#233;tricas precedidas de depress&#227;o ascendente do segmento ST &gt; 1 mm no ponto J nas deriva&#231;&#245;es precordiais <break/> - Eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST de 0,5-1 mm pode ser observada na deriva&#231;&#227;o aVR</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; Ondas T hiperagudas: <break/> Ondas T amplas, sim&#233;tricas e pontiagudas podem ser observadas precocemente no IAMCSST. Eletrocardiogramas seriados em intervalos muito curtos s&#227;o &#250;teis para confirmar a progress&#227;o para os crit&#233;rios cl&#225;ssicos de eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; Padr&#227;o de Aslanger: <break/> Eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST em DIII, mas n&#227;o nas demais deriva&#231;&#245;es inferiores (pode haver eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST em aVR, al&#233;m de DIII); depress&#227;o do segmento ST em qualquer das deriva&#231;&#245;es entre V4 e V6 com onda T (pelo menos na sua fase terminal) positiva e eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST em V1 mais alta que em V2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; Distor&#231;&#227;o terminal do QRS: <break/> Aus&#234;ncia de uma onda S abaixo da linha isoel&#233;trica e aus&#234;ncia de onda J nas deriva&#231;&#245;es V2 e/ou V3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda sem eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST, por&#233;m com crit&#233;rios de maior risco ao ECG (obstru&#231;&#227;o de tronco de coron&#225;ria esquerda ou multiarterial*)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8226; Eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST em aVR e/ou V1 (sem eleva&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;gua, mas com depress&#227;o do segmento ST em 6 ou mais deriva&#231;&#245;es) <break/> <italic>*Mais frequentemente causada por isquemia subendoc&#225;rdica difusa (circunferencial) e geralmente ocorre no contexto de obstru&#231;&#227;o significativa do tronco da coron&#225;ria esquerda ou doen&#231;a coronariana multiarterial.</italic></td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda sem eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST, por&#233;m com crit&#233;rios de maior risco ao ECG (obstru&#231;&#227;o cr&#237;tica em descendente anterior proximal)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; S&#237;ndrome de Wellens: <break/> Trata-se de s&#237;ndrome cl&#237;nica caracterizada por: <break/> - Ondas T bif&#225;sicas (tipo A &#8211; 25% dos casos) ou profundamente invertidas e sim&#233;tricas (tipo B &#8211; 75% dos casos) nas deriva&#231;&#245;es V2 e V3 (podem se estender de V1 at&#233; V6) <break/> - Aus&#234;ncia de ondas Q <break/> - Sem eleva&#231;&#227;o significativa do ST (isoel&#233;trica ou eleva&#231;&#227;o &lt; 1mm) <break/> - Progress&#227;o da onda R em deriva&#231;&#245;es precordiais <break/> - Angina recente (as altera&#231;&#245;es t&#237;picas do ECG s&#227;o mais visualizadas ap&#243;s melhora da dor)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>SCA sem eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST, por&#233;m com crit&#233;rios de maior risco ao ECG (isquemia ativa)</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8226; Depress&#227;o do segmento ST/Invers&#227;o de onda T:* <break/> - Depress&#227;o do segmento ST horizontal ou descendente &#8805; 0,5 mm no ponto J, em 2 ou mais deriva&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;guas, &#233; sugestivo de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e/ou <break/> - Onda T invertida &#8805; 1 mm em complexo com onda R proeminente ou rela&#231;&#227;o R/S &gt;1 pode indicar isquemia na aus&#234;ncia de causas secund&#225;rias para altera&#231;&#227;o da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular (por exemplo, no caso de sobrecarga). Nos casos de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, a onda T negativa pode ser associada a ondas Q (patol&#243;gicas). <break/> * <italic>Depress&#227;o do segmento ST e invers&#227;o de onda T t&#234;m valor diagn&#243;stico ainda maior quando h&#225; altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas (se onda T negativa se tornar positiva, esse achado tamb&#233;m &#233; importante para o diagn&#243;stico de SCASSST, sendo chamado de pseudonormaliza&#231;&#227;o).</italic></td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN7">
                <p>Obs.: Casos de eleva&#231;&#227;o transit&#243;ria do ST (por exemplo, vasoespasmo) devem ser abordados de forma diferenciada dos casos de S&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda com eleva&#231;&#227;o persistente de ST.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Importante refor&#231;ar que os casos de onda T invertida e infradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST s&#243; devem ser considerados como um diagn&#243;stico de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda sem supradesnivelamento do segmento ST (SCASSST) na aus&#234;ncia de outras explica&#231;&#245;es, incluindo aus&#234;ncia de crit&#233;rios para IAMCSST (lembrar que &#233; comum ter imagem em espelho no IAMCSST). A presen&#231;a, extens&#227;o, persist&#234;ncia e magnitude do infradesn&#237;vel ST na admiss&#227;o possui um car&#225;ter progn&#243;stico importante na defini&#231;&#227;o do tratamento invasivo precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Al&#233;m do ECG diagn&#243;stico e do ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico, a presente diretriz optou por incluir a categoria de ECG "preocupante" (duvidoso/lim&#237;trofe), para que esse tipo de situa&#231;&#227;o (comum nos erros de tomada decis&#227;o) tenha um foco especial. O objetivo de criar essa categoria &#233; reduzir falhas na conduta de uma situa&#231;&#227;o tempo-sens&#237;vel e trazer mais seguran&#231;a, com medidas espec&#237;ficas recomendadas para esses casos desafiadores ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t8">Tabela 8</xref> ).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t8">
            <label>Tabela 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Medidas rotineiras para casos de eletrocardiograma duvidoso/lim&#237;trofe</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">1) A primeira medida em situa&#231;&#245;es de d&#250;vida ao ECG deve ser a solicita&#231;&#227;o imediata de avalia&#231;&#227;o do ECG por um ou mais m&#233;dicos experientes. Esse primeiro passo definir&#225; se, de fato, o ECG &#233; lim&#237;trofe ou a d&#250;vida foi decorrente da limita&#231;&#227;o de experi&#234;ncia do m&#233;dico assistente;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">2) Quando dispon&#237;vel, o ECG pr&#233;vio deve ser comparado ao ECG da fase aguda, pois pode auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o de novas altera&#231;&#245;es, desde que n&#227;o retarde o in&#237;cio do tratamento &#8211; especialmente importante nos casos que j&#225; apresentam altera&#231;&#227;o de repolariza&#231;&#227;o no ECG basal;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">3) Outro ponto fundamental &#233; a adequada correla&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, pois o valor preditivo de qualquer exame, incluindo o eletrocardiograma, depende tamb&#233;m da probabilidade cl&#237;nica pr&#233;-teste;</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">4) Finalmente, casos confirmados de ECG lim&#237;trofe (ap&#243;s valida&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;dico experiente) e/ou de instabilidade cl&#237;nica (por exemplo, sintomas persistentes) demandam n&#227;o apenas a manuten&#231;&#227;o da monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do paciente, mas tamb&#233;m a realiza&#231;&#227;o de eletrocardiogramas seriados e avalia&#231;&#227;o r&#225;pida para outros diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais (ecocardiograma beira-leito costuma ser um exame adicional especialmente &#250;til nessas situa&#231;&#245;es).</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4.4. Diagn&#243;sticos Diferenciais ao Eletrocardiograma</title>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.4.1. Altera&#231;&#245;es Prim&#225;rias e Secund&#225;rias de Repolariza&#231;&#227;o</title>
            <p>A morfologia da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, que &#233; representada pelo segmento ST, onda T e ocasionalmente pela onda U, depende diretamente da despolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, devendo sempre ser interpretada no contexto morfol&#243;gico do QRS precedente. Altera&#231;&#245;es que ocorrem devido &#224; isquemia (ou outro tipo de dano mioc&#225;rdico intr&#237;nseco) s&#227;o denominadas altera&#231;&#245;es prim&#225;rias da repolariza&#231;&#227;o, ao passo que, quando as altera&#231;&#245;es de repolariza&#231;&#227;o se apresentam precedidas de dist&#250;rbios pr&#243;prios da despolariza&#231;&#227;o, como nos bloqueios de ramo, pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o ventricular, marcapasso ventricular e sobrecarga ventricular esquerda, s&#227;o chamadas de altera&#231;&#245;es secund&#225;rias da repolariza&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref> </sup> O bloqueio de ramo direito (BRD) n&#227;o limita o diagn&#243;stico do IAMCSST como acontece no bloqueio de ramo esquerdo (BRE), mas devemos ter cautela no diagn&#243;stico do infradesn&#237;vel, pois &#233; habitual no BRD a presen&#231;a de infradesnivelamento do segmento ST de V1 a V4 (altera&#231;&#245;es secund&#225;rias da repolariza&#231;&#227;o).</p>
            <p>Os crit&#233;rios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos adotados como "padr&#227;o" para diagn&#243;stico de isquemia coron&#225;ria se referem a eletrocardiogramas com QRS estreito, ou seja, sem dist&#250;rbios da condu&#231;&#227;o ventricular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref> </sup> Al&#233;m da magnitude da eleva&#231;&#227;o e do territ&#243;rio afetado (deriva&#231;&#245;es cont&#237;guas), os casos de supradesn&#237;vel decorrente da chamada corrente de les&#227;o (isquemia/infarto transmural) costumam ter as caracter&#237;sticas apresentadas abaixo.</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Padr&#227;o convexo (embora possa ser c&#244;ncavo em sua fase inicial);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Evolu&#231;&#227;o com altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas ao ECG seriado (incluindo desenvolvimento de onda Q patol&#243;gica);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>"Imagem em espelho", ou seja, outras altera&#231;&#245;es na repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular nas deriva&#231;&#245;es opostas.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Al&#233;m dos crit&#233;rios do ECG, h&#225; necessidade de correla&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica (sintomas de SCA). A causa mais importante de eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST neste cen&#225;rio &#233; o IAM, que deve ser prontamente reconhecido, pois, quanto mais r&#225;pido for institu&#237;do o tratamento, menor ser&#225; a morbimortalidade. Entretanto, &#233; necess&#225;rio conhecer in&#250;meras outras situa&#231;&#245;es que podem apresentar supradesnivelamento do segmento ST<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t9">Tabela 9</xref> ) e, para tentar diferenci&#225;-las ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">Tabela 10</xref> ), &#233; imprescind&#237;vel analisar as caracter&#237;sticas eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas dentro do contexto cl&#237;nico do paciente com dor tor&#225;cica.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t9">
              <label>Tabela 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Causas de supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Principais causas de supradesnivelamento do segmento ST</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">- Bloqueio de ramo esquerdo</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Pericardite</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">- Hipertrofia ventricular esquerda</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Repolariza&#231;&#227;o precoce</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">- Angina vasoesp&#225;stica (usualmente supra transit&#243;rio)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Hipercalemia</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">- S&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Marca-passo</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">- S&#237;ndrome de Brugada</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">- Aneurisma de ventr&#237;culo esquerdo</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t10">
              <label>Tabela 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Diagn&#243;stico diferencial entre infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio, pericardite e repolariza&#231;&#227;o precoce</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="25%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">ECG</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">IAM com supra</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Pericardite aguda</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Repolariza&#231;&#227;o precoce</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Morfologia do segmento ST</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Convexidade para cima (pode ser c&#244;ncavo nas fases iniciais, mas evolui se n&#227;o tratado)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Concavidade para cima</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Concavidade para cima</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Imagem em espelho (infradesn&#237;vel de ST em deriva&#231;&#245;es opostas ao supra)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Presente na maioria dos casos</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Ausente</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Ausente</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Ondas Q patol&#243;gicas</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Presentes em boa parte dos casos</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Ausentes</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Ausentes</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Localiza&#231;&#227;o do supredesn&#237;vel</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Parede envolvida com o IAM</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Difuso (costuma poupar V1 e aVR)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Mais frequente em deriva&#231;&#245;es precordiais</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Infradesn&#237;vel do segmento PR</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Normalmente ausente</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Presente</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Ausente</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Invers&#227;o da onda T</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Ocorre na vig&#234;ncia do supra</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Ocorre ap&#243;s normaliza&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Sem mudan&#231;a da onda T ao repouso</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Rela&#231;&#227;o amplitude do ST/onda T (diferenciar repolariza&#231;&#227;o precoce de pericardite)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">N&#227;o se aplica</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805; 0,25</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 0,25 (onda T costuma ter maior amplitude)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN8">
                  <p>ECG: eletrocardiograma; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio. No caso da pericardite, apesar de o eletrocardiograma, via de regra, n&#227;o respeitar a limita&#231;&#227;o dos territ&#243;rios coron&#225;rios e ter caracter&#237;sticas espec&#237;ficas de altera&#231;&#245;es no segmento ST/onda T de concavidade superior, h&#225; casos excepcionais em que a pericardite (ou miopericardite) pode ser localizada.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.4.2. Outros Diagn&#243;sticos ao Eletrocardiograma</title>
            <p>Al&#233;m de informa&#231;&#245;es para o diagn&#243;stico de SCA, o ECG pode trazer informa&#231;&#245;es relevantes para o diagn&#243;stico de outras causas importantes de dor tor&#225;cica:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Tromboembolia pulmonar aguda</bold>:  a taquicardia sinusal &#233; a altera&#231;&#227;o eletrocardiogr&#225;fica mais frequente. O cl&#225;ssico padr&#227;o S1Q3T3 (onda S larga em DI, onda Q e T invertida em D3) encontra-se ausente na maioria dos casos (esteve presente em 8,5% dos casos de TEP na emerg&#234;ncia).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup> Outras altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas vistas no TEP: altera&#231;&#245;es da repolariza&#231;&#227;o ventricular, BRD completo ou incompleto, qR em V1, invers&#227;o de T de V1 a V4 (associada a TEP de maior gravidade) e taquiarritmias atriais;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>S&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo ou cardiomiopatia de estresse</bold>:  importante diagn&#243;stico diferencial de SCA, especialmente no contexto de mulheres na p&#243;s-menopausa, com quadro de dor tor&#225;cica ap&#243;s estresse emocional e/ou f&#237;sico. Os pacientes podem apresentar altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas marcantes, como eleva&#231;&#227;o do segmento ST em 44%, invers&#227;o de onda T em 41% e prolongamento do intervalo QT, que s&#227;o frequentes. Infradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST (8 %) e BRE (5%) s&#227;o bem mais raros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Outros diagn&#243;sticos eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos, como bradi ou taquiarritmias, podem estar presentes em situa&#231;&#245;es de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, por&#233;m, s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos. Dessa forma, embora nesses casos possa ser estabelecido um diagn&#243;stico eletrocardiogr&#225;fico (arritmia), isso n&#227;o deve impedir a investiga&#231;&#227;o de SCA, caso haja suspeita cl&#237;nica, pois ambas podem ocorrer de forma concomitante (isquemia pode desencadear arritmia e vice-versa). Do ponto de vista de investiga&#231;&#227;o para SCA, esse tipo de achado isoladamente ao ECG &#233; considerado "n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico" &#8211; embora condutas apropriadas para bradi ou taquiarritmia possam ser estabelecidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.4.3. Eletrocardiograma N&#227;o Diagn&#243;stico</title>
            <p>Em menos de 5% dos protocolos de dor tor&#225;cica, o ECG apresenta crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos inequ&#237;vocos. Nesses casos, se o quadro cl&#237;nico do paciente for compat&#237;vel, deve-se definir o diagn&#243;stico espec&#237;fico (por exemplo, IAMCSST) e seguir a respectiva rota de tratamento, conforme diretrizes espec&#237;ficas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> </sup> Entretanto, em mais de 90% dos protocolos, especialmente em pacientes com sintomas j&#225; resolvidos antes da admiss&#227;o, o ECG se mostra "n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico" para isquemia aguda. Essa situa&#231;&#227;o d&#225; uma certa tranquilidade para o m&#233;dico realizar uma avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica mais pormenorizada e definir melhor o quadro e poss&#237;veis diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais, inclusive com reavalia&#231;&#245;es em diferentes momentos.</p>
            <p>A repeti&#231;&#227;o seriada do ECG &#233; mandat&#243;ria quando houver recorr&#234;ncia da dor precordial ou qualquer mudan&#231;a no quadro cl&#237;nico (repeti&#231;&#227;o imediata); al&#233;m disso, nos casos com sintomas persistentes, deve-se repetir o ECG a cada 10 a 20 minutos. As altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas do segmento ST e da onda T s&#227;o extremamente valiosas na identifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes de alto risco com isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e devem der buscadas de maneira ativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> </sup> Nas Figuras S1 e S2 (suplemento) podemos observar a altera&#231;&#227;o din&#226;mica do segmento ST ao evidenciar isquemia/corrente de les&#227;o subendoc&#225;rdica intermitente, enquanto a <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figura 4</xref> apresenta um fluxo para classificar o paciente de acordo com o ECG.</p>
            <fig id="f4">
              <label>Figura 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o inicial do eletrocardiograma no protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica. POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound; ECO: ecocardiograma; ECG: eletrocardiograma; SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>Ver <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabela 7</xref> . <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>No caso de ECG que define diagn&#243;stico de situa&#231;&#245;es que podem ocorrer de forma concomitante &#224; SCA (por exemplo, arritmias), deve-se considerar investiga&#231;&#227;o adicional de SCA (por exemplo, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica pode ser causa de arritmias, assim como arritmia mioc&#225;rdica pode levar &#224; isquemia por desequil&#237;brio entre oferta e consumo). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>Repetir ECG (incluir deriva&#231;&#245;es complementares) se: 1) ECG lim&#237;trofe/duvidoso e/ou sintomas persistentes (ECG a cada 10-20 minutos); 2) recorr&#234;ncia de sintomas ou piora cl&#237;nica (imediatamente na recorr&#234;ncia/piora cl&#237;nica); 3) troponina positiva (acima do percentil 99); 4) suspeita cl&#237;nica mantida mesmo com troponina negativa (por exemplo, hip&#243;tese de angina inst&#225;vel). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, al&#233;m do julgamento subjetivo, deve-se lan&#231;ar m&#227;o de algoritmos centrados no paciente de acordo com suspeita (s) diagn&#243;stica (s) (por exemplo, SCA, TEP, dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3.5. Como &#233; Definido o Diagn&#243;stico de S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda?</title>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico de SCA utiliza, como regra, os elementos abaixo:</p>
        <list list-type="order">
          <list-item>
            <p>Apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>ECG;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Marcador de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica (troponina).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>De maneira geral, quando h&#225; dois elementos "positivos" (por exemplo, quadro cl&#237;nico + ECG com padr&#245;es diagn&#243;sticos bem definidos), &#233; poss&#237;vel concluir o diagn&#243;stico de SCA.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.1. Crit&#233;rios Atuais para Diagn&#243;stico de Angina Inst&#225;vel</title>
          <p>O advento da troponina de alta sensibilidade levou a redu&#231;&#227;o expressiva no diagn&#243;stico de angina inst&#225;vel e na gravidade destes pacientes, entretanto, casos que apresentam quadro cl&#237;nico "t&#237;pico" isoladamente (por exemplo, dor card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica sem altera&#231;&#245;es de ECG e de troponina) e que n&#227;o tenham diagn&#243;stico alternativo, podem ser classificados como AI e conduzidos como SCA inicialmente &#8211; embora a confirma&#231;&#227;o definitiva depender&#225; habitualmente de outros achados como testes n&#227;o invasivos ou angiografia coron&#225;ria.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m de angina em repouso, sintomas aos esfor&#231;os em crescendo, ou seja, com piora na frequ&#234;ncia, dura&#231;&#227;o ou intensidade tamb&#233;m s&#227;o compat&#237;veis com AI e devem levantar suspeita de instabilidade da les&#227;o coron&#225;ria (pode incluir tamb&#233;m altera&#231;&#245;es na irradia&#231;&#227;o, altera&#231;&#245;es no padr&#227;o de resposta ao uso de nitratos). Angina p&#243;s-infarto e angina de in&#237;cio recente (habitualmente classe III, pela classifica&#231;&#227;o da Canadian Cardiovascular Society, em um per&#237;odo inferior a 2 meses) tamb&#233;m s&#227;o manifesta&#231;&#245;es de AI.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5.2. Como Classificar a S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda pelo Eletrocardiograma?</title>
          <p>Qualquer que seja a manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica suspeita (crit&#233;rio de abertura do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica), o ECG &#233; o primeiro m&#233;todo diagn&#243;stico a ser realizado. Tendo em vista que o ECG realizado nos primeiros 10 minutos &#233; o "divisor de &#225;guas" inicial, &#233; importante fazer uma classifica&#231;&#227;o do tra&#231;ado do ECG que vai al&#233;m da observa&#231;&#227;o dos crit&#233;rios de eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t7">Tabelas 7</xref> a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t10">10</xref> ). Dessa forma, embora os crit&#233;rios de SCA com eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST ainda devam ser valorizados na tomada de decis&#227;o, a diretriz atual recomenda que sejam buscadas outras altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas, que n&#227;o s&#243; possam definir o diagn&#243;stico de SCA, mas tamb&#233;m identificar altera&#231;&#245;es compat&#237;veis com oclus&#227;o de coron&#225;ria aguda, mesmo na aus&#234;ncia dos achados cl&#225;ssicos da SCA com eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t11">Tabela 11</xref> ).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t11">
            <label>Tabela 11</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o do eletrocardiograma</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pacientes com quadro cl&#237;nico suspeito e altera&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas ao eletrocardiograma devem seguir diretrizes de tratamento espec&#237;ficas, de acordo com o diagn&#243;stico estabelecido.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Al&#233;m dos crit&#233;rios de supradesn&#237;vel de ST, devem ser procurados os "equivalentes de supradesn&#237;vel ST" (ou de oclus&#227;o coron&#225;ria aguda).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Casos em que eletrocardiograma N&#195;O permita o estabelecimento do diagn&#243;stico com seguran&#231;a (ECG "n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico") devem seguir rota de investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da forma mais eficiente poss&#237;vel (de acordo com os recursos dispon&#237;veis).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Na rota diagn&#243;stica, os casos com ECG lim&#237;trofe ou de dif&#237;cil interpreta&#231;&#227;o (ECG "preocupante") e/ou casos que apresentem crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos de instabilidade (Tabela 12) devem repetir ECG a cada 10 a 20 minutos (com deriva&#231;&#245;es complementares e apoio de segundo m&#233;dico experiente na interpreta&#231;&#227;o), al&#233;m de investiga&#231;&#227;o ativa at&#233; definir causa da dor tor&#225;cica.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN9">
                <p>ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>A <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">Figura 5</xref> resume as condutas do atendimento inicial de dor tor&#225;cica (Passo 1 da <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1a">Figura Central</xref> ).</p>
          <fig id="f1a">
            <caption>
              <title>ECG: eletrocardiograma; POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <fig id="f5">
            <label>Figura 5</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Passo 1: atendimento inicial do protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica (primeiros 10 minutos).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>4. Rota de Investiga&#231;&#227;o Diagn&#243;stica ap&#243;s o ECG Inicial</title>
      <p>A investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica segue uma abordagem de at&#233; 4 passos ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1a">Figura Central</xref> ). O primeiro passo faz parte do atendimento geral inicial, em que avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica inicial + ECG dentro de 10 minutos pode estabelecer diagn&#243;sticos em uma minoria dos casos ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figuras 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f5">5</xref> ) e rapidamente direcionar para uma rota terap&#234;utica, conforme diagn&#243;stico estabelecido (por exemplo, SCA com eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST). Nos casos em que ECG n&#227;o for diagn&#243;stico (maioria dos casos), o paciente ser&#225; direcionado para rota diagn&#243;stica, em que os elementos analisados (incluindo algoritmos) ir&#227;o direcionar a tomada de decis&#227;o no PS (Passo 3 da <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1a">Figura Central</xref> )). Abaixo, um resumo de quatro passos essenciais no protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica:</p>
      <list list-type="bullet">
        <list-item>
          <p>Passo 1 (avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial): avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica geral (sinais e sintomas) + ECG nos primeiros 10 minutos para definir se preenche crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos (por exemplo, SCA, pericardite) e direcionar investiga&#231;&#227;o subsequente nos casos sem diagn&#243;stico estabelecido;</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Passo 2 (definir risco e probabilidade pr&#233;-teste inicial): a principal avalia&#231;&#227;o neste segundo passo seria definir se paciente apresenta sintoma persistente e/ou ECG "preocupante" e/ou instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica uma vez que estes casos devem ter avalia&#231;&#227;o diferenciada, com repeti&#231;&#227;o de ECG a cada 10 a 20 minutos e exame de imagem beira-leito (considerar <italic>point-of-care ultrasound</italic> [POCUS] e/ou ecocardiograma emergencial). Nos casos em que ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico e avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica conjunta n&#227;o forem suficientes para afastar com seguran&#231;a s&#237;ndromes agudas (por exemplo, SCA sem eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST, TEP, s&#237;ndrome a&#243;rtica aguda [SAA]), a investiga&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica deve ser feita de maneira ativa (passo 3), com avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco/probabilidade pr&#233;-teste das principais hip&#243;teses diagn&#243;sticas (idealmente, por escores cl&#237;nicos);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Passo 3 (exames complementares, conforme hip&#243;tese diagn&#243;stica e probabilidade pr&#233;-teste): al&#233;m da avalia&#231;&#227;o do risco e probabilidade diagn&#243;stica que s&#227;o constru&#237;das desde o atendimento inicial (e podem mudar ao longo do tempo), neste terceiro passo, deve-se solicitar exames complementares, conforme hip&#243;tese diagn&#243;stica (SCA, TEP, SAA). A probabilidade pr&#233;-teste definir&#225; o melhor tipo de teste a ser realizado e como interpret&#225;-lo (por exemplo, se suspeita de TEP, mas baixa probabilidade pr&#233;-teste, o D-d&#237;mero seria o exame indicado como finalidade de descartar o diagn&#243;stico). A troponina (de prefer&#234;ncia, de alta sensibilidade) &#233; o exame mais importante para investiga&#231;&#227;o de SCA quando avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica + ECG foram n&#227;o diagn&#243;sticos (rotineiro, nesses casos e, mesmo quando n&#227;o definem o diagn&#243;stico, podem apoiar a tomada de decis&#227;o em seus algoritmos de decis&#227;o);</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Passo 4 (investiga&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica e/ou funcional): esse quarto passo &#233; realizado em uma minoria dos casos, sendo reservado para situa&#231;&#245;es em que ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o pelos primeiros 3 passos, afastou-se diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais, mas ainda persiste incerteza quanto ao diagn&#243;stico de SCA e/ou risco n&#227;o &#233; baixo o suficiente para liberar o paciente (por exemplo, algoritmo de troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade com valor intermedi&#225;rio). Nesses casos, exames adicionais podem ser solicitados antes da libera&#231;&#227;o para casa ou para realiza&#231;&#227;o de forma ambulatorial precoce (ver se&#231;&#245;es 4.3 e 4.4, e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figuras 13</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">14</xref> ).</p>
        </list-item>
        <list-item>
          <p>Dessa forma, a rota diagn&#243;stica &#233; necess&#225;ria para os casos em que atendimento inicial (cl&#237;nica + ECG) n&#227;o permitiu definir a causa dos sintomas. A rota se inicia pela avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica detalhada, e a primeira defini&#231;&#227;o a ser realizada &#233; se o paciente apresenta crit&#233;rios de instabilidade uma vez que, nos casos inst&#225;veis, a rota diagn&#243;stica deve ser acelerada e incluir exames de imagem beira-leito, al&#233;m de repeti&#231;&#227;o frequente de ECG ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f6">Figura 6</xref> resume o passo 2 da <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1a">Figura Central</xref> ).</p>
        </list-item>
      </list>
      <fig id="f6">
        <label>Figura 6</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Passo 2: avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial da rota diagn&#243;stica.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f13">
        <label>Figura 13</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Fluxograma de investiga&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva em paciente sem doen&#231;a arterial coronariana conhecida. SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; CATE: cateterismo card&#237;aco; PET: tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons; SPECT: tomografia computadorizada por emiss&#227;o de f&#243;ton &#250;nico; Angio-TC: angiotomografia coron&#225;ria por tomografia computadorizada; VPN: valor preditivo negativo.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <fig id="f14">
        <label>Figura 14</label>
        <caption>
          <title>Fluxograma de investiga&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva em paciente com doen&#231;a arterial coronariana conhecida. DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; CATE: cateterismo card&#237;aco; ICP: interven&#231;&#227;o coronariana percut&#226;nea; CRM: cirurgia de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio; Angio-TC: angiotomografia coron&#225;ria por tomografia computadorizada; TCE: tronco da coron&#225;ria esquerda; FFR-CT: reserva de fluxo fracionada obtida por tomografia computadorizada.</title>
        </caption>
        <graphic xlink:href=""/>
      </fig>
      <sec>
        <title>4.1. Abordagem do Paciente com Crit&#233;rio de Instabilidade</title>
        <p>Na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial do paciente com dor tor&#225;cica na emerg&#234;ncia, devemos buscar ind&#237;cios de instabilidade ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Tabela 12</xref> ) que ir&#227;o denotar, necessariamente, pior progn&#243;stico. Nesse cen&#225;rio, uma abordagem acelerada, visando um diagn&#243;stico ainda mais r&#225;pido, pode ser pe&#231;a fundamental na interven&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica com impacto, inclusive, em redu&#231;&#227;o de mortalidade ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t13">Tabela 13</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
        <table-wrap id="t12">
          <label>Tabela 12</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Situa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas indicativas de instabilidade</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="100%">
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor tor&#225;cica persistente</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipotens&#227;o arterial</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Taquiarritmia / bradiarritmia</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Dispneia intensa / edema agudo de pulm&#227;o</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Diaforese</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Extremidades frias</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulsos distais reduzidos</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Rebaixamento do n&#237;vel de consci&#234;ncia / confus&#227;o mental</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Redu&#231;&#227;o do d&#233;bito urin&#225;rio</td>
              </tr>
              <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Aumento do tempo de enchimento capilar (&gt; 3 segundos)</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN10">
              <label>*</label>
              <p>Nos &#250;ltimos anos, houve aumento da disponibilidade da ecocardiografia e do point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) no ambiente de emerg&#234;ncia e terapia intensiva. Essa ferramenta, quando bem utilizada, pode auxiliar no r&#225;pido diagn&#243;stico diferencial de diversas condi&#231;&#245;es graves.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <table-wrap id="t13">
          <label>Tabela 13</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para o paciente com dor tor&#225;cica e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Na identifica&#231;&#227;o de caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas sugestivas de instabilidade, as principais causas devem ser buscadas inicialmente atrav&#233;s de hist&#243;ria e exame f&#237;sico sum&#225;rio.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Especialmente nas situa&#231;&#245;es em que o diagn&#243;stico de choque &#233; obscuro ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, est&#225; indicada a realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiografia com urg&#234;ncia e/ou ultrassom <italic>point of care</italic> por profissional m&#233;dico habilitado.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
        </table-wrap>
        <p>Al&#233;m dos crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos de instabilidade ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t12">Tabela 12</xref> ), pacientes com ECG "preocupante" devem ter investiga&#231;&#227;o acelerada. Em todos esses casos &#8211; crit&#233;rios cl&#225;ssicos de instabilidade e ECG "preocupante" &#8211;, al&#233;m da investiga&#231;&#227;o acelerada com m&#233;todos de imagem beira-leito, deve-se repetir o ECG precocemente, para avaliar altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas e ajudar na r&#225;pida defini&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica.</p>
        <p>Importante refor&#231;ar que em situa&#231;&#245;es amea&#231;adoras &#224; vida, o paciente geralmente se apresenta muito ansioso, com dispneia intensa e diaforese. No protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica, as principais condi&#231;&#245;es que devem ser investigadas no paciente com instabilidade s&#227;o: SCA, dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta, TEP, tamponamento card&#237;aco, pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo e ruptura de es&#244;fago. Al&#233;m da proped&#234;utica b&#225;sica cl&#225;ssica (anamnese, exame f&#237;sico, ECG e radiografia de t&#243;rax), o ecocardiograma/POCUS &#233; uma ferramenta essencial no diagn&#243;stico diferencial destes pacientes:</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Choque cardiog&#234;nico (fal&#234;ncia ventricular):</bold> situa&#231;&#227;o mais comum de instabilidade n&#227;o arr&#237;tmica durante avalia&#231;&#227;o de um protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica (primeiras 24 horas). Os principais preditores de choque cardiog&#234;nico em doentes com SCA s&#227;o: idade &gt; 70 anos, hipotens&#227;o arterial, classifica&#231;&#227;o de Killip &#8805; 2 e taquicardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup> <bold/> Ao ecocardiograma, observa-se importante disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do ventr&#237;culo esquerdo (VE), dilata&#231;&#227;o de veia cava inferior (sem varia&#231;&#227;o) e presen&#231;a de linhas B &#224; ultrassonografia pulmonar. A identifica&#231;&#227;o precoce &#233; importante para r&#225;pida revasculariza&#231;&#227;o e aplica&#231;&#227;o de dispositivos de assist&#234;ncia ventricular &#8211; medidas com potencial de reduzir a mortalidade em doentes com choque cardiog&#234;nico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup> Pode haver choque cardiog&#234;nico no IAM do ventr&#237;culo direito (VD), e os achados costumam ser disfun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VD, com dilata&#231;&#227;o de veia cava inferior (sem varia&#231;&#227;o), mas SEM linhas B &#224; ultrassonografia pulmonar;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Complica&#231;&#245;es mec&#226;nicas do infarto:</bold> situa&#231;&#245;es habitualmente mais tardias, ocorrendo, geralmente, ap&#243;s dias de interna&#231;&#227;o, e n&#227;o no atendimento inicial da dor tor&#225;cica. Ocorrem especialmente em doentes n&#227;o revascularizados, que subitamente desenvolvem instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica e que modificam seu exame f&#237;sico (sopro novo, turg&#234;ncia jugular, novas crepita&#231;&#245;es pulmonares). O ecocardiograma pode apresentar altera&#231;&#245;es de acordo com tipo de complica&#231;&#227;o mec&#226;nica: derrame peric&#225;rdico (ruptura de parede livre), insufici&#234;ncia mitral grave (ruptura de cordoalha ou m&#250;sculo papilar) ou <italic>shunt</italic> no septo interventricular, com dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD (comunica&#231;&#227;o interventricular [CIV]);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta:</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup> a avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica da dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta, incluindo algoritmos de probabilidade cl&#237;nica, est&#225; descrita no item 4.2.2. Quando a instabilidade est&#225; presente, devemos suspeitar de ruptura de aorta, insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica aguda ou tamponamento card&#237;aco, situa&#231;&#245;es com alta mortalidade. Ao ecocardiograma, a janela supraesternal pode auxiliar na identifica&#231;&#227;o de dissec&#231;&#227;o, assim como o paraesternal longitudinal. A presen&#231;a de um <italic>flap</italic> diante de um paciente com quadro cl&#237;nico compat&#237;vel corrobora o diagn&#243;stico. Nem sempre o <italic>flap</italic> estar&#225; vis&#237;vel. Nesse caso, dados indiretos como a visualiza&#231;&#227;o de dilata&#231;&#227;o da aorta refor&#231;am a necessidade de seguimento da investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de dissec&#231;&#227;o. De uma forma geral, o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico apresenta acur&#225;cia limitada para o diagn&#243;stico SAA; portanto, esse m&#233;todo n&#227;o &#233; utilizado para estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico final, apesar de informar acuradamente a presen&#231;a de insufici&#234;ncia a&#243;rtica e a fun&#231;&#227;o sist&#243;lica do VE. J&#225; o ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico mostra acur&#225;cia acima de 90%, com valor preditivo negativo pr&#243;ximo a 100%, sendo m&#233;todo preferencial em pacientes inst&#225;veis com impossibilidade de realizar a angiotomografia;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>TEP:</bold> &#233; outra causa importante de dor tor&#225;cica, que pode gerar instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica. Assim como na SAA, a avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica do TEP, incluindo algoritmos de probabilidade cl&#237;nica, est&#225; descrita no item 4.2.3. Na presen&#231;a de instabilidade, o TEP &#233; de alto risco e reflete importante sobrecarga do VD, que ir&#225; comprimir o VE, gerando a queda da press&#227;o arterial. Ao exame cl&#237;nico, encontraremos turg&#234;ncia jugular e ausculta pulmonar sem evid&#234;ncias de congest&#227;o. O ecocardiograma ir&#225; demonstrar importante dilata&#231;&#227;o do VD com d&#233;ficit contr&#225;til importante. Podemos observar hipercontratilidade apical com acinesia das demais por&#231;&#245;es (sinal de McConnel). Nos casos de instabilidade, haver&#225; importante sobrecarga press&#243;rica do VD sobre o VE, podendo deix&#225;-lo com formato de "D". Em pacientes inst&#225;veis, com suspeita cl&#237;nica de TEP, se n&#227;o houver condi&#231;&#245;es para realizar a angiotomografia pulmonar, a evid&#234;ncia de sobrecarga de VD ao ecocardiograma (afastando outras causas de instabilidade) pode ser usada como evid&#234;ncia indireta para indicar tratamento no TEP inst&#225;vel. O ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico, ao permitir visualizar o trombo na art&#233;ria pulmonar, &#233; capaz de estabelecer o diagn&#243;stico direto de TEP em pacientes hemodinamicamente inst&#225;veis;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Tamponamento card&#237;aco:</bold> no tamponamento card&#237;aco, devemos lembrar que o diagn&#243;stico deve ser cl&#237;nico, onde habitualmente observaremos paciente com choque, turg&#234;ncia jugular e bulhas abafadas. O pulso paradoxal &#233; um achado comum e reflete a interdepend&#234;ncia ventricular. O ecocardiograma &#233; &#250;til para avaliar volume do derrame peric&#225;rdico e sinais de restri&#231;&#227;o ao enchimento ventricular. Todo paciente com choque e qualquer grau de derrame peric&#225;rdico deve ser abordado como poss&#237;vel tamponamento card&#237;aco (a velocidade da instala&#231;&#227;o do derrame pode ser mais importante do que o volume do mesmo na ocorr&#234;ncia do tamponamento);</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo:</bold> o diagn&#243;stico do pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo tamb&#233;m &#233; cl&#237;nico e deve ser reconhecido rapidamente, visto que gera importante instabilidade, podendo causar morte. Geralmente, acomete casos de trauma tor&#225;cico, p&#243;s-procedimento (ex: acidente de pun&#231;&#227;o venosa central) e/ou pacientes mais jovens ou portadores de pneumopatias. Nos casos duvidosos, o ultrassom ir&#225; demonstrar aus&#234;ncia de deslizamento pleural e densifica&#231;&#227;o das linhas A;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Ruptura de es&#244;fago (s&#237;ndrome de Boerhaave):</bold> a ruptura de es&#244;fago possui diagn&#243;stico mais dif&#237;cil. A principal chave para o diagn&#243;stico &#233; a identifica&#231;&#227;o de enfisema subcut&#226;neo e pneumomediastino em paciente com suspeita cl&#237;nica (por exemplo, paciente com aumento de temperatura, v&#244;mitos, que evoluiu com dor s&#250;bita no t&#243;rax e/ou abdome superior e instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica). A radiografia de t&#243;rax e a tomografia s&#227;o exames importantes na investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1.1. Rotina Ecocardiogr&#225;fica em Paciente com Dor Tor&#225;cica e Instabilidade</title>
          <p>O exame ecocardiogr&#225;fico deve ser realizado nesses pacientes, buscando a causa da instabilidade. O ecocardiograma permitir&#225; a avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular global e regional, tamanho das c&#226;maras card&#237;acas, doen&#231;as valvares, presen&#231;a de doen&#231;a peric&#225;rdica, identifica&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;as da aorta, avalia&#231;&#227;o da volemia e identifica&#231;&#227;o de acometimento pulmonar (ultrassom pulmonar).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Com isso, a rotina do exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico desses pacientes recomendada &#233;:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Janela paraesternal: avaliar a fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda, acometimento mitral, verificar di&#226;metro da aorta e tamanho do VD;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Apical 4 c&#226;maras: avaliar fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e direita, acometimento valvar e tamanhos cavit&#225;rios;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Subcostal: avaliar fun&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e direita, derrame peric&#225;rdico e volemia;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Supraesternal: &#250;til para avaliar arco a&#243;rtico (por exemplo, suspeita de dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Linha hemiclavicular e axilar anterior: ultrassonografia pulmonar, buscando congest&#227;o pulmonar e/ou pneumot&#243;rax.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>As <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f7">Figuras 7</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f8">8</xref> demonstram as janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas e as respectivas estruturas identificadas.</p>
          <fig id="f7">
            <label>Figura 7</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Janelas ecocardiogr&#225;ficas.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <fig id="f8">
            <label>Figura 8</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Identifica&#231;&#227;o de estruturas de acordo com as janelas avaliadas. VE: ventr&#237;culo esquerdo; VD: ventr&#237;culo direito; AO: aorta; AE: &#225;trio esquerdo; VM: valva mitral; VA: valva a&#243;rtica; VT: valva tric&#250;spide, AP: art&#233;ria pulmonar; ACCE: art&#233;ria car&#243;tida comum esquerda; ASCE: art&#233;ria subcl&#225;via esquerda; FIG: f&#237;gado; EIC: espa&#231;o intercostal; SA: sombra ac&#250;stica; PL: pleura.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <p>No suplemento, h&#225; exemplos de algumas condi&#231;&#245;es patol&#243;gicas identificadas pelo exame ultrassonogr&#225;fico ( Figuras S3 a S6 ) e um algoritmo de avalia&#231;&#227;o do paciente com instabilidade ( Figura S7 ).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.2. Escores Cl&#237;nicos de Risco e Probabilidade Diagn&#243;stica</title>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o de dor tor&#225;cica engloba uma extensa interpreta&#231;&#227;o de preditores e achados cl&#237;nicos para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de um diagn&#243;stico mais prov&#225;vel. Diversas formas de classifica&#231;&#227;o da dor tor&#225;cica foram propostas (t&#237;pica <italic>versus</italic> at&#237;pica, tipos A/B/C/D); entretanto, os autores da atual diretriz recomendam a classifica&#231;&#227;o em 3 grupos: 1) sintoma altamente suspeito de SCA (por exemplo, dor isqu&#234;mica card&#237;aca), sintoma moderadamente suspeito (por exemplo, dor possivelmente isqu&#234;mica card&#237;aca) e sintoma pouco/nada suspeito (por exemplo, dor tor&#225;cica n&#227;o card&#237;aca). Essa classifica&#231;&#227;o facilita a aplica&#231;&#227;o do escore HEART e evita termos que podem levar &#224; falha de comunica&#231;&#227;o (por exemplo, dor at&#237;pica pode ser interpretada como dor n&#227;o card&#237;aca). Al&#233;m disso, sintomas equivalentes s&#227;o contemplados quando n&#227;o denominamos apenas com dor tor&#225;cica. De qualquer maneira, essa classifica&#231;&#227;o s&#243; representa parte da proped&#234;utica b&#225;sica, e outros elementos devem ser avaliados de forma conjunta.</p>
        <p>Com o objetivo de evitar que uma avalia&#231;&#227;o subjetiva &#8211; dependente da experi&#234;ncia do avaliador &#8211; seja o &#250;nico fator na decis&#227;o diagn&#243;stica em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica (ou equivalente) e ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico, o uso de escores de avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco e probabilidade diagn&#243;stica pode ser &#250;til e deve ser empregado rotineiramente na sala de emerg&#234;ncia. Na tentativa de aperfei&#231;oar essa avalia&#231;&#227;o com investiga&#231;&#245;es mais assertivas, melhor otimiza&#231;&#227;o dos recursos diagn&#243;sticos e, principalmente, evitando altas inadvertidas, v&#225;rios escores foram validados internacionalmente e permitem avaliar o risco e a probabilidade diagn&#243;stica das doen&#231;as de maior impacto em morbimortalidade.</p>
        <p>Os escores validados na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica auxiliam em pacientes com suspeita de SCA, s&#237;ndromes a&#243;rticas agudas (DAA mais frequentemente) e TEP. Esses devem ser usados na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dor tor&#225;cica e incorporam dados relacionados aos antecedentes pessoais, sintomas, achados do exame cl&#237;nico, manifesta&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas/radiogr&#225;ficas e a dosagem de biomarcadores. Algoritmos de troponina podem ser utilizados de forma concomitante a esses escores cl&#237;nicos, embora seja controverso o ganho incremental da adi&#231;&#227;o de escores cl&#237;nicos de SCA (ex: HEART score) aos algoritmos de troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade (ver Se&#231;&#227;o 4.3).</p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2.1. Escores Cl&#237;nicos para Casos de Suspeita de S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda</title>
          <p>Os escores contemplados na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial na suspeita de SCA n&#227;o t&#234;m a capacidade, ou mesmo a inten&#231;&#227;o, de excluir ou confirmar sua hip&#243;tese. Entretanto, s&#227;o capazes de predizer a probabilidade diagn&#243;stica e, principalmente, estratificar o risco desses pacientes apresentarem desfechos desfavor&#225;veis no futuro, a depender da pontua&#231;&#227;o e de sua classifica&#231;&#227;o.</p>
          <p>O escore mais bem estudado na popula&#231;&#227;o com dor tor&#225;cica aguda foi o HEART<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> </sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t14">Tabela 14</xref> ), e sua utiliza&#231;&#227;o tem maior aplicabilidade na avalia&#231;&#227;o em pronto-atendimento ou na sala de emerg&#234;ncia. O estudo original avaliou em seus preditores a dosagem da troponina convencional. Todavia, h&#225; estudos mais recentes, que validaram a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade (TCas) na aplica&#231;&#227;o do escore HEART, uma vez que atualmente &#233; o biomarcador preferencial. Al&#233;m disso, o estudo original avaliou o risco de eventos cardiovasculares maiores em 6 semanas; entretanto, como esse risco se associa &#224; probabilidade cl&#237;nica de SCA, o resultado do HEART score pode ajudar na decis&#227;o m&#233;dica sobre investiga&#231;&#227;o adicional (al&#233;m da troponina).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t14">
            <label>Tabela 14</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Escore HEART</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Escore HEART</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Hist&#243;ria</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = altamente suspeita</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = moderadamente suspeita</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = pouco/nada suspeita</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Eletrocardiograma</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = depress&#227;o significativa do segmento ST</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = dist&#250;rbios de repolariza&#231;&#227;o inespec&#237;ficos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = normal</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Anos (idade)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = &#8805; 65 anos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = &#8805; 45 anos e &lt; 65 anos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = &lt; 45 anos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Risco (fatores <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN12">*</xref> )</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = &#8805; 3 ou hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a ateroscler&#243;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = 1 ou 2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = nenhum</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Troponina (convencional) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN13">**</xref></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = &#8805; 3x o limite superior</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = 1 &#8211; 3x o limite superior</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = &#8804; limite superior</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN11">
                <p>ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN12">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Fatores de risco: Hipertens&#227;o, hipercolesterolemia, diabetes, obesidade (IMC &gt;30 kg/m&#178;), tabagismo (atual ou cessa&#231;&#227;o do tabagismo &#8804;3 meses), hist&#243;rico familiar positivo precoce (primeiro grau).</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN13">
                <label>**</label>
                <p>O escore HEART original utilizou troponina convencional; a sua vers&#227;o modificada para troponina de alta sensibilidade, baseia-se no escore HEAR (Hist&#243;ria, Anos/Idade, Eletrocardiograma, Risco) e utiliza tamb&#233;m pontos de corte espec&#237;ficos dos algoritmos de troponina de alta sensibilidade.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Outros escores, como ADAPT<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup> e EDACS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup> embora sejam alternativas ao escore HEART, n&#227;o apresentam vantagens significativas &#8211; al&#233;m disso, o HEART apresentou melhor <italic>performance</italic> em estudo nacional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> Alguns escores de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e progn&#243;stico aplicados em pacientes portadores de SCA, tais como TIMI e GRACE tamb&#233;m foram analisados no cen&#225;rio de avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial da dor tor&#225;cica e demonstraram <italic>performance</italic> inferior ao HEART.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup> Dessa forma, o escore HEART &#233; o preferencial, por ter melhor acur&#225;cia e valida&#231;&#227;o, assim como alta facilidade para uso na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> </sup> Importante refor&#231;ar que casos com altera&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas de ECG ou troponina (junto com quadro cl&#237;nico compat&#237;vel), n&#227;o precisam do HEART score e devem seguir rotas de tratamento, uma vez que o diagn&#243;stico j&#225; estaria estabelecido (ver <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f4">Figuras 4</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11a">11A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11b">11</xref> ).</p>
          <fig id="f11a">
            <label>Figura 11-A</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fluxos 0-1H e 0-2H &#8211; Troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade (Tcas).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <fig id="f11b">
            <label>Figura 11-B</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Valores de troponina a serem utilizados no fluxograma de 0-3 horas.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <sec>
            <title>4.2.1.1. Em Qual Paciente Devo Aplicar o Escore HEART?</title>
            <p>O escore HEART foi desenvolvido para avaliar o risco de eventos cardiovasculares maiores em 6 semanas, em pacientes com suspeita de SCA (essa &#233; a popula&#231;&#227;o que mais se beneficia do HEART <italic>score</italic> ). Assim, esse escore &#233; o que mais se aplica a esta diretriz, sendo &#250;til para ser utilizado nos casos em que o m&#233;dico est&#225; no momento de decis&#227;o sobre a seguran&#231;a de liberar o paciente para casa ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t15">Tabela 15</xref> ). Uma vez que o risco de eventos cardiovasculares em curto prazo (6 semanas) est&#225; relacionado com a probabilidade diagn&#243;stica, o HEART <italic>score</italic> tamb&#233;m &#233; &#250;til para apoiar a defini&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade pr&#233;-teste (ajudar na decis&#227;o de exames complementares adicionais):</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>HEART <italic>SCORE</italic>:  0 a 3 pontos (risco baixo de MACE em 6 semanas);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>HEART <italic>SCORE</italic>:  4 a 6 pontos (risco m&#233;dio de MACE em 6 semanas);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>HEART <italic>SCORE</italic>:  7 a 10 pontos (risco elevado de MACE em 6 semanas).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <table-wrap id="t15">
              <label>Tabela 15</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e probabilidade diagn&#243;stica na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dor tor&#225;cica na suspeita de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">O escore HEART &#233; o escore cl&#237;nico preferencial na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica em investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2.2. Escores Cl&#237;nicos para Casos de Suspeita de S&#237;ndromes A&#243;rticas Agudas</title>
          <p>Apesar de raras, as SAAs s&#227;o condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas extremamente graves e de alta letalidade. Os maiores registros internacionais descrevem uma taxa de mortalidade em torno de 1 a 2% por hora nas primeiras 48 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup> Dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda de aorta (DAA) corresponde a aproximadamente 70% das s&#237;ndromes a&#243;rticas agudas.</p>
          <p>A dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta possui um amplo espectro de apresenta&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, mas a dor tor&#225;cica &#233; o sintoma mais comum, geralmente de alta intensidade, com irradia&#231;&#227;o para o dorso e sem fatores atenuantes. O alargamento do mediastino superior &#233; o achado mais frequentemente encontrado na radiografia de t&#243;rax (60 a 90% dos casos). No entanto, &#233; importante frisar que a normalidade desse exame n&#227;o exclui o diagn&#243;stico de dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m da apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica heterog&#234;nea, as manifesta&#231;&#245;es podem ser semelhantes &#224;s de outras causas de dor tor&#225;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup> Dessa forma, a avalia&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes com suspeita de SAA &#233; frequentemente desafiadora para o m&#233;dico, que, por vezes, est&#225; sujeito a indicar um tratamento inadequado frente a uma sobreposi&#231;&#227;o de sinais de sintomas, ou dispor excessivamente de exames de imagem para descartar o diagn&#243;stico, ou mesmo dar alta hospitalar inadvertidamente. A falha no diagn&#243;stico dessa doen&#231;a tempo-sens&#237;vel piora drasticamente o progn&#243;stico e dificulta o tratamento.</p>
          <p>Na tentativa de facilitar a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial, reduzir a possibilidade de erros e melhorar a aplicabilidade de recursos de exames diagn&#243;sticos de imagem, foram desenvolvidos dois escores diagn&#243;sticos, o ADD-RS e o AORTA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>O ADD-RS engloba 12 vari&#225;veis distribu&#237;das em 3 categorias, como demonstra a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t16">Tabela 16</xref> . Se o paciente apresenta quaisquer caracter&#237;sticas em uma das categorias, recebe 1 ponto, podendo, portanto, pontuar at&#233; 3 pontos. Pacientes com at&#233; 1 ponto s&#227;o caracterizados como baixo risco, e aqueles com 2 ou 3 pontos, como alto risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref> </sup> A adi&#231;&#227;o de POCUS ao escore ADD mostrou incremento na defini&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade diagn&#243;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t16">
            <label>Tabela 16</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Aortic dissection detection risk score (ADD-RS)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas predisponentes</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;sticas da dor</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Achados no exame cl&#237;nico</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- S&#237;ndrome de Marfan ou outra doen&#231;a do tecido conjuntivo <break/> - Hist&#243;ria familiar de aortopatia <break/> - Hist&#243;ria conhecida de valvopatia a&#243;rtica <break/> - Manipula&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica recente <break/> - Aneurisma de aorta tor&#225;cico conhecido</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Dor tor&#225;cica ou abdominal descrita como: <break/> - In&#237;cio s&#250;bito; <break/> - Intensidade severa; <break/> - Caracterizada como "rasgando"</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">- D&#233;ficit de pulso ou press&#227;o arterial <break/> - D&#233;ficit neurol&#243;gico focal (associado a dor) <break/> - Sopro de regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica (novo associado a dor) <break/> - Hipotens&#227;o ou choque</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>O AORTA por sua vez atribui pontos a seis caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas, conforme mostra a <xref ref-type="table" rid="t17">Tabela 17</xref> . Pacientes com 0 a 1 pontos s&#227;o classificados com baixo risco de SAA, e aqueles com 2 pontos ou mais, como alto risco. &#201; um escore mais simplificado, com alta sensibilidade, mas ainda carece de maior valida&#231;&#227;o para ter seu uso ampliado na pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref> </sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t17">
            <label>Tabela 17</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Escore AORTA &#8211; escore de probabilidade pr&#233;-teste para s&#237;ndrome a&#243;rtica aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Caracter&#237;stica cl&#237;nica</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Pontos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hipotens&#227;o / choque</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Aneurisma</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">D&#233;ficit de pulso</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">D&#233;ficit neurol&#243;gico</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor severa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor de in&#237;cio s&#250;bito</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Vale ressaltar que o ADD-RS e o AORTA s&#227;o escores de probabilidade pr&#233;-teste que usam apenas dados cl&#237;nicos e, dessa forma, identificam aqueles pacientes com baixo ou alto risco de serem portadores de SAA. No entanto, nenhum dos dois tem acur&#225;cia suficiente para, isoladamente, definir ou descartar o diagn&#243;stico de SAA ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t18">Tabela 18</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t18">
            <label>Tabela 18</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e probabilidade diagn&#243;stica na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dor tor&#225;cica na suspeita de s&#237;ndrome a&#243;rtica aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">ADD-RS pode ser aplicado em pacientes com suspeita de SAA como parte da avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">POCUS feito por m&#233;dico capacitado pode ser aplicado em adi&#231;&#227;o ao ADD-RS para incremento na avalia&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade diagn&#243;stica.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">AORTA pode ser aplicado em pacientes com suspeita de SAA de forma adicional ou como alternativa ao ADD-RS.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">ADD-RS e AORTA <bold>N&#195;O</bold> devem ser utilizados exclusivamente na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial em pacientes com suspeita de SAA para exclus&#227;o ou confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF">III</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN14">
                <p>POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound; SAA: s&#237;ndrome a&#243;rtica aguda.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Nos casos em que h&#225; suspeita de SAA e se estabeleceu a probabilidade diagn&#243;stica pr&#233;-teste, podemos prosseguir para a investiga&#231;&#227;o adequada (passos 2 e 3), conforme fluxograma ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f9">Figura 9</xref> ):</p>
          <fig id="f9">
            <label>Figura 9</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fluxograma para investiga&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;ndrome a&#243;rtica aguda.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste baixa: realizar D-d&#237;mero (se negativo, buscar outro diagn&#243;stico; se positivo, realizar exame de imagem*);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste &gt; baixa: realizar exame de imagem.*</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>*Exames de imagem habitualmente indicados para avaliar SAA: angiotomografia (mais utilizado), ecocardiograma transesof&#225;gico (quando n&#227;o for poss&#237;vel realizar angiotomografia).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2.3. Escores Cl&#237;nicos para Casos de Suspeita de Tromboembolismo Pulmonar</title>
          <p>No TEP, a dor tor&#225;cica geralmente &#233; s&#250;bita, associada &#224; dispneia e sintomas pleur&#237;ticos. A identifica&#231;&#227;o de fatores de risco para doen&#231;a tromboemb&#243;lica habitualmente auxilia no diagn&#243;stico.</p>
          <p>A radiografia de t&#243;rax &#233; frequentemente anormal no TEP; entretanto, as anormalidades s&#227;o geralmente inespec&#237;ficas (de qualquer forma, &#233; um exame &#250;til para afastar outras causas de dispneia e dor tor&#225;cica, como pneumot&#243;rax). As altera&#231;&#245;es radiol&#243;gicas mais frequentemente encontradas na embolia pulmonar s&#227;o as &#225;reas de atelectasia, a eleva&#231;&#227;o da hemic&#250;pula diafragm&#225;tica, o derrame pleural e a dilata&#231;&#227;o do tronco e dos ramos da art&#233;ria pulmonar. &#193;reas de hipofluxo pulmonar segmentar (sinal de Westmark) e infiltrado pulmonar de forma triangular com a base voltada para a pleura (sinal de Hampton) s&#227;o os achados mais espec&#237;ficos da embolia pulmonar, mas, infelizmente, s&#227;o pouco sens&#237;veis.</p>
          <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao ECG, este s&#243; deve apresentar as altera&#231;&#245;es indicativas de sobrecarga de VD (invers&#227;o de onda T de V1 a V4; S1Q3T3, BRD completo ou incompleto) nos casos mais graves de TEP. Nos casos de menor gravidade, o achado mais comum seria taquicardia sinusal que, al&#233;m de inespec&#237;fica, s&#243; est&#225; presente em cerca de 40% dos casos.</p>
          <p>Tendo em vista que as principais manifesta&#231;&#245;es de TEP s&#227;o inespec&#237;ficas, aplica&#231;&#245;es de modelos de avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica s&#227;o importantes para reduzir varia&#231;&#245;es desnecess&#225;rias no julgamento subjetivo da probabilidade diagn&#243;stica. A combina&#231;&#227;o de achados cl&#237;nicos em pacientes com fatores de risco para TEP permite classificar os pacientes em categorias cl&#237;nicas de probabilidades pr&#233;-teste, na tentativa de identificar qual exame complementar &#233; mais indicado para diagnosticar ou descartar a doen&#231;a.</p>
          <p>Naqueles pacientes com suspeita de TEP, tr&#234;s s&#227;o os escores habitualmente utilizados: escore de Wells, escore de Genebra (do ingl&#234;s, Geneva) e o escore de Genebra simplificado. Vale ressaltar que esses escores n&#227;o foram validados em gestantes e portadores de trombofilia.</p>
          <p>O escore de Wells engloba uma pontua&#231;&#227;o para 7 vari&#225;veis ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t19">Tabelas 19</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t20">20</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t19">
            <label>Tabela 19</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Escore de Wells: crit&#233;rios e respectiva pontua&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Crit&#233;rios</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Pontos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Sinais cl&#237;nicos de TVP</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">+3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Aus&#234;ncia de diagn&#243;stico alternativo mais prov&#225;vel que TEP</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">+3</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">TVP ou TEP pr&#233;vios</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">+1,5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">FC &gt; 100 bpm</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">+1,5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Imobiliza&#231;&#227;o por mais de 2 dias ou cirurgia nas &#250;ltimas 4 semanas</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">+1,5</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemoptise</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">+1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">C&#226;ncer (atual tratado nos &#250;ltimos 6 meses, ou se o paciente estiver em cuidados paliativos)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">+1</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN15">
                <p>TVP: trombose venosa profunda; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; bpm: batimentos por minuto.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t20">
            <label>Tabela 20</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Escore de Wells modificado e probabilidade/risco de tromboembolismo pulmonar, a depender da pontua&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">3 n&#237;veis</th>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Pontua&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Probabilidade de TEP</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&lt; 2</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1 a 3%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixa</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">2-6</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">16 a 28%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Intermedi&#225;ria</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt; 6</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt; 40 %</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Alta</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000"/>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <bold>2 n&#237;veis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Pontua&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Probabilidade de TEP</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8804; 4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Improv&#225;vel</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt; 4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">28 %</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Prov&#225;vel</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN16">
                <p>TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>O escore de Genebra &#233; mais trabalhoso para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica, mas tamb&#233;m determina a probabilidade pr&#233;-teste dos pacientes com suspeita de TEP, assim como o de Wells.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup> O escore de Genebra simplificado permite maior facilidade em sua aplica&#231;&#227;o e &#233; validado em estudos com mesmos resultados que o escore de Genebra revisado ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t21">Tabela 21</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t21">
            <label>Tabela 21</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Escore de Genebra revisado e simplificado e probabilidade e risco de tromboembolismo pulmonar, a depender da pontua&#231;&#227;o</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Escore Genebra (do ingl&#234;s, Geneva)</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Revisado - pontos</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Simplificado - pontos</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Idade &gt; 65 anos</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">TVP e TEP pr&#233;vios</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Cirurgia ou fratura no &#250;ltimo m&#234;s</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Neoplasia em atividade</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor unilateral em membro inferior</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemoptise</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor a palpa&#231;&#227;o de veias profundas de membro inferior/edema unilateral</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">FC 75-94 bpm</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">FC &#8805; 95 bpm</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">5</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" colspan="3"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Pontua&#231;&#227;o &#8211; Genebra revisado</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Probabilidade de TEP</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">0-3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">8%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Baixa</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">4-10</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">28%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Intermedi&#225;ria</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8805; 11</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt; 60%</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Alta</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" colspan="3"> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">
                    <bold>Pontua&#231;&#227;o &#8211; Genebra simplificado (2 n&#237;veis)</bold>
                  </td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">
                    <bold>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <bold>2 n&#237;veis</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">0-2</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Improv&#225;vel</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8805; 3</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Prov&#225;vel</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN17">
                <p>TVP: trombose venosa profunda; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; FC: frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; bpm: batimentos por minuto.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Alguns protocolos diagn&#243;sticos de TEP utilizam tamb&#233;m a avalia&#231;&#227;o em dois n&#237;veis do escore de Wells e Genebra para categorizar com maior facilidade (TEP prov&#225;vel ou improv&#225;vel, ao inv&#233;s de probabilidade baixa, intermedi&#225;ria e alta). Considera-se TEP prov&#225;vel quando o paciente pontuar 5 ou mais no escore de Wells, ou 3 ou mais no Genebra simplificado. Por sua vez, &#233; considerado TEP improv&#225;vel quando a pontua&#231;&#227;o &#233; menor ou igual a 4 para escore de Wells, ou menor ou igual a 2 para Genebra simplificado. Ambas as formas de categoriza&#231;&#227;o podem ser utilizadas (tr&#234;s n&#237;veis tradicionais e dois n&#237;veis), seguindo cada qual um protocolo espec&#237;fico de avalia&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Em pacientes cuja avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica inicial demonstre ao seu examinador que o caso tem como pouco prov&#225;vel o diagn&#243;stico de TEP (probabilidade estimada menor que 15%; por exemplo, escore de Wells &lt; 2), &#233; poss&#237;vel utilizar o escore PERC ( <italic>pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria</italic> ). Trata-se de um escore de f&#225;cil aplica&#231;&#227;o, em que, na aus&#234;ncia de todos os itens ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t22">Tabela 22</xref> ), o diagn&#243;stico pode ser afastado sem obrigatoriedade de complementa&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup> Dessa forma, mais de um escore pode ser utilizado na avalia&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade diagn&#243;stica de TEP ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t23">Tabela 23</xref> ).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t22">
            <label>Tabela 22</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria (PERC)</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">PERC</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Idade &#8805; 50 anos</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca &#8805; 100 bpm</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Satura&#231;&#227;o de O<sub>2</sub> &lt; 95% em ar ambiente</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Edema assim&#233;trico dos membros inferiores</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Hemoptise</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Cirurgia ou trauma nas &#250;ltimas 4 semanas</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Hist&#243;ria pr&#233;via de TVP ou TEP</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">- Tratamento hormonal</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN18">
                <p>PERC: pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria; TVP: trombose venosa profunda; TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t23">
            <label>Tabela 23</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco e probabilidade diagn&#243;stica na avalia&#231;&#227;o de dor tor&#225;cica na suspeita de tromboembolismo pulmonar</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Escore de Wells, Genebra revisado e Genebra simplificado devem ser aplicados em pacientes com suspeita de TEP na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de probabilidade pr&#233;-teste, como parte da avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Escore PERC pode ser aplicado na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial em pacientes com suspeita de TEP com baixa probabilidade pr&#233;-teste para protocolo de <italic>rule out</italic> .</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN19">
                <p>TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; PERC: pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Nos casos em que h&#225; suspeita de TEP e se estabeleceu a probabilidade diagn&#243;stica pr&#233;-teste, podemos prosseguir para a investiga&#231;&#227;o adequada (passos 2 e 3), conforme fluxograma ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f10">Figura 10</xref> ):</p>
          <fig id="f10">
            <label>Figura 10</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Fluxograma para diagn&#243;stico de tromboembolismo pulmonar.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste baixa e PERC zero: n&#227;o seria obrigat&#243;rio a realiza&#231;&#227;o do D-d&#237;mero;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste baixa (especialmente se PERC &gt; 0) ou intermedi&#225;ria (TEP improv&#225;vel numa avalia&#231;&#227;o em 2 n&#237;veis): realizar D-d&#237;mero tendo o valor &#8805;500 ng/mL (&#956;g/L) como ponto de corte ou usar valor ajustado por idade (idade x 10 para pacientes a partir dos 50 anos); se positivo, realizar exame de imagem* (se negativo, buscar outro diagn&#243;stico);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Probabilidade pr&#233;-teste alta numa avalia&#231;&#227;o em 3 n&#237;veis (ou prov&#225;vel numa avalia&#231;&#227;o em 2 n&#237;veis): realizar exame de imagem.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>*Exames de imagem habitualmente indicados para avaliar TEP: angiotomografia (mais utilizado), cintilografia ventila&#231;&#227;o-perfus&#227;o (em casos selecionados, quando houver limita&#231;&#227;o para angiotomografia), e ecocardiograma para avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de TEP (quando paciente com instabilidade e/ou sem condi&#231;&#245;es para realizar angiotomografia).</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2.4. Outros Diagn&#243;sticos Diferenciais</title>
          <p>Embora nem todos os diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais tenham escores de probabilidade validados, &#233; importante ter em mente as principais caracter&#237;sticas dessas s&#237;ndromes no racioc&#237;nio cl&#237;nico, como a pericardite. No contexto da dor precordial, a pericardite aguda ou a miopericardite (se pericardite associada &#224; miocardite) causa dor precordial, habitualmente f&#225;sica (de acordo com o ciclo respirat&#243;rio) e e que muda com posi&#231;&#227;o (melhora com flex&#227;o anterior do t&#243;rax). Frequentemente se apresenta com febre e queda do estado geral. Casos com aumento r&#225;pido e/ou intenso do l&#237;quido peric&#225;rdico podem gerar restri&#231;&#227;o ao enchimento card&#237;aco (tamponamento). De uma forma geral, o diagn&#243;stico de pericardite &#233; definido quando dois dos quatro seguintes achados est&#227;o presentes:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Dor tor&#225;cica caracter&#237;stica;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Atrito peric&#225;rdico;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>ECG caracter&#237;stico;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Achado em exame de imagem (ecocardiograma, por exemplo).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Outras causas de dor tor&#225;cica que representam situa&#231;&#245;es de risco de morte (por exemplo, ruptura de es&#244;fago, pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo) s&#227;o mais raras, mas devem ser consideradas na investiga&#231;&#227;o de acordo com quadro cl&#237;nico: o exame f&#237;sico habitualmente &#233; suficiente para o diagn&#243;stico de pneumot&#243;rax hipertensivo (murm&#250;rio vesicular abolido, hipertimpanismo, turg&#234;ncia jugular); no caso de rotura esof&#225;gica, dor tor&#225;cica iniciada p&#243;s-v&#244;mitos e que podem evoluir com febre e hipotens&#227;o levantam suspeita desse diagn&#243;stico (muitos casos apresentam altera&#231;&#245;es na radiografia de t&#243;rax compat&#237;veis com pneumomediastino).</p>
          <p>Uma vez afastados diagn&#243;sticos potencialmente fatais, situa&#231;&#245;es de maior benignidade podem ser consideradas (ansiedade, dispepsia sem complica&#231;&#245;es graves etc.).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.3. Algoritmos de Troponina</title>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.1. Aplica&#231;&#227;o e Interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos Marcadores de Inj&#250;ria Mioc&#225;rdica</title>
          <p>Mais de 90% dos pacientes no protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica t&#234;m o ECG "n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico". Mesmo nos casos que t&#234;m diagn&#243;stico confirmado de SCA, cerca de metade apresenta ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup> Dessa forma, quando o paciente com dor tor&#225;cica tem ECG de repouso sem altera&#231;&#245;es caracter&#237;sticas de SCA, deve-se dosar os marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica para confirmar ou afastar esse diagn&#243;stico.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.1. Qual o Marcador de Escolha para o Diagn&#243;stico de Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio?</title>
            <p>H&#225; necessidade de testes que sejam eficazes e r&#225;pidos em confirmar ou descartar a s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda. O marcador ideal deve ser o mais espec&#237;fico e sens&#237;vel poss&#237;vel, ou seja, que possa detectar altera&#231;&#245;es apenas do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco, j&#225; em pequenas concentra&#231;&#245;es s&#233;ricas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Atualmente, o marcador que melhor re&#250;ne essas caracter&#237;sticas &#233; a troponina, tanto a troponina T card&#237;aca (TnTc) como a troponina I card&#237;aca (TnIc). Em locais que t&#234;m disponibilidade de troponina quantitativa, n&#227;o &#233; recomendada a dosagem de CK-MB ou outros marcadores na avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica (a troponina apresenta sensibilidade e especificidade superiores).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Os ensaios para dosagem de troponina foram se aperfei&#231;oando, e temos v&#225;rias "gera&#231;&#245;es" que variam em especial com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; sensibilidade. A troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade (TCas) deve ser utilizada como marcador de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica preferencial em pacientes com suspeita de SCA. As TCas (tamb&#233;m conhecidas como ultrassens&#237;veis), como o pr&#243;prio nome indica, s&#227;o significativamente mais sens&#237;veis do que as convencionais para diagn&#243;stico de IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.2. Como Interpretar Exame de Troponina Alterado?</title>
            <p>Troponina &#233; um marcador de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e, para definir a etiologia desse fen&#244;meno (por exemplo, diagn&#243;stico de IAM), devemos integrar informa&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas e de outros exames. Por mais que a acur&#225;cia dos <italic>kits</italic> "ultrassens&#237;veis" tenha melhorado nos &#250;ltimos anos, v&#225;rias condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas, al&#233;m do IAM do tipo 1, podem causar inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e elevar a troponina.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.3. Como Interpretar Exames de Troponina Seriados?</title>
            <p>Os valores obtidos nos ensaios de TCas devem ser analisados de acordo com o tempo de in&#237;cio dos sintomas e devem ser seriados em intervalos de tempo pr&#233;-determinados, para adequada interpreta&#231;&#227;o de uma eventual variabilidade entre as coletas.</p>
            <p>A inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica aguda &#233; definida como uma ascens&#227;o e/ou queda dos valores de troponina de alta sensibilidade &gt; 20% entre as medidas, desde que pelo menos um desses valores esteja acima do percentil 99 do <italic>kit</italic> utilizado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> H&#225; valores diferentes, de acordo com o sexo e a idade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>A inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica cr&#244;nica &#233; definida por uma varia&#231;&#227;o nos valores de troponina &#8804; 20% com pelo menos um desses valores acima do percentil 99 do <italic>kit</italic> utilizado. A an&#225;lise dos valores absolutos &#233; mais &#250;til em pacientes com n&#237;veis menores de troponina, e, por isso, algoritmos de descarte precoce utilizam varia&#231;&#245;es (delta) de valores absolutos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Al&#233;m de ser necess&#225;ria a avalia&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade pr&#233;-teste na interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos resultados de troponina, &#233; importante lembrar que, por mais que as troponinas de alta sensibilidade possuam uma acur&#225;cia elevada para inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica, elas n&#227;o definem a causa da inj&#250;ria (ex: se &#233; infarto ou outra causa) e, ainda que raros, podemos ter resultados falso positivos e/ou falso negativos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.4. Crit&#233;rios Diagn&#243;sticos de Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio</title>
            <p>Quando a causa da inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica aguda for a insufici&#234;ncia coronariana, estabelecemos o diagn&#243;stico de IAM. Para isso, a inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica aguda &#8211; ascens&#227;o e/ou queda de troponina com pelo menos um valor acima do percentil <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup> &#8211; deve estar associada a outros elementos cl&#237;nico/laboratoriais de isquemia para confirmar o infarto do mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup> Esses s&#227;o:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Sintomas de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica aguda;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Nova altera&#231;&#227;o isqu&#234;mica do ECG (incluindo desenvolvimento de nova onda Q);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Exame de imagem demonstrando nova perda de mioc&#225;rdio vi&#225;vel ou nova altera&#231;&#227;o da contratilidade segmentar e que tenha padr&#227;o isqu&#234;mico;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Evid&#234;ncia angiogr&#225;fica ou aut&#243;psia (esta &#250;ltima isoladamente pode ser suficiente para o diagn&#243;stico de IAM)*.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>*Trombo em angiografia ou autopsia &#233; crit&#233;rio para IAM tipo 1, mas n&#227;o faz parte dos crit&#233;rios de IAM tipo 2 e tipo 3.</p>
            <p>Os casos de IAM tipo 4b (trombose de <italic>stent</italic> ) e 4c (reestenose de <italic>sten</italic> t) apresentam os mesmos crit&#233;rios de IAM tipo 1, entretanto, na angiografia h&#225; identifica&#231;&#227;o de trombose ou reestenose de <italic>stent</italic> (enquanto no IAM tipo 1 o mecanismo seria, habitualmente, aterotrombose por eros&#227;o ou rotura de placa ateroscler&#243;tica). Casos de IAM tipo 3 representam situa&#231;&#245;es em que n&#227;o h&#225; tempo h&#225;bil para coletar exames e definir o diagn&#243;stico de IAM, pois o paciente evolui a &#243;bito rapidamente. J&#225; os casos de IAM tipo 4a e tipo 5 s&#227;o periprocedimentos e, portanto, os tipos 3, 4a e 5 fogem do escopo desta diretriz.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.5. Qual o Tempo H&#225;bil para Descartar o Diagn&#243;stico de Infarto Agudo de Mioc&#225;rdio?</title>
            <p>H&#225; varia&#231;&#227;o, de acordo com o <italic>kit</italic> de troponina.</p>
            <p>Nos casos de troponina de alta sensibilidade, em um paciente com in&#237;cio dos sintomas h&#225; mais de 3 horas (e sem recorr&#234;ncia), um n&#237;vel abaixo dos valores classificados como muito baixos seria suficiente para descartar IAM (embora n&#227;o descarte outros diagn&#243;sticos, como AI). Nas demais situa&#231;&#245;es, h&#225; necessidade de mais de uma dosagem de troponina al&#233;m da inicial, embora valores muito elevados (por exemplo, acima de 5x o limite da normalidade) indiquem alta probabilidade de IAM em um contexto de suspeita cl&#237;nica, mesmo em uma dosagem isolada. A interpreta&#231;&#227;o das dosagens seriadas deve se basear idealmente em algoritmos ( <italic>pathways</italic> ) validados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Nas troponinas que n&#227;o preenchem crit&#233;rios de alta sensibilidade, deve-se esperar de 6 a 12 horas (depende do ponto de corte do kit da troponina convencional). Um valor negativo ap&#243;s este intervalo do &#250;ltimo epis&#243;dio de sintomas pode afastar IAM, embora n&#227;o exclua outros diagn&#243;sticos de risco.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1.6. Qual o Algoritmo de Escolha?</title>
            <p>Diversos algoritmos com troponina de alta sensibilidade foram propostos com o objetivo de reduzir o tempo para definir admiss&#227;o hospitalar ( <italic>rule-in</italic> ) e para descarte de IAM ( <italic>rule-out</italic> ). &#201; recomendada a realiza&#231;&#227;o da primeira dosagem de troponina na admiss&#227;o do paciente. Nos casos sem tempo h&#225;bil e n&#237;veis suficientes para descartar, deve-se repetir a dosagem do biomarcador.</p>
            <p>O algoritmo de 0-3 horas, em que dois valores abaixo do percentil 99 descartam IAM, foi avaliado em diversos estudos, incluindo uma metan&#225;lise, tendo se mostrado inferior aos algoritmos mais precoces, como 0-1 hora e 0-2 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup> O uso de um algoritmo como de 0-1 ou 0-2 horas deve ser preferencial, respeitando os valores previamente determinados de corte e varia&#231;&#245;es absolutas do <italic>kit</italic> utilizado ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t24">Tabelas 24</xref> , <xref ref-type="table" rid="t25">25</xref> e <xref ref-type="table" rid="t26">26</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11a">Figuras 11A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11b">11B</xref> )</p>
            <table-wrap id="t24">
              <label>Tabela 24</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Algoritmos de decis&#227;o com troponina de alta sensibilidade</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="25%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Abordagem</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Crit&#233;rio para descarte (rule out)</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Pontos positivos</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Pontos negativos</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>0-3 horas (apenas deve ser considerado na impossibilidade do uso dos algoritmos de 0/1h ou 0/2h)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">- Se sintomas &gt; 6 horas (assintom&#225;tico no momento), &#250;nica dosagem &lt; percentil 99 OU <break/> - Se &lt; 6 horas de sintomas, com dosagens seriadas (a cada 3 horas) &lt; percentil 99</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Usar percentil 99 como limiar para decis&#227;o (similar ao uso do valor de refer&#234;ncia da troponina convencional, com maior familiaridade dos m&#233;dicos)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Menos pacientes atingem crit&#233;rio de descarte e, quando atingem, acontece mais tardiamente (menor sensibilidade)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>0 hora (&#250;nica dosagem)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Dosagem abaixo do limiar de detec&#231;&#227;o ou um <italic>cutoff</italic> validado em sintomas &gt; 3 horas</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Defini&#231;&#227;o imediata (sem necessidade de segunda dosagem)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Recomenda-se que paciente busque precocemente o atendimento m&#233;dico (busca tardia n&#227;o &#233; desej&#225;vel em termos de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>0-1 hora (algoritmo de escolha)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Usa troponina da admiss&#227;o (0 hora) e varia&#231;&#227;o (delta) em 1 hora para definir grupo: descarte ( <italic>rule out</italic> ), observa&#231;&#227;o ou admiss&#227;o ( <italic>rule in</italic> )</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Evita os problemas inerentes ao percentil 99 e consegue descartar mais casos de forma mais precoce <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN20">1</xref> *</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">O momento da coleta &#233; muito relevante para a interpreta&#231;&#227;o desse algoritmo, cujos valores s&#227;o de dif&#237;cil memoriza&#231;&#227;o <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">2</xref> *</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>0-2 horas (alternativa quando n&#227;o for poss&#237;vel realizar 0/1h)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Id&#234;ntico ao 0-1 hora, s&#243; que o delta seria avaliado em 2 horas (ao inv&#233;s de 1 hora)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Pontos positivos semelhantes ao do 0-1 hora <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN20">1</xref> * e &#233; mais fact&#237;vel em centros que n&#227;o conseguem 0-1 hora</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Pontos negativos semelhantes ao do 0-1 hora, mas t&#234;m menor valida&#231;&#227;o e defini&#231;&#227;o ocorre com 1 hora de "atraso" <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN21">2</xref> *</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold><italic>High</italic> -STEACS</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">- Se sintomas &gt; 3 horas (assintom&#225;tico no momento), &#250;nica dosagem &lt; 5 ou 6 ng/L <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN22">3</xref> * OU <break/> - Se mudan&#231;a (delta) entre 0 e 3h for &lt; 3 ng/L mantendo troponina &lt; percentil 99 (ajustada por sexo)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Tamb&#233;m se aproveita da sensibilidade e precis&#227;o da TCas e usa percentil ajustado ao sexo</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Menos pacientes s&#227;o categorizados no grupo descarte ( <italic>rule-out</italic> ) do que nos algoritmos 0-1 hora e 0-2 horas (al&#233;m de menor defini&#231;&#227;o de <italic>rule-out</italic> , este ocorre com maior atraso)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN20">
                  <label>1</label>
                  <p>Ambos (0-1 hora e 0-2 horas) tomam proveito da melhor sensibilidade e precis&#227;o da troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade (TCas).</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN21">
                  <label>2</label>
                  <p>Ambos devem ter cuidado nos casos de troponina alterada por&#233;m sem varia&#231;&#227;o (delta) em 1 ou 2 horas, pois pode ser fase de plat&#244; de um IAM (quando n&#237;veis de troponina s&#227;o bastante elevados, esse problema seria mitigado, pois valor isolado muito alto j&#225; indicaria rule-in, independentemente do delta).</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN22">
                  <label>3</label>
                  <p>&lt; 5 ng/L na troponina I de alta sensibilidade ou 6 ng/L na troponina T de alta sensibilidade.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t25">
              <label>Tabela 25</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Aplica&#231;&#227;o dos algoritmos dos marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade &#233; o marcador de escolha para investiga&#231;&#227;o de IAM.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Na aus&#234;ncia de troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade, usar investiga&#231;&#245;es com dosagem de biomarcador dispon&#237;vel <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN23a">*</xref> a cada 3 horas, at&#233; tempo h&#225;bil para definir ou afastar diagn&#243;stico de IAM (varia de acordo com tipo de biomarcador).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Os algoritmos de troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade 0-1 hora e 0-2 horas s&#227;o prefer&#237;veis aos algoritmos de 0-3 horas.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Em pacientes com dor precordial h&#225; mais de 3 horas, uma &#250;nica dosagem de troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade abaixo do limite de detec&#231;&#227;o do ensaio pode ser suficiente para descartar IAM, quando associada a escores cl&#237;nicos de baixo risco, eletrocardiograma sem altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas e aus&#234;ncia de dor recorrente ou persistente.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Se troponina quantitativa dispon&#237;vel, n&#227;o se deve solicitar CK-MB para investiga&#231;&#227;o de IAM.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN23">
                  <p>IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN23a">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade, pode-se utilizar troponina convencional ou, na aus&#234;ncia desta, CKMB-massa.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t26">
              <label>Tabela 26</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Valores de troponina a serem utilizados no fluxograma de 0-1/2 hora, de acordo com o kit utilizado</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="17%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Ensaio (kit)</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Muito baixo</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Baixo</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Sem &#916; 1h</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Elevado</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">&#916; 1h</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnT (Elecsys; Roche)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;12</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;52</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (Architect; Abbott)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;64</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;6</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Centaur; Siemens)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;6</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;120</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;12</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (Access; Beckman Coulter)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;50</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;15</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Clarity; Singulex)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;30</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;6</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (Vitros; Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;1</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;1</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;40</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;4</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Pathfast; LSI Medience)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;90</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;20</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (TriageTrue; Quidel)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;60</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;8</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Dimension EXL; Siemens)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;9</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;9</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;160</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;100</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Ensaio (kit)</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Muito baixo</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Baixo</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Sem &#916; 2h</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Elevado</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>&#916; 2h</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnT (Elecsys; Roche)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;14</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;52</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;10</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (Architect; Abbott)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;6</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;64</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;15</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Centaur; Siemens)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;8</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;7</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;120</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;20</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (Access; Beckman Coulter)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;50</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;20</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Clarity; Singulex)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;30</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (Vitros; Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;1</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;40</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Pathfast; LSI Medience)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;90</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805;55</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">hs-cTnI (TriageTrue; Quidel)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&lt;4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">TBD</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">TBD</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">&#8805;60</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">TBD</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN24a">
                  <p>Os pontos de corte se aplicam independentemente da idade, sexo e fun&#231;&#227;o renal. Pontos de corte otimizados para pacientes com mais de 75 anos de idade e para pacientes com disfun&#231;&#227;o renal foram avaliados, mas n&#227;o demonstraram consistentemente melhor equil&#237;brio entre seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia em compara&#231;&#227;o com esses pontos de corte universais. M&#233;dico deve sempre checar no seu laborat&#243;rio qual o kit utilizado e quais os pontos de corte recomendados (h&#225; testes e novos ensaios em desenvolvimento e pontos de corte podem modificar). TBD: a ser determinado (do ingl&#234;s, to be determined).</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de troponina de alta sensibilidade, pode-se utilizar a troponina convencional quantitativa ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t25">Tabela 25</xref> ). Deve-se seguir padr&#227;o, com dosagem inicial (0 hora), seguida de repeti&#231;&#227;o de coletas a cada 3 horas, at&#233; que se tenha uma amostra com tempo maior do que 6 a 12 horas do in&#237;cio dos sintomas (tempo h&#225;bil depende do ponto de corte do kit da troponina). Em casos de dor recorrente ou alta suspeita, podem ser coletadas troponinas adicionais. O valor acima do ponto de corte ser&#225; o "balizador" para definir casos como "positivos" para inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica (e prov&#225;vel IAM) ou "negativos" (sem crit&#233;rios para inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e, por consequ&#234;ncia, sem crit&#233;rios para IAM, embora possam ser infartos caso fossem utilizadas an&#225;lises de alta sensibilidade).</p>
            <p>As <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11a">Figuras 11A</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f11b">11B</xref> apresentam os algoritmos recomendados para troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.2. Direcionamento Conforme Classifica&#231;&#227;o no Algoritmo</title>
          <p>Os protocolos de atendimento de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na emerg&#234;ncia buscam estabelecer o r&#225;pido diagn&#243;stico de condi&#231;&#245;es amea&#231;adoras &#224; vida, ao mesmo tempo que procuram identificar os pacientes que podem ser liberados dos servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia sem a necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar. Essa estrat&#233;gia evita que, em pacientes com probabilidade/risco muito reduzido de SCA, ocorram investiga&#231;&#245;es desnecess&#225;rias em ambientes de PS, enfermarias ou unidades coronarianas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Para tanto, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o conjunta de escores cl&#237;nicos, do ECG e da dosagem da troponina, combinados com o julgamento m&#233;dico, permite classificar os pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica atendidos nos pronto-atendimentos em SCA descartada ( <italic>rule-out</italic> ), SCA confirmada ( <italic>rule-in</italic> ) e zona intermedi&#225;ria (observa&#231;&#227;o)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12</xref> ).</p>
          <fig id="f12">
            <label>Figura 12</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Classifica&#231;&#227;o do paciente de acordo com algoritmos de troponina de alta sensibilidade (0-1h, 0-2h e 0-3h). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>ECG: eletrocardiograma; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio. *Exceto pacientes com hist&#243;rico de DAC, cuja probabilidade de IAM &gt; 1%, mesmo que algoritmo 0-1h o coloque no grupo rule-out (considerar tamb&#233;m avalia&#231;&#227;o adicional se HEART &gt; 3). **Se solicita&#231;&#227;o indiscriminada de troponina (pacientes de baixa suspeita cl&#237;nica), valor preditivo positivo pode ficar abaixo de 50%.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.1. SCA Descartada (Rule-Out)</title>
            <p>Pacientes sem diagn&#243;stico definido ap&#243;s investiga&#231;&#227;o adequada e que apresentam escores cl&#237;nicos<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref> </sup> de baixo risco, como o HEART &#8804; 3 ou EDACS &lt; 16, associados a um ECG sem altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas e troponinas negativas em tempo h&#225;bil, s&#227;o considerados de muito baixo risco/probabilidade para SCA ( <italic>rule-out</italic> ).</p>
            <p>As troponinas de alta sensibilidade permitem afastar de forma mais precoce o diagn&#243;stico de IAM e com maior acur&#225;cia em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s troponinas convencionais. Assim como as convecionais, a coleta inicial deve ser realizada na chegada do paciente, independentemente do tempo de in&#237;cio de sintomas. Nos pacientes que apresentam valores iniciais de troponina de alta sensibilidade classificados como muito baixos (ou seja, valores geralmente abaixo do limite de detec&#231;&#227;o), uma &#250;nica dosagem de troponina de alta sensibilidade pode ser suficiente para descartar IAM quando o ECG &#233; normal e, especialmente, quando os escores cl&#237;nicos s&#227;o de baixo risco ou baixa probabilidade de SCA (HEART &#8804; 3 ou EDACS &lt; 16) &#8211; desde que o intervalo entre o in&#237;cio dos sintomas e a coleta da troponina de alta sensibilidade seja maior ou igual a 3 horas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Nos demais casos (sintomas &lt; 3 horas e/ou troponina detect&#225;vel na primeira dosagem), uma segunda coleta deve ser realizada com um intervalo de 1 ou 2 horas em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; primeira (se <italic>kit</italic> de troponina de alta sensibilidade validado para algoritmos de 0-1 hora e/ou 0-2 horas). Valores de troponina de alta sensibilidade sem varia&#231;&#227;o significativa ap&#243;s 1 ou 2 horas caracterizam pacientes com probabilidade muito baixa de SCA. &#201; importante ressaltar que, assim como o percentil 99, os valores considerados para definir a varia&#231;&#227;o da Tn de alta sensibilidade como significativa diferem conforme o ensaio utilizado ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t26">Tabela 26</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref> </sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t42">
              <table frame="box" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">O que fazer se n&#227;o houver troponina de alta sensibilidade?</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Nas situa&#231;&#245;es em que n&#227;o haja a disponibilidade de TCas, a troponina convencional poder&#225; ser utilizada como biomarcador para diagn&#243;stico de IAM. Devido ao maior tempo necess&#225;rio para a eleva&#231;&#227;o da troponina convencional, considera-se adequada a realiza&#231;&#227;o de duas ou mais coletas com um intervalo maior, sendo a primeira na chegada do paciente e a segunda entre 3 a 6 horas at&#233; tempo h&#225;bil (na maioria dos <italic>kits</italic> convencionais, &#233; necess&#225;rio mais de 6 horas).</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Se houver eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina convencional num contexto cl&#237;nico e/ou eletrocardiogr&#225;fico compat&#237;vel, faz-se o diagn&#243;stico de IAM.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Apesar da menor sensibilidade para diagn&#243;stico de IAM, se ao final do tempo de observa&#231;&#227;o (varia geralmente entre 6 e 12 horas de acordo com kit de troponina convencional), os pacientes apresentarem troponina negativa e preencherem crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos de baixo risco (por exemplo, HEART score &#8804; 3) com ECG sem altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas, estes poder&#227;o ser liberados do pronto-atendimento, conforme julgamento cl&#237;nico da equipe m&#233;dica (exclus&#227;o de diagn&#243;sticos de risco).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref> </sup></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">A dosagem de CKMB s&#243; deve ser considerada na aus&#234;ncia de troponina e deve-se dar prefer&#234;ncia para CKMB massa.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Quando n&#227;o houver varia&#231;&#227;o significativa de TCas em 1 ou 2 horas, afastados outros diagn&#243;sticos, os pacientes hemodinamicamente est&#225;veis, sem recorr&#234;ncia de dor e ECG sem altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas podem ser liberados dos servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia para avalia&#231;&#227;o adicional em regime ambulatorial precoce, especialmente se os escores cl&#237;nicos forem compat&#237;veis com baixo risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref> </sup> Esses algoritmos de 0 e 1 hora foram validados sem necessariamente ter a aplica&#231;&#227;o de escores cl&#237;nicos de forma adicional. Entretanto, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que o algoritmo de troponina isoladamente n&#227;o &#233; suficiente para pacientes com hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria conhecida. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref></sup> Portanto, uma conduta mais conservadora, com uso adicional de escores cl&#237;nicos, pode trazer mais seguran&#231;a ao liberar o paciente do PS ap&#243;s avalia&#231;&#227;o com algoritmo de troponina de alta sensibilidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref> </sup> De qualquer maneira, com ou sem escore cl&#237;nico, o julgamento do m&#233;dico e sua avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica s&#227;o fundamentais em todos os momentos de decis&#227;o, uma vez que TCas dentro dos valores normais afastam IAM, mas n&#227;o descartam outros diagn&#243;sticos (por exemplo, AI).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2.2. Admiss&#227;o Confirmada (Rule-In)</title>
            <p>Ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG inicial, pacientes com crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos s&#227;o classificados como SCA confirmada e devem ser submetidos ao manejo, conforme diretrizes espec&#237;ficas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> ; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Entretanto, tais pacientes representam a minoria dos casos. Na maior parte dos pacientes investigados, o ECG n&#227;o &#233; diagn&#243;stico, e procede-se para a rota diagn&#243;stica, que tem como um pilar a avalia&#231;&#227;o seriada de troponina para defini&#231;&#227;o de um poss&#237;vel diagn&#243;stico de IAM.</p>
            <p>Nos casos em que a troponina de alta sensibilidade encontra-se acima do percentil 99 e/ou apresenta varia&#231;&#245;es significativas dentro dos crit&#233;rios de cada <italic>kit</italic> (mesmo que abaixo do percentil 99), esses s&#227;o considerados habitualmente como <italic>rule-in</italic> ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12</xref> ). &#201; importante avaliar se inj&#250;ria cr&#244;nica ou aguda e, nos casos de inj&#250;ria aguda, avaliar crit&#233;rios para o diagn&#243;stico de IAM. Se confirmado o diagn&#243;stico, esses pacientes devem ser tratados conforme as diretrizes de SCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Conforme ilustrado na <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f12">Figura 12</xref> , os algoritmos preferenciais de troponina de alta sensibilidade (0-1 hora e 0-2 horas) classificam os pacientes em tr&#234;s grupos e direcionam conduta subsequente, sempre aliada &#224; avali&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t27">Tabela 27</xref> ). <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref> </sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t27">
              <label>Tabela 27</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Direcionamento dos casos de acordo com algoritmo de troponina</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Na aus&#234;ncia de outras hip&#243;teses diagn&#243;sticas de risco, (ex: angina inst&#225;vel, dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta), os pacientes com avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica-eletrocardiogr&#225;fica "n&#227;o-diagn&#243;stica" e que apresentem classifica&#231;&#227;o compat&#237;vel com <italic>rule-out</italic> em algoritmos de troponina de alta sensibilidade de 0-1 hora ou 0-2 horas, podem ser considerados para alta para investiga&#231;&#227;o complementar em regime ambulatorial, especialmente na aus&#234;ncia de DAC conhecida e escores cl&#237;nico de baixo risco (HEART &#8804; 3).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Pacientes que apresentem classifica&#231;&#227;o compat&#237;vel com <italic>rule-in</italic> em algoritmos de troponina de alta sensibilidade de 0-1 hora ou 0-2 horas devem ter ativamente checados os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de IAM espont&#226;neo (tipo 1 ou 2) e de outras causas de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica, com abordagem inicialmente intra-hospitalar.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Situa&#231;&#245;es que n&#227;o se enquadrem nos grupos de <italic>rule-in</italic> ou <italic>rule-out</italic> (zona "cinza") e/ou quando avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica n&#227;o caracterize baixo risco (por exemplo, escore HEART elevado, suspeita persistente de diagn&#243;sticos potencialmente fatais) devem ser consideradas como probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria e avaliadas de forma individualizada, considerando investiga&#231;&#227;o adicional com exames n&#227;o invasivos (grupo observa&#231;&#227;o).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN24">
                  <p>SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; ECG: eletrocardiograma; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.3. Direcionamento Inicial dos Casos em Zona Intermedi&#225;ria (Observa&#231;&#227;o)</title>
          <p>Na zona intermedi&#225;ria de algoritmos diagn&#243;sticos (ou seja, que n&#227;o permitem classificar como <italic>rule-in</italic> ou <italic>rule-out</italic> ), a probabilidade de IAM &#233; geralmente de 5 a 20%. Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, n&#227;o h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o formal de interna&#231;&#227;o rotineira, entretanto, tamb&#233;m n&#227;o h&#225; seguran&#231;a para liberar o paciente para casa; ferramentas adicionais para guiar o diagn&#243;stico diferencial s&#227;o necess&#225;rias, sendo recomendada a (re)checagem cuidadosa dos crit&#233;rios de IAM espont&#226;neo (tipo 1 ou 2).</p>
          <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de IAM (situa&#231;&#227;o comum nas zonas intermedi&#225;rias dos algoritmos de TCas), n&#227;o h&#225; indica&#231;&#227;o formal de estratifica&#231;&#227;o invasiva e, portanto, a investiga&#231;&#227;o deve prosseguir inicialmente com as seguintes estrat&#233;gias:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Novas dosagens de troponina (eventuais eleva&#231;&#245;es adicionais ap&#243;s a segunda dosagem da troponina poderiam elevar probabilidade de IAM);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma e busca ativa de diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Testes n&#227;o invasivos para avaliar doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria/isquemia mioc&#225;rdica podem ser considerados em pacientes de risco &gt; baixo sem esclarecimento diagn&#243;stico. A escolha do teste n&#227;o invasivo deve se basear principalmente na disponibilidade e experi&#234;ncia de cada centro. Outros fatores podem ajudar nessa decis&#227;o, como o hist&#243;rico ou n&#227;o de (doen&#231;a arterial coronariana) DAC pr&#233;via. Nos casos sem DAC conhecida, a exist&#234;ncia de exame pr&#233;vio recente pode influenciar a decis&#227;o do m&#233;dico em prosseguir ou n&#227;o a investiga&#231;&#227;o ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figura 13</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup> Nos casos com DAC conhecida, a exist&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a obstrutiva (&#8805; 50%, ICP ou RM cir&#250;rgica pr&#233;via) ou n&#227;o tamb&#233;m pode influenciar a escolha do m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">Figura 14</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Esses fluxogramas para escolha do teste preferencial ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figuras 13</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">14</xref> ) tamb&#233;m podem ser utilizados em casos de forte suspeita cl&#237;nica de dor card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica em paciente est&#225;vel que n&#227;o preencheu crit&#233;rios adicionais para SCA (ou seja, troponina e ECG sem altera&#231;&#245;es), mesmo que n&#227;o esteja na categoria da zona "cinza" dos algoritmos de TCas (ex: paciente classificado como "rule-out" pelo algoritmo de TCas mas com crit&#233;rios adicionais de risco/maior probabilidade de SCA).</p>
          <p>Nos casos em que investiga&#231;&#227;o afastou IAM e outros diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais de risco para o paciente, mas persiste a suspeita de SCA e o acesso a exames de imagem sejam mais limitados, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de teste ergom&#233;trico (na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#245;es) pode ajudar a refinar a probabilidade diagn&#243;stica e direcionar para o melhor recurso.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Se, ao final da investiga&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva dos casos de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica aguda, n&#227;o for poss&#237;vel esclarecer o diagn&#243;stico, a cineangiocoronariografia pode ser considerada em casos de alta suspeita cl&#237;nica de IAM (especialmente se exames inconclusivos ap&#243;s investiga&#231;&#227;o ou paciente desenvolver crit&#233;rios de instabilidade durante observa&#231;&#227;o). As principais recomenda&#231;&#245;es para este grupo de probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria est&#227;o na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t28">Tabela 28</xref> .</p>
          <table-wrap id="t28">
            <label>Tabela 28</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Exames iniciais em casos de probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Solicitar pelo mais uma dosagem de troponina (terceira dosagem) e um novo tra&#231;ado de eletrocardiograma (com deriva&#231;&#245;es complementares).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Revisar poss&#237;veis diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais (com apoio de escores diagn&#243;sticos) e solicitar exames conforme probabilidade diagn&#243;stica (por exemplo, D-d&#237;mero na suspeita de TEP com baixa probabilidade pr&#233;-teste).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Se troponina acima do percentil 99, checar de forma sistem&#225;tica crit&#233;rios de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio e tamb&#233;m causas alternativas de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Solicitar ecocardiograma para apoio no esclarecimento diagn&#243;stico de casos indefinidos de probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Realizar exames para investiga&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria e/ou isquemia (preferencialmente n&#227;o invasivos) caso n&#227;o haja esclarecimento diagn&#243;stico ap&#243;s investiga&#231;&#227;o inicial de pacientes com probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">A escolha do teste n&#227;o invasivo deve se basear principalmente na disponibilidade e experi&#234;ncia de cada centro e no hist&#243;rico ou n&#227;o de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria conhecida.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Em pacientes que tenham angiotomografia de coron&#225;rias completamente normal nos &#250;ltimos 2 anos ou teste de estresse sem crit&#233;rios de isquemia e adequado (negativo) no &#250;ltimo ano, pode-se considerar n&#227;o repetir o teste n&#227;o invasivo se sintomas est&#225;veis.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN25">
                <p>TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3.4. O que Fazer nos Casos com Inj&#250;ria Mioc&#225;rdica e Coron&#225;ria sem Obstru&#231;&#245;es?</title>
          <p>Todos os casos com troponina alterada ( <italic>rule-in</italic> e zona intermedi&#225;ria) que apresentaram indica&#231;&#227;o de avalia&#231;&#227;o angiogr&#225;fica (incluindo os casos com crit&#233;rios de IAM) devem ter uma defini&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, mesmo que angiografia n&#227;o demonstre obstru&#231;&#245;es. Dessa forma, nos casos de troponina anormal em que n&#227;o houver obstru&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria na angiografia, os pacientes podem ser classificados inicialmente como TINOCA (do ingl&#234;s, <italic>troponin-positive, nonobstructive coronary arteries</italic> ), grupo que pode ser dividido em tr&#234;s grandes subgrupos:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>MINOCA (infarto do mioc&#225;rdio com coron&#225;rias n&#227;o obstrutivas);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Outras causas card&#237;acas (por exemplo, miocardite, Takotsubo);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Causas extracard&#237;acas.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.4.1. Investiga&#231;&#227;o de Casos de Troponina Elevada sem Obstru&#231;&#227;o Coron&#225;ria (Troponin-Positive Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries - TINOCA ou TpNOCA)</title>
            <p>Cerca de 5 a 15% dos casos diagnosticados como IAM que v&#227;o para cineagiocoronariografia n&#227;o apresentam aterosclerose com obstru&#231;&#227;o &#8805; 50% na avalia&#231;&#227;o angiogr&#225;fica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Muitas vezes, o paciente que vai para angiografia n&#227;o tem o diagn&#243;stico de IAM estabelecido e, por isso, esse grupo maior que apresenta inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e angiografia sem les&#245;es coronarianas com obstru&#231;&#227;o &#8805; 50%, independentemente da etiologia, recebe o nome de TINOCA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> o qual inclui o grupo de MINOCA, quando houver confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de IAM. As recomenda&#231;&#245;es para investiga&#231;&#227;o de TINOCA est&#227;o apresentadas em fluxograma ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">Figura 15</xref> ) e tabela de recomenda&#231;&#245;es ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t29">Tabela 29</xref> ).</p>
            <fig id="f15">
              <label>Figura 15</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Fluxograma de diagn&#243;stico em casos de infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio com coronariografia normal. TEP: tromboembolismo pulmonar; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; RM: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica; IVUS: ultrassonografia intravascular; OCT: tomografia de coer&#234;ncia &#243;ptica.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <table-wrap id="t29">
              <label>Tabela 29</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Investiga&#231;&#227;o adicional de pacientes com inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica e angiografia normal ou com les&#245;es coronarianas &lt; 50%</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Confirmar se, de fato, trata-se de caso de TINOCA (rever imagem da angiografia em busca de obstru&#231;&#227;o, dissec&#231;&#227;o, embolia, trombo coron&#225;rio; checar outros exames em busca de diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais como Takotsubo).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Solicitar resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca e outros exames adicionais conforme suspeita cl&#237;nica (ex.: imagem intracoron&#225;ria e/ou testes para avalia&#231;&#227;o de espasmo ou doen&#231;a microvascular).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4.4. Uso Racional de Testes N&#227;o Invasivos</title>
        <p>A escolha racional de m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos para avalia&#231;&#227;o de SCA &#233; fundamental, tendo em vista que o diagn&#243;stico diferencial de dor tor&#225;cica &#233; amplo e requer uma abordagem estruturada para adequada e r&#225;pida distin&#231;&#227;o entre causas card&#237;acas e n&#227;o card&#237;acas, devido &#224; mortalidade e morbidade associadas &#224;s DCVs. Esses testes podem ser feitos em observa&#231;&#227;o hospitalar ou ambulatorial precoce (dependendo do risco do paciente e disponibilidade de recursos).</p>
        <p>Na observa&#231;&#227;o hospitalar, testes de estresse (f&#237;sico ou farmacol&#243;gico) s&#243; devem ser realizados em pacientes est&#225;veis ap&#243;s afastar IAM com seguran&#231;a (tempo suficiente varia conforme o per&#237;odo de in&#237;cio da dor tor&#225;cica e o tipo de biomarcador utilizado, conforme descrito nas Se&#231;&#245;es 3.3, 4.1, 4.2 e 4.3).</p>
        <p>Nos pacientes eleg&#237;veis com dor tor&#225;cica aguda (ou equivalentes), o uso das t&#233;cnicas n&#227;o invasivas &#233; &#250;til para descartar DAC obstrutiva, para estratificar o risco de desfechos adversos e para diferenciar entre DCVs potencialmente fatais e condi&#231;&#245;es de baixo risco.</p>
        <p>Diversos fatores s&#227;o importantes na decis&#227;o, como a disponibilidade, experi&#234;ncia local, o tipo de apresenta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica e, principalmente, as caracter&#237;sticas dos pacientes e as suas op&#231;&#245;es. Em casos desafiadores, mais de um m&#233;todo pode ser necess&#225;rio, e a interpreta&#231;&#227;o multimodalidade ser&#225; fundamental nessas situa&#231;&#245;es. Por estas raz&#245;es, al&#233;m das orienta&#231;&#245;es gerais para sele&#231;&#227;o do m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f13">Figuras 13</xref> , <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f14">14</xref> e <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">15</xref> ), aspectos espec&#237;ficos de cada m&#233;todo ser&#227;o discutidos em maiores detalhes nesta se&#231;&#227;o, para apoiar a melhor decis&#227;o em cada situa&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica (recomenda&#231;&#245;es centradas no paciente). E, por fim, ao se mencionar m&#233;todos diagn&#243;sticos, o racioc&#237;nio sempre deve ser integrado ao teorema de Bayes, segundo o qual a probabilidade p&#243;s-teste de um evento ou doen&#231;a est&#225; condicionada &#224; sua probabilidade pr&#233;-teste.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4.1. O Papel do Teste de Esfor&#231;o</title>
          <p>O teste de esfor&#231;o (TE) &#233; um m&#233;todo funcional amplamente utilizado para diagn&#243;stico e avalia&#231;&#227;o de risco de eventos em diversos cen&#225;rios cl&#237;nicos, tendo acumulado um robusto conjunto de evid&#234;ncias ao longo de v&#225;rias d&#233;cadas. Apresenta as vantagens de ser bastante acess&#237;vel, menos oneroso e n&#227;o necessitar de exposi&#231;&#227;o &#224; radia&#231;&#227;o ionizante ou contraste.</p>
          <p>No atendimento &#224; dor tor&#225;cica aguda na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia, recorre-se ao TE desde o in&#237;cio dos anos de 1990, tanto como m&#233;todo auxiliar na exclus&#227;o de SCA quanto na estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de morte no curto e m&#233;dio prazos, o que aumenta a seguran&#231;a da alta hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup> Grande parte da evid&#234;ncia dessa aplica&#231;&#227;o se baseia em estudos observacionais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref> </sup> Os raros ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados encontrados s&#227;o, em geral, de centro &#250;nico e com tamanho amostral reduzido, n&#227;o apresentando poder estat&#237;stico adequado para discriminar risco de morte ou infarto n&#227;o fatal entre os grupos estudados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>O processo de estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco em grupos de baixo, intermedi&#225;rio ou alto &#233; por vezes subjetivo, n&#227;o se valendo da aplica&#231;&#227;o dos escores progn&#243;sticos conhecidos, o que pode limitar a ampla aplicabilidade dos resultados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>A despeito das v&#225;rias quest&#245;es metodol&#243;gicas, os trabalhos tinham como crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o apenas pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda com suspeita cl&#237;nica de origem isqu&#234;mica. Diferentes etiologias de dor tor&#225;cica aguda, bem como outras condi&#231;&#245;es em que o TE n&#227;o est&#225; indicado, s&#227;o melhor detalhadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t30">Tabela 30</xref> .</p>
          <table-wrap id="t30">
            <label>Tabela 30</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Condi&#231;&#245;es cl&#237;nicas em que o teste de esfor&#231;o n&#227;o est&#225; indicado na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">TE contraindicado nas seguintes situa&#231;&#245;es:</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor tor&#225;cica claramente de origem traum&#225;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Dissec&#231;&#227;o aguda da aorta</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Embolia pulmonar aguda</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Pericardites e miocardites</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Dor tor&#225;cica associada a estado febril agudo</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Estenose a&#243;rtica grave sintom&#225;tica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Evid&#234;ncias de insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca descompensada</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Sinais de m&#225; perfus&#227;o perif&#233;rica</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Arritmias e HAS n&#227;o controladas</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN26">
                <p>HAS: hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica; PA: press&#227;o arterial; TE: teste de esfor&#231;o.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Os eletrocardiogramas e os biomarcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica seriados devem ser normais ou n&#227;o diagn&#243;sticos de SCA. As altera&#231;&#245;es do ECG basal que afetam a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica do TE para isquemia mioc&#225;rdica est&#227;o arroladas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t31">Tabela 31</xref> .</p>
          <table-wrap id="t31">
            <label>Tabela 31</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Altera&#231;&#245;es no eletrocardiograma de base que limitam a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica do teste de esfor&#231;o para isquemia mioc&#225;rdica</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Limitam a acur&#225;cia do TE:</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Bloqueio de ramo esquerdo</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Sobrecarga ventricular esquerda</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Sobrecarga ventricular direita</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Estimula&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca artificial</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Pr&#233;-excita&#231;&#227;o ventricular</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Fibrila&#231;&#227;o e flutter atriais</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Infradesn&#237;vel de ST de base &#8805; 1 mm</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN27">
                <p>TE: teste de esfor&#231;o.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>Poucos trabalhos inclu&#237;ram uma propor&#231;&#227;o expressiva de indiv&#237;duos acima de 65 anos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref> </sup> com a m&#233;dia de idades variando, em geral, entre 50 e 60 anos. Indiv&#237;duos do sexo masculino predominam na maior parte dos grupos estudados, com propor&#231;&#245;es variando de 40% a 75%.</p>
          <p>As maiores vantagens do TE na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia est&#227;o na sua grande seguran&#231;a e no seu poder de excluir a presen&#231;a de obstru&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria cr&#237;tica. Entretanto, sua capacidade discriminat&#243;ria total &#233; reportada como baixa, considerando-se todos os seus resultados &#8211; positivos, negativos ou inconclusivos &#8211; para isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Existem rar&#237;ssimos estudos abordando subgrupos espec&#237;ficos. Em um trabalho que incluiu apenas mulheres de baixo risco com ECG e troponinas normais, a realiza&#231;&#227;o do TE ou m&#233;todos de imagem n&#227;o melhorou a predi&#231;&#227;o de infarto ou revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em 30 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup> Indiv&#237;duos com doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria conhecida e/ou revasculariza&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;via n&#227;o foram analisados em estudos espec&#237;ficos. &#201; importante ressaltar, no entanto, que esse grupo limita sobremaneira a indica&#231;&#227;o do TE convencional, pois apresenta m&#250;ltiplas comorbidades, altera&#231;&#245;es no ECG de base e uso de medicamentos antianginosos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup> N&#227;o h&#225; estudos convincentes que suportem a indica&#231;&#227;o de TE na dor tor&#225;cica aguda associada ao uso de drogas estimulantes, como coca&#237;na e anfetaminas.</p>
          <p>Uma recente revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica com metan&#225;lise<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup> teve como objetivo analisar a ocorr&#234;ncia de eventos cardiovasculares maiores em at&#233; 1 ano ap&#243;s um exame card&#237;aco negativo, dentre esses o TE. Os autores conclu&#237;ram que pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica de risco baixo a intermedi&#225;rio n&#227;o necessitam de um novo teste na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia, dado o baix&#237;ssimo risco de eventos durante o per&#237;odo. Tendo em vista as limita&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas do teste ergom&#233;trico, esse m&#233;todo tem sido utilizado mais no sentido de refinar a avalia&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica e de probabilidade diagn&#243;stica do que como m&#233;todo para definir ou excluir a presen&#231;a de DAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup> De qualquer maneira, essa informa&#231;&#227;o pode ser muito &#250;til, especialmente em locais com recursos limitados ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t32">Tabela 32</xref> ).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t32">
            <label>Tabela 32</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es de teste ergom&#233;trico na dor tor&#225;cica aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Indica&#231;&#245;es de teste ergom&#233;trico na dor tor&#225;cica aguda</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle"/>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">O teste ergom&#233;trico pode ser recomendado para indiv&#237;duos com dor tor&#225;cica aguda, em que haja suspeita cl&#237;nica de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica com probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria de DAC (ou seja, que n&#227;o tenham sido classificados como baixa ou alta probabilidade de DAC), com ECG e biomarcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica normais e que sejam eleg&#237;veis para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do esfor&#231;o f&#237;sico (idealmente associado a m&#233;todos de imagem).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">O tempo para a realiza&#231;&#227;o do exame deve ser o tempo suficiente para afastar IAM com seguran&#231;a (varia conforme o per&#237;odo de in&#237;cio da dor tor&#225;cica e o tipo de biomarcador utilizado).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda de suposta origem isqu&#234;mica e probabilidade intermedi&#225;ria, admitidos na unidade de emerg&#234;ncia com um TE m&#225;ximo negativo para isquemia realizado nos &#250;ltimos 12 meses, priorizar outro exame conforme suspeita cl&#237;nica (n&#227;o repetir TE <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN29">*</xref> ).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN28">
                <p>DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; ECG: eletrocardiograma; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; TE: teste de esfor&#231;o.</p>
              </fn>
              <fn id="TFN29">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>Desde que n&#227;o haja mudan&#231;a relevante em rela&#231;&#227;o ao quadro cl&#237;nico pregresso.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4.2. Papel da Ecocardiografia na Avalia&#231;&#227;o da Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
          <p>O papel do ecocardiograma em repouso na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes na sala de emerg&#234;ncia com dor tor&#225;cica se alicer&#231;a em v&#225;rios estudos publicados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref> </sup> Estudos iniciais demonstraram valor da observa&#231;&#227;o das altera&#231;&#245;es transit&#243;rias da motilidade segmentar do VE como marcadores precisos de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e, em estudos mais recentes, utilizando a ecocardiografia com agentes de realce mioc&#225;rdico, demonstrou-se que a perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica se mostrou &#250;til para determinar o diagn&#243;stico e prognostico da dor tor&#225;cica de origem card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Kalvaitis et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup> avaliaram 957 pacientes que se apresentaram &#224; sala de emerg&#234;ncia com quadro cl&#237;nico de dor precordial com dura&#231;&#227;o menor de 12h e ECG inconclusivo e troponina normal ou discretamente alterada. Tiveram como base fisiopatol&#243;gica a observa&#231;&#227;o de que a maior parte da motilidade regional observada em repouso deriva do espessamento da por&#231;&#227;o mais endoc&#225;rdica do mioc&#225;rdio e que os eventos isqu&#234;micos que afetam o mioc&#225;rdio sempre come&#231;am na camada subendoc&#225;rdica caminhando para a regi&#227;o subepic&#225;rdica, fen&#244;meno conhecido por frente de onda da necrose mioc&#225;rdica. Dessa forma, &#225;reas isqu&#234;micas t&#227;o pequenas quanto as que afetam 20 a 30% da espessura mioc&#225;rdica j&#225; s&#227;o capazes de causar significativa altera&#231;&#227;o na motilidade regional,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup> que persiste por v&#225;rias horas ap&#243;s a injuria isqu&#234;mica original, tendo sido demonstrada a presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es na motilidade em 97% dos pacientes com infarto. Nesse mesmo estudo, nos 500 pacientes sem altera&#231;&#245;es na motilidade, em somente 2 casos foram confirmados pequenos infartos que n&#227;o tinham sido detectados. Dessa forma, ao final de 12 horas do in&#237;cio da primeira dor precordial, o valor preditivo negativo para a presen&#231;a de infarto nessa popula&#231;&#227;o foi de 94%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Por outro lado, nem sempre as altera&#231;&#245;es na motilidade significam presen&#231;a de infarto, podendo significar, por exemplo, os efeitos da isquemia transit&#243;ria sobre o mioc&#225;rdio. As altera&#231;&#245;es prolongadas da motilidade ventricular apresentam mais clara consequ&#234;ncia progn&#243;stica. Estudo de Rinkevich et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup> avaliou 1.017 pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica, ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico e troponina normal ou discretamente alterada. Destes, 292 (28,7%) tiveram eventos em um acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 7,7 meses. Infarto ocorreu em 13,1%, AI em 6,7%, morte em 1,9% e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca (IC) em 3,7%. Ainda, 2% precisaram de interven&#231;&#227;o percut&#226;nea, e 1,3%, de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o cir&#250;rgica do mioc&#225;rdio. J&#225; de 43 pacientes que sofreram eventos e n&#227;o possu&#237;am altera&#231;&#227;o na motilidade regional, somente 10 tiveram pequenos infartos. Quando a motilidade e perfus&#227;o eram normais, as taxas de eventos card&#237;acos de 1 a 2 anos foram de 9,8% e 12,6%. A maioria dos eventos era de natureza "suave". Essas taxas aumentaram, respectivamente, para 18,9% e 21% quando motilidade era normal, mas perfus&#227;o era anormal, e para 40,1% e 48,8% quando motilidade era anormal, mas perfus&#227;o era normal. Finalmente, essas taxas aumentaram ainda mais, para 64,7% (1 ano) e 74,4% (2 anos) quando ambas motilidade e perfus&#227;o eram anormais.</p>
          <p>Quando se busca tamb&#233;m o diagn&#243;stico de AI (al&#233;m de infarto) em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica e ECG inconclusivo, a sensibilidade do ecocardiograma passa a variar de 40 a 90%, sendo que o valor preditivo negativo fica entre 50 e 99%. Nesses pacientes, um ecocardiograma normal n&#227;o parece agregar informa&#231;&#245;es diagn&#243;sticas significativas, al&#233;m daquelas j&#225; fornecidas pela hist&#243;ria e ECG.</p>
          <p>Estudos sobre a utiliza&#231;&#227;o do ecocardiograma de estresse com dobutamina na avalia&#231;&#227;o de uma popula&#231;&#227;o heterog&#234;nea com dor tor&#225;cica s&#227;o extensos. Sua sensibilidade para o diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;a coronariana ou isquemia mioc&#225;rdica detectada por outros m&#233;todos &#233; de 90%, com especificidade variando de 80 a 90% e valor preditivo negativo de 98% (este &#250;ltimo varia conforme probabilidade pr&#233;-teste). &#201; um m&#233;todo muito &#250;til para defini&#231;&#227;o do progn&#243;stico e oferece seguran&#231;a para liberar o paciente que necessita estratifica&#231;&#227;o n&#227;o invasiva.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m da an&#225;lise mioc&#225;rdica, o ecocardiograma &#233; muito &#250;til na an&#225;lise do peric&#225;rdio. Importante relembrar que este &#233; constitu&#237;do pelas camadas visceral (composta por c&#233;lulas mesoteliais aderidas ao epic&#225;rdio) e parietal (estrutura fibrosa de col&#225;geno e elastina, com espessura menor que 2 mm), separadas por um espa&#231;o que, normalmente, cont&#233;m de 15 a 35 mL de l&#237;quido seroso. Nesse cen&#225;rio, o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico &#233; de especial import&#226;ncia, primeiramente por excluir a presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#245;es na motilidade segmentar e, por fim, por permitir a observa&#231;&#227;o de derrame peric&#225;rdico, seu espessamento e a presen&#231;a de sinais inflamat&#243;rios, como traves ou grumos no interior do saco peric&#225;rdico.</p>
          <p>Na suspeita de SAA, o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico pode identificar complica&#231;&#245;es (por exemplo, regurgita&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica, tamponamento), mas sua acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica para SAA &#233; limitada (sensibilidade: 78%&#8211;100% para o tipo A, 31%-55% para o tipo B). J&#225; a ecocardiografia transesof&#225;gica tem acur&#225;cia &gt; 90% e &#233; conveniente para uso &#224; beira do leito.</p>
          <p>No TEP, o ecocardiograma permite identifica&#231;&#227;o de trombos m&#243;veis em c&#226;maras direitas, no tronco e/ou nos ramos principais da art&#233;ria pulmonar (especialmente pela via transesof&#225;gica), entretanto, estes achados est&#227;o presentes numa minoria dos casos. A avalia&#231;&#227;o ecocardiogr&#225;fica funcional e das dimens&#245;es do VD &#233; limitada, o que gera varia&#231;&#227;o na literatura sobre a <italic>performance</italic> do ecocardiograma. De qualquer forma, as anormalidades s&#243; s&#227;o identificadas em casos mais graves (com repercuss&#227;o em c&#226;maras direitas) ao mesmo tempo que sobrecarga ventricular direita pode ser identificada tamb&#233;m na aus&#234;ncia de embolia pulmonar (doen&#231;a card&#237;aca ou pulmonar concomitante). Tendo em vista esses aspectos, o ecocardiograma tem grande valor na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco ap&#243;s o diagn&#243;stico de TEP. Do ponto de vista diagn&#243;stico, o ecocardiograma tem valor distinto no paciente est&#225;vel e inst&#225;vel com suspeita de TEP:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Pacientes com estabilidade hemodin&#226;mica: &#233; um m&#233;todo que ajuda no diagn&#243;stico diferencial de dispneia e dor tor&#225;cica e pode eventualmente flagrar comprometimento de c&#226;maras direitas em paciente aparentemente est&#225;vel ao exame cl&#237;nico. Os sinais &#8216;60/60&#8217; (combina&#231;&#227;o de um tempo de acelera&#231;&#227;o da art&#233;ria pulmonar de &lt; 60 ms com um pico de gradiente da valva tric&#250;spide sist&#243;lica de &lt; 60 mmHg) e de McConnell (hipocinesia da parede livre em compara&#231;&#227;o com o "&#225;pice ecocardiogr&#225;fico" do VD) t&#234;m valor diagn&#243;stico, embora sejam pouco frequentes em casos de TEP n&#227;o selecionados (10 a 20% dos casos);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Pacientes com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica: o ecocardiograma tem valor diagn&#243;stico mais elevado nestes casos, uma vez que a aus&#234;ncia de sinais de sobrecarga ou disfun&#231;&#227;o do VD praticamente exclui TEP como causa da instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica &#8211; especialmente se associada a um Doppler de membros inferiores sem sinais de trombose venosa profunda. Al&#233;m de ser muito &#250;til para afastar TEP em paciente inst&#225;vel, os casos hemodinamicamente comprometidos com suspeita de TEP e que apresentam sinais inequ&#237;vocos de sobrecarga press&#243;rica do VD, especialmente com achados ecocardiogr&#225;ficos mais espec&#237;ficos (sinal 60/60, sinal de McConnell ou trombo vis&#237;vel), podem justificar o tratamento de reperfus&#227;o de emerg&#234;ncia quando a angiotomografia imediata n&#227;o &#233; vi&#225;vel em um paciente com alta probabilidade e nenhuma outra causa &#243;bvia para a sobrecarga de press&#227;o do VD. Nesse sentido, o pr&#243;prio ecocardiograma pode ser muito &#250;til para afastar outras causas de choque, como tamponamento, disfun&#231;&#227;o valvar aguda, disfun&#231;&#227;o do VE, dissec&#231;&#227;o a&#243;rtica e hipovolemia.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Dessa forma, h&#225; diversas recomenda&#231;&#245;es para uso do ecocardiograma na investiga&#231;&#227;o da dor tor&#225;cica na emerg&#234;ncia ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t33">Tabela 33</xref> ), sendo &#250;til para avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica das DCVs potencialmente fatais, como SCA, pericardite/tamponamento, dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta e embolia pulmonar.</p>
          <table-wrap id="t33">
            <label>Tabela 33</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es de ecocardiograma na dor tor&#225;cica aguda</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Nos pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, nos quais o eletrocardiograma e a troponina sejam inconclusivos e persiste a suspeita, um ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico em repouso, com ou sem agentes de realce mioc&#225;rdico, deve ser recomendado em at&#233; 12 horas do in&#237;cio da dor, a fim avaliar a altera&#231;&#245;es isqu&#234;micas.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Nos pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, nos quais j&#225; se exclui a possibilidade de necrose e de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica de repouso, por aus&#234;ncia de sinais ecocardiogr&#225;ficos ou eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos de isquemia, um exame sob estresse indutor de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, farmacol&#243;gico ou sob esfor&#231;o pode ser utilizado antes da alta, quando n&#227;o houver seguran&#231;a para investiga&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Uso do ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico para o diagn&#243;stico de pericardite aguda naqueles pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, associada a outros achados, como mol&#233;stia febril aguda, com ou sem queda do estado geral, e caracter&#237;stica f&#225;sica respirat&#243;ria dessa dor, com ou sem altera&#231;&#245;es caracter&#237;sticas do segmento ST/T ao eletrocardiograma de repouso.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4.3. Cintilografia de Perfus&#227;o Mioc&#225;rdica (SPECT) e Tomografia por Emiss&#227;o de P&#243;sitrons (PET-CT)</title>
          <p>Entre os exames funcionais que podem ser aplicados a pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda destacam-se os exames de medicina nuclear utilizados para avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica: cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica com 99mTc-sestamibi e a tomografia por emiss&#227;o de p&#243;sitrons com 82Rub&#237;dio ou 13N-Am&#244;nia, ainda limitada em nosso meio. Esses exames de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de repouso isoladamente ou de estresse associado ao repouso, t&#234;m sido utilizados com seguran&#231;a e efic&#225;cia na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, tendo sido testados em estudos randomizados multic&#234;ntricos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref> </sup> As caracter&#237;sticas principais dos estudos de medicina nuclear nesse contexto s&#227;o de um m&#233;todo com elevada sensibilidade para detec&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e excelente capacidade progn&#243;stica.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.3.1. Indica&#231;&#245;es para o uso de Testes de Medicina Nuclear</title>
            <p>Ap&#243;s a avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial padr&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia (anamnese, exame cl&#237;nico, ECG e marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica), um percentual desses indiv&#237;duos ainda apresenta risco consider&#225;vel de doen&#231;a coronariana. Esses pacientes requerem avalia&#231;&#227;o por m&#233;todos de imagem de forma a fim de identificar aqueles com s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda e aqueles com maior risco de eventos adversos. Da mesma forma que a avalia&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica com a angiotomografia das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias (CTA), a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos funcionais &#233; especialmente &#250;til na identifica&#231;&#227;o desse grupo de pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Uma das indica&#231;&#245;es mais consistentes para o uso da cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda &#233; em pacientes sem diagn&#243;stico de DAC pr&#233;via e que t&#234;m um risco intermedi&#225;rio de DAC. Nesse caso, o uso da cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de estresse e de repouso &#233; consolidado como uma t&#233;cnica &#250;til e eficaz.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup> Em estudo unic&#234;ntrico, o uso da cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda teve a mesma seguran&#231;a e efetividade que o uso da CTA, n&#227;o apresentando diferen&#231;as no acompanhamento de desfechos adversos em 40 meses de acompanhamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref></sup> Outros estudos comparativos entre CTA e cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica tamb&#233;m mostraram que as t&#233;cnicas s&#227;o compar&#225;veis e que a t&#233;cnica de avalia&#231;&#227;o da anatomia coronariana tem um potencial de aumento de angiografias invasivas e revasculariza&#231;&#245;es. Da mesma forma, na investiga&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial, h&#225; tamb&#233;m evid&#234;ncias que colocam a medicina nuclear como boa op&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref> </sup> No estudo CE MARC 2 ( <italic>Clinical Evaluation of Magnetic Resonance imaging in Coronary heart disease</italic> 2), o teste funcional com cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica ou RM levou a taxas mais baixas de angiografias desnecess&#225;rias, sem aumento significativo de eventos coron&#225;rios adversos maiores.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup> No estudo PROMISE ( <italic>PROspective Multicenter Imaging Study for Evaluation of Chest Pain</italic> ), que incluiu 10 mil pacientes sintom&#225;ticos com suspeita de DAC, uma estrat&#233;gia de CTA inicial, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o teste funcional, n&#227;o melhorou os desfechos cl&#237;nicos ao longo de um acompanhamento m&#233;dio de 2 anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Uma t&#233;cnica avaliada em estudo randomizado e que, quando dispon&#237;vel, &#233; bastante &#250;til, &#233; a imagem de perfus&#227;o com sestamibi em repouso durante epis&#243;dio de dor tor&#225;cica aguda. As imagens normais auxiliam na tomada de decis&#227;o de triagem de emerg&#234;ncia para pacientes com sintomas sugestivos de isquemia card&#237;aca aguda sem anormalidades no ECG inicial, e reduzem as interna&#231;&#245;es desnecess&#225;rias em pacientes sem isquemia aguda, sem reduzir a admiss&#227;o apropriada para pacientes com isquemia aguda.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup> Usando essa t&#233;cnica, conseguimos descartar IAM em 98% dos pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup> Embora avalie isquemia e n&#227;o necessariamente necrose (infarto), a indica&#231;&#227;o deste exame tende a reduzir com o uso mais amplo de algoritmos de descarte precoce com troponina card&#237;aca de alta sensibilidade.</p>
            <p>Outra indica&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica robusta para uso da cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de estresse em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica de risco intermedi&#225;rio na sala de emerg&#234;ncia &#233; nos casos em que foi realizada uma estratifica&#231;&#227;o anat&#244;mica inicial com CTA ou angiografia invasiva e cujo resultado seja inconclusivo Nesses casos, o uso da cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de estresse ou da PET-CT de perfus&#227;o com estresse &#233; capaz de avaliar a funcionalidade da les&#227;o coronariana e determinar se ela &#233; causadora de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica e dos sintomas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Outra importante indica&#231;&#227;o para uso da cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de estresse e repouso (SPECT, do ingl&#234;s <italic>single photon emission computed tomography</italic> ) &#233; para avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia em pacientes com DAC conhecida ou daqueles em que j&#225; se saiba que h&#225; uma elevada carga de c&#225;lcio nas art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, seja por uma tomografia de t&#243;rax pr&#233;via ou um escore de c&#225;lcio elevado.</p>
            <p>O PET-CT, apesar de ainda incipiente no cen&#225;rio nacional, tem como grande vantagem a capacidade de mensurar a reserva de fluxo coronariano, aumentando a sensibilidade da t&#233;cnica em rela&#231;&#227;o ao SPECT, incluindo tamb&#233;m a possibilidade de avalia&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a coronariana microvascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup> Estudos recentes t&#234;m sugerido que a avalia&#231;&#227;o da doen&#231;a microvascular com c&#226;maras de CZT SPECT t&#234;m valor progn&#243;stico para pacientes com doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica em coron&#225;rias n&#227;o obstrutivas (INOCA), o que pode permitir a estratifica&#231;&#227;o para preven&#231;&#227;o e interven&#231;&#227;o precoce.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref> </sup> Essa t&#233;cnica pode ser uma alternativa em cen&#225;rios em que n&#227;o h&#225; acesso ao PET-CT, permitindo a avalia&#231;&#227;o da reserva de fluxo mioc&#225;rdica e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Em resumo, as t&#233;cnicas de medicina nuclear s&#227;o parte importante na investiga&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda na emerg&#234;ncia para avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica com ou sem doen&#231;a obstrutiva epic&#225;rdica ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t34">Tabela 34</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t34">
              <label>Tabela 34</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para uso das t&#233;cnicas de medicina nuclear em cardiologia em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda na emerg&#234;ncia</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Para pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio com dor tor&#225;cica aguda e sem DAC conhecida, o uso do PET/SPECT de estresse &#233; &#250;til para o diagn&#243;stico de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Para pacientes com risco intermedi&#225;rio com dor tor&#225;cica aguda presente ou at&#233; em 2 horas do desaparecimento da dor e com marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica iniciais negativos, &#233; &#250;til a realiza&#231;&#227;o de administra&#231;&#227;o do radiotra&#231;ador durante a dor tor&#225;cica para afastar isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Para pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio com dor tor&#225;cica aguda e DAC conhecida, que apresentam novos sintomas ou piora dos sintomas, PET/SPECT de estresse pode ser considerada para avalia&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Para pacientes de risco intermedi&#225;rio, com dor tor&#225;cica aguda e sem DAC conhecida, com angiografia (invasiva ou n&#227;o invasiva) inconclusiva, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de PET/SPECT de estresse pode ser &#250;til para o diagn&#243;stico de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN30">
                  <p>DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Os achados de alto risco na cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica de perfus&#227;o em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda geralmente indicam uma alta probabilidade de DAC significativa ou eventos cardiovasculares adversos iminentes. Entre os achados associados a um pior progn&#243;stico, destacamos:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Isquemia mioc&#225;rdica extensa: uma extens&#227;o dos defeitos de perfus&#227;o que ultrapasse 10% do mioc&#225;rdio ou que envolva m&#250;ltiplos territ&#243;rios coronarianos;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Diminui&#231;&#227;o da fra&#231;&#227;o de eje&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda (FEVE) ap&#243;s estresse em pelo menos 10% em rela&#231;&#227;o ao repouso;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda transit&#243;ria.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Em geral, a presen&#231;a de quaisquer desses achados sugere a presen&#231;a de les&#245;es anat&#244;micas de alto risco e um potencial benef&#237;cio de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, sendo indicada a avalia&#231;&#227;o angiogr&#225;fica da anatomia coronariana.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Um ponto novo e de r&#225;pido desenvolvimento &#233; a adi&#231;&#227;o da avalia&#231;&#227;o da reserva de fluxo coronariano aos exames funcionais de cardiologia nuclear. A reserva de fluxo coronariano (RFC), medida por meio do PET-CT de perfus&#227;o, desempenha um papel importante na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia. A RFC &#233; uma medida da capacidade das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias de dilatar e aumentar o fluxo sangu&#237;neo em resposta a uma demanda aumentada, como durante estresse ou exerc&#237;cio. Ela fornece informa&#231;&#245;es valiosas sobre o estado funcional da circula&#231;&#227;o coronariana e pode auxiliar na avalia&#231;&#227;o da gravidade e progn&#243;stico da DAC e na avalia&#231;&#227;o da disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular. Outro ponto importante &#233; que a RFC reduzida est&#225; associada a um maior risco de eventos cardiovasculares futuros, incluindo infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, IC e morte card&#237;aca. Ela serve como um preditor independente de desfechos adversos, mesmo em pacientes com art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias normais ou DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva. A RFC pode ajudar a identificar indiv&#237;duos com maior risco, que podem se beneficiar de estrat&#233;gias de tratamento mais agressivas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref> </sup> H&#225; demonstra&#231;&#227;o de que a disponibilidade de PET-MPI (imagem de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica) para realiza&#231;&#227;o de exames de pacientes da emerg&#234;ncia foi associada a um aumento do n&#250;mero de encaminhamentos para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda, bem como a um tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o mais curto. Al&#233;m disso, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de PET-CT foi associada a uma redu&#231;&#227;o de 40% no uso de testes adicionais, em compara&#231;&#227;o com o uso do SPECT em pacientes avaliados com dor tor&#225;cica aguda no PS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Na Figura S8 , ilustramos o caso de um paciente com dor tor&#225;cica aguda admitido com ECG e marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica normais. A cintilografia de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica de estresse f&#237;sico demonstrou defeitos revers&#237;veis de perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica em territ&#243;rio da art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria direita, correspondendo a 20% do mioc&#225;rdio. A coronariografia demonstrou obstru&#231;&#227;o de 90% na art&#233;ria coron&#225;ria direita, que foi tratada com <italic>stent</italic> farmacol&#243;gico.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.3.2. Considera&#231;&#245;es Especiais em Mulheres com Dor Tor&#225;cica Aguda</title>
            <p>Um ponto adicional deve ser destacado para investiga&#231;&#227;o de DAC atrav&#233;s das t&#233;cnicas funcionais: as mulheres s&#227;o mais propensas a ter DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva em compara&#231;&#227;o aos homens. Isso deve ser levado em considera&#231;&#227;o para que a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de m&#233;todos anat&#244;micos de avalia&#231;&#227;o das coron&#225;rias n&#227;o acarrete diagn&#243;sticos inadequados. A DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva est&#225; associada a maior risco de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio e mortalidade em compara&#231;&#227;o a aus&#234;ncia de DAC.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup> Para a avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica persistente e DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva, o PET MPI com avalia&#231;&#227;o da reserva de fluxo coronariano pode ser utilizado para diagnosticar disfun&#231;&#227;o microvascular e melhorar a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco. Estudos com as c&#226;maras de CZT SPECT sugerem que esta t&#233;cnica pode ser uma poss&#237;vel alternativa para situa&#231;&#245;es em que o PET-CT n&#227;o esteja acess&#237;vel.</p>
            <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o a diagn&#243;sticos n&#227;o card&#237;acos no protocolo de dor tor&#225;cica, a cintilografia pulmonar de ventila&#231;&#227;o e perfus&#227;o &#233; um m&#233;todo n&#227;o invasivo, classicamente utilizado para a estratifica&#231;&#227;o da probabilidade de embolia pulmonar, ao analisar o n&#250;mero de segmentos pulmonares acometidos, permitindo classificar a probabilidade de doen&#231;a em ausente (normal), baixa, m&#233;dia ou alta. Deve ser interpretada com base na probabilidade pr&#233;-teste (escores Wells, Genebra), sendo uma alternativa muito &#250;til, especialmente nos casos com limita&#231;&#245;es para realiza&#231;&#227;o ou an&#225;lise da angiotomografia computadorizada para investiga&#231;&#227;o de TEP.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4.4. Tomografia Computadorizada Cardiovascular</title>
          <p>O uso da tomografia computadorizada cardiovascular (CTA) para an&#225;lise da luz das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias de maneira n&#227;o invasiva j&#225; se encontra estabelecido na literatura. Como bem demonstrado por diversos estudos, h&#225; excelente acur&#225;cia da angiografia por CTA das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, quando comparada &#224; angiografia convencional, para o diagn&#243;stico de estenose em pacientes de baixo a moderado risco cardiovascular, com destaque para seu alto valor preditivo negativo ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t35">Tabela 35</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref> </sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t35">
            <label>Tabela 35</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Sum&#225;rio dos trials multic&#234;ntricos sobre acur&#225;cia da CTA em detectar estenose coron&#225;ria (50% de estreitamento luminal) em pacientes de baixo a intermedi&#225;rio risco sem diagn&#243;stico pr&#233;vio de doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="20%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">ESTUDO</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Sensibilidade %</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">VPN %</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Especificidade%</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">VPP%</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">CATSCAN (Garcia et al., 2006). 7 Pa&#237;ses, 11 centros<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">94 (89-100)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">98 (94-100)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">51 (43-59)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">28 (19-36)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">NIMISCAD (Marano et al., 2009). 20 centros na It&#225;lia<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">94 (89-97)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">91 (85-95)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">88 (81-93)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">91 (86-95)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">ACCURACY (Budoff et al., 2008). 16 centros nos EUA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">95 (85-99)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">99 (96-100)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">83 (76-88)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">64(53-75)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">CORE64 (Miller et al., 2008). 7 Pa&#237;ses, 9 centros<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">85 (79-90)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">83 (75-89)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">90 (83-94)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">91 (86-95)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Meijboom et al. (2008). 3 centros na Holanda<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup></td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">99 (98-100)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">97 (94-100)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">4 (55-73)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">86 (82-90)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>O uso da CTA na avalia&#231;&#227;o da dor tor&#225;cica aguda foi avaliado de forma segura em diversos estudos, na estratifica&#231;&#227;o, redu&#231;&#227;o de custo e diminui&#231;&#227;o do tempo de perman&#234;ncia intra-hospitalar. Estudos prospectivos, controlados e randomizados avaliaram seu uso no contexto da dor tor&#225;cica no PS em pacientes de baixo a intermedi&#225;rio risco, associado ao uso da troponina convencional negativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup> Em destaque, temos tr&#234;s estudos.</p>
          <p>O primeiro estudo &#233; o multic&#234;ntrico CT-STAT ( <italic>Coronary Computed Tomographic Angiography for Systematic Triage of Acute Chest Pain Patients to Treatment</italic> ), que randomizou 699 pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica de baixo risco para estrat&#233;gias de estratifica&#231;&#227;o utilizando a CTA ou a cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica de repouso e estresse.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup> A estrat&#233;gia com a CTA reduziu em 54% o tempo para o diagn&#243;stico e em 38% os custos da interna&#231;&#227;o, sem que houvesse diferen&#231;a na taxa de eventos adversos com rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; estrat&#233;gia com a cintilografia.</p>
          <p>O segundo estudo foi o multic&#234;ntrico ACRIN-PA ( <italic>Angiography for Safe Discharge of Patients with Possible Acute Coronary Syndromes</italic> ), que teve como objetivo prim&#225;rio avaliar a seguran&#231;a da utiliza&#231;&#227;o da CTA na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica de risco baixo a intermedi&#225;rio (TIMI RISK 0 a 2), em compara&#231;&#227;o com a abordagem tradicional.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup> Nenhum dos pacientes com CTA normal apresentou o desfecho prim&#225;rio (morte card&#237;aca ou infarto nos primeiros 30 dias ap&#243;s a admiss&#227;o). Al&#233;m disso, os pacientes do grupo CTA tiveram maior taxa de alta das unidades de emerg&#234;ncia (49,6% <italic>versus</italic> 22,7%) e menor tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o (18 horas <italic>versus</italic> 24,8 horas, p &lt; 0,0001), sem diferen&#231;a no n&#250;mero de revasculariza&#231;&#245;es ou cateterismos.</p>
          <p>O terceiro estudo foi o ROMICAT-II ( <italic>Rule Out Myocardial I schemia/Infarction by Computer Assisted Tomography</italic> ), que avaliou, em grupos semelhantes de pacientes, o tempo de perman&#234;ncia na emerg&#234;ncia e os custos hospitalares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup> Esse estudo incluiu 1.000 pacientes, com idade m&#233;dia de 54 anos, sendo o tempo de perman&#234;ncia hospitalar significativamente menor nos pacientes estratificados para CTA, quando comparados ao grupo submetido &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o tradicional (23,2 &#177; 37,0 horas <italic>versus</italic> 30,8 &#177; 28,0 horas, p = 0,0002). O tempo at&#233; a exclus&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico de SCA tamb&#233;m foi menor no grupo submetido &#224; CTA (17,2 &#177; 24,6 horas <italic>versus</italic> 27,2 &#177; 19,5 horas, p &lt; 0,0001). Em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224;s metas de seguran&#231;a, n&#227;o houve qualquer diferen&#231;a entre os grupos. No grupo estratificado pela CTA, houve aumento significativo dos pacientes que receberam alta hospitalar diretamente da emerg&#234;ncia (46,7% <italic>versus</italic> 12,4%, p = 0,001). O uso de outros testes diagn&#243;sticos foi significativamente maior no grupo submetido &#224; CTA (97% <italic>versus</italic> 82%, p &lt; 0,001). No entanto, apesar do custo mais elevado associado ao maior n&#250;mero de cateterismos e revasculariza&#231;&#245;es, os custos globais foram muito similares entre os dois grupos, devido ao menor tempo de perman&#234;ncia hospitalar (p = 0,65).</p>
          <p>Em resumo, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da CTA &#233; uma estrat&#233;gia segura na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda de risco baixo a intermedi&#225;rio, com troponina convencional negativa (sem crit&#233;rios de alta sensibilidade), reduzindo a taxa e o tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o e, provavelmente, os custos. O impacto sobre o n&#250;mero de procedimentos invasivos e a taxa de revasculariza&#231;&#227;o ainda &#233; conflitante, apesar de n&#227;o aumentar mortalidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>O HEART <italic>score,</italic> para estratifica&#231;&#227;o da dor tor&#225;cica em pacientes na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, tem ganhado amplo uso com o apoio das atuais diretrizes. A associa&#231;&#227;o do HEART <italic>score</italic> com a CTA foi avaliado por alguns <italic>trials</italic> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref> </sup> Em uma an&#225;lise dos principais estudos que utilizaram essa ferramenta na predi&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares em 30 dias, verificou-se que em pacientes com HEART <italic>score</italic> entre 3 a 6 pontos, quando direcionados para a CTA, a tomografia mostrou uma capacidade do m&#233;todo para diagn&#243;stico de estenose coron&#225;ria acima de 50%, com sensibilidade de 97,8%, especificidade de 84,1% e valor preditivo negativo de 99,6%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup> Dessa forma, o uso associado do HEART <italic>score</italic> &#224; CTA de coron&#225;rias tem sua valida&#231;&#227;o, principalmente em pacientes de baixo a intermedi&#225;rio risco, com elevado valor preditivo negativo para eventos cardiovasculares, especialmente naqueles estratificados com HEART <italic>score</italic> entre 3 a 6.</p>
          <p>Portanto, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o da CTA na avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda de risco baixo a intermedi&#225;rio, com ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico e marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica convencionais (ou seja, n&#227;o TCas) abaixo do percentil 99 ("negativos"), tem a indica&#231;&#227;o como Classe I, com n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia A.</p>
          <p>O uso da CTA de coron&#225;rias na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica associada a eleva&#231;&#227;o da troponina convencional e, pelo menos, um fator de risco cl&#237;nico cardiovascular, foi avaliado pelo VERDICT <italic>trial</italic> ( <italic>Very Early versus Deferred Invasive Evaluation Using Computerized Tomography</italic> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B192">192</xref></sup> Este estudo comparou a capacidade da CTA em identificar estenose coron&#225;ria &#8805; 50%, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; estrat&#233;gia convencional com uso do cateterismo, tanto nas primeiras horas (inferior a 12 horas) de interna&#231;&#227;o, como na fase tardia, ap&#243;s 48-72 horas. O valor preditivo negativo foi similar nas duas estrat&#233;gias para identificar les&#245;es &#8805; 50% (VPN de 90,9% com 12 horas) e com alto valor preditivo positivo para les&#245;es multiarteriais. Portanto, nesse estudo, o uso da CTA em pacientes com altera&#231;&#245;es da troponina teve alta acur&#225;cia para afastar doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria significativa e auxiliar no manejo cl&#237;nico desses pacientes de forma precoce.</p>
          <p>Entretanto, a ado&#231;&#227;o dessa estrat&#233;gia n&#227;o foi testada em seu impacto cl&#237;nico e progn&#243;stico ap&#243;s alta. Por isso, o RAPID-CTCA <italic>trial (Rapid Assessment of Potential Ischaemic Heart Disease with CT Coronary Angiography</italic> )<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup> testou a estrat&#233;gia do uso de CTA <italic>versus</italic> manejo convencional em pacientes com diagn&#243;stico de s&#237;ndrome coronariana sem eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST (com eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina convencional). Os dados deste estudo mostram que a estrat&#233;gia com uso de CTA n&#227;o reduziu o desfecho prim&#225;rio proposto (mortalidade por todas as causas ou IAM tipo 1 ou 4b no per&#237;odo de 1 ano), com incid&#234;ncia de 5,8% para CTA <italic>versus</italic> 6,1% para tratamento convencional (p = 0,65) ou revasculariza&#231;&#245;es ( <italic>odds ratio</italic> 1,03; IC 0,87-1,21). Por&#233;m, reduziu o n&#250;mero de cateterismos ( <italic>odds</italic> ratio 0,81; IC 0,72-0,92), &#224; custa do aumento discreto do tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o de 2 para 2,2 dias.</p>
          <p>O uso da TCas tem ganhado espa&#231;o nas salas de emerg&#234;ncia por trazer seguran&#231;a para a alta hospitalar quando negativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup> Poucos estudos t&#234;m avaliado o uso da CTA nesse contexto. O BEACON <italic>trial (Better Evaluation of Acute Chest Pain with Computed Tomography Angiography</italic> ), estudo multic&#234;ntrico randomizado, avaliou o uso da CTA na sala de emerg&#234;ncia em pacientes de baixo a intermedi&#225;rio risco que ap&#243;s troponina de alta sensibilidade negativa eram randomizados para realiza&#231;&#227;o de CTA ou abordagem padr&#227;o na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, tendo como objetivo prim&#225;rio avaliar o n&#250;mero de revasculariza&#231;&#245;es em 30 dias.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup> O uso da CTA nesse cen&#225;rio n&#227;o resultou em diferen&#231;as no n&#250;mero de revasculariza&#231;&#245;es ou de SCA n&#227;o detectadas e nem no n&#250;mero de altas da unidade de emerg&#234;ncia (65% <italic>versus</italic> 59%, p = 0,16), e apresentou tempo similar de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar em ambos os grupos (6,3 horas). Por&#233;m, o uso de CTA conseguiu reduzir os custos de atendimento (337 v <italic>ersus</italic> 511 euros, p &lt; 0,01) e testes adicionais ap&#243;s alta hospitalar (4% <italic>versus</italic> 10%, p &lt; 0,01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Portanto, a CTA, aplicada no in&#237;cio da investiga&#231;&#227;o de suspeita de SCA na sala de emerg&#234;ncia, &#233; segura e associada a menos testes e menores custos, devido &#224; menor necessidade de investiga&#231;&#227;o complementar a n&#237;vel ambulatorial. No entanto, em pacientes com dosagens de troponina de alta sensibilidade negativas, a tomografia de coron&#225;rias n&#227;o identificou mais pacientes com DAC significativa requerendo revasculariza&#231;&#227;o coronariana, nem encurtou a interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar ou permitiu maior propor&#231;&#227;o de altas a partir do PS, quando comparada &#224; estrat&#233;gia convencional. Por outro lado, o estudo randomizado PRECISE-CCTA ( <italic>Prospective Randomized Trial of the Optimal Evaluation of Cardiac Symptoms and Revascularization</italic> )<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup> avaliou pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica na sala de emerg&#234;ncia que apresentavam n&#237;veis detect&#225;veis de troponina de alta sensibilidade entre 5ng/L a 14ng/L (n&#237;veis considerados lim&#237;trofes, por&#233;m ainda dentro do padr&#227;o normal e n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico para infarto sem supra,). Estes casos foram submetidos &#224; CTA ap&#243;s a alta e apresentaram maior preval&#234;ncia tanto de DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva (71,9% <italic>versus</italic> 43,4%; <italic>odds ratio</italic> 3,33) quanto de DAC obstrutiva (29,9% <italic>versus</italic> 19,3%; <italic>odds ratio</italic> 1,79), independentemente da caracter&#237;stica da dor tor&#225;cica. Portanto, pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica, especialmente com n&#237;veis lim&#237;trofes de troponinas card&#237;acas de alta sensibilidade, sem diagn&#243;stico de IAM, podem se beneficiar da realiza&#231;&#227;o da CTA ap&#243;s alta, por terem a oportunidade de receber um tratamento eficaz na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos futuros relacionados &#224; DAC em n&#237;vel ambulatorial. O TARGET-CCTA (NCT03952351) ( <italic>Trial of On-Site Computed Tomography&#8211;Derived Fractional Flow Reserve to Guide Management of Stable Coronary Artery Disease</italic> ) est&#225; em andamento para avaliar se o tratamento precoce da DAC identificada pela tomografia, em pacientes com eleva&#231;&#245;es intermedi&#225;rias de troponina de alta sensibilidade, apresenta impacto na preven&#231;&#227;o de eventos futuros ap&#243;s 36 meses da alta.</p>
          <p>Alguns estudos t&#234;m avaliado o uso da CTA de coron&#225;rias no contexto de uma troponina de alta sensibilidade elevada. O CARMENTA <italic>trial (CARdiovascular Magnetic rEsoNance imaging And computed Tomography Angiography</italic> )<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup> avaliou se o uso da CTA ou RM seria seguro, em pacientes com troponina de alta sensibilidade positiva, para melhor selecionar os pacientes que se beneficiariam do cateterismo no diagn&#243;stico de les&#245;es cr&#237;ticas, em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; abordagem conservadora. Ressaltam-se importantes fatores de exclus&#227;o como idade acima de 85 anos e altera&#231;&#245;es din&#226;micas do ST, nesse estudo. O estudo demonstrou ser seguro o uso de CTA ou RM nesse contexto, antes do cateterismo, quando comparado &#224; rotina cl&#237;nica para selecionar os pacientes com dosagens de troponina de alta sensibilidade positivas (com eleva&#231;&#245;es baixa a intermedi&#225;ria) para o cateterismo e sem aumento de eventos cardiovasculares. O uso da CTA em pacientes com eleva&#231;&#245;es de troponina de alta sensibilidade at&#233; n&#237;veis intermedi&#225;rios (m&#233;dia do estudo de 78 ng/mL) e sem indicadores de alto risco reduziu a necessidade de cateterismo de forma segura, quando comparado &#224; estrat&#233;gia padr&#227;o ( <italic>odds ratio</italic> 0,66, p &lt; 0,001), sem aumento de eventos cardiovasculares ap&#243;s 1 ano de acompanhamento (p = 0,265).</p>
          <p>Estudos tentaram avaliar o uso do escore de c&#225;lcio como forma de predizer estenose coron&#225;ria na sala de emerg&#234;ncia. Suban&#225;lises do CORE 64<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup> mostraram baixo valor preditivo negativo (VPN 0,62), sendo que at&#233; 39% dos pacientes de alto risco com SCA apresentavam escore de c&#225;lcio de zero, e 46% tinham valores inferiores a 100 unidades Agatston. Portanto, o uso do escore de c&#225;lcio na sala de emerg&#234;ncia para predizer les&#245;es coron&#225;rias significativas n&#227;o deve ser usado, &#224; luz dos estudos atuais.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.4.1. Descarte Triplo</title>
            <p>A CTA pode tamb&#233;m ser utilizada na sala de emerg&#234;ncia para avaliar o diagn&#243;stico diferencial das SCAs, especialmente em casos de suspeita de embolia pulmonar e SAA.</p>
            <p>A angiotomografia em "protocolo para tromboembolismo pumonar" apresenta-se como m&#233;todo de imagem n&#227;o invasivo mais utilizado para os casos com probabilidade pr&#233;-teste intermedi&#225;ria a alta. Importante refor&#231;ar limita&#231;&#245;es para an&#225;lise de casos de embolia que acometem somente vasos pulmonares de menor di&#226;metro (subsegmentares).</p>
            <p>Quando h&#225; suspeita cl&#237;nica de SAA, a confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica deve ser r&#225;pida e precisa j&#225; que a doen&#231;a tem elevada mortalidade imediata e o tratamento definitivo &#233;, geralmente, cir&#250;rgico. A decis&#227;o de utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um determinado m&#233;todo de imagem na SAA deve ser baseada n&#227;o s&#243; na sua acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica, mas tamb&#233;m na sua disponibilidade imediata e na experi&#234;ncia dos emergencistas e ecocardiografistas/radiologistas com esse(s) m&#233;todo(s).</p>
            <p>Al&#233;m dos exames espec&#237;ficos de acordo com a suspeita de embolia pulmonar, SAA ou SCA, h&#225; protocolos de aquisi&#231;&#227;o que podem obter informa&#231;&#245;es relativas &#224;s art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, &#224; aorta e &#224;s art&#233;rias pulmonares, permitindo a avalia&#231;&#227;o de SAA e TEP, al&#233;m de permitir an&#225;lise de outras altera&#231;&#245;es tor&#225;cicas (pneumonias, traumas etc.).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref> </sup> Essa abordagem recebe o nome de descarte triplo ( <italic>triple rule-out</italic> ). Entretanto, mesmo com t&#233;cnicas otimizadas, o protocolo de aquisi&#231;&#227;o para o descarte triplo &#233; menos eficiente do que os protocolos individuais para avalia&#231;&#227;o das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias, aorta e art&#233;rias pulmonares. Portanto, os protocolos de descarte triplo s&#243; devem ser utilizados em situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas, nas quais a avalia&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica &#233; incapaz de direcionar a investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica.</p>
            <p>Em resumo, a CTA possibilita, de forma n&#227;o invasiva, avaliar com alta acur&#225;cia obstru&#231;&#245;es epic&#225;rdicas e identifica&#231;&#227;o de placas ateroscler&#243;ticas, o que gera alto valor preditivo negativo na investiga&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica do paciente sem diagn&#243;stico estabelecido de IAM ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t36">Tabela 36</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t36">
              <label>Tabela 36</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es da angiotomografia das art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias na suspeita de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com suspeita de SCA de risco baixo ou intermedi&#225;rio com ECG normal ou n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico e marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica normais ou alterados, por&#233;m sem defini&#231;&#227;o de infarto mioc&#225;rdico <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN32">*</xref> .</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda pela t&#233;cnica do descarte triplo ( <italic>triple rule-out</italic> ).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com suspeita de SCA e crit&#233;rios de risco alto.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com diagn&#243;stico definitivo de infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN31">
                  <p>SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN32">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Se kit dispon&#237;vel for a troponina convencional (sem crit&#233;rios de alta sensibilidade), a aplica&#231;&#227;o da CTA nos casos negativos reduz a taxa e o tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o; nos locais com troponina de alta sensibilidade, a CTA ajuda em casos sem defini&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, incluindo aqueles com eleva&#231;&#245;es at&#233; n&#237;veis intermedi&#225;rios (reduz necessidade de cateterismo, sem aumento de eventos cardiovasculares ap&#243;s 1 ano de acompanhamento).</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4.5. Resson&#226;ncia Magn&#233;tica Cardiovascular</title>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.5.1. Detec&#231;&#227;o de Isquemia Mioc&#225;rdica</title>
            <p>Atualmente, a presen&#231;a de isquemia do mioc&#225;rdio pode ser detectada atrav&#233;s da perfus&#227;o de primeira passagem sob efeito do estresse farmacol&#243;gico e em repouso, ou atrav&#233;s da avalia&#231;&#227;o da contratilidade atrav&#233;s da indu&#231;&#227;o de isquemia com dobutamina, sendo a primeira com maior sensibilidade e a mais indicada no cen&#225;rio de dor tor&#225;cica, e a segunda mostrando maior especificidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Considerando apenas a avalia&#231;&#227;o da perfus&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica, alguns estudos recentes colocam a RM em posi&#231;&#227;o de destaque para o diagn&#243;stico nesse cen&#225;rio, incluindo o aspecto de predi&#231;&#227;o progn&#243;stica. O estudo MR-INFORM ( <italic>Magnetic Resonance Perfusion Imaging or Fractional Flow Reserve in Coronary Disease</italic> ), publicado em 2019, avaliou 918 pacientes sintom&#225;ticos e comparou diferentes estrat&#233;gias de investiga&#231;&#227;o, demonstrando que a estrat&#233;gia com RM n&#227;o apresenta inferioridade em rela&#231;&#227;o &#224; estrat&#233;gia com utiliza&#231;&#227;o da RFC invasiva (3,7% para RFC <italic>versus</italic> 3,6% para RM), sem diferen&#231;a em 12 meses para desfechos prim&#225;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup> J&#225; o estudo SPINS <italic>(Stress CMR Perfusion Imaging in the United States</italic> ), publicado tamb&#233;m em 2019, avaliou 2.349 pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica e demonstrou que aus&#234;ncia de isquemia ou realce-tardio est&#225; associado a n&#250;mero baixo de eventos cardiovasculares em at&#233; 5 anos ap&#243;s o exame de RM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A RM tamb&#233;m pode ser utilizada em pacientes com dor precordial, biomarcadores normais e ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico, demonstrando sensibilidade de 100% e especificidade de 93% na detec&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares futuros.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.5.2. Diagn&#243;stico Diferencial de Troponina Positiva com Coron&#225;rias Normais (TINOCA / MINOCA)</title>
            <p>Embora o diagn&#243;stico de IAM esteja habitualmente ligado &#224; presen&#231;a de obstru&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, sabemos que existe um consider&#225;vel n&#250;mero de pacientes com SCA associados a art&#233;rias coron&#225;rias angiograficamente normais (entre 6-8%) (190). O diagn&#243;stico de MINOCA requer documenta&#231;&#227;o de um IAM e coronariografia invasiva ou CTA sem obstru&#231;&#227;o significativa.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>O diagn&#243;stico de MINOCA, assim como o diagn&#243;stico de qualquer tipo de IAM, necessita da presen&#231;a de um mecanismo isqu&#234;mico respons&#225;vel pela les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (al&#233;m de excluir causas n&#227;o isqu&#234;micas, como miocardites ou s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo).</p>
            <p>Tr&#234;s caracter&#237;sticas necessitam estar presentes para que o diagn&#243;stico de MINOCA possa ser confirmado:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup> 1) os mesmos crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos de IAM (cen&#225;rio cl&#237;nico com biomarcadores card&#237;acos alterados); 2) angiografia normal ou les&#227;o &lt; 50%; 3) que n&#227;o se identifique outra causa cl&#237;nica que possa ser respons&#225;vel pelos achados compat&#237;veis com a presen&#231;a de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica (por exemplo miocardite ou embolia pulmonar). Muitos pesquisadores consideram MINOCA, assim como IC, um diagn&#243;stico em andamento ( <italic>working diagnosis</italic> ) por muitas vezes haver dificuldade na identifica&#231;&#227;o precisa da etiologia para correta orienta&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup> Assim alguns diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais podem ser poss&#237;vel etiologia, visto cumprirem os princ&#237;pios caracter&#237;sticos de IAM tipo I ou II. Incluem-se doen&#231;as isqu&#234;micas decorrentes da placa coronariana (eros&#227;o, rutura ou ulcera&#231;&#227;o), dissec&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria, tromboembolismo, espasmo coron&#225;rio microvascular, embolia coron&#225;ria, al&#233;m das cardiomiopatias inflamat&#243;rias (miocardite de qualquer etiologia), s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo ou mesmo embolia pulmonar. Dessa forma, o diagn&#243;stico preciso de MINOCA &#233; fundamental para escolher-se a melhor op&#231;&#227;o terap&#234;utica para pacientes isqu&#234;micos e n&#227;o isqu&#234;micos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup> Pela sua complexidade diagn&#243;stica, foi sugerido englobarem-se esses diagn&#243;sticos sob a denomina&#231;&#227;o inicial de TINOCA, que seriam s&#237;ndromes de eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina sem obstru&#231;&#245;es coronarianas, por terem os n&#237;veis elevados de troponina como marcador comum.</p>
            <p>Essa denomina&#231;&#227;o pode ser subcategorizada em causas isqu&#234;micas (MINOCA), causas mioc&#225;rdicas (miocardites, por exemplo) e causas extracard&#237;acas (embolia pulmonar, por exemplo).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A RM consiste em uma das mais importantes ferramentas na determina&#231;&#227;o da etiologia dos casos de TINOCA, podendo definir at&#233; 74% desses casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup> O realce tardio, quando presente, permite a localiza&#231;&#227;o da &#225;rea de les&#227;o miocardica, al&#233;m de fornecer evid&#234;ncias dos mecanismos envolvidos. Adicionalmente, a RM permite identificar os pacientes com pior progn&#243;stico, e, quando realizada, muda a terap&#234;utica em aproximadamente metade dos casos de MINOCA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Dessa forma, a utiliza&#231;&#227;o de um recurso diagn&#243;stico t&#227;o preciso que permite diagnosticar infartos com at&#233; 1 grama de necrose mioc&#225;rdica,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B205">205</xref></sup> permite personalizar adequadamente a terapia m&#233;dica (incluindo preven&#231;&#227;o secund&#225;ria), podendo prevenir novos eventos isqu&#234;micos e evitar prescri&#231;&#227;o desnecess&#225;ria de drogas com seus respectivos efeitos colaterais, como sangramento no caso de uso de antiagregantes plaquet&#225;rios.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Aproximadamente 23% dos casos diagnosticados como MINOCA s&#227;o decorrentes de aterosclerose coronariana em sua forma n&#227;o obstrutiva, decorrentes de eros&#227;o ou ulcera&#231;&#227;o de placas com consequente trombose moment&#226;nea e recanaliza&#231;&#227;o do vaso comprometido, associado a vasoespasmo prolongado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> A RM consegue confirmar o diagn&#243;stico de infarto pela t&#233;cnica de realce tardio, diferenciando sua etiologia isqu&#234;mica pela visualiza&#231;&#227;o do acometimento obrigat&#243;rio do subendoc&#225;rdio como marca da etiologia isqu&#234;mica. Adicionalmente, permite diferenciar de outras les&#245;es pelas t&#233;cnicas que identificam edema, (como em casos de miocardite), seja pelas t&#233;cnicas tradicionais ponderadas em T2, seja pelos novos mapas param&#233;tricos (Mapas T1 e T2).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Outra causa relevante de TINOCA, e que se confunde com o diagn&#243;stico de MINOCA, s&#227;o as miocardites. Correspondem a aproximadamente 29% dos casos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> sendo a etiologia viral a mais frequente, e que ganhou maior repercuss&#227;o ap&#243;s a pandemia de Covid-19, evidenciando altera&#231;&#245;es mioc&#225;rdicas em aproximadamente 50% dos casos recuperados.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Aproximadamente 16% destes casos sem obstru&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria se apresentar&#227;o como s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup> (s&#237;ndrome do cora&#231;&#227;o partido) e, embora inicialmente reconhecida como "benigna" devido &#224; revers&#227;o das &#225;reas discin&#233;ticas, acompanhamento evolutivo dessa s&#237;ndrome demonstra que o progn&#243;stico pode ser desfavor&#225;vel.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup> A RM se mostra como excelente ferramenta diagn&#243;stica, uma vez que permite a identifica&#231;&#227;o das &#225;reas discin&#233;ticas em qualquer segmento do VE (embora a discinesia apical transit&#243;ria seja a mais frequente manifesta&#231;&#227;o na s&#237;ndrome de Takotsubo). Al&#233;m disso, permite caracterizar as &#225;reas de edema mioc&#225;rdico com as t&#233;cnicas ponderadas em T2 ou mais recentemente com os mapas param&#233;tricos T1 e T2, sendo colocada como m&#233;todo de escolha em consenso publicado recentemente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup> A fase inflamat&#243;ria, em que &#233; poss&#237;vel fazer a detec&#231;&#227;o do edema miocardico, costuma desaparecer em 3 meses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> RM de controle, nesses casos, pode ser solicitada para verifica&#231;&#227;o de revers&#227;o da &#225;rea discin&#233;tica, bem como desaparecimento do edema mioc&#225;rdico, com a ratifica&#231;&#227;o do diagn&#243;stico. Habitualmente n&#227;o se observam &#225;reas de realce tardio nesta s&#237;ndrome; entretanto, na fase aguda, pequenas &#225;reas de realce tardio podem ser visualizadas nas &#225;reas discin&#233;ticas, pelo aumento do espa&#231;o intersticial das &#225;reas inflamadas.</p>
            <p>Outros diagn&#243;sticos poss&#237;veis s&#227;o menos frequentes e podem ser observados na investiga&#231;&#227;o de TINOCA, como cardiomiopatia hipertr&#243;fica, em aproximadamente 3% dos casos, cardiomiopatia dilatada n&#227;o isqu&#234;mica, em 2% dos casos, e amiloidose, em menos de 5% dos casos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Assim, a excelente <italic>performance</italic> da RM em realizar o diagn&#243;stico preciso das &#225;reas de infarto relacionadas &#224; MINOCA faz com que a resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca seja considerada na investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica, com classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o I, n&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia B<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref> </sup> ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t37">Tabela 37</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t37">
              <label>Tabela 37</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Pesquisa de doen&#231;a arterial coronariana pela resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica &#8211; isquemia mioc&#225;rdica</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Investiga&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a isqu&#234;mica em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda e probabilidade pr&#233;-teste intermedi&#225;ria de DAC.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Investiga&#231;&#227;o de isquemia mioc&#225;rdica em pacientes revascularizados (cirurgicamente ou de forma percut&#226;nea), com sintomatologia sugestiva de DAC obstrutiva.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Diagn&#243;stico diferencial de s&#237;ndromes de eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina com coron&#225;rias n&#227;o obstrutivas (TINOCA).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com DAC n&#227;o obstrutiva conhecida, sem eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina, por&#233;m com suspeita de INOCA.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN33">
                  <p>DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coronariana; TINOCA: troponin-positive non-obstructive coronary arteries; INOCA: ischemia with non-obstructive coronary arteries.</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN34">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Definida como estenose &#8805; 50% em TCE, e triarteriais com acometimento coronariano proximal.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.5.3. Miocardites</title>
            <p>A miocardite &#233; uma doen&#231;a inflamat&#243;ria do m&#250;sculo card&#237;aco que pode ocorrer em consequ&#234;ncia de infec&#231;&#227;o, exposi&#231;&#227;o a subst&#226;ncias t&#243;xicas ou ativa&#231;&#227;o do sistema imune.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup> A etiologia infecciosa viral &#233; a mais prevalente, sendo o quadro cl&#237;nico bastante vari&#225;vel (desde indiv&#237;duos assintom&#225;ticos at&#233; morte s&#250;bita). Em geral, cursa com dor precordial, dispneia, fadiga, palpita&#231;&#245;es e s&#237;ncope.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup> Altera&#231;&#245;es eletrocardiogr&#225;ficas diversas est&#227;o presentes em 85% dos casos (ex: supradesn&#237;vel do segmento ST, alargamento do QRS ou arritmias), associadas &#224; eleva&#231;&#227;o de marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica (TCas).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O diagn&#243;stico de miocardite inclui a associa&#231;&#227;o de quadro cl&#237;nico, exame f&#237;sico, exames laboratoriais e de imagem. A RM auxilia no diagn&#243;stico sendo um exame sens&#237;vel &#224;s altera&#231;&#245;es teciduais que ocorrem pela inflama&#231;&#227;o do mioc&#225;rdio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221">221</xref> </sup> Os crit&#233;rios de Lake Louise foram atualizados em 2018 associando as t&#233;cnicas de mapas param&#233;tricos e volume extracelular, aumentando a acur&#225;cia diagn&#243;stica. A inflama&#231;&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica aguda pode ser detectada se ao menos um crit&#233;rio de cada categoria estiver presente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup> Uma das categorias &#233; o edema mioc&#225;rdico, identificado por meio de imagens ponderadas em T2 ou mapa de T2; a outra &#233; a inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica, identificada por meio de realce tardio, aumento do T1 nativo ou do volume extracelular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B222">222</xref> </sup> O mapa de T2 encontra-se mais elevado na fase aguda da miocardite e tende a normalizar ao longo dos meses, &#233; um recurso &#250;til tanto no diagn&#243;stico quanto no monitoramento do tratamento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref></sup> O tempo de relaxamento T1 se prolonga por edema intracelular ou extracelular, hiperemia e devido &#224; presen&#231;a de &#225;reas de fibrose. O volume extracelular pode aumentar em decorr&#234;ncia de expans&#227;o do meio extracelular pela inflama&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref> </sup> Se ambos os crit&#233;rios forem positivos, aumentam a especificidade diagn&#243;stica. Por outro lado, se apenas um deles estiver presente em um cen&#225;rio de suspei&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, permite auxiliar no diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup> Na aus&#234;ncia de realce tardio e quadro cl&#237;nico positivo, a presen&#231;a de altera&#231;&#227;o nos mapas de T1 nativo e volume extracelular pode ser indicativa de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica. Nessa situa&#231;&#227;o, a eleva&#231;&#227;o do T1 nativo em &#225;reas sem realce tardio mostrou eleva&#231;&#227;o na sensibilidade do m&#233;todo, sem aumentar falsos positivos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Al&#233;m da utilidade diagn&#243;stica, a RM tamb&#233;m pode ser usada para progn&#243;stico. Nesse contexto, a disfun&#231;&#227;o biventricular resultante de envolvimento mioc&#225;rdico significativo &#233; o maior preditor de mortalidade. A presen&#231;a de realce tardio tamb&#233;m &#233; preditor de mortalidade, estando mais relacionada ao risco de morte s&#250;bita e evolu&#231;&#227;o com dilata&#231;&#227;o ventricular esquerda e queda de FEVE.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup> Os pacientes que apresentam FE &#8804; 40% associada a realce tardio positivo apresentam um aumento do risco de evento cardiovascular desfavor&#225;vel de 10% ao ano.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
            <p>O SARS-CoV2, v&#237;rus causador da Covid-19, tem sido frequentemente associado &#224; inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica. Eleva&#231;&#227;o de troponina acima do percentil 99 est&#225; presente em 62% dos pacientes com Covid-19. No seguimento dos pacientes, o achado mais comum &#233; a disfun&#231;&#227;o diast&#243;lica (55%), e apenas 2,8% apresentaram FEVE reduzida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup> Na fase aguda da doen&#231;a, os achados de RM mais comuns s&#227;o altera&#231;&#245;es nos mapas de T1 e T2, altera&#231;&#245;es peric&#225;rdicas (miopericardite) e padr&#245;es de realce tardio n&#227;o coronariano. Os pacientes com sintomas leves ou assintom&#225;ticos n&#227;o apresentaram altera&#231;&#245;es significativas em rela&#231;&#227;o ao controle.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Atualmente, a realiza&#231;&#227;o de RM na suspeita de miocardite &#233; indica&#231;&#227;o classe I nas diretrizes internacionais e na Diretriz da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B90">90</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref> </sup> corroborado neste documento ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t38">Tabela 38</xref> ). A incorpora&#231;&#227;o recente dos dados de mapas param&#233;tricos T1 e T2 e volume extracelular eleva a sensibilidade do m&#233;todo.</p>
            <table-wrap id="t38">
              <label>Tabela 38</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Indica&#231;&#245;es de resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca em casos de miocardite</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">RMC na avalia&#231;&#227;o da fun&#231;&#227;o, geometria e morfologia ventricular na suspeita de miocardite aguda, subaguda e cr&#244;nica.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">RMC na investiga&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica e progn&#243;stica de miocardite aguda, cr&#244;nica e/ou suspeita de miocardite pr&#233;via.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">RMC no acompanhamento de 4 a 12 semanas do epis&#243;dio agudo, para diferencia&#231;&#227;o de evolu&#231;&#227;o complicada <italic>versus</italic> n&#227;o complicada.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">RMC na miocardite fulminante com instabilidade hemodin&#226;mica.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000;">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN35">
                  <p>RCM: resson&#226;ncia magn&#233;tica card&#237;aca.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec>
      <title>5. Modelo para Implanta&#231;&#227;o das Unidades de Dor Tor&#225;cica</title>
      <sec>
        <title>5.1. Investiga&#231;&#227;o de S&#237;ndrome Coronariana Aguda em Ambiente Pr&#233;-hospitalar</title>
        <p>De uma forma geral, de acordo com a Quarta Defini&#231;&#227;o Universal de Infarto Agudo do Mioc&#225;rdio, n&#227;o existem diferen&#231;as conceituais no diagn&#243;stico, seja ele realizado no ambiente intra ou pr&#233;-hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Um dos grandes desafios no contexto pr&#233;-hospitalar &#233; a agilidade no que diz respeito aos tempos diagn&#243;sticos/terap&#234;uticos e &#224; indisponibilidade de alguns exames complementares que auxiliam no diagn&#243;stico, j&#225; que tais pacientes s&#227;o atendidos principalmente em unidades de pronto-atendimento ou nas unidades m&#243;veis de servi&#231;o m&#233;dico de emerg&#234;ncia (ex: ambul&#226;ncia do SAMU). Boa acur&#225;cia e rapidez no diagn&#243;stico s&#227;o aspectos priorit&#225;rios na avalia&#231;&#227;o pr&#233;-hospitalar, a fim de otimizar recursos para direcionar atendimentos e determinar transfer&#234;ncias de forma mais assertiva ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t39">Tabela 39</xref> ).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t39">
          <label>Tabela 39</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Investiga&#231;&#227;o de s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda em ambiente pr&#233;-hospitalar</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">Os crit&#233;rios diagn&#243;sticos s&#227;o os mesmos em ambiente pr&#233;-hospitalar (unidade m&#243;vel de emerg&#234;ncia) ou em uma unidade fixa (por exemplo, pronto-socorro).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Sistemas de atendimento pr&#233;-hospitalar devem ter protocolos para identifica&#231;&#227;o de casos com crit&#233;rios de suspeita de SCA para direcionar a unidade m&#243;vel avan&#231;ada (com eletrocardiograma, m&#233;dico e recursos para suporte avan&#231;ado &#224; vida).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O eletrocardiograma deve ser realizado em at&#233; 10 minutos do primeiro contato m&#233;dico, seja em n&#237;vel hospitalar ou no contexto pr&#233;-hospitalar.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">O uso de escores de risco, como o <italic>pre</italic> HEART <italic>score</italic> , pode ser &#250;til como ferramenta adicional da estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco pr&#233;-hospitalar.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">O uso de troponina <italic>point of care</italic> pr&#233;-hospitalar pode ser considerado, quando dispon&#237;vel em casos que apresentem ECG n&#227;o diagn&#243;stico, especialmente nos casos com baixa probabilidade cl&#237;nica e tempo adequado para avalia&#231;&#227;o do biomarcardor.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">B</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN36">
              <p>SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1.1. Percep&#231;&#227;o do Paciente e Rede Pr&#233;-hospitalar Organizada</title>
          <p>O aforisma de que "tempo &#233; m&#250;sculo" persiste atual dentro do tratamento do IAM.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup> Desde os primeiros estudos com trombol&#237;ticos evidenciando que, quanto menor o tempo da estrat&#233;gia de reperfus&#227;o, melhores os benef&#237;cios em mortalidade, busca-se agilidade desde a percep&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas pelo paciente at&#233; a estrat&#233;gia de reperfus&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B227">227</xref></sup> Campanhas p&#250;blicas melhoram a percep&#231;&#227;o do paciente sobre sintomas de IAM, aumentam a procura de servi&#231;os de emerg&#234;ncia de pacientes com IAM (incluindo maior n&#250;mero de liga&#231;&#245;es para o servi&#231;o pr&#233;-hospitalar) o que, finalmente, reduz os tempos na assist&#234;ncia pr&#233;-hospitalar ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f16">Figura 16</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar que as mulheres tendem ter um maior tempo entre a percep&#231;&#227;o dos sintomas e o acionamento do pr&#233;-hospitalar em rela&#231;&#227;o aos homens, com maiores taxas de mortalidade intra-hospitalar, destacando a import&#226;ncia deste p&#250;blico espec&#237;fico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B229">229</xref></sup> Implementar um servi&#231;o pr&#233;-hospitalar de ambul&#226;ncia para o atendimento de tais pacientes leva &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o de taxa de mortalidade global e intra-hospitalar nas regi&#245;es territoriais contempladas,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup> com destaque para as linhas de cuidado em IAM <italic>,</italic> j&#225; incorporadas e estimuladas em portarias do servi&#231;o p&#250;blico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B231">231</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f16">
            <label>Figura 16</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Dor no peito: cuidados precoces salvam vidas (Material educativo para campanhas p&#250;blicas visando aumentar a percep&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes sobre os sintomas).</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1.2. Papel do Eletrocardiograma no Ambiente Pr&#233;-hospitalar</title>
          <p>Assim como no atendimento hospitalar, o ECG deve ser realizado em at&#233; 10 minutos do primeiro contato m&#233;dico, tamb&#233;m no contexto pr&#233;-hospitalar. A cada 30 minutos de atraso nas estrat&#233;gias de reperfus&#227;o, h&#225; um aumento de 7,5% na mortalidade desses pacientes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup> Uma metan&#225;lise reunindo mais de 80 publica&#231;&#245;es verificou que o uso do ECG pr&#233;-hospitalar implicou em um menor n&#250;mero de &#243;bitos, menor tempo &#224; estrat&#233;gia de reperfus&#227;o, menor tempo de interna&#231;&#227;o hospitalar e maior propor&#231;&#227;o de pacientes que obtiveram um tempo porta/FMC &#8211; reperfus&#227;o &lt; 90 minutos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref></sup> Vale ressaltar que diversos estudos apontam que o uso de ferramentas de telemedicina (tele-ECG) beneficiam o atendimento desses pacientes, incluindo redu&#231;&#227;o de eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B236">236</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1.3. Papel da Troponina no Ambiente Pr&#233;-hospitalar</title>
          <p>Na aus&#234;ncia de crit&#233;rios eletrocardiogr&#225;ficos de SCA, o uso da troponina &#233; de fundamental import&#226;ncia no diagn&#243;stico e estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco desses casos. Seu uso no contexto hospitalar j&#225; &#233; bem estabelecido, mas no contexto pr&#233;-hospitalar, ainda necessita de maior robustez de evid&#234;ncias.</p>
          <p>V&#225;rios estudos avaliaram seu uso nas ambul&#226;ncias como uma forma de triagem nas transfer&#234;ncias para os centros de refer&#234;ncia. De uma maneira geral, foram estudos pequenos que inclu&#237;ram pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica, e utilizou-se a TCas <italic>point-of-care</italic> (Tn-POC) em conjunto com o HEART <italic>score</italic> modificado, tendo capacidade de "descarte" em pacientes com SCA de baixo risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B237">237</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B239">239</xref> </sup> Em 2023, Camaro et al. publicaram o estudo ARTICA ( <italic>Acute Rule-Out of Non-ST-Segment Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome in the (Pre)hospital Setting by HEART Score Assessment and a Single Point-of-Care Troponin</italic> ),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B240">240</xref></sup> sob o mesmo enfoque, sendo o <italic>end point</italic> prim&#225;rio custos hospitalares, tendo demonstrado que a estrat&#233;gia do uso da Tn-POC pr&#233;-hospitalar resultou em menor custo, com eventos cardiovasculares compar&#225;veis entre a estrat&#233;gia pr&#233;-hospitalar <italic>versus</italic> servi&#231;o de emerg&#234;ncia hospitalar.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1.4. Papel dos Escores de Estratifica&#231;&#227;o de Risco</title>
          <p>No atendimento desses pacientes no contexto pr&#233;-hospitalar, basicamente a hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, exame f&#237;sico e a realiza&#231;&#227;o do ECG seguem como padr&#227;o assistencial inicial, a fim de identificar os IAMCSST e deflagrar as estrat&#233;gias de reperfus&#227;o. Contudo, na aus&#234;ncia de eleva&#231;&#227;o de ST (ou altera&#231;&#227;o equivalente), n&#227;o existe uma estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco validada que atue como uma "triagem" no direcionamento de pacientes direto para os hospitais com suporte de hemodin&#226;mica ou para unidades de atendimento cl&#237;nico inicial de menor porte. Sagel et al., em publica&#231;&#227;o recente avaliando o uso do HEART <italic>score</italic> e da Tn-POC na estratifica&#231;&#227;o de tais pacientes, propuseram um novo escore, <italic>pre</italic> HEART <italic>score</italic> , como nova ferramenta estratificadora no ambiente pr&#233;-hospitalar, com boa acur&#225;cia em rela&#231;&#227;o aos demais (VPN 99,3% [98.1-99.8], VPP 49,9% [42-56.9] e AUC 0.82 [0.82-0.88]).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B241">241</xref></sup> De uma forma geral, preconiza-se, espelhando-se na proped&#234;utica hospitalar, que se utilize uma combina&#231;&#227;o de escores, sendo que o <italic>pre</italic> HEART <italic>score</italic> surge como escore promissor no ambiente pr&#233;-hospitalar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B242">242</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1.5. Outras Ferramentas Diagn&#243;sticas</title>
          <p>S&#227;o raros os estudos que utilizam o ecocardiograma transtor&#225;cico/POCUS como ferramenta no aux&#237;lio diagn&#243;stico das SCAs no atendimento pr&#233;-hospitalar. Em um dos estudos direcionado na tem&#225;tica, os autores sugerem o seu potencial uso, por&#233;m cr&#237;ticas &#224; metodologia, principalmente quanto &#224; acur&#225;cia e treinamento dos examinadores, s&#227;o imperativas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B244">244</xref> </sup> Mesmo assim, a Sociedade Europeia de Imagem Cardiovascular recomenda o uso do ecocardiograma emergencial em pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica aguda sugestiva de SCA &#8211; por&#233;m estudos robustos e sua padroniza&#231;&#227;o no contexto pr&#233;-hospitalar s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para sua incorpora&#231;&#227;o pr&#225;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref> </sup> Lembrar que, al&#233;m de SCA, outros diagn&#243;sticos tamb&#233;m podem ser considerados como dissec&#231;&#227;o de aorta e TEP (escores, D-d&#237;mero-POC e o pr&#243;prio POCUS podem ajudar a direcionar para o servi&#231;o com melhor recurso de acordo com suspeita diagn&#243;stica).</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5.2. Modelo para Implanta&#231;&#227;o das Unidades de Dor Tor&#225;cica: Evid&#234;ncias para Melhores Pr&#225;ticas</title>
        <p>A &#234;nfase do atendimento da dor tor&#225;cica tem sido n&#227;o somente o reconhecimento do diagn&#243;stico, mas a identifica&#231;&#227;o e pronto manejo das condi&#231;&#245;es mais graves e de risco potencial de vida. O desafio, usualmente, &#233; grande e recai sobre o m&#233;dico emergencista e nas unidades de pronto atendimento, em condi&#231;&#245;es sobrecarregadas e com recursos, &#224;s vezes, escassos. Nesse contexto, nas &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas foram fortalecidas as estrat&#233;gias para auxiliar em uma r&#225;pida e correta separa&#231;&#227;o de pacientes em alto risco de desenvolver complica&#231;&#245;es daqueles de baixo risco que n&#227;o precisam ficar nas unidades dedicadas, as quais s&#227;o consideradas pilares estruturantes do manejo de casos de dor tor&#225;cica aguda: as UDTs.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B246">246</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>A avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de todo paciente com dor tor&#225;cica deve permitir responder a tr&#234;s perguntas-chave: 1) qual a probabilidade dos sinais e sintomas serem devidos a uma SCA?; 2) quais as chances para o desenvolvimento de eventos card&#237;acos adversos, como infarto do mioc&#225;rdio, acidente vascular cerebral, IC, sintomas recorrentes de isquemia ou arritmias graves?; 3) como otimizar recursos adicionais para decis&#227;o de diagn&#243;stico e de aloca&#231;&#227;o do paciente? Por meio da hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica, ECG e marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica &#233; poss&#237;vel responder a estas quest&#245;es na maioria dos casos. Entretanto, estudos demonstraram que a precis&#227;o, efici&#234;ncia e agilidade desse modelo sem protocolos e rotinas estruturadas est&#227;o relacionadas a risco n&#227;o desprez&#237;vel de condutas inadequadas, erros diagn&#243;sticos e custo elevado. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>As UDTs se difundiram no in&#237;cio dos anos 2000 com objetivo de oferecer cuidado de alta qualidade e r&#225;pido para pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica e baixa probabilidade de SCA, mas n&#227;o suficientemente baixa para permitir a alta hospitalar. As UDTs s&#227;o definidas como unidades organizacionais de curta perman&#234;ncia, com o objetivo de facilitar e otimizar o atendimento por meio de protocolos diagn&#243;sticos. <sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> </sup></p>
        <p>In&#250;meros estudos observacionais e ensaios cl&#237;nicos randomizados descreveram que o atendimento em UDT oferece uma maior ades&#227;o &#224;s condutas baseadas em diretrizes e evid&#234;ncias cient&#237;ficas, com resultados cl&#237;nicos semelhantes &#224; admiss&#227;o tradicional em enfermarias, mas com um tempo de perman&#234;ncia menor e custo reduzido. Dados da Austr&#225;lia, EUA e Alemanha apontam que as melhorias nos processos com a ado&#231;&#227;o das UDTs levaram &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o do tempo de perman&#234;ncia, das admiss&#245;es hospitalares e da realiza&#231;&#227;o de testes n&#227;o invasivos, resultando em economias de 20 a 25% aos sistemas de sa&#250;de. V&#225;rias institui&#231;&#245;es internacionais e brasileiras implementaram UDTs com caracter&#237;sticas em comum sobre quest&#245;es organizacionais e log&#237;sticas, as quais evolu&#237;ram ao longo dos anos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> </sup> A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t40">Tabela 40</xref> descreve as recomenda&#231;&#245;es acerca da implementa&#231;&#227;o de unidades dedicadas &#224; avalia&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com sintomas de dor tor&#225;cica aguda (ou equivalente).</p>
        <table-wrap id="t40">
          <label>Tabela 40</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Recomenda&#231;&#245;es para implementa&#231;&#227;o de unidades de dor tor&#225;cica</title>
          </caption>
          <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
            <colgroup width="33%">
              <col/>
              <col/>
              <col/>
            </colgroup>
            <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">Classe de recomenda&#231;&#227;o</th>
                <th align="center" valign="middle">N&#237;vel de evid&#234;ncia</th>
              </tr>
            </thead>
            <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">As UDTs devem ser implementadas em centros de emerg&#234;ncia de alto volume e/ou de refer&#234;ncia cardiovascular.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">As UDTs devem coletar indicadores de qualidade de forma sistem&#225;tica, com avalia&#231;&#227;o cont&#237;nua de melhorias baseadas nas m&#233;tricas identificadas.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">As UDTs devem dispor de m&#233;dicos e profissionais de apoio habilitados para execu&#231;&#227;o dos protocolos e interpreta&#231;&#227;o de ECG.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">As UDTs devem dispor de ECG e marcadores de inj&#250;ria mioc&#225;rdica (preferencialmente troponina de alta sensibilidade).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">As UDTs devem dispor de acesso &#224; realiza&#231;&#227;o de ecocardiograma de urg&#234;ncia.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">As UDTs devem dispor de acesso a laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica 24/7 (no pr&#243;prio servi&#231;o ou em um sistema integrado de referenciamento de emerg&#234;ncia).</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle">As UDTs devem dispor de protocolos de diagn&#243;stico e tratamento para as principais s&#237;ndromes de dor tor&#225;cica aguda potencialmente fatais.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
              </tr>
              <tr>
                <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">As UDTs devem dispor de m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos para investiga&#231;&#227;o de doen&#231;a coron&#225;ria e/ou isquemia.</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
              </tr>
            </tbody>
          </table>
          <table-wrap-foot>
            <fn id="TFN37">
              <p>UDT: unidade de dor tor&#225;cica; ECG: eletrocardiograma.</p>
            </fn>
          </table-wrap-foot>
        </table-wrap>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.1. Avalia&#231;&#227;o do Paciente</title>
          <p>A obten&#231;&#227;o de uma hist&#243;ria cl&#237;nica sucinta e dirigida &#233; essencial na avalia&#231;&#227;o inicial de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica. As caracter&#237;sticas da dor, presen&#231;a de comorbidades, agravantes e altera&#231;&#245;es no exame f&#237;sico permitem identificar risco cl&#237;nico imediato.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> </sup> O escore HEART se mostrou f&#225;cil, &#250;til e efetivo para estratifica&#231;&#227;o de risco de paciente que n&#227;o estabeleceu o diagn&#243;stico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> </sup> Com base na hist&#243;ria do paciente, ECG, idade, fatores de risco cardiovascular e valores de troponina, &#233; calculada uma pontua&#231;&#227;o entre 0 e 10 pontos, representando o risco do paciente de desenvolver um evento card&#237;aco adverso maior dentro de 6 semanas ap&#243;s apresenta&#231;&#227;o inicial. Uma metan&#225;lise de 16 estudos de coorte prospectivos observou uma sensibilidade e especificidade do escore HEART para predizer eventos card&#237;acos maiores de 0,96 (IC 95% 0,91-0,98; I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> = 94,87%) e 0,50 (IC 95% 0,41-0,60; I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> = 98,84%), respectivamente. Entretanto, a alta heterogeneidade entre os estudos inclu&#237;dos &#233; um fator limitante para a interpretabilidade e validade de sua an&#225;lise combinada nesta metan&#225;lise.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B247">247</xref></sup> Um escore abaixo de 4 e troponinas normais tem um valor preditivo negativo elevado (99%), sugerindo seguran&#231;a na alta do paciente. V&#225;rios estudos demonstraram que o uso de protocolos cl&#237;nicos, como <italic>Heart Pathway</italic> , ADAPT e EDACS <italic>Pathways</italic> reduziram a necessidade de interna&#231;&#227;o de 20 a 45% de pacientes com suspeita de SCA. Outros escores bem conhecidos, como TIMI e GRACE, tamb&#233;m podem ser &#250;teis para estratifica&#231;&#227;o do risco de pacientes em avalia&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de SCA, embora tenham sido desenvolvidos e validados como instrumentos de progn&#243;stico na popula&#231;&#227;o com diagn&#243;stico de SCA e apresentem <italic>performance</italic> inferior ao HEART em pacientes ainda em rota diagn&#243;stica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B247">247</xref> </sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.2. Estrutura Organizacional e Recursos Humanos</title>
          <p>As UDTs, tradicionalmente, s&#227;o &#225;reas designadas pr&#243;ximas, ou mesmo dentro, das emerg&#234;ncias ou unidades de pronto atendimento, com uma integra&#231;&#227;o entre m&#233;dico emergencista, cardiologista e as equipes multidisciplinares dedicadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref> </sup> Em um cen&#225;rio ideal, as UDTs s&#227;o supervisionadas por cardiologistas, com atendimento por m&#233;dicos com forma&#231;&#227;o em cl&#237;nica m&#233;dica e/ou emerg&#234;ncia. Na perspectiva de gest&#227;o, o n&#250;mero de leitos de uma UDT deveria ser calculado pelo tamanho do hospital e pelo n&#250;mero de atendimentos na emerg&#234;ncia por ano. Estima-se que, para cada 10.000 atendimentos m&#234;s, 250-500 ser&#227;o por dor tor&#225;cica, dependendo da refer&#234;ncia hospitalar; desses, a metade teria indica&#231;&#227;o de atendimento em uma UDT, sendo necess&#225;rios de dois a quatro leitos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref></sup> As recomenda&#231;&#245;es europeias sugerem um m&#233;dico por unidade e uma enfermeira a cada quatro a seis leitos, sendo a legisla&#231;&#227;o no Brasil semelhante, de acordo com o grau de cuidado, distribu&#237;dos na raz&#227;o de 1:3 entre enfermeiros e t&#233;cnicos de enfermagem. Usualmente, s&#227;o unidades com dois a seis leitos dedicados a esses pacientes, podendo ser uma unidade completa de leitos monitorados. &#201; importante acesso a laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica e procedimentos invasivos, no caso de confirma&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica de SCA. Para aquelas institui&#231;&#245;es sem laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica dispon&#237;vel em regime 24/7, termos de colabora&#231;&#227;o e protocolos de transfer&#234;ncia devem estar delineados para casos cr&#237;ticos.</p>
          <p>Dentro da constru&#231;&#227;o de uma UDT, um ponto fundamental &#233; a exist&#234;ncia de protocolos cl&#237;nicos escritos e validados para todos os profissionais que atendem esses pacientes. Esses protocolos devem ser atualizados periodicamente, com mecanismos de gest&#227;o implementados e vinculados &#224; sua efetiva utiliza&#231;&#227;o e acompanhamento de indicadores, com a&#231;&#245;es de melhoria cont&#237;nua. Um programa de treinamento continuado deve ser oferecido, com valida&#231;&#227;o e revis&#227;o dos protocolos institucionais, treinamento em interpreta&#231;&#227;o de ECG, biomarcadores e m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.3. Necessidades T&#233;cnicas</title>
          <p>O ECG de 12 deriva&#231;&#245;es deve estar dispon&#237;vel em todas UDTs, para pronta realiza&#231;&#227;o e repeti&#231;&#227;o quando necess&#225;rio. Idealmente, o ECG deve ser obtido nos primeiros 10 minutos da chegada do paciente ao hospital, a partir da identifica&#231;&#227;o pela equipe da triagem de casos suspeitos de SCA. As unidades devem estar equipadas com dispositivos n&#227;o invasivos de monitoriza&#231;&#227;o de press&#227;o arterial para cada paciente e monitoramento eletrocardiogr&#225;fico cont&#237;nuo, bem como com um desfibrilador e material de ressuscita&#231;&#227;o cardiopulmonar. Uma central de monitoramento por telemetria ou esta&#231;&#227;o central n&#227;o &#233; absolutamente essencial, embora desej&#225;vel. A monitoriza&#231;&#227;o do ritmo card&#237;aco cont&#237;nua &#233; indicada para pacientes com suspeita de SCA ou alto risco de eventos cardiovasculares. O uso de monitor de segmento ST cont&#237;nuo permite identificar pacientes com isquemia din&#226;mica; entretanto, estudos n&#227;o mostraram valor adicional expressivo em pacientes de risco mais baixo (atualmente, s&#227;o considerados opcionais em UDT). A mensura&#231;&#227;o de sinais de vitais a cada 15-30 minutos &#233; recomendada nesse perfil de paciente.</p>
          <p>Para detec&#231;&#227;o de les&#227;o mioc&#225;rdica &#233; recomendada a dosagem das TCas (T ou I) para pacientes com suspeita de SCA. Alguns estudos testaram protocolos de avalia&#231;&#227;o de 0-3 horas de intervalo, e outros, de 0 e 1/2 hora de intervalo. A disponibiliza&#231;&#227;o desses exames requer um laborat&#243;rio cl&#237;nico 24 horas na emerg&#234;ncia, com tempo ideal para libera&#231;&#227;o de resultado inferior a 60 minutos. Para institui&#231;&#245;es sem laborat&#243;rio no local, o uso de testes r&#225;pidos ( <italic>point of care</italic> ) &#233; uma op&#231;&#227;o a ser considerada, para n&#227;o atrasar avalia&#231;&#227;o e libera&#231;&#227;o do paciente.</p>
          <p>Al&#233;m desses exames, a UDT deve contar com exames adicionais bioqu&#237;micos, radiografia de t&#243;rax e m&#233;todos alternativos de imagem para elabora&#231;&#227;o de diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais de dor tor&#225;cica. A CTA tem se mostrado um excelente m&#233;todo para excluir doen&#231;a coronariana obstrutiva, especialmente no grupo de risco intermedi&#225;rio ou baixo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B251">251</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Uma tomografia computadorizada de m&#250;ltiplos canais deve estar dispon&#237;vel para uma investiga&#231;&#227;o mais aprofundada de diagn&#243;sticos diferenciais relevantes ap&#243;s a exclus&#227;o de SCA (como TEP e SAA) ou para descartar DAC de baixa ou intermedi&#225;ria probabilidade.</p>
          <p>Para pacientes com risco intermedi&#225;rio ou baixo de complica&#231;&#227;o coron&#225;ria tem sido aceita a realiza&#231;&#227;o de um TE, que &#233; uma ferramenta &#250;til e dispon&#237;vel na maioria dos hospitais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B252">252</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref> </sup> Esta recomenda&#231;&#227;o baseia-se no valor deste teste para refinar a probabilidade diagn&#243;stica e nas respectivas informa&#231;&#245;es progn&#243;sticas. No entanto, considerando que a preval&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a coronariana &#233; baixa nesse grupo de pacientes com risco intermedi&#225;rio e baixo de DAC, a probabilidade de resultados falsos positivos &#233; alta. Por isso, os protocolos atuais n&#227;o consideram mais esse exame como recomenda&#231;&#227;o essencial. A complementa&#231;&#227;o diagn&#243;stica com outros m&#233;todos n&#227;o invasivos de isquemia &#8211; cintilografia mioc&#225;rdica, ecocardiografia de estresse e RM &#8211; acrescenta informa&#231;&#245;es e auxilia a identificar pacientes com DAC, podendo ser utilizados nas UDTs ou em n&#237;vel ambulatorial precoce ap&#243;s a alta.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.4. Terapias Espec&#237;ficas</title>
          <p>Os pacientes sem diagn&#243;stico estabelecido, por&#233;m com suspeita de SCA, devem ser tratados inicialmente apenas com &#225;cido acetilsalic&#237;lico (AAS) at&#233; elucida&#231;&#227;o do caso (na aus&#234;ncia de contraindica&#231;&#245;es ou situa&#231;&#245;es de risco de sangramento). Se suspeita de TEP, deve-se considerar o in&#237;cio da anticoagula&#231;&#227;o em situa&#231;&#245;es de alta probabilidade pr&#233;-teste (Wells, Genebra). Medica&#231;&#245;es sintom&#225;ticas e f&#225;rmacos para estabiliza&#231;&#227;o hemodin&#226;mica tamb&#233;m podem ser administrados conforme necessidade.</p>
          <p>&#192; medida que um diagn&#243;stico &#233; identificado, os protocolos espec&#237;ficos devem ser adotados, como para SCA, SAA, TEP etc. Pacientes de baixo risco, com resultados negativos em toda avalia&#231;&#227;o e sem diagn&#243;stico estabelecido, podem ter alta da UDT para investiga&#231;&#227;o ambulatorial precoce.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.5. Indicadores de Gest&#227;o</title>
          <p>A participa&#231;&#227;o da UDT em registros locais e nacionais deve ser incentivada para coleta prospectiva de indicadores de qualidade, ades&#227;o a pr&#225;ticas baseadas em evid&#234;ncias e desempenho.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref> </sup> Alguns indicadores internacionais s&#227;o usualmente empregados para acompanhamento do desempenho dessas unidades, entretanto cada institui&#231;&#227;o deve implementar os seus indicadores de acordo com a disponibilidade das informa&#231;&#245;es ou oportunidades de melhorias. Abaixo, est&#227;o alguns indicadores previstos (tanto para dor tor&#225;cica como para casos confirmados de SCA).</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Tempos de atendimento:</p>
              <list list-type="simple">
                <list-item>
                  <label>&#10146;</label>
                  <p>Tempo porta-eletrocardiograma (TPE) (ideal at&#233; 10 minutos);</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <label>&#10146;</label>
                  <p>Tempo porta-agulha ou porta-bal&#227;o (para IAM com supra-ST);</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <label>&#10146;</label>
                  <p>Perman&#234;ncia na UDT;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <label>&#10146;</label>
                  <p>Transfer&#234;ncia da UDT para outra unidade ( <italic>boarding time</italic> para terapia intensiva ou interna&#231;&#227;o).</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Prescri&#231;&#227;o de dupla antiagrega&#231;&#227;o plaquet&#225;ria na alta e de AAS na admiss&#227;o;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Prescri&#231;&#227;o de estatina de alta intensidade na alta hospitalar;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Percep&#231;&#227;o do paciente com o atendimento.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Outros indicadores podem ser acrescentados em situa&#231;&#245;es espec&#237;ficas (por exemplo, paciente que evolui com IC deve receber alta com terapia para IC).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>&#201; considerado boa pr&#225;tica a produ&#231;&#227;o de relat&#243;rios em intervalos regulares (por exemplo, trimestralmente), cujos resultados devem ser documentados em reuni&#245;es de equipe e discuss&#227;o de casos. Mecanismos de <italic>feedback</italic> , que reflitam os resultados e a qualidade do manejo dos pacientes na unidade, tamb&#233;m devem ser introduzidos.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2.6. Avan&#231;os Tecnol&#243;gicos</title>
          <p>Muitas pesquisas t&#234;m apontado que &#233; poss&#237;vel melhorar ainda mais o atendimento e a estratifica&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dor tor&#225;cica, de modo que os pacientes sejam estratificados mais precocemente, com mais seguran&#231;a e com acesso mais &#225;gil a quem precisa. Por exemplo, uso de ECG no domic&#237;lio ( <italic>wearable</italic> ), uso de troponina <italic>point-of-care</italic> e aplica&#231;&#227;o do escore HEART pr&#233;-hospitalar podem orientar pacientes de baixo risco para exames adicionais em n&#237;vel ambulatorial ou orientar pacientes de alto risco para ir diretamente a hospitais de refer&#234;ncia cardiol&#243;gico, com laborat&#243;rio de hemodin&#226;mica e centros de terapia intensiva. O uso de algoritmos sistematizados de atendimento, integrados aos prontu&#225;rios do paciente, tem sido implementado para reduzir erros e acelerar os processos de atendimento, muitas vezes com suporte de intelig&#234;ncia artificial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B254">254</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Finalmente, todo o conte&#250;do desta diretriz ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f17">Figura 17</xref> ) s&#243; ser&#225; plenamente aplicado e haver&#225; possibilidade de melhoria cont&#237;nua, caso sejam implementados protocolos locais com m&#233;tricas e acompanhamento pela equipe assistencial ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t40">Tabela 40</xref> ).</p>
          <fig id="f17">
            <label>Figura 17</label>
            <caption>
              <title>10 Mensagens Principais da Diretriz de Atendimento &#224; Dor Tor&#225;cica na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia. ECG: eletrocardiograma; SCA: s&#237;ndrome coronariana aguda; POCUS: Ponint of Care Ultrasound; IAM: infarto agudo do mioc&#225;rdio; DAC: doen&#231;a arterial coron&#225;ria.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href=""/>
          </fig>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn1">
        <label>Realiza&#231;&#227;o:</label>
        <p>Grupos de Estudos em Coronariopatias, Emerg&#234;ncias e Terapia Intensiva (GECETI) do Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica da Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (DCC), Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia (SBC) e Federaci&#243;n Latinoamericana de Medicina de Emergencias (FLAME)</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn2">
        <label>Coordenadores:</label>
        <p>Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva, Alexandre de Matos Soeiro</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn3">
        <label>Conselho de Normatiza&#231;&#245;es e Diretrizes respons&#225;vel:</label>
        <p>Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva (Coordenador), Helena Cramer Veiga Rey, Humberto Graner Moreira, Jos&#233; Augusto Soares Barreto Filho, Nadine Oliveira Clausell &#8211; Gest&#227;o 2025-2027.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn4">
        <label>Esta Diretriz dever&#225; ser citado como:</label>
        <p>de Barros e Silva PGM, Soeiro AM, Ornelas CE, Feitosa-Filho GS, Lopes RD, Lino DOC, et al. Diretriz Brasileira de Atendimento &#224; Dor Tor&#225;cica na Unidade de Emerg&#234;ncia &#8211; 2025. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2025; 122(9):e20250620.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5">
        <label>Nota:</label>
        <p>Estas Diretrizes se prestam a informar e n&#227;o a substituir o julgamento cl&#237;nico do m&#233;dico que, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, deve determinar o tratamento apropriado para seus pacientes.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
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            <sup>2</sup>
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          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff64">
            <sup>27</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4598-5512</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Petriz</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Luiz Fernandes</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff51">
            <sup>14</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1556-4314</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silva</surname>
            <given-names>Jos&#233; Roberto de Oliveira</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff65">
            <sup>28</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2279-1945</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Marchini</surname>
            <given-names>Julio Flavio Meirelles</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff48">
            <sup>11</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4823-9673</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Ohe</surname>
            <given-names>Louis Nakayama</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff66">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-5645-2055</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Hajjar</surname>
            <given-names>Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff49">
            <sup>12</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0001-3090-9261</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lunardi</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Camila</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff67">
            <sup>30</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9413-3792</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Mucio Tavares de</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-1382-6656</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Filgueiras</surname>
            <given-names>Nivaldo Menezes</given-names>
            <suffix>Filho</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff43">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff68">
            <sup>31</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5538-7455</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Silvestre</surname>
            <given-names>Odilson Marcos</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff69">
            <sup>32</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8121-5959</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Villela</surname>
            <given-names>Paolo Blanco</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff52">
            <sup>15</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-6020-7236</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Soares</surname>
            <given-names>Paulo Rog&#233;rio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff70">
            <sup>33</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-4277-9134</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Sampaio</surname>
            <given-names>Pedro Paulo Nogueres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff71">
            <sup>34</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff72">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0009-7029-1740</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Oliveira</surname>
            <given-names>Ren&#233;e Sarmento de</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff73">
            <sup>36</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8071-6516</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Lima</surname>
            <given-names>Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff72">
            <sup>35</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff74">
            <sup>37</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-8911-9873</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Felicioni</surname>
            <given-names>Sandro Pinelli</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff66">
            <sup>29</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-6583-6595</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Timerman</surname>
            <given-names>Sergio</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-7410-3147</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Leal</surname>
            <given-names>Tatiana de Carvalho Andreuci Torres</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-0201-6754</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Mathias</surname>
            <given-names>Wilson</given-names>
            <suffix>Junior</suffix>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff41">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff38">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Hcor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff39">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Brazilian Clinical Research Institute, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff40">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Centro Universit&#225;rio S&#227;o Camilo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff41">
          <label>4</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor) do Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff42">
          <label>5</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Belo Horizonte</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">MG</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Fel&#237;cio Rocho, Belo Horizonte, MG &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff43">
          <label>6</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Escola Bahiana de Medicina e Sa&#250;de P&#250;blica, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff44">
          <label>7</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Santa Izabel, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff45">
          <label>8</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Santa Casa de Miseric&#243;rdia da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff46">
          <label>9</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Durham</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="US">USA</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Duke University Medical Center, Durham &#8211; USA</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff47">
          <label>10</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Fortaleza</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">CE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Messejana Dr. Carlos Alberto Studart Gomes, Fortaleza, CE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff48">
          <label>11</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Israelita Albert Einstein, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff49">
          <label>12</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (USP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff50">
          <label>13</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Pr&#243;-Card&#237;aco, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff51">
          <label>14</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Barra D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff52">
          <label>15</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Clementino Fraga Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff53">
          <label>16</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital de Cl&#237;nicas da Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRS), Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff54">
          <label>17</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Professor Edgard Santos (HUPES), Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff55">
          <label>18</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal Fluminense (UFF), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff56">
          <label>19</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="AR">Argentina</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Churruca, Buenos Aires &#8211; Argentina</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff57">
          <label>20</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Curitiba</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PR</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Adam Cardiologia, Curitiba, PR &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff58">
          <label>21</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Natal</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RN</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Onofre Lopes, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte (UFRN), Natal, RN &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff59">
          <label>22</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Aracaju</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica do Cora&#231;&#227;o, Aracaju, SE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff60">
          <label>23</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Quinta D&#8217;Or, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff61">
          <label>24</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Universit&#225;rio Pedro Ernesto, Universidade do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UERJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff62">
          <label>25</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Goi&#226;nia</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">GO</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal de Goi&#225;s (UFG), Goi&#226;nia, GO &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff63">
          <label>26</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Pronto Socorro Cardiol&#243;gico de Pernambuco (PROCAPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff64">
          <label>27</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Recife</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">PE</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade de Pernambuco (UPE), Recife, PE &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff65">
          <label>28</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital S&#237;rio Liban&#234;s, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff66">
          <label>29</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Instituto Dante Pazzanese de Cardiologia, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff67">
          <label>30</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital das Cl&#237;nicas da Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de S&#227;o Paulo (HCFMUSP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff68">
          <label>31</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Salvador</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">BA</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade do Estado da Bahia (UNEB), Salvador, BA &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff69">
          <label>32</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio Branco</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">AC</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Cl&#237;nica Silvestre Sant&#233;, Rio Branco, AC &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff70">
          <label>33</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Funda&#231;&#227;o Zerbini, Instituto do Cora&#231;&#227;o (Incor), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff71">
          <label>34</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Hospital Samaritano, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff72">
          <label>35</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff73">
          <label>36</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Universidade Federal do Estado do Rio de Janeiro (UNIRIO), Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff74">
          <label>37</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Rio de Janeiro</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">RJ</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Fonte Imagem, Rio de Janeiro, RJ &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Correspondence:</label> Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; Av. Marechal C&#226;mara, 360/330 &#8211; Centro &#8211; Rio de Janeiro &#8211; CEP: <postal-code>20020-907</postal-code> . E-mail: <email>diretrizes@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <table-wrap id="t83">
        <table frame="hsides" rules="rows">
          <colgroup width="50%">
            <col/>
            <col/>
          </colgroup>
          <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Brazilian Guideline Approach to Chest Pain in the Emergency Department &#8211; 2025</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">The report below lists declarations of interest as reported to the SBC by the experts during the period of the development of these statement, 2024/2025.</th>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Expert</th>
              <th align="left" valign="middle">Type of relationship with industry</th>
            </tr>
          </thead>
          <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Alexandre de Matos Soeiro</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Biomerieux.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Andr&#233; Volschan</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Other relationships <break/> Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC: <break/> - Private Practice Partner.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Bruno Ferraz de Oliveira Gomes</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Carisi Anne Polanczyk</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Eduardo Ornelas</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Bayer: Firialta; Novartis: Sybrava; Chiesi: Trimbow. <break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Novartis: Sybrava; Daiichi Sankyo: bempedoic acid. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Chiesi: Trimbow.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Eduardo Rochitte</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Canon: Health Imaging Technology; GE: Cardiovascular resonance and tomography.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Carlos Vicente Serrano Jr.</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Cl&#225;udio Marcelo Bittencourt das Virgens</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Claudio Tinoco Mesquita</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - AstraZeneca: amyloidosis; Alnylam: amyloidosis.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Danielli Oliveira da Costa Lino</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Boehringer: Tenecteplase. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Boehringer: Tenecteplase.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Edgardo Jorge Menendez</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Eduardo Leal Adam</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Fabio Mastrocola</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: semaglutide.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">F&#225;bio Serra Silveira</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Felipe Souza Maia da Silva</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Gilson Soares Feitosa-Filho</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Amgen: Olpasiran; Idorsia: Selatogrel; Anthos: Abelacimabe; Jansen e Bayer: Milvexiana. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Servier/Trimetazidine: Congress Registration.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Giovanni Possamai Dutra</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">H&#233;lio Penna Guimar&#227;es</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Humberto Graner Moreira</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Pfizer: amyloidosis and immunizations; Novo Nordisk: obesity and inflammation; Novartis: dyslipidemia; Daichii-Sankyo: dyslipidemia; Bayer: cardio-oncology. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: obesity.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Isly Maria Lucena de Barros</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Jo&#227;o Luiz Fernandes Petriz</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Servier: Vastarel.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Jos&#233; Roberto de Oliveira Silva Filho</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Chiesi: Trimbow; GSK: Vaccines; Libbs: ticagrelor, ramipril and candesartan; Biolab: vasopressin. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Daiichi Sankyo: prasugrel.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Julio Flavio Meirelles Marchini</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Louis Nakayama Ohe</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Abbott: Coroflow; BBraun: Sequent Please; Libbs: Artag; Meril: Stent.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ludhmila Abrah&#227;o Hajjar</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Maria Camila Lunardi</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Mucio Tavares de Oliveira Junior</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Sanofi-Pasteur: Efluelda/influenza; Torrent: Iccor/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; Merck: Concor/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; Biolab: Simdax/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca; GSK: Arexvy/v&#237;rus sincicial respirat&#243;rio; Pfizer: Abrysvo/v&#237;rus sincicial respirat&#243;rio; Ache: Edistride/insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. <break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Sanofi-Pasteur: Efluelda/Influenza.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nivaldo Menezes Filgueiras Filho</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - AstraZeneca: Lokelma, Forxiga; Servier: Adhesion/Acertanlo, Acertil; Boehringer: Jardiance. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Servier: Acertanlo; AstraZeneca: Lokelma.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Odilson Marcos Silvestre</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Paolo Blanco Villela</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - FQM: Exforge HCT. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - FQM: Flebon.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Paulo Rog&#233;rio Soares</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Merck: Glifage XR/Concor; Libbs: resident program; AstraZeneca: Forxiga. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - AstraZeneca: European Congress 2024.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> B - Funding for research under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the <break/> department or institution) from the pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthetic, <break/> equipment, and implant industries, Brazilian or foreign: <break/> - Bayer, Novartis, Idorsia, Roche Diagnostics</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Pedro Paulo Nogueres Sampaio</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Other relationships <break/> Participa&#231;&#227;o em comit&#234;s de compras de materiais ou f&#225;rmacos em institui&#231;&#245;es de sa&#250;de ou fun&#231;&#245;es assemelhadas: <break/> - Cardiology Coordinator at Samaritano Hospital.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Remo Holanda de Mendon&#231;a Furtado</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - AstraZeneca: Forxiga; Bayer: Firialta; Boehringer: Trayenta; Daiichi-Sankyo: Lixiana; Server: Diamicron; Libbs: Artag; Novartis: Sybrava. <break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Ach&#233;: protocol consultancy; Libbs: protocol consultancy; AstraZeneca: Heart failure; Pfizer: atrial fibrillation; Regeneron: atrial fibrillation; Viatris: myocardial infarction; Brainfarma: analgesia; Bayer: prostate cancer; Novartis: Heart failure; Roche: statistical analysis. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Novartis: Sybrava.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Renato D. Lopes</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Pfizer, Daiichi Sankyo, Novo Nordisk, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Bristol-Myers Squibb. <break/> B - Research funding under your direct/personal responsibility (directed to the department or institution) from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Amgen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, GlaxoSmithKline, Medtronic, Pfizer, Sanofi-Aventis. <break/> Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Pfizer, Daiichi Sankyo, Novo Nordisk, Novartis.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ren&#233;e Sarmento de Oliveira</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Financial declaration <break/> A - Economically relevant payments of any kind made to (i) you, (ii) your spouse/partner or any other person living with you, (iii) any legal person in which any of these is either a direct or indirect controlling owner, business partner, shareholder or participant; any payments received for lectures, lessons, training instruction, compensation, fees paid for participation in advisory boards, investigative boards or other committees, etc. from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: semaglutide lecture. <break/> Outros relacionamentos <break/> Financiamento de atividades de educa&#231;&#227;o m&#233;dica continuada, incluindo viagens, hospedagens e inscri&#231;&#245;es para congressos e cursos, provenientes da ind&#250;stria farmac&#234;utica, de &#243;rteses, pr&#243;teses, equipamentos e implantes, brasileiras ou estrangeiras: <break/> - Novo Nordisk: semaglutide (Wegovy).</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Ronaldo de Souza Le&#227;o Lima</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Outros relacionamentos <break/> Participa&#231;&#227;o societ&#225;ria de qualquer natureza e qualquer valor economicamente apreci&#225;vel de empresas na &#225;rea de sa&#250;de, de ensino ou em empresas concorrentes ou fornecedoras da SBC: <break/> - Partner at Fonte Imagem.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Sandro Pinelli Felicioni</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Sergio Timerman</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Tatiana de Carvalho Andreuci Torres Leal</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Other relationships <break/> Funding of continuing medical education activities, including travel, accommodation and registration in conferences and courses, from the brazilian or international pharmaceutical, orthosis, prosthesis, equipment and implants industry: <break/> - Eli Lilly: Mounjaro.</td>
            </tr>
            <tr>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Wilson Mathias Junior</td>
              <td align="left" valign="middle">Nothing to be declared</td>
            </tr>
          </tbody>
        </table>
      </table-wrap>
      <sec>
        <title>Table of contents</title>
        <list list-type="simple">
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>1. Introduction</bold> 10</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.1. Scope of the Problem</bold> 10</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.2. The Role of Chest Pain Units</bold> 11</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>1.3. Objectives of this Guideline</bold> 11</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>2. Methods</bold> 12</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>2.1. Definitions of Classes of Recommendations and Levels of Evidence</bold> 12</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>3. Initial Approach</bold> 12</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.1. Criteria for Activation of the Chest Pain Pathway</bold> 12</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.1.1. Concept of First Medical Contact</bold> 12</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.1.2. Assessment of Possible Causes of Chest Pain</bold> 13</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.1.3. General Eligibility Criteria for the Chest Pain Pathway</bold> 14</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.1.4. Specific Criteria for Chest Pain Pathway Activation by Nursing Staff</bold> 14</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.1.5. Subjective Criteria at the Physician's Discretion</bold> 14</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.2. What to Do After Activating the Chest Pain Pathway</bold> 15</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.2.1. When and How to Perform Detailed Assessment of Chest Pain (Differential Diagnosis)</bold> 15</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.3. Best Practices for Door-to-ECG Time (DTE)</bold> 15</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.3.1. Importance of ECG Within the First 10 Minutes</bold> 15</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.3.2. How to Measure DTE</bold> 15</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.3.3. Recommendations for Obtaining the Ideal Door-to-ECG Time</bold> 16</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.4. ECG Interpretation</bold> 17</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.4.1. Role of the ECG in Assessment of the Patient with Chest Pain</bold> 17</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.4.2. How Sensitive is Single ECG for Assessment of the Patient with Chest Pain? What Additional Benefit is Gained from Serial ECGs?</bold> 17</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.4.3. ECG Diagnostic Criteria for ACS</bold> 17</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.4.4. Differential Diagnoses on ECG</bold> 18</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>3.4.4.1. Primary and Secondary Repolarization Abnormalities</bold> 18</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>3.3.4.2. Other ECG Diagnoses</bold> 20</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>3.3.4.3. The Nondiagnostic Electrocardiogram</bold> 21</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>3.5. How is the Diagnosis of Acute Coronary Syndrome Defined?</bold> 21</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.1. What about Unstable Angina?</bold> 21</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>3.5.2. How to Classify ACS by ECG Findings</bold> 21</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>4. Diagnostic Pathway: After the Initial ECG</bold> 22</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.1. Approach to the Patient Meeting Criteria for Instability</bold> 24</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.1.1. Routine Echocardiography in the Unstable Patient with Chest Pain</bold> 26</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.2. Clinical Risk Stratification and Diagnostic Probability Scores</bold> 27</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.2.1. Clinical Risk Scores for Suspected ACS Cases</bold> 28</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.2.1.1 Which Patients Should Have Their HEART Score Calculated?</bold> 29</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.2.2. Clinical Scores for Suspected Acute Aortic Syndromes</bold> 29</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.2.3. Clinical Scores for Suspected Pulmonary Embolism</bold> 29</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.2.4. Other Differential Diagnoses</bold> 33</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.3. Troponin Algorithms</bold> 33</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.3.1. Use and Interpretation of Biomarkers of Myocardial Injury</bold> 33</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.1.1. What is the Biomarker of Choice for Diagnosis of MI?</bold> 34</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.1.2. How to Interpret the Abnormal Troponin Test</bold> 34</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.1.3. How to Interpret Serial Troponin Tests</bold> 34</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.1.4. Diagnostic Criteria for MI</bold> 35</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.1.5. What is the Time Limit to Rule Out a Diagnosis of MI?</bold> 35</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.1.6. What is the Algorithm of Choice?</bold> 35</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.3.2. Routing According to Classification in the Algorithm</bold> 35</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.2.1. ACS Ruled out</bold> 36</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.2.2. Admission Confirmed (ACS Ruled in)</bold> 37</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.3.3. Initial Disposition of Intermediate ("Grey-Zone") Cases (Observation)</bold> 39</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.3.4. Approach to the Patient with Myocardial Injury and Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries</bold> 42</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.3.4.1 Investigation of cases of elevated troponin without coronary obstruction (troponin-positive nonobstructive coronary arteries &#8211; TINOCA or TpNOCA)</bold> 42</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>4.4. Rational Use of Noninvasive Tests</bold> 42</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.4.1. The Role of Exercise Electrocardiogram Testing</bold> 42</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.4.2. Role of Echocardiography in Assessment of the Patient with Chest Pain</bold> 45</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.4.3. Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy with Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET-CT)</bold> 47</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.4.3.1. Indications for Myocardial Perfusion Imaging</bold> 47</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.4.3.2. Special Considerations in Women with Acute Chest Pain</bold> 48</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.4.4. Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA)</bold> 48</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.4.4.1. Triple Rule-out</bold> 50</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>4.4.5. Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging</bold> 51</p>
                    <list list-type="simple">
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.4.5.1. Detection of Myocardial Ischemia</bold> 51</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.4.5.2. Differential Diagnosis of Positive Troponin with Normal Coronary Arteries (TINOCA / MINOCA)</bold> 51</p>
                      </list-item>
                      <list-item>
                        <p><bold>4.4.5.3. Myocarditis</bold> 52</p>
                      </list-item>
                    </list>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>5. A Model for Implementation of Chest Pain Units</bold> 53</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>5.1. Investigation of Acute Coronary Syndrome in the Prehospital Care Setting</bold> 53</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.1.1. Patient Perceptions and Organization of the Prehospital Care Network</bold> 53</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.1.2. Role of ECG in the Prehospital Setting</bold> 54</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.1.3. Role of Troponin in the Prehospital Setting</bold> 55</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.1.4. Role of Risk Stratification Scores</bold> 55</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.1.5. Other Diagnostic Tools</bold> 55</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>5.2. A Model for Implementation of Chest Pain Units: Evidence for Best Practice</bold> 55</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.2.1. Patient Assessment</bold> 55</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.2.2. Organizational Structure and Human Resources</bold> 56</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.2.3. Technical Requirements</bold> 56</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.2.4. Specific Therapies</bold> 57</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.2.5. Management Indicators</bold> 57</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <p><bold>5.2.6. Technological Advances</bold> 57</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>Supplement</bold> 58</p>
            <list list-type="simple">
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S1</bold> 58</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S2</bold> 59</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S3</bold> 59</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S4</bold> 60</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S5</bold> 60</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S6</bold> 61</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S7</bold> 62</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p><bold>Figure S8</bold> 62</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p><bold>References</bold> 63</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <fig id="f43">
          <label>Figure S1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>52-year-old woman seen with resolving angina of 15 minutes&#8217; duration. A) ECG on admission B) ECG at the time of angina recurrence showing horizontal ST-segment depression &gt; 0.5 mm in leads II, III, aVF, and V3 to V6. Diagnosed with NSTE-ACS.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f44">
          <label>Figure S2</label>
          <caption>
            <title>73-year-old man, current smoker with history of dyslipidemia, presenting 30 minutes after onset of burning precordial pain. Note presence of diffuse downsloping ST-segment depression plus ST elevation &gt; 0.5 mm in lead aVR. Administration of sublingual nitrate was followed by improvement of pain and reversal of ST-segment changes. This pattern is associated with LMCA involvement and/or triple-vessel disease. The patient should undergo early coronary angiography.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f45">
          <label>Figure S3</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Examples of aortic dissection. A: Note that flow (in blue) follows the true lumen. B: Note aneurysm in the descending aorta. C: visible dissection line. D: dissection and aneurysm in the ascending aorta seen on parasternal long-axis view. ASC AO: ascending aorta; DESC AO: descending aorta.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f46">
          <label>Figure S4</label>
          <caption>
            <title>RV pressure overload causing LV dysfunction. Note the enlarged RV pushing the interventricular septum towards the LV.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f47">
          <label>Figure S5</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Examples of echocardiographic changes caused by myocardial infarction. A: significant left ventricular enlargement with spontaneous echo contrast; B: severe mitral regurgitation secondary to papillary muscle ischemia; C: post-MI ventricular septal defect. Note left-to-right shunting in red.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f48">
          <label>Figure S6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Massive pericardial effusion. A: fluid surrounding the entire heart seen on parasternal short-axis view. B: fluid surrounding the entire heart viewed through subcostal window.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f49">
          <label>Figure S7</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Approach to the patient with chest pain and hemodynamic instability.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <fig id="f50">
          <label>Figure S8</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Exercise myocardial perfusion scan demonstrating reversible myocardial perfusion defects in the right coronary artery territory corresponding to 20% of the myocardium.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <sec>
          <title>1.1. Scope of the Problem</title>
          <p>Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the number-one cause of death in Brazil and worldwide, and acute coronary syndrome (ACS) is the leading specific cause of cardiovascular death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>ACS represents the spectrum of clinical and laboratory manifestations of acute myocardial ischemia. According to current definitions, it comprises unstable angina (UA), non-ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI), and ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), with each of these diagnoses respectively accounting for 30%, 34%, and 36% of confirmed ACS cases in the Brazilian Registry of Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACCEPT).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
          <p>In the United States of America (USA), the prevalence of any acute myocardial infarction (MI) is approximately 3% in adults, with coronary heart disease accounting for about 41% of all cardiovascular deaths in 2020.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref> </sup>In Brazil, the prevalence of acute MI was approximately 4% in a cross-sectional study involving 7,260 individuals from different ethnicities and regions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>From an economic standpoint, myocardial infarction represents the highest financial burden of heart disease for the Brazilian Unified Health System ( <italic>Sistema &#218;nico de Sa&#250;de</italic> , SUS), with an expenditure of R$ 22.4 billion (roughly 6.9 billion U.S. dollars) in 2015.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup>Considering that ACS represents not only the leading cause of death in the overall population<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>but also the costliest heart disease for the Brazilian health system, the implementation of methods for early, accurate, and efficient diagnosis and management of these patients is a priority public health concern.</p>
          <p>The main symptom of ACS is chest pain. It is estimated that, each year, 5 to 8 million individuals present to emergency departments (EDs) in the United States with chest pain or ischemic-equivalent symptoms suggestive of acute myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>This represents approximately 5% of all U.S. emergency visits, demonstrating the societal burden of chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> </sup>In addition to being a frequent complaint in the emergency setting, chest pain can represent up to 40% of the causes of hospital admission through the ED, with a high cost burden for publicly funded health systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref> </sup>Although chest pain is the most common symptom leading to recognition of ACS, only 5 to 20% of patients presenting to the ED with chest pain have ACS, and more than half of chest pain cases seen in the ED do not have a cardiac cause.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref> </sup>Rapid, assertive diagnosis and management can significantly improve the prognosis of these patients and reduce costs for the healthcare system.</p>
          <p>Due to the high incidence of this complaint in EDs, patients with chest pain often receive care from providers and/or at health facilities that do not specialize in cardiovascular diseases. Appropriate guidance for all facilities and providers is essential for the optimal management of these cases, ensuring that patients receive care safely and that the health system provides care efficiently. Although ACS is the most frequent cause of death in the population with chest pain, there are other potentially fatal and time-sensitive diagnoses that should also be considered in these patients. Therefore, assessment of chest pain in the ED aims at early recognition not only of ACS, but also of such alternate diagnoses that are associated with immediate risk of death, such as aortic dissection and pulmonary embolism.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.2. The Role of Chest Pain Units</title>
          <p>In the 1960s, coronary care units (CCU) were established with the primary objective of providing a safe environment for diagnostic confirmation and, especially, treatment of acute MI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup>The advent of these units has had a substantial clinical impact, reducing acute MI mortality by approximately 50%, particularly through early recognition and effective treatment of arrhythmias and cardiac arrest.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> </sup>Despite the clinical benefit for confirmed cases of acute MI, the availability of a safer environment for patient management led to a more liberal approach in clinical practice, in which physicians also admitted many unconfirmed cases &#8211; i.e., patients with only a clinical suspicion of ACS &#8211; to the CCU.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref> </sup>As a consequence of this approach based on heterogeneous clinical judgment rather than objective protocols, more than half of patients admitted to CCUs did not, in fact, have ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup>A large proportion of these high-complexity, high-cost beds thus began to be occupied by patients with low diagnostic probability of ACS and a low risk of complications, resulting not only in saturation of the CCUs but also in misuse of resources.</p>
          <p>The absence of protocols that would allow greater assertiveness in selecting which patients should be hospitalized led both to overcrowding of coronary care units and to a high risk of inadvertent discharge of patients from the ED with unrecognized acute MI. Historically, in the U.S., 1 to 10% of patients who were actually having an MI were inappropriately discharged from the emergency room because their diagnosis was not recognized, and this inadvertently discharged group had a higher risk of death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref> </sup>In settings with fewer resources and/or where doctors are less prepared to care for such cases, the rate of unrecognized MI is even higher.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>Thus, although ACS represents a relatively small proportion of chest pain cases, in the absence of systematization of care (chest pain pathways), patients become more vulnerable to misdiagnosis (both underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis) despite the availability of resources. This entails a greater risk of fatal complications (when undiagnosed MI cases are inadvertently discharged home) and higher hospital costs (when high-complexity resources, such as CCU beds, are overused for lower-risk patients).</p>
          <p>In light of this scenario, Chest Pain Units (CPUs) were created in 1982.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> </sup>CPUs do not necessarily represent a dedicated physical space for care of the patient with chest pain; instead, they primarily constitute care pathways and processes that allow for the systematic, best practices-based assessment of patients with a suspected diagnosis of ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref> </sup>To achieve this, CPU doctors and nurses must be trained in and familiar with the management of cardiovascular emergencies.</p>
          <p>In addition to their importance in guiding physicians to the correct diagnosis, chest pain pathways enable rapid implementation of evidence-based therapies. Although life-threatening diagnoses usually represent &lt; 10 to 20% of chest pain cases, such situations are time-sensitive; therefore, the earlier the diagnosis, the faster the intervention and, consequently, the more lives will be saved (especially in conditions such as STEMI and acute aortic dissection).</p>
          <p>In summary, the protocolized, systematic care of patients with chest pain or suspected ACS aims to:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Facilitate and prioritize access to care for patients with chest pain or ischemic-equivalent symptoms who present to the emergency department (initial care); and</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Provide an organized strategy for the diagnostic and therapeutic management of such patients in the emergency department, aiming for both speed and quality in care to achieve the best possible outcomes for patients while simultaneously focusing on the efficient use of available resources, i.e., delivering value in health (diagnostic pathway and treatment pathway).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>1.3. Objectives of this Guideline</title>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Provide practical guidance to physicians (cardiologists and non-cardiologists) and multidisciplinary teams on the initial management of patients with acute-onset chest pain (or ischemic-equivalent symptoms), in accordance with evidence-based best practices;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Establish a standardized care pathway for the management of patients with suspected ACS (and relevant differential diagnoses), minimizing the time to completion of critical diagnostic and therapeutic procedures to ensure the fastest possible patient recovery;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Provide guidance on the utilization of healthcare resources, with a view to delivering value in a manner adaptable to each setting of care;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Provide guidance on how to collect information on care practices to inform assessment of care quality by establishing measurable time targets and goals for the best practices included in the chest pain pathway. This information is essential for identifying gaps in care and assessing the results of ongoing quality improvement efforts.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>In summary, there are three main objectives in implementing a chest pain protocol ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t43">Table 1</xref> ):</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p>Excellence in care process indicators (e.g., metrics for time to diagnosis);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Improved efficiency of the health system (e.g., metrics assessing appropriate resource allocation);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Reduction in the rates of adverse outcomes for confirmed cases of potentially life-threatening diseases (e.g., reducing outcomes such as death and ventricular dysfunction in ACS).</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <table-wrap id="t43">
            <label>Table 1</label>
            <caption>
              <p>Objectives of chest pain pathways and the corresponding action required to achieve each objective</p>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="50%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle">Objectives</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Action</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Early identification of patients with ACS (and other time-sensitive conditions)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Electrocardiogram (ECG) within 10 minutes (repeat ECG, serial biomarkers, and order other tests as indicated for differential diagnoses)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Avoid inadvertent discharge <break/> and Avoid unnecessary hospitalization</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Decision pathways based on best practices</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Save lives and Reduce sequelae (e.g., post-MI heart failure)</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle">Early evidence-based treatment (follow disease-specific treatment guidelines, such as ACS guidelines)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN38">
                <p>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; ECG: electrocardiogram.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>2. Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>2.1. Definitions of Classes of Recommendations and Levels of Evidence</title>
          <sec>
            <title>Recommendations</title>
            <p><bold>Class I:</bold> Conditions for which there is conclusive evidence or, failing that, general agreement that a given procedure is safe and useful/effective.</p>
            <p><bold>Class II:</bold> Conditions for which there is conflicting evidence and/or a divergence of opinion about the safety and usefulness/efficacy of a procedure.</p>
            <p><bold>Class IIa:</bold> Weight or evidence/opinion in favor of the procedure. Most approve.</p>
            <p><bold>Class IIb:</bold> Safety and usefulness/efficacy are less well established, with no predominance of opinions in favor.</p>
            <p><bold>Class III:</bold> Conditions for which there is evidence and/or general agreement that a procedure is not useful/effective and, in some cases, may be harmful.</p>
            <p>
              <bold>Evidence</bold>
            </p>
            <p><bold>Level A:</bold> Data derived from multiple concordant randomized trials and/or robust meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.</p>
            <p><bold>Level B:</bold> Data derived from less robust meta-analyses, from a single randomized trial or from non-randomized (observational) studies.</p>
            <p><bold>Level C:</bold> Data derived from consensus opinion of experts and/or small non-randomized (observational) studies.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>3. Initial Approach</title>
        <sec>
          <title>3.1. Criteria for Activation of the Chest Pain Pathway</title>
          <sec>
            <title>3.1.1. Concept of First Medical Contact</title>
            <p>The term "first medical contact" (FMC) refers to the first interaction with a healthcare professional or service, ideally occurring in the pre-hospital setting. The initial approach to patients presenting with chest pain is always aimed at ruling in or ruling out a diagnosis of ACS or another potentially fatal condition (e.g., acute aortic dissection). Given the numerous possible differential diagnoses, establishing the correct cause of chest pain remains a challenge for physicians working on the front lines in emergency departments, urgent care facilities, and pre-hospital emergency medical services.</p>
            <p>When faced with a patient complaining of chest pain, the ED provider (particularly the first medical professional to have contact with the patient) must decide whether immediate initiation of specific treatment measures is warranted, considering that several acute conditions that may present as chest pain carry an immediate risk of death, including the acute aortic syndromes (dissection, aneurysm, and hematoma), ACS (unstable angina and acute MI), pulmonary embolism (PE), and tension pneumothorax. In the emergency department, this so-called first medical contact (FMC) may be performed by a physician or by another healthcare professional (e.g., triage nurse).</p>
            <p>Prompt provision of appropriate care is essential, and algorithm-based emergency triage systems play a key role in this process. One such example is the Manchester triage system, a patient selection protocol based on color-coded levels of urgency/emergency. This method emerged in its namesake city in England in 1997, and quickly gained worldwide acceptance due to its efficiency. In Brazil, the Manchester triage model arrived in earnest around 10 years later, in an attempt to reduce long wait times in hospitals and prevent potential losses of patients who present in more serious condition. The Manchester protocol is based on a five-tier color code which is also used on patients&#8217; ID bracelets, as seen in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26">Figure 1</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup>Considering that every patient who presents to the ED with chest pain or equivalent symptom of ischemia must receive first medical contact within 10 minutes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>when applying the Manchester triage system, all such patients must be assigned a "red" or "orange" priority level in the interest of safety and to ensure they are seen in a timely fashion (in both cases, the patient must receive an ECG within 10 minutes). Studies have demonstrated the ability of nurses using the Manchester triage system to detect high-risk patients with chest pain,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup>the impact of Manchester triage use on short-term mortality of patients with ACS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref></sup>and the sensitivity and specificity of Manchester triage for patients with ACS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup>and have assessed whether this triage system was used effectively in patients admitted with a diagnosis of ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref></sup>Adaptations to the Manchester protocol (or equivalent triage systems) can be made in response to continuous assessments of local quality of care and according to the specificities of each service, with the aim of improving performance in triaging these patients.</p>
            <fig id="f26">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Manchester triage &#8211; ID wristbands.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>Finally, appropriate activation of the chest pain pathway may prevent inappropriate discharge of patients with ACS and reduce unnecessary hospitalizations and diagnostic tests. The chest pain pathway acts as a guide that provides safety and avoids unnecessary variability; however, clinical assessment is a key element for its optimal application.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B33">33</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.1.2. Assessment of Possible Causes of Chest Pain</title>
            <p>When assessing a patient with chest pain, it is imperative to consider those causes that require prompt management, not only because of their high potential for lethality but also because of the short time window for intervention. There are no pathognomonic signs of any one such condition, and anchoring on a single diagnosis &#8211; even if it is the most prevalent diagnosis &#8211; will lead to mismanagement. The present section suggests an initial assessment logic focused on those conditions that require the earliest management.</p>
            <p>Thus, the first cause to be considered in terms of severity is aortic dissection. Although the prevalence of aortic dissection is lower (approximately one case for every 20 to 90 cases of acute myocardial infarction),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B34">34</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B35">35</xref> </sup>a diagnosis that is never considered will never be made, and the estimated lethality is about 50% within 48 hours. Moreover, if it is mistaken for ACS, the initial use of antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy &#8211; contraindicated in cases of dissection &#8211; will be harmful to patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B36">36</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B37">37</xref> </sup></p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Aortic dissection: patients should be assessed for the presence of risk factors for aortic dissection, perfusion deficits (pulse or blood pressure differentials), and a widened mediastinum. Several decision-making algorithms are available, such as the <italic>Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score</italic> (ADD-RS) and the <italic>Aortic Simplified Score</italic> (AORTA). The ADD-RS included Brazilian patients from the Heart Institute of the University of S&#227;o Paulo Medical School (InCor-HCFMUSP), improving its applicability to the Brazilian population. In cases of suspected aortic dissection, any antiplatelet or anticoagulant therapy should be deferred until the diagnosis has been confirmed or excluded using the selected algorithm (see section 4.2.2 for further details);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Acute coronary syndrome (ACS): ACS is the most common potentially fatal cause of chest pain and will be discussed in greater detail in the next section;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B38">38</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Pulmonary embolism (PE): PE is another cause of chest pain with high lethality potential. PE-related chest pain is typically described as pleuritic (worsens with inspiration) and of sudden onset. Situations that promote immobility &#8211; such as orthopedic injuries, treatments, or other postoperative conditions &#8211; increase the likelihood of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) with subsequent pulmonary embolization. Clinical prediction rules such as the Wells and Geneva scores can be used to stratify PE risk and guide the diagnostic pathway. If D-dimer testing is indicated, use a value &#8805;500 ng/mL (&#956;g/L) as the cutoff for a "positive" level, or use an age-adjusted value (age x 10 for patients 50 years and older), which helps with the specificity of the test cutoff (if using the YEARS criteria, the D-dimer cutoff may be 500 or 1000 ng/mL, depending on the presence or absence of YEARS clinical criteria, respectively). 39,40 Furthermore, in patients with an intermediate or high probability of PE and without bleeding, the first dose of full anticoagulation may be indicated (see section 4.2.3 for further details);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Pneumothorax: simple pneumothorax may present as chest pain and can occur spontaneously in slender (ectomorphic) individuals, usually as a benign condition. Conversely, tension pneumothorax is a life-threatening emergency requiring immediate treatment. It most often occurs in the setting of trauma, with identification and management forming part of the primary trauma survey in thoracic or multiple trauma cases. In the in-hospital setting, tension pneumothorax can occur as a complication of procedures such as endotracheal intubation (due to tracheal perforation) or central venous catheterization;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B41">41</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Pericardial disease: cardiac tamponade typically manifests as chest discomfort. Patients usually present with hypotension or overt shock. Beck's triad has limited diagnostic utility; the sensitivities of its individual components for cardiac tamponade are low: hypotension (26 &#177; 10%), muffled heart sounds (28 &#177; 7%), and elevated jugular venous pressure (76 &#177; 14%).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B42">42</xref></sup>Another study reported an even lower sensitivity for the triad as a whole.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B43">43</xref></sup>Differentiation from other forms of circulatory shock has been greatly facilitated by bedside point-of-care ultrasound, which also allows ultrasound-guided management;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Severe esophageal conditions: these may also present with chest pain. Esophageal rupture with mediastinitis is rare, with a reported incidence of 3 per 1,000,000 population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B44">44</xref></sup>When associated with forceful vomiting &#8211; often in alcoholic patients &#8211; it is referred to as Boerhaave syndrome. Early assessment and intervention significantly impact prognosis;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B45">45</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Other diagnoses: after excluding the most urgent conditions, other causes with potential for complications should be considered, particularly in cases of myocardial injury (elevated troponin). An example is <italic>Takotsubo syndrome</italic> (stress cardiomyopathy), which in approximately two-thirds of cases is associated with intense emotional or physical stressors (e.g., sepsis, intracranial hemorrhage). It produces severe left ventricular dysfunction, typically with basal segment sparing (although variants exist). It is often indistinguishable from ACS on presentation, with diagnosis usually made retrospectively. In cases of cardiogenic shock, it is important to recognize that up to one-fifth of patients have concomitant left ventricular outflow tract obstruction (LVOTO), which may worsen with inotropic therapy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B46">46</xref></sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.1.3. General Eligibility Criteria for the Chest Pain Pathway</title>
            <p>All patients presenting from home or transferred from other health facilities who have a history of chest pain (or ischemic equivalent) of acute onset (at rest or originally with exertion) are eligible for the chest pain pathway.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.1.4. Specific Criteria for Chest Pain Pathway Activation by Nursing Staff</title>
            <p>The general criteria outlined above define the population covered by this guideline; however, a protocol that is designed to be activated by different providers (doctors, nurses) with different levels of expertise requires objective and highly sensitive criteria. Although the overarching objective of this type of criteria would be to offer safety through high sensitivity, thus preventing delayed recognition of a significant number of serious cases, on the other hand, overly broad criteria can overload emergency departments by applying to patients with a very low likelihood of deriving benefit. Thus, the criteria for activation of a chest pain pathway must be defined according to the specific objective of the desired early diagnoses and must follow a minimum standard ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t44">Tables 2</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t45">3</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t44">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Routine criteria for chest pain pathway activation</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Any CURRENT pain (at the time of admission) anywhere from the navel to the jaw.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Any chest pain of more than 10 minutes&#8217; duration (even if absent on admission).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN39">
                  <p>These routine criteria focus on the recognition of acute coronary syndrome with coronary occlusion, and therefore with potential benefit from reperfusion therapy, as well as other diagnoses carrying a high risk of lethality (e.g., acute aortic dissection).</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t45">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Additional criteria for chest pain pathway activation</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Patient asymptomatic on admission, but who reports epigastric discomfort or pain in the arms or jaw before arrival at the emergency department.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Ischemic equivalent (e.g., dyspnea, diaphoresis, and/or SBP &lt; 90 mmHg) in patients over 50 years of age and/or with a history of diabetes or known cardiovascular disease (e.g., prior myocardial infarction, angioplasty, stroke).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Upon request, after medical evaluation, in the absence of the above criteria (clinical suspicion of ACS or other life-threatening conditions such as aortic dissection).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN40">
                  <p>SBP: systolic blood pressure.</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN41">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Considering that 10 to 30% of patients with ACS do not present with chest pain (especially older adults or those with comorbidities such as diabetes),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B47">47</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B48">48</xref> </sup>the use of more sensitive criteria that include ischemic equivalents allows for a broader detection of ACS cases. These broader criteria must be accompanied by clinical assessment to ensure adequate use of resources (i.e., staff must always remain vigilant and act to avoid misuse of resources and overcrowding of chest pain units)</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.1.5. Subjective Criteria at the Physician's Discretion</title>
            <p>As per the last recommendation listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t45">Table 3</xref> , in addition to cases presenting with objective criteria that allow rapid identification by the nursing staff, patients who after medical evaluation are suspected of having an ACS mimic or other life-threatening diagnosis (pulmonary embolism, aortic dissection, etc.) may also be enrolled in the chest pain pathway.</p>
            <p>Less specific manifestations such as syncope, weakness, confusion/delirium, "indigestion," unexplained nausea, or vomiting may be considered angina equivalents, particularly in high-risk patients (e.g., elderly, patients with diabetes, or those with established cardiovascular disease). In such cases, initiation of a chest pain protocol maybe appropriate even in the absence of objective diagnostic criteria. Because routine ECG evaluation is recommended in patients with syncope, this presentation may serve as a standard objective criterion to perform a 12-lead ECG within 10 minutes of arrival to the emergency department. However, further investigation for ACS beyond the initial ECG is not necessarily required unless additional clinical features are present.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.2. What to Do After Activating the Chest Pain Pathway</title>
          <p>Every patient with suspected ACS (i.e., who meets criteria for activation of the chest pain pathway) must be treated as a medical emergency, with immediate referral for an electrocardiogram (ECG), and the medical staff must be notified to promptly assess the patient and review the ECG ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t46">Table 4</xref> ). Ideally, the " <underline>MOVE</underline> " mnemonic should be followed:</p>
          <list list-type="simple">
            <list-item>
              <p>M: Place patient on <underline>m</underline> onitor (with a defibrillator readily available).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>O: Check <underline>O</underline> <sub>2</sub>saturation and provide supplemental <underline>o</underline> xygen if &lt; 90%.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>V: <underline>V</underline> enipuncture (draw blood for laboratory tests while obtaining peripheral venous access).</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>E: <underline>E</underline> lectrocardiogram within 10 minutes of arrival, with immediate review by a physician.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <table-wrap id="t46">
            <label>Table 4</label>
            <caption>
              <p>Initial Diagnostic Approach after Activation of the Chest Pain Pathway</p>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">In patients who meet criteria for the chest pain pathway, a 12-lead ECG should be performed (ideally with addition of supplemental leads) and reviewed by a physician within 10 minutes (total time since first contact with a healthcare professional/service).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN42">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>For patients in the chest pain pathway, ECG should ideally be performed with the patient in a monitored bed (especially if symptoms persist) or, at least, with a defibrillator readily available nearby.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>3.2.1. When and How to Perform Detailed Assessment of Chest Pain (Differential Diagnosis)</title>
            <p>Considering that the initial patient assessment usually takes place in the nurse-led triage area of the ED and that there is a class I recommendation for routine acquisition of an ECG within 10 minutes in patients presenting with chest pain or chest pain equivalents, every patient who meets criteria for activation of the chest pain pathway must immediately undergo an ECG and, simultaneously (in parallel), a physician must be immediately alerted of their arrival. As this rule applies to both "typical" and "atypical" chest pain (now-deprecated terms), the priority is to obtain an ECG as quickly as possible. In-depth assessment of chest pain characteristics (and/or chest pain-equivalent symptoms) should be done in parallel; it should never delay the ECG.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.3. Best Practices for Door-to-ECG Time (DTE)</title>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.1. Importance of ECG Within the First 10 Minutes</title>
            <p>Resting 12-lead ECG is the first-line diagnostic modality of choice for the evaluation of patients with suspected ACS. It should be performed within 10 minutes of the patient's ED arrival &#8211; or ideally prehospital, upon first contact with the emergency medical services (EMS) &#8211; and immediately reviewed by a qualified physician.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B49">49</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B50">50</xref> </sup>This means the ECG may precede even such essential steps of clinical assessment as a detailed history or a complete physical examination.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B51">51</xref></sup></p>
            <p>An analysis of over 7,500 patients from a registry in the United States and Canada demonstrated that only 40% of patients with STEMI received an ECG within 10 minutes (median time 14 minutes) and that a DTE of &gt; 10 minutes was associated with an increased risk of recurrent MI or death (odds ratio [OR] 3.95, 95% CI 1.06&#8211;14.72, p = 0.04).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B52">52</xref></sup></p>
            <p>The rationale for this approach is the evidence that, in the presence of ST-segment elevation of ischemic origin (or an equivalent change), early ECG acquisition will prompt rapid myocardial reperfusion therapy and, consequently, have a positive impact on morbidity and mortality. Indeed, increased DTE is associated with increased door-to-balloon time for percutaneous coronary intervention<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B53">53</xref></sup>and increased door-to-needle time for thrombolysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref></sup>Furthermore, the ECG performed in the prehospital setting can help reduce the time to diagnosis and allow appropriate referral of patients with STEMI to centers capable of performing early primary angioplasty, which can receive the ECG before ambulance arrival and prepare to send the patient directly to the catheterization laboratory without a "stopover" in the emergency department.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B55">55</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.2. How to Measure DTE</title>
            <p>The most important aspect in deciding which parameters to use for DTE measurement is to choose objective metrics which are readily assessable and reliable in the facility. Although "door" time most properly refers to the patient's entry into the emergency department, this parameter is not always easily assessable enough to serve as a quality indicator. The following are recommended as definitions for benchmarking:</p>
            <p>Door time: One widely used method is to use the time of "first medical contact" (FMC), i.e., the patient's first contact with a healthcare provider, which usually occurs in ED triage, as the "door" time. Use of this parameter allows comparison with other services that follow this internationally adopted standard.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref></sup>Its usefulness is, however, limited when delays occur between the time the patient arrives at the ED and triage is actually performed; therefore, even if the time to FMC is adopted as the "door" time for purposes of external benchmarking, it is essential that pre-triage time be monitored as well (even if only for internal improvement purposes).</p>
            <p>ECG time: Although theoretically the time of ECG analysis (reporting*) is the optimal "ECG time," this parameter is not always available. Therefore, the time recorded on the ECG strip can be considered instead, as long as it is accurate (both the nursing staff and clinical engineering should periodically check that the device is keeping good time) and that it is routine practice at the facility for ECGs to be given immediately to a doctor for review (there is no benefit to the patient if an ECG is performed within the first 10 minutes of arrival but is not reviewed immediately).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.3.3. Recommendations for Obtaining the Ideal Door-to-ECG Time</title>
            <p>When evaluating DTE, the recommended first step is to assess the current time for each stage &#8211; from arrival until an ECG is performed &#8211; at the facility, to allow mapping of local processes and practices. This will allow for a greater understanding of which interventions can have the greatest impact on the processes identified. Ongoing feedback should also be provided to the entire team involved, including the ED physician and nursing staff.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B54">54</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B58">58</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>A strategy commonly reported in successful implementations involves tailoring the triage space to allow for a dedicated ECG and skilled technician.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B57">57</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref> </sup>Sprockel <italic>et al.</italic> evaluated 373 patients, 204 in the pre-intervention phase and 169 in the post-intervention phase. The median time to ECG was 16 minutes in the pre-intervention phase (&lt; 10 minutes in 41% of cases); after making a dedicated ECG device available in the triage area (with a dedicated technician), the median time to ECG fell to 5 minutes (&lt; 10 minutes in 63% of cases), a statistically significant difference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B61">61</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Another commonly recommended strategy is to train triage staff both to prioritize performing an ECG in cases meeting criteria for activation of the protocol and to improve recognition of signs and symptoms of ACS beyond typical chest pain, including ischemic equivalents (e.g., epigastric pain).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B60">60</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B62">62</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B63">63</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Phelan <italic>et al.</italic> initially identified two main causes of DTE &gt; 10 minutes at their institution: (1) priority delay (e.g., completing triage and registration data entry tasks before ECG) and (2) failure to recognize patients with ACS symptoms other than chest pain. After interventions that included a patient prioritization process for triage, assignment of staff to perform ECGs immediately, continuous feedback, and an educational initiative for triage staff to identify high-risk patients, the mean time to ECG was significantly reduced from 21.28 &#177; 5.49 minutes to 9.47 &#177; 2.48 minutes (p &lt; 0.033), representing a 55% improvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B64">64</xref></sup></p>
            <p>A Brazilian study aimed at identifying issues with DTE logistics detected three major problems: 1) delay between arrival at the hospital and first medical contact (solved by a full-time triage protocol); 2) in-hospital communication and lack of prioritization (improved by a standardized code); 3) diagnostic delay (expedited by the presence of a cardiologist in the ED).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B65">65</xref></sup></p>
            <p>There are also data suggesting that sex, race, language fluency, diabetes, and type of symptoms are associated with delays in the diagnosis of STEMI. In a 3-year retrospective cohort study of 676 patients across 10 U.S. hospitals, a door-to-ECG time &gt; 10 minutes versus &#8804; 10 minutes was more likely to occur in women (32.8% vs. 22.6%, p = 0.005), Black patients (23.4% vs. 12.4%, p = 0.005), patients with limited English proficiency (24.6% vs. 19.5%, p = 0.032), patients with diabetes (40.2% vs. 30.2%, p = 0.010), and those less likely to report chest pain (63.3% vs. 87.4%, p &lt; 0.001).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B66">66</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In summary, there is no single specific strategy for reducing door-to-ECG time, but rather a combination of actions that may be adapted to individual EDs ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t47">Table 5</xref> ). Most studies used various interventions implemented simultaneously, which makes it difficult to identify one specific optimal strategy in isolation. Therefore, it is essential to map and understand the local context and identify barriers so that an efficient bundle of interventions with the overarching goal of reducing DTE can then be implemented ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t48">Table 6</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t47">
              <label>Table 5</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Key interventions to reduce DTE</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">1. Process mapping to identify bottlenecks</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">2. Dedicated ECG (and a trained ECG technician) in triage</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">3. Training of triage staff to recognize suspicious symptoms</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">4. Improved organization of triage flow (reduce bureaucracy and prioritize ECG for patients in whom it is indicated)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">5. Constant feedback to the DTE team</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN43">
                  <p>DTE: door-to-ECG Time; ECG: electrocardiogram; ACS: acute coronary syndrome.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t48">
              <label>Table 6</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Door-to-ECG time</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Emergency departments must monitor their door-to-electrocardiogram time, provide continuous feedback to staff charged with each stage of the initial approach to patients with chest pain, and implement actions for improvement in accordance with identified opportunities.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.4. ECG Interpretation</title>
          <p>History taking and physical examination may occur concomitantly with acquisition and interpretation of the ECG. It bears stressing that STEMI can be caused by type A aortic dissection with involvement of the coronary arteries. Therefore, even when the ECG is obtained immediately (within the first 10 minutes), clinical assessment must proceed in parallel, and even in cases meeting unequivocal ECG criteria for STEMI, the clinician must also be alert to other, potentially co-occurring diagnoses.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B67">67</xref></sup></p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.1. Role of the ECG in Assessment of the Patient with Chest Pain</title>
            <p>The ECG is a widely available, low-cost diagnostic tool that is easy to interpret locally &#8211; and even remotely &#8211; enabling its use in various healthcare systems.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B68">68</xref></sup>Performing an ECG is a fundamental step in the diagnostic evaluation of patients with chest pain (and ischemic-equivalent symptoms) in different settings (emergency department, pre-hospital care). Based on its findings, it is possible to promptly identify patients who will benefit from reperfusion therapy, determine the culprit coronary artery and the site of obstruction, stratify risk, and decide on the most appropriate initial therapy for each case.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B69">69</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.2. How Sensitive is Single ECG for Assessment of the Patient with Chest Pain? What Additional Benefit is Gained from Serial ECGs?</title>
            <p>Although electrocardiography is essential for the diagnosis and treatment of ACS, a single 12-lead ECG performed upon first medical contact in a patient with chest pain has low sensitivity, detecting only &lt; 50% of acute MIs (including STEMI and NSTEMI).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B70">70</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B71">71</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Acute myocardial ischemia is often associated with dynamic ECG changes. Serial electrocardiograms can provide relevant information on these changes, significantly increasing sensitivity to 70% to 90%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref></sup>Some conditions, such as circumflex artery occlusion, may present without significant changes on the 12-lead ECG; therefore, the addition of leads V7, V8, and V9 is indicated to detect "posterior" wall infarction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B73">73</xref></sup>(Posterior MI &#8211; a now-deprecated term, as cardiac magnetic resonance studies have shown it is actually a portion of the lateral wall which is affected<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B74">74</xref></sup>&#8211; should always be suspected, especially in patients with persistent chest pain suggestive of myocardial ischemia.) These patients &#8211; with persistent symptoms and a nondiagnostic initial ECG &#8211; are also those in whom more frequent repetition of ECG (every 10 to 20 minutes) is recommended, with electrode placement unchanged, while symptoms last or until the diagnosis is established (at least 2 to 4 serial ECGs are usually required); alternatively, computer-assisted continuous 12-lead ECG recording (if available) can be used to detect dynamic ECG changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B75">75</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.3. ECG Diagnostic Criteria for ACS</title>
            <p>From a practical standpoint, there are three points to remember:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>A normal ECG (or nonspecific ECG changes) cannot rule out ACS;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Serial electrocardiograms increases accuracy for the diagnosis of ACS;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>ECG changes suggestive of acute ischemia occur mainly in the ST segment ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f27">Figure 2</xref> ) and/or T waves ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f28">Figure 3</xref> ), ST-segment changes should be measured at the J point, using the PR segment as the baseline reference.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> </sup></p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <fig id="f27">
              <label>Figure 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Representation of ST-segment changes. A- Normal ST segment, B- horizontal ST-segment depression, and C- downsloping ST-segment depression, described in ECG reports as subendocardial "current of injury"; D- ST-segment elevation and the proper way to measure it.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <fig id="f28">
              <label>Figure 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Representation of T-wave changes. A) Normal T wave. Note asymmetry with slow rise and faster descent. B) Ischemic T wave. Note symmetry, inversion, and increased amplitude (subepicardial ischemia or post-transmural ischemia). C) So-called hyperacute T waves (magnitude and symmetrical base, representing subendocardial ischemia) usually precede the onset of ST-segment elevation. The magnitude represents the area (i.e., a broad-based T wave, which usually also presents with greater amplitude).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>The ECG criteria recommended by this guideline for the diagnosis of ACS allow not only the diagnosis of STEACS and NSTE-ACS but also the definition of coronary occlusion and stratification of patient risk ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t49">Table 7</xref> ). Thus, in addition to the classic objective criteria for ST elevation, some specific changes have been identified as "equivalent" to ST-elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and may indicate a high probability of coronary artery occlusion even in the absence of classic criteria for <italic>ACS with persistent ST elevation</italic> . This comprehensive assessment provides a better basis for decision-making.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B76">76</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup>Details on the evidence base and rationale for classification of major ECG patterns are given in a separate article written by the authors of this guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B78">78</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t49">
              <label>Table 7</label>
              <caption>
                <p>ECG changes diagnostic of ACS (when associated with a compatible clinical picture):<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">STEMI without left bundle branch block (LBBB)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">New ST-segment elevation (measured at the J point) in at least 2 contiguous leads with the following cutoff points: <break/> &#8805; 2.5 mm in men &lt; 40 years old in V2 and V3; <break/> &#8805; 2 mm in men &#8805; 40 years old in V2 and V3; <break/> &#8805; 1.5 mm in women in V2 and V3; <break/> &#8805; 1 mm in other leads (regardless of age or sex)* <break/> <italic>*If supplementary leads are added (V7, V8, V9, V3R, V4R), elevation &#8805; 0.5 mm in at least 2 contiguous leads can be considered for diagnostic purposes (borderline elevations in leads I and aVL should be considered significant, especially if reciprocal ST depression is present in the inferior leads).</italic></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                      <bold>STEMI in a patient with prior LBBB</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; Concordant ST elevation &#8805; 1 mm in leads with a positive QRS complex; <break/> &#8226; Concordant ST depression &#8805; 1 mm in V1-V3 (Sgarbossa); <break/> &#8226; Discordant ST elevation &#8805; 5 mm in leads with a negative QRS complex and/or ST/S ratio with ST-segment deviation amplitude of at least 25% of the previous S wave** <break/> <italic>*New LBBB alone is no longer necessarily considered a diagnostic criterion for STEMI, although it denotes higher risk (clinical correlation required).</italic> <break/> <italic>**Also consider the discordant ST/R ratio when ST depression is at least 25% of the preceding R wave. In the Barcelona criteria, discordant deviation &#8805; 1 mm in any lead with maximum voltage (R or S) &#8804; 6 mm can be considered for diagnostic purposes</italic></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Findings consistent with coronary occlusion, i.e., STEMI equivalents</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; "Posterior" (inferolateral) infarction: <break/> - Criteria to be assessed in leads V1&#8211;V3 (usually one or more of the criteria below are present): <break/> ST depression; <break/> Upright (terminal) T waves in the anterior leads; <break/> Prominent and broad R wave (&gt;30 ms), usually dominant (R&gt;S) in V2. <break/> - Confirmed by: <break/> ST elevation &#8805; 0.5 mm in at least 1 lead of V7-V9</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">&#8226; De Winter pattern: <break/> - Tall, prominent, symmetrical T waves preceded from upsloping ST depression &gt;1 mm at the J point in the precordial leads; <break/> - ST elevation 0.5&#8211;1 mm may be seen in aVR</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Hyperacute T waves: <break/> Broad, symmetric, tall (hyperacute) T waves may be observed early in STEMI. Serial electrocardiograms performed at very short intervals are useful to confirm progression to the classic ST elevation criteria.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Aslanger pattern: <break/> ST elevation in lead III but not in the other inferior leads (ST elevation may be present in aVR, as well as in lead III), ST depression in any of V4-V6 with a positive (or at least terminally positive) T wave, and ST elevation in V1 &gt; V2.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Terminal QRS distortion (TQRSD): <break/> Absence of an S wave below the isoelectric line and absence of a J wave in either of V2 and/or V3.</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                      <bold>Acute coronary syndrome without persistent ST-segment elevation (NSTE-ACS) with high-risk ECG criteria (left main coronary artery or multivessel disease*)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">ST-segment elevation in aVR and/or V1 (no contiguous elevation, but ST depression in 6 or more leads) <break/> * <italic>Most often caused by diffuse (circumferential) subendocardial ischemia; usually occurs in the setting of significant left main coronary artery obstruction or multivessel coronary artery disease.</italic></td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Acute coronary syndrome without persistent ST-segment elevation (NSTE-ACS) with high-risk ECG criteria (proximal left anterior descending artery occlusion)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8226; Wellens syndrome: <break/> A clinical syndrome characterized by: <break/> - Biphasic T waves (type A &#8211; 25% of cases) or deeply inverted, symmetrical T waves (type B &#8211; 75% of cases) in leads V2 and V3 (may extend from V1 to V6). <break/> - Absence of Q waves. <break/> - No significant ST elevation (isoelectric or elevation less than 1 mm) <break/> - R-wave progression in the precordial leads <break/> - Recent angina (typical ECG changes are more often seen after pain relief)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Acute coronary syndrome without persistent ST-segment elevation (NSTE-ACS) with high-risk ECG criteria (active ischemia)</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">ST depression/T-wave inversion:* <break/> - Horizontal or downsloping ST depression &#8805; 0.5 mm at the J point in 2 or more contiguous leads, suggestive of myocardial ischemia; and/or <break/> - Inverted T wave &#8805; 1 mm in complex with prominent R wave or R/S ratio &gt;1 may indicate ischemia in the absence of secondary causes for abnormal ventricular repolarization (e.g., overload); in cases of acute myocardial infarction, the negative T wave may be associated with pathological Q waves. <break/> *ST depression and T-wave inversion have even greater diagnostic value when there are dynamic changes. If a negative T wave becomes positive, this finding is called pseudonormalization, and is also an important marker for the diagnosis of NSTE-ACS.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN44">
                  <p>Notes: Cases of transient ST elevation (e.g., vasospasm) require a different approach compared to cases with persistent ST elevation (actual STEMI).</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>It bears stressing that inverted T waves and ST depression should only be considered diagnostic of NSTE-ACS in the absence of other explanations, including the absence of STEMI criteria (remember that "mirror-image" reciprocal ST depressions are common in STEMI). The presence, extent, persistence, and magnitude of ST depression on admission have major prognostic value in determining whether early invasive treatment is warranted.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>In addition to diagnostic and nondiagnostic ECGs, this guideline includes a third category, "concerning" (i.e., equivocal/borderline) ECG, to place special emphasis on this common driver of errors in decision-making. The objective of creating this category is to reduce mismanagement of time-sensitive situations and add a measure of safety by recommending specific measures for such challenging cases ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t50">Table 8</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t50">
              <label>Table 8</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Recommended routine measures for the patient with equivocal/borderline ECG</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">1) The first step when there is any doubt regarding an ECG should be to immediately request review by one or several more experienced physicians. This first step will determine whether the ECG is in fact borderline or whether it only appeared equivocal due to the limited experience of the interpreting physician;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">2) When a previous ECG is available, it should be compared to the acute-phase ECG; this can help identify new changes, as long as it does not delay treatment initiation (this is especially important in patients whose baseline ECG already exhibited repolarization abnormalities);</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">3) Proper clinical correlation is also essential, as the predictive value of any test (including ECG) depends on its clinical pretest probability;</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">4) Finally, confirmed cases with a borderline ECG (after validation by an experienced physician) and/or clinical instability (e.g., persistent symptoms) require not only continued patient monitoring but also serial electrocardiograms and prompt evaluation for other differential diagnoses. Bedside echocardiography is often an especially useful additional test in these situations.</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.4.4. Differential Diagnoses on ECG</title>
            <sec>
              <title>3.4.4.1. Primary and Secondary Repolarization Abnormalities</title>
              <p>The morphology of ventricular repolarization, which is represented by the ST segment, T wave, and &#8211; occasionally &#8211; the U wave, depends directly on ventricular depolarization and should always be interpreted in the morphological context of the preceding QRS complex. Changes due to ischemia (or other forms of intrinsic myocardial damage) are called primary repolarization abnormalities, whereas those preceded by derangements of depolarization, such as bundle branch blocks, ventricular pre-excitation, ventricular pacing, and left ventricular hypertrophy, are called secondary repolarization abnormalities.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B81">81</xref> </sup>RBBB does not hinder the diagnosis of STEMI as LBBB does, but the clinician must be cautious in diagnosing ST segment depression, as the presence of ST depression in V1&#8211;V4 (a secondary repolarization abnormality) is common in RBBB.</p>
              <p>The "standard" ECG criteria for diagnosis of coronary ischemia refer to electrocardiograms with a narrow QRS complex, i.e., no ventricular conduction disturbances.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref> </sup>In addition to the magnitude of the elevation itself and the extent of the affected territory (presence of contiguous leads), cases of ST elevation resulting from a so-called current of injury (representing transmural ischemia/infarction) usually have the following characteristics:</p>
              <list list-type="order">
                <list-item>
                  <p>Convex pattern (although it may be concave initially);</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Progressive dynamic changes on serial ECGs (including development of a pathological Q wave);</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>"Mirror image," i.e., reciprocal ventricular repolarization changes in opposite leads.</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>Even if ECG criteria are met, clinical correlation is required (ACS symptoms). The most significant cause of ST elevation in this scenario is acute MI, which must be promptly recognized, as the faster treatment is instituted, the lower the morbidity and mortality. However, the clinician must be aware of the many other conditions that may present with ST-segment elevation<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B83">83</xref></sup>( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t51">Table 9</xref> ) and, when trying to distinguish them ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t52">Table 10</xref> ), it is essential to analyze their ECG features within the clinical context of the patient with chest pain.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t51">
                <label>Table 9</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Causes of ST-segment elevation</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="100%">
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Leading causes of ST elevation</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Acute myocardial infarction</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Left bundle branch block</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Pericarditis</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Left ventricular hypertrophy</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Early repolarization</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Vasospastic angina (elevation is usually transient)</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Hyperkalemia</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Takotsubo syndrome</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Pacemaker rhythm</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Brugada syndrome</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Ventricular pre-excitation</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">- Left ventricular aneurysm</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
              <table-wrap id="t52">
                <label>Table 10</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Differential diagnosis between acute MI, pericarditis, and early repolarization</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="25%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">ECG</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">STEMI</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Acute pericarditis</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Early repolarization</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">ST segment morphology</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Upwardly convex (may be concave in the early stages, but progresses if left untreated)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Upwardly concave</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Upwardly concave</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Mirror image (reciprocal ST depression in leads opposite those showing elevation)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Present in most cases</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Absent</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Absent</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Pathological Q waves</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Present in most cases</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Absent</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Absent</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Localization of ST elevation</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Wall involved in MI</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Diffuse/widespread (usually spares V1 and aVR)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Most commonly in precordial leads</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">PR segment depression</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Usually absent</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Present</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Absent</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">T-wave inversion</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Occurs while ST elevation is present</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Occurs after normalization of ST changes</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">T waves unchanged at rest</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">ST/T wave ratio (to differentiate between early repolarization and pericarditis)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Not applicable</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&#8805; 0.25</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt; 0.25 (T wave usually has greater amplitude)</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN45">
                    <p>ECG: electrocardiogram; STEMI: ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction. Although the ECG in pericarditis as a rule does not localize to any coronary artery territories and exhibits characteristic features (concave ST elevation/T-wave changes), there are exceptional cases in which pericarditis (or myopericarditis) can be localized.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.3.4.2. Other ECG Diagnoses</title>
              <p>In addition to its essential role in the diagnosis of ACS, the ECG can provide relevant information for the diagnosis of other major causes of chest pain:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>Acute pulmonary embolism</bold>:  sinus tachycardia is the most common ECG change. The classic S1Q3T3 pattern (wide S wave in DI, inverted Q and T wave in D3) is absent in most cases (seen in only 8.5% of PE cases presenting to an ED).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B84">84</xref></sup>Other ECG changes seen in PE include ventricular repolarization abnormalities, complete or incomplete RBBB, qR in V1 and T-wave inversion in V1-V4 (associated with more severe PE), and atrial tachyarrhythmias;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B85">85</xref></sup></p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p><bold>Takotsubo syndrome or stress cardiomyopathy</bold>:  a major differential diagnosis of ACS, especially in postmenopausal women experiencing chest pain after emotional and/or physical stress. Patients may present with marked ECG changes, such as ST elevation (44%) and T-wave inversion (41%); QT interval prolongation is likewise common. ST depression (8%) and LBBB (5%) are much less frequent.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B86">86</xref></sup></p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>Other ECG abnormalities such as bradyarrhythmias or tachyarrhythmias may be present in cases of myocardial ischemia; however, they are nonspecific. Therefore, although an electrocardiographic diagnosis (arrhythmia) can be established in these cases, this should not prevent further investigation of ACS if there is clinical suspicion, as both can occur concomitantly (ischemia may lead to arrhythmia, and the reverse is also true). From the point of view of the ACS workup, this type of finding alone on ECG is considered nondiagnostic (although brady- or tachyarrhythmias should be managed accordingly when present).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>3.3.4.3. The Nondiagnostic Electrocardiogram</title>
              <p>In less than 5% of patients on a chest pain pathway, the ECG exhibits unequivocal diagnostic criteria; in these cases, if the patient's clinical picture is consistent, a specific diagnosis should be established (e.g., STEMI) and follow the corresponding treatment pathway in accordance with the specific guideline.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> </sup>However, in more than 90% of cases (especially in patients whose symptoms have already resolved by the time of admission), the ECG proves "nondiagnostic" of acute ischemia. This gives the physician some peace of mind to carry out a more detailed clinical workup and better define the patient's condition and possible differential diagnoses (including through subsequent reassessment at various time points).</p>
              <p>Serial ECGs are mandatory when there is recurrence of precordial pain or any change in the clinical status (immediate repetition); in addition, in cases with persistent symptoms, the ECG should be repeated every 10 to 20 minutes. Dynamic ST-segment and T-wave changes are extremely valuable in identifying high-risk patients with myocardial ischemia and should be actively sought.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B72">72</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B87">87</xref> </sup> Figures S1 and S2 (supplement) illustrate dynamic ST-segment changes as evidence of intermittent subendocardial ishemia/current of injury, while <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f29">Figure 4</xref> presents a flowchart for patient classification according to the ECG findings.</p>
              <fig id="f29">
                <label>Figure 4</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Initial classification of ECG in the chest pain pathway. POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound; ECHO: Echocardiogram. ECG: electrocardiogram; STEMI: ST-elevation myocardial infarction; NSTE-ACS: Non-ST Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome; PE: pulmonary embolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>See <xref ref-type="table" rid="t49">Table 7</xref> .<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>In case of conditions that may occur concomitantly with ACS (e.g., arrhythmias), further investigation of ACS should be considered (e.g., myocardial ischemia may cause arrhythmias, and an arrhythmia may lead to myocardial ischemia due to a supply/demand imbalance).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup>Repeat ECG (include supplemental leads) if: 1) Borderline/equivocal ECG and/or persistent symptoms (repeat ECG every 10-20 minutes); 2) Recurrence of symptoms or clinical deterioration (repeat immediately upon recurrence/deterioration); 3) Positive troponin (above 99th percentile); 4) Persistent clinical suspicion despite negative troponin (e.g., diagnostic hypothesis of unstable angina).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>For clinical assessment, in addition to the clinician's subjective judgment, patient-centered algorithms should be used as appropriate for the suspected diagnosis(es) (e.g., ACS, PE, aortic dissection).</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href=""/>
              </fig>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>3.5. How is the Diagnosis of Acute Coronary Syndrome Defined?</title>
          <p>As a rule, the diagnosis of ACS is based on the following elements:</p>
          <list list-type="order">
            <list-item>
              <p>Clinical presentation;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Electrocardiogram (ECG) findings;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Biomarkers of myocardial injury ("cardiac markers"), namely troponin.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Overall, when two of these elements are "positive" or present (e.g., consistent clinical picture + ECG with well-established diagnostic patterns), a definitive diagnosis of ACS can be made.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.1. Current Criteria for the Diagnosis of Unstable Angina</title>
            <p>The advent of high-sensitivity troponin has led to a marked reduction in the diagnosis of unstable angina and in the severity profile of these patients. However, cases presenting with a "typical" clinical picture (e.g., ischemic cardiac pain) in the absence of ECG and troponin changes, and for which no alternative diagnosis is established, can be classified as unstable angina and managed initially as ACS &#8211;although definitive confirmation will usually depend on other findings, such as those from noninvasive testing or coronary angiography.</p>
            <p>In addition to angina at rest, symptoms on exertion with increasing frequency, duration, or severity are also consistent with unstable angina and should raise suspicion of instability of coronary lesions, as should changes in anginal radiation pattern and changes in the response to nitrates. Post-infarction angina and new-onset angina (usually Canadian Cardiovascular Society class III within a period of less than 2 months) are also manifestations of unstable angina.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>3.5.2. How to Classify ACS by ECG Findings</title>
            <p>Whatever the suspected clinical manifestation (i.e., the criterion for activation of the chest pain pathway), ECG is always the first diagnostic investigation to be performed. Considering that the ECG performed within the first 10 minutes determines subsequent management, it is important that this initial ECG tracing be classified beyond merely checking it for ST elevation criteria ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t49">Tables 7</xref> to <xref ref-type="table" rid="t52">10</xref> ). Thus, although the criteria for STEMI should still be considered in decision-making, the current guideline recommends that the ECG be examined for other changes that may not define a diagnosis of ACS, but are still indicative of acute coronary occlusion even in the absence of the classic findings of ST elevation ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t53">Table 11</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t53">
              <label>Table 11</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Electrocardiogram classification</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients with a suspicious clinical presentation and diagnostic changes on the ECG should follow specific treatment guidelines as appropriate for the established diagnosis.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">In addition to established ST elevation criteria, "STEMI equivalents" (or acute coronary occlusion equivalents) should also be sought.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Cases in which the electrocardiogram does NOT allow a diagnosis to be established definitively ("nondiagnostic" ECG) should follow the diagnostic pathway as efficiently as possible (as available resources allow).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Patients on the diagnostic pathway with a borderline/equivocal or difficult-tointerpret ("concerning") ECG and/or cases that meet clinical criteria for instability (Table 12) should undergo repeat ECG every 15 to 30 minutes (with supplemental leads and review by an experienced second physician), as well as active investigation until the cause of chest pain is ascertained.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN46">
                  <p>ECG: electrocardiogram; STEMI: ST-elevation Myocardial Infarction.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f30">Figure 5</xref> summarizes the initial approach to the patient with chest pain (Step 1 of the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26a">Central Illustration</xref> ).</p>
            <fig id="f30">
              <label>Figure 5</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Step 1: initial care in the chest pain protocol (first 10 minutes).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <fig id="f26a">
              <caption>
                <title>ECG: electrocardiogram; POCUS: point-of-care ultrasound; MI: Myocardial Infarction.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>4. Diagnostic Pathway: After the Initial ECG</title>
        <p>The diagnostic pathway consists of up to 4 steps ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26a">Central Illustration</xref> ). The first step is part of the initial approach to the patient with chest pain and consists of initial clinical assessment + ECG performed within the first10 minutes, which can establish the diagnosis in a minority of cases ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f29">Figures 4</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f30">5</xref> ) and rapidly direct these cases to a treatment pathway appropriate for the established diagnosis (e.g., STEMI). When the ECG is nondiagnostic (the majority of cases), the patient will be placed on the diagnostic pathway, the elements of which (including algorithms) will guide subsequent decision-making in the emergency department (Step 3 of the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26a">Central Illustration</xref> ). A summary of the 4 essential steps of the chest pain pathway is given below.</p>
        <list list-type="bullet">
          <list-item>
            <p>Step 1 (initial assessment): Overall clinical assessment (signs and symptoms) + ECG within the first 10 minutes to determine if diagnostic criteria are present (e.g.: ACS, pericarditis) and to direct subsequent investigation when the initial assessment is nondiagnostic;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Step 2 (define initial pretest risk/probability): The main objective at this step is to determine whether the patient has persistent symptoms and/or a "concerning" ECG and/or hemodynamic instability, since these cases require a differentiated approach, including repeat ECG every 10 to 20 minutes and bedside imaging (consider point-of-care ultrasound [POCUS] and/or emergency echocardiography). In situations where a nondiagnostic ECG and combined clinical assessment are not sufficient to safely rule out acute syndromes (e.g., NSTE-ACS, PE, acute aortic syndrome [AAS]), further active investigation should be undertaken (Step 3), with risk assessment and estimation of the pretest probability of the main diagnostic hypotheses, ideally using clinical scores;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Step 3 (complementary tests according to diagnostic hypothesis and pretest probability): In addition to risk assessment and estimation of diagnostic probability&#8212;both of which are established from the initial evaluation and may change over time&#8212;this third step involves ordering complementary tests according to the diagnostic hypothesis (ACS, PE, AAS). Pretest probability will determine the most appropriate type of test to perform and how to interpret it (e.g., if PE is suspected but pretest probability is low, D-dimer measurement would be the recommended test to rule out the diagnosis). Cardiac troponin (preferably high-sensitivity) is the most important test for investigating ACS when clinical assessment and ECG are nondiagnostic; even when it does not establish the diagnosis, it can still support decision-making within diagnostic algorithms;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Step 4 (anatomical and/or functional investigation): Step 4 is required only in a minority of cases, those in which differential diagnoses have been ruled out by the first 3 steps of the pathway but uncertainty still persists regarding a diagnosis of ACS and/or the patient's individual risk is not low enough to allow discharge (e.g., high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) algorithm with an intermediate value. In these cases, additional testing can be performed before the patient is discharged home, or may be scheduled as part of early outpatient follow-up (see sections 4.3-4.4 and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">Figures 13</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f39">14</xref> ).</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Therefore, the diagnostic pathway is necessary for cases in which the initial assessment (clinical + ECG) was unable to elucidate the cause of the patient's symptoms. This pathway begins with a detailed clinical assessment. The first concern should be to define whether the patient meets criteria for instability, since, in unstable cases, the diagnostic pathway must be expedited and must include bedside imaging in addition to frequent serial ECGs ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f31">Figure 6</xref> summarizes Step 2 of the <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f26a">Central Illustration</xref> ).</p>
        <fig id="f31">
          <label>Figure 6</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Step 2: initial assessment of the diagnostic pathway.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href=""/>
        </fig>
        <sec>
          <title>4.1. Approach to the Patient Meeting Criteria for Instability</title>
          <p>Initial screening of the patient with chest pain in the emergency department must check for signs of instability ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t54">Table 12</xref> ) which are necessarily indicative of a worse prognosis. In this scenario, an accelerated approach, aiming for an even faster diagnosis, can play a key role in therapeutic intervention, with potential impact on reducing mortality ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t55">Table 13</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup></p>
          <table-wrap id="t54">
            <label>Table 12</label>
            <caption>
              <p>Clinical indicators of instability</p>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="100%">
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Persistent chest pain</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Low blood pressure</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Tachyarrhythmia / bradyarrhythmia</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Severe dyspnea / acute pulmonary edema</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Diaphoresis</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Cold / clammy extremities</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Reduced distal pulses</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Decreased level of consciousness / confusion</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Reduced urinary output</td>
                </tr>
                <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Prolonged capillary refill time (&gt; 3 seconds)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN47">
                <label>*</label>
                <p>In recent years, echocardiography and point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS) have become increasingly available in emergency and intensive care settings. When used properly, this tool can aid in the rapid differential diagnosis of many serious conditions.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <table-wrap id="t55">
            <label>Table 13</label>
            <caption>
              <p>Recommendations for patients with chest pain and hemodynamic instability</p>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">When identifying clinical characteristics suggestive of instability, leading causes should be investigated first, through a history and summary physical examination.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">
                    <bold>C</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Especially when the etiology of shock remains unclear after clinical assessment, STAT echocardiography and/or point-of-care ultrasound, performed by a trained healthcare provider, is indicated.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">
                    <bold>C</bold>
                  </td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
          </table-wrap>
          <p>In addition to clinical criteria for instability ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t54">Table 12</xref> ), patients with a "concerning" ECG should undergo an expedited workup. In all such cases (classical instability criteria and a "concerning" initial ECG), in addition to expedited investigation with bedside imaging, early repetition of ECG is mandatory to assess dynamic changes and facilitate rapid diagnosis.</p>
          <p>It bears stressing that patients in life-threatening condition are generally very anxious, severely dyspneic and diaphoretic. The main conditions that should be investigated in unstable patients on the chest pain pathway are: ACS, aortic dissection, pulmonary embolism, cardiac tamponade, tension pneumothorax, and esophageal rupture. In addition to the classic basic assessment methods (history and physical examination, ECG, chest X-ray), echocardiography/POCUS is now an essential tool in the differential diagnosis of these patients:</p>
          <list list-type="bullet">
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Cardiogenic shock (ventricular failure):</bold> the most common cause of non-arrhythmic hemodynamic instability during evaluation within a chest pain protocol (first 24 hours). The main predictors of cardiogenic shock in patients with ACS are age &gt; 70 years, hypotension, Killip class &#8805; 2, and tachycardia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref></sup>On echocardiography, there is marked left ventricular (LV) systolic dysfunction, dilation of the inferior vena cava (without respiratory variation), and the presence of B-lines on lung ultrasound. Early identification is important to enable rapid revascularization and the use of ventricular assist devices &#8211; measures with the potential to reduce mortality in patients with cardiogenic shock.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B93">93</xref></sup>Cardiogenic shock may also occur in right ventricular (RV) infarction; in these cases, findings typically include RV systolic dysfunction and inferior vena cava dilation (without respiratory variation), but without B-lines on lung ultrasound;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Mechanical complications of myocardial infarction:</bold> these generally occur later in the disease course, after several days of hospitalization, not during the initial approach to the patient with chest pain. The typical presentation is a non-revascularized patient who suddenly develops hemodynamic instability and physical examination changes (new murmur, jugular venous distension, new crackles on lung auscultation). The echocardiogram may show a variety of abnormalities depending on the type of mechanical complication: pericardial effusion in LV free wall rupture; severe mitral regurgitation in chordae tendineae rupture or papillary muscle rupture; or left-to-right shunt with RV dilation in post-infarction ventricular septal defect (VSD);</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Aortic dissection:</bold><sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B94">94</xref></sup>the diagnostic evaluation of aortic dissection, including clinical probability algorithms, is described in item 4.2.2. When hemodynamic instability is present, aortic rupture, acute aortic regurgitation, or cardiac tamponade should be suspected &#8211; conditions associated with high mortality. On transthoracic echocardiography, the suprasternal window can aid in identifying dissection, as can the parasternal long-axis view. The presence of an intimal flap in a patient with a compatible clinical presentation supports the diagnosis. However, the flap will not always be visible. In such cases, indirect findings such as aortic dilatation reinforce the need to continue diagnostic investigation for dissection. In general, transthoracic echocardiography has limited accuracy for diagnosing acute aortic syndrome (AAS) and therefore is not used to establish the definitive diagnosis, although it does provide accurate information on the presence of aortic regurgitation and on left ventricular systolic function. Transesophageal echocardiography has an accuracy &gt; 90% and a negative predictive value close to 100%, and is the preferred diagnostic method in unstable patients who cannot undergo CT angiography;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Pulmonary thromboembolism:</bold> PE is another major cause of chest pain with hemodynamic instability. As for AAS, the diagnostic workup of PE (including clinical prediction algorithms) is described in item 4.2.3. Hemodynamic instability is indicative of a massive PE, with right ventricular strain significant enough to compress the left ventricle and cause a drop in blood pressure. Physical examination will show jugular venous distension and no evidence of congestion on pulmonary auscultation. The echocardiogram will demonstrate a dilated right ventricle (RV) with significant contractile dysfunction. There may be apical hypercontractility with akinesis of the free portions of the RV (McConnell's sign). The left ventricle may be "D-shaped" due to significant pressure overload from the RV. In patients with clinical suspicion of PE who are too unstable to undergo CT pulmonary angiography, evidence of right ventricular overload on transthoracic echocardiography (once other causes of hemodynamic instability have been ruled out) can be used as indirect evidence of PE to indicate treatment. Transesophageal echocardiography, by allowing direct visualization of the thrombus within the pulmonary artery, can establish a definitive diagnosis of PE even in hemodynamically unstable patients;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Cardiac tamponade:</bold> Cardiac tamponade should be a clinical diagnosis, usually defined by the classic triad of shock, jugular venous distension and muffled heart sounds. Pulsus paradoxus is a common finding and reflects ventricular interdependence. Echocardiography is useful for assessing pericardial effusion volume and evidence of restricted ventricular filling. Every patient in shock with any degree of pericardial effusion should be treated as a potential case of cardiac tamponade, as the speed of onset of the effusion may be more significant than its volume to the development of tamponade;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Tension pneumothorax:</bold> Tension pneumothorax is also a clinical diagnosis and one that must be recognized quickly, as it causes significant hemodynamic instability and can be fatal. It generally occurs in cases of thoracic trauma, post-procedural events (e.g., accidental central venous puncture), and/or in younger patients or those with underlying lung disease. In equivocal cases, ultrasound will demonstrate absence of pleural sliding and prominence of A lines;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p><bold>Esophageal rupture (Boerhaave syndrome):</bold> esophageal rupture poses a greater diagnostic challenge. The key to clinical diagnosis is the finding of subcutaneous emphysema and pneumomediastinum in a patient with a suspicious presentation (e.g., elevated body temperature, a history of vomiting followed by sudden onset of chest and/or upper abdominal pain, and hemodynamic instability). Plain chest radiography and CT scan play an important role in establishing the diagnosis.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <sec>
            <title>4.1.1. Routine Echocardiography in the Unstable Patient with Chest Pain</title>
            <p>Echocardiographic examination should be performed routinely in these patients to ascertain the cause of instability. The echocardiogram will allow evaluation of global and regional ventricular function; size of the cardiac chambers; valvular, pericardial, or aortic diseases; and blood volume. Lung ultrasound can further identify pulmonary involvement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B95">95</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B96">96</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>The recommended routine ultrasound protocol for these patients is as follows:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Parasternal window: Assess left ventricular function, mitral involvement, check aortic diameter and RV size;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Apical 4-chamber view: Assess left and right ventricular function, valve involvement, and chamber sizes;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Subcostal window: Assess left and right ventricular function, check for pericardial effusion, assess blood volume;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Suprasternal view: useful for evaluating the aortic arch (e.g., in suspected aortic dissection);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Mid-clavicular and anterior axillary lines: lung ultrasound (to check for pulmonary congestion and/or pneumothorax).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f32">Figures 7</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f33">8</xref> demonstrate these echocardiographic views and the structures that should be identified.</p>
            <fig id="f32">
              <label>Figure 7</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Echocardiographic windows.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <fig id="f33">
              <label>Figure 8</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Identification of structures according to the assessed windows. AO: aorta, AS: acoustic shadow, AV: aortic valve, ICS: intercostal space, LA: left atrium, LCCA: left common carotid artery, LIV: liver, LSA: left subclavian artery, LV: left ventricle, MV: mitral valve, PA: pulmonary artery, PL: pleura, RV: right ventricle, TV: tricuspid valve.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>The Supplement includes examples of some pathological conditions identified on echocardiography/ultrasound ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f45">Figures S3</xref> to <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f48">S6</xref> ) and an algorithm for assessment of the unstable patient with chest pain ( Figure S7 ).</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.2. Clinical Risk Stratification and Diagnostic Probability Scores</title>
          <p>Chest pain evaluation involves an extensive interpretation of predictors and clinical findings to ascertain the most likely diagnosis. Several classifications for chest pain have been proposed (typical vs. atypical, types A/B/C/D); however, the authors of the present guideline recommend that it be classified into 3 groups: 1) highly suspicious symptoms (e.g., ischemic cardiac pain); 2) moderately suspicious symptoms (e.g., possibly ischemic cardiac pain); and 3) slightly/not at all suspicious symptoms (e.g., noncardiac chest pain). This classification facilitates application of the HEART score and avoids terms that can lead to miscommunication (e.g., "atypical" pain may be interpreted as noncardiac pain). Furthermore, avoiding the term "chest pain" means chest pain equivalents are covered as well. At any rate, this classification only represents part of the basic assessment; other elements must be evaluated jointly.</p>
          <p>Risk assessment and clinical probability scores can be useful to avoid having a subjective assessment (i.e., one dependent on the evaluator's experience) as the only factor underlying diagnostic decision-making in a patient with chest pain (or equivalent symptoms) and a nondiagnostic ECG, and should thus be used routinely in the ED. In an attempt to enhance this assessment with more assertive investigations, optimize utilization of diagnostic resources, and, most importantly, avoid inadvertent discharges, several scores have been designed and internationally validated to stratify the risk and diagnostic probability of those conditions having the greatest impact on morbidity and mortality.</p>
          <p>Scores validated in clinical practice can be used in patients with suspected ACS, acute aortic syndromes (most commonly acute aortic dissection), and PE. These scores integrate data from the patient's history, symptoms, clinical examination findings, ECG/imaging findings, and biomarker levels, and should be used as part of the chest pain workup. High-sensitivity cardiac troponin algorithms can be used concomitantly with ACS clinical scores (e.g., HEART score), although the incremental benefit of adding clinical scores to high-sensitivity cardiac troponin algorithms remains controversial. (see section 4.3).</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.2.1. Clinical Risk Scores for Suspected ACS Cases</title>
            <p>The scores used in the initial assessment of suspected ACS cases do not have the capacity to rule out or rule in this diagnostic hypothesis, and are not intended to. However, these scores can predict the diagnostic probability of ACS and, especially, stratify the future risk of adverse outcomes in these patients, depending on the score and its classification.</p>
            <p>The best-studied such score in the population with acute chest pain is the HEART score<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> </sup>( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t56">Table 14</xref> ), which is most applicable in the urgent-care or emergency department setting. The original study evaluatx conventional troponin levels as a predictor. However, more recent studies have validated the use of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn), which is currently the preferred biomarker, as a parameter in the HEART score. Furthermore, the original study was designed to assess the risk of major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) at 6 weeks; however, as this risk is associated with the clinical likelihood of ACS, the HEART score result can assist the physician's decision on further investigation (in addition to troponin).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t56">
              <label>Table 14</label>
              <caption>
                <p>HEART Score</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle" colspan="2">Escore HEART</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">History</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = highly suspicious</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = moderately suspicious</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = slightly/not at all suspicious</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">ECG</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = significant ST deviation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = nonspecific repolarization disturbance</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = normal</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Age (years)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = &#8805; 65</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = &#8805; 45 to &lt; 65</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">0= &lt; 45</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Risk (factors <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN49">*</xref> )</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = &#8805; 3 or history of atherosclerotic disease</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = 1 or 2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = none</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" rowspan="3">Troponin (conventional) <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN50">**</xref></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2 = &#8805; 3x the upper limit of normal</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1 = 1&#8211;3x the upper limit of normal</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">0 = &#8804; upper limit of normal</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN48">
                  <p>ECG: electrocardiogram.</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN49">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>Risk factors: Hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, diabetes, obesity (BMI &gt;30 kg/m&#178;), smoking (current or cessation &#8804;3 months), early positive family history (first-degree relative).</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN50">
                  <label>**</label>
                  <p>The original HEART score used conventional troponin; its modified version for high-sensitivity troponin is based on the HEAR score (History, ECG, Age, Risk) and also uses specific cut-off points from high-sensitivity troponin algorithms.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Other scores like ADAPT<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B102">102</xref></sup>and EDACS,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B103">103</xref></sup>although they do provide alternatives to the HEART score, do not offer significant advantages; furthermore, HEART outperformed both in a Brazilian study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup>Some risk stratification and prognostic scores also applied to patients with ACS, such as TIMI and GRACE, have been analyzed in the setting of initial assessment of chest pain and also demonstrated inferior performance to that of HEART.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup>Therefore, the HEART score is preferred, as it has superior accuracy, better validation, and is extremely easy to use in clinical practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B105">105</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> </sup>It bears stressing that patients with diagnostic ECG changes or troponin levels (in the presence of a consistent clinical picture) do not require the HEART score and should follow the appropriate treatment pathway, as the diagnosis would already be established ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f29">Figures 4</xref> , <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f36a">11A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f36b">11B</xref> ).</p>
            <fig id="f36a">
              <label>Figure 11-A</label>
              <caption>
                <title>0-1H and 0-2H pathways &#8211; High-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <fig id="f36b">
              <label>Figure 11-B</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Troponin values to be used in the 0-3 hour flowchart.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <sec>
              <title>4.2.1.1 Which Patients Should Have Their HEART Score Calculated?</title>
              <p>The HEART score was developed to assess the risk of major cardiovascular events within 6 weeks in patients with suspected ACS; this is the population that benefits most from the score. Therefore, within the context of this guideline, the HEART score is most useful when the clinician has to decide whether it is safe to discharge a patient home ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t57">Table 15</xref> ). Since the risk of short-term cardiovascular events (within 6 weeks) is associated with diagnostic probability, the HEART score is also useful to inform the calculation of pretest probability, which assists in the decision to order additional investigations:</p>
              <list list-type="bullet">
                <list-item>
                  <p>HEART SCORE: 0 to 3 points (low risk of MACE within 6 weeks);</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>HEART SCORE: 4 to 6 points (moderate risk of MACE within 6 weeks);</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>HEART SCORE: 7 to 10 points (high risk of MACE within 6 weeks).</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <table-wrap id="t57">
                <label>Table 15</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Risk stratification and diagnostic probability scores in the assessment of patients with chest pain and suspected acute coronary syndrome</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">The HEART score is the preferred clinical score for patients with chest pain who are undergoing a diagnostic workup for ACS.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN51">
                    <p>ACS: acute aortic syndrome.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.2.2. Clinical Scores for Suspected Acute Aortic Syndromes</title>
            <p>Although rare, acute aortic syndromes (AAS) are extremely serious conditions with high mortality rates. The largest international registries record a mortality rate of approximately 1 to 2% per hour in the first 48 hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B108">108</xref></sup>Acute aortic dissection (AAD) accounts for approximately 70% of acute aortic syndromes.</p>
            <p>Aortic dissection has a wide spectrum of clinical presentations, but chest pain is the most common symptom; it is usually severe, radiating to the back, and not relieved by any factors. Widening of the superior mediastinum is the most common finding on chest radiography (present in 60 to 90% of cases). However, it is important to emphasize that a normal chest X-ray cannot rule out aortic dissection.</p>
            <p>In addition to their heterogeneous clinical presentation, the manifestations of AAS may sometimes be similar to those of other causes of chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B109">109</xref></sup>Therefore, the assessment of patients with suspected AAS is often challenging for the physician, who may sometimes prescribe inappropriate treatment due to overlap of signs and symptoms with those of other conditions; order excessive imaging tests to rule out the diagnosis; or even inadvertently discharge an undiagnosed patient (failure to diagnose these time-sensitive diseases drastically worsens prognosis and hinders treatment).</p>
            <p>Thus, in an attempt to facilitate the initial assessment, reduce the possibility of errors, and improve the cost-effectiveness diagnostic imaging, two clinical prediction scores for AAS were developed: the Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score (ADD-RS) and the Aorta Simplified Score (AORTAs).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>The ADD-RS encompasses 12 variables distributed across 3 categories, as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t58">Table 16</xref> . Presenting with any of the variables under each category scores 1 point; the maximum sum score is therefore 3 points. Patients with a score of 0 or 1 are characterized as low-risk, and those with a score of 2 or 3, as high-risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B110">110</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref> </sup>The addition of bedside focused cardiac ultrasound (FoCUS) to the ADD-RS improved assessment of diagnostic probability.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B111">111</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t58">
              <label>Table 16</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score (ADD-RS)</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Predisposing conditions</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Pain characteristics</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Clinical examination findings</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Marfan syndrome or other connective tissue disease <break/> - Family history of aortic disease <break/> - Known aortic valve disease <break/> - Recent aortic manipulation <break/> - Known thoracic aortic aneurysm</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Chest or abdominal pain described as: <break/> - Abrupt in onset <break/> - Severe in intensity <break/> - "Tearing" or "ripping"</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">- Pulse deficit or blood pressure differential <break/> - Focal neurological deficit (in conjunction with pain) <break/> - New aortic regurgitation murmur (in conjunction with pain) <break/> - Hypotension or shock</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>The AORTAs, in turn, is composed of 6 clinical features as shown in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t59">Table 17</xref> . Patients with a score of 0 or 1 are classified as having low risk of AAS, and those with a score of 2 or higher, as high-risk. It is a simplified score with high sensitivity, but still requires further validation before its use in clinical practice can be expanded.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B112">112</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref> </sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t59">
              <label>Table 17</label>
              <caption>
                <p>AORTA pretest probability score &#8211; for acute aortic syndrome</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Clinical feature</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Score</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Hypotension/shock</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Aneurysm</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Pulse deficit</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Neurological deficit</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Severe pain</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Sudden onset of pain</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>It is worth noting that the ADD-RS and AORTAs are pretest probability scores, which rely on clinical data alone to identify patients with low or high risk of AAS. Neither has sufficient accuracy to rule in or rule out the diagnosis of AAS if used alone ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t60">Table 18</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B113">113</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t60">
              <label>Table 18</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Risk stratification and diagnostic probability scores in the assessment of patients with chest pain and suspected acute aortic syndrome</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">The ADD-RS can be used as part of the initial assessment of patients with suspected AAS.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Point-of-care ultrasound (POCUS), performed by a trained physician, can be added to the ADD-RS to enhance the assessment of diagnostic probability.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">The AORTAs can be used in addition to or as an alternative to the ADD-RS in patients with suspected AAS.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">The ADD-RS and AORTAs must <bold>NOT</bold> be used in isolation to rule out or rule in a diagnosis of AAS in the initial assessment of patients with suspected AAS.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN52">
                  <p>AAS: acute aortic syndrome; ADD-RS: Aortic Dissection Detection Risk Score.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>In cases where AAS is suspected and the pretest diagnostic probability has been established, the appropriate investigation can be pursued (steps 2 and 3) according to the flowchart ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f34">Figure 9</xref> ):</p>
            <fig id="f34">
              <label>Figure 9</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Flowchart for the investigation of acute aortic syndrome.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Low pretest probability: Perform D-dimer (if negative, pursue an alternate diagnosis; if positive, obtain imaging*);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Pretest probability above the "low" threshold: Obtain imaging.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>
              <italic>*Imaging exams usually indicated for AAS workup include CT angiography (most common) and transesophageal echocardiography (when CT angiography cannot be performed).</italic>
            </p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.2.3. Clinical Scores for Suspected Pulmonary Embolism</title>
            <p>In pulmonary embolism (PE), chest pain is usually sudden in onset and accompanied by dyspnea and pleuritic symptoms. The finding of risk factors for thromboembolic disease usually aids in diagnosis.</p>
            <p>Plain chest radiography is often abnormal in PE; however, <italic>t</italic> hese abnormalities are usually nonspecific (in any case, it is a useful modality to rule out other causes of dyspnea and chest pain, such as pneumothorax). The most common radiographic changes in PE are areas of atelectasis, elevated hemidiaphragm, pleural effusion, and enlargement of the trunk and branches of the pulmonary artery. Areas of regional pulmonary oligemia (Westmark sign) and a wedge-shaped pulmonary opacity with the base facing the pleura (Hampton hump) are the X-ray findings most specific for PE, but unfortunately, they are not very sensitive.</p>
            <p>ECG changes indicative of right heart strain (T-wave inversion from V1&#8211;V4, S1Q3T3, complete or incomplete RBBB) are only seen in the most severe cases of PE; in less severe cases, the most common finding is sinus tachycardia, which, in addition to being nonspecific, is only present in approximately 40% of patients.</p>
            <p>Considering that the major manifestations of PE are all nonspecific, the use of clinical prediction rules is important to reduce unnecessary variability in the subjective adjudication of diagnostic probability. The combination of clinical findings in patients with risk factors for PE allows these patients to be stratified into clinical categories by pretest probability, in an attempt to identify which investigation would be most appropriate to rule in or rule out PE.</p>
            <p>Three scores are commonly used in patients with suspected PE: the Wells score, the Geneva score (or rule), and the simplified Geneva score. It is worth noting that these scores have not been validated in pregnant patients or patients with thrombophilia.</p>
            <p>The Wells score encompasses 7 variables ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t61">Tables 19</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t62">20</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t61">
              <label>Table 19</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Wells score: criteria and respective scores</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="50%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Criteria</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Score</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Clinical evidence of DVT</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">+3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">No alternative diagnosis more likely than PE</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">+3</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">History of DVT or PE</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">+1.5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">HR &gt; 100 bpm</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">+1.5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Immobilization for &gt; 2 days or surgery in the previous 4 weeks</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">+1.5</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemoptysis</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">+1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Malignancy (current or treated in the last 6 months, or if the patient is under palliative care)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">+1</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN53">
                  <p>DVT: deep vein thrombosis; PE: pulmonary embolism; HR: heart rate; bpm: beats per minute.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t62">
              <label>Table 20</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Modified Wells score and probability/risk and risk of PE depending on the score</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">3 levels</th>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Score</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Probability of PE</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">Pretest probability</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">&lt; 2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1 to 3%</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Low</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">2-6</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">16 to 28%</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Intermediate</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt; 6</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt; 40%</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">High</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000"/>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                      <bold>2 levels</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Pontua&#231;&#227;o</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Probability of PE</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Pretest probability</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8804; 4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">3%</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Unlikely</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">&gt; 4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">28 %</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Likely</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN54">
                  <p>PE: pulmonary embolism.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>The Geneva score is more laborious in daily practice, but it determines pretest probability of PE patients with suspected thromboembolism as well as the Wells score.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B115">115</xref></sup>The simplified Geneva score allows for greater ease of application and has been validated in studies with the same utility as the revised Geneva score ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t63">Table 21</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B116">116</xref></sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t63">
              <label>Table 21</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Revised and simplified Geneva score and probability and risk of pulmonary embolism depending on the total score</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Geneva score</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Revised &#8211; points</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Simplified &#8211; points</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Age &gt; 65 years</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Previous DVT or PE</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Surgery or fracture within last month</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Active malignant condition</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Unilateral lower limb pain</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Hemoptysis</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Pain on deep palpation of lower limb/unilateral edema</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">4</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">HR 75-94 bpm</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">1</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">HR &#8805; 95 bpm</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">5</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">2</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" colspan="3"> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Score &#8211; revised Geneva</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Probability of PE</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Pretest probability</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">0-3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">8%</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Low</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">4-10</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">28%</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">Intermediate</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8805; 11</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt; 60%</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">High</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000" colspan="3"> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">
                      <bold>Score &#8211; simplified Geneva</bold>
                    </td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">
                      <bold>Pretest probability</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="3" style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                      <bold>2 levels</bold>
                    </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">0-2</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Unlikely</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">&#8805; 3</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" colspan="2">Likely</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN55">
                  <p>DVT: deep vein thrombosis; PE: pulmonary embolism; HR: heart rate; bpm: beats per minute.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Some diagnostic protocols for PE incorporate a two-tiered or dichotomous assessment of the Wells and Geneva scores to categorize patients more easily (PE "likely" or "unlikely" rather than low, intermediate, and high probability). PE is considered "likely" when a patient scores 5 or higher on the Wells score, and 3 or higher on the simplified Geneva score. In turn, PE is considered "unlikely" when the score is less than or equal to 4 for the Wells score, or less than or equal to 2 for the simplified Geneva score. Both forms of stratification can be used (traditional three-tiered and two-tiered), each following a specific assessment protocol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B117">117</xref></sup></p>
            <p>In patients whose initial clinical assessment shows that a diagnosis of PE is unlikely (estimated probability less than 15%, e.g., Wells score &lt; 2), the Pulmonary Embolism Rule-out Criteria (PERC) can be used. This is an easy-to-administer score, in which the absence of all items ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t64">Table 22</xref> ), the diagnosis can be ruled out without the obligation further diagnostic testing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B118">118</xref></sup>Thus, more than one score can be used to assess the diagnostic probability of PE ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t65">Table 23</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t64">
              <label>Table 22</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Pulmonary Embolism Rule-out Criteria (PERC)</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">PERC</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Age &#8805; 50 years</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Heart rate &#8805; 100 bpm</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- O2 saturation &lt; 95% on room air</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Asymmetric lower limb edema</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Hemoptysis</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Surgery or trauma within last 4 weeks</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Prior DVT or PE</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">- Hormone therapy</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN56">
                  <p>DVT: deep vein thrombosis; PE: pulmonary embolism.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <table-wrap id="t65">
              <label>Table 23</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Risk stratification and diagnostic probability scores in the assessment of patients with chest pain and suspected pulmonary embolism</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">The Wells score, revised Geneva score, and simplified Geneva score should be used to stratify pretest probability as part of the initial assessment of patients with suspected PE.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">The PERC score can be used in the initial assessment of patients with suspected PE to rule out PE if the pretest probability has been established as low.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN57">
                  <p>PE: pulmonary embolism; PERC: pulmonary embolism rule-out criteria.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>In cases where PE is suspected and the pretest diagnostic probability has been established, the appropriate investigation can be pursued (steps 2 and 3) according to the flowchart ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f135">Figure 10</xref> ):</p>
            <fig id="f135">
              <label>Figure 10</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Diagnostic flowchart for PE.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Low pre-test probability and zero PERC: D-dimer not mandatory;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Low pre-test probability (especially if PERC &gt; 0) or intermediate (PE unlikely in a two-level assessment): Perform D-dimer using &#8805;500 ng/mL (&#956;g/L) as the cutoff value or an age-adjusted cutoff (age &#215; 10 for patients aged 50 years or older); if positive, perform imaging* (if negative, seek an alternative diagnosis);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>High pretest probability in a three-level assessment (or likely in a two-level assessment): Obtain imaging.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>*Imaging exams usually included in the PE workup: CT angiography (most commonly used), ventilation-perfusion scan (in selected cases when there are limitations to CT angiography), and echocardiographic evaluation of PE (when the patient is too unstable and/or otherwise unable to undergo CT angiography).</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.2.4. Other Differential Diagnoses</title>
            <p>Although validated probability scores are not available for all differential diagnoses of chest pain, it is important to keep the major features of these syndromes (e.g., pericarditis) in mind as part of clinical reasoning. In the setting of chest pain, acute pericarditis or myopericarditis (if pericarditis is associated with myocarditis) causes precordial pain (usually respirophasic) and often presents with fever and malaise. Rapid and/or massive increase in pericardial fluid volume may cause restriction of cardiac filling (tamponade). The diagnosis of pericarditis is generally established when 2 of the following 4 findings are present:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Characteristic chest pain;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Pericardial friction rub;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Characteristic ECG findings;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Characteristic imaging findings (e.g., on echocardiogram).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Other life-threatening causes of chest pain (e.g., esophageal rupture, tension pneumothorax) are rarer still but should be considered in the investigation if the clinical picture is consistent. Physical examination is usually sufficient for the diagnosis of tension pneumothorax (absent breath sounds, hyperresonance to percussion, jugular venous distension); in the case of esophageal rupture, onset of chest pain after vomiting with subsequent fever and hypotension should raise suspicion of this diagnosis (many cases present with changes indicative of pneumomediastinum on chest radiography).</p>
            <p>Once life-threatening diagnoses have been ruled out, more benign possibilities (anxiety, uncomplicated dyspepsia, etc.) can be entertained.</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.3. Troponin Algorithms</title>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.1. Use and Interpretation of Biomarkers of Myocardial Injury</title>
            <p>Over 90% of patients on a chest pain pathway have a "nondiagnostic" ECG. Even among cases that will eventually have a confirmed diagnosis of ACS, about half will have a nondiagnostic ECG.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B119">119</xref></sup>Therefore, when a patient with chest pain has no changes characteristic of ACS on a resting ECG, biomarkers of myocardial injury should be measured to rule in or rule out this diagnosis.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.1.1. What is the Biomarker of Choice for Diagnosis of MI?</title>
              <p>Tests to rule in or rule out acute coronary syndrome must be effective and fast. The ideal biomarker should be as specific and sensitive as possible, i.e., it should be able to detect changes specific to the heart muscle even at low serum concentrations.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Currently, the biomarker that best combines these characteristics is troponin, whether cardiac troponin T (cTnT) or cardiac troponin I (cTnI). In centers where quantitative troponin measurement is available, measurement of CK-MB or other so-called cardiac biomarkers is no longer recommended as part of the diagnostic workup, as troponin has superior sensitivity and specificity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>As troponin assays have gradually improved, several "generations" are available with varying characteristics, especially with regard to sensitivity. High-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) is now the preferred biomarker of myocardial injury for use in patients with suspected ACS. As the name implies, high-sensitivity cardiac troponins (hs-cTn) are significantly more sensitive than conventional troponins for the diagnosis of MI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> </sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.1.2. How to Interpret the Abnormal Troponin Test</title>
              <p>Troponin is a biomarker of myocardial injury. To ascertain the etiology of this injury (e.g., diagnose an AMI), we must integrate findings from clinical examination and from other investigations. Although the accuracy of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) assays has improved in recent years, several clinical conditions other than type 1 acute myocardial infarction can cause myocardial injury and, consequently, elevated troponin levels.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.1.3. How to Interpret Serial Troponin Tests</title>
              <p>The results of hs-cTn tests must be analyzed in relation to the timing of symptom onset and must be repeated serially at predetermined intervals for adequate interpretation of any changes over time.</p>
              <p>Acute myocardial injury is defined as a rise and/or fall in hs-cTn values &gt; 20% between measurements, provided that at least 1 of these values is above the 99th percentile defined for that particular assay.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup>Reference values differ by sex and age.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B120">120</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>Chronic myocardial injury is defined by a variation in troponin values &#8804; 20% between measurements, with at least one of these values above the 99th percentile of the assay used. Analysis of absolute values is more useful in patients with lower troponin levels; therefore, early rule-out algorithms are based on the change (delta) in absolute values.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B121">121</xref></sup></p>
              <p>In addition to the need to assess pretest probability when interpreting troponin results, it is important to remember that high-sensitivity troponins, although highly accurate for detecting myocardial injury, do not determine the cause of the injury (e.g., whether it is myocardial infarction or another cause), and that false-positive and/or false-negative results, although rare, may occur.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B122">122</xref></sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.1.4. Diagnostic Criteria for MI</title>
              <p>The diagnosis of acute myocardial infarction is established when the cause of acute myocardial injury is found to be coronary insufficiency. To confirm myocardial infarction, acute myocardial injury (defined as a rise and/or fall of troponin with at least one measurement above the 99th percentile<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B114">114</xref></sup>) must be combined with other clinical and/or laboratory findings of ischemia:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
              <list list-type="order">
                <list-item>
                  <p>Symptoms characteristic of ischemia;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>ECG changes indicative of new ischemia (including development of pathological Q waves);</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Imaging evidence of new loss of viable myocardium or new regional wall motion abnormality with an ischemic pattern;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Angiography or autopsy evidence (the latter alone may be sufficient for the diagnosis of MI).*</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>
                <italic>*A finding of coronary thrombus on angiography or autopsy is a diagnostic criterion for type 1 MI, but is not part of the criteria for type 2 or type 3 MI.</italic>
              </p>
              <p>The criteria for type 4b (stent thrombosis) and 4c (stent restenosis) MI are the same as for type 1 MI; however, there must be evidence of stent thrombosis or restenosis respectively on angiography (in type 1 AMI, the mechanism is atherothrombosis, usually due to plaque erosion or rupture). Type 3 AMI represents those cases of sudden death in which there is not enough time to establish a diagnosis of MI before the fatal outcome, whereas type 4a and type 5 MI are periprocedural. Therefore, these types of MI (3, 4a, and 5) fall outside the scope of this guideline.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.1.5. What is the Time Limit to Rule Out a Diagnosis of MI?</title>
              <p>This depends on the troponin assay.</p>
              <p>In patients with high-sensitivity troponin testing, if symptom onset occurred more than 3 hours earlier (and without recurrence), a level below the threshold classified as "very low" would be sufficient to rule out acute MI (although it would not exclude other diagnoses, such as unstable angina). In other situations, at least one repeat troponin measurement must be obtained in addition to the initial measurement, although very high values (e.g., &gt; 5 times the upper limit of normal) on a single measurement are indicative of a high likelihood of MI if there is clinical suspicion. Interpretation of serial measurements should be based on validated algorithms or pathways.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B104">104</xref></sup></p>
              <p>For troponin assays that do not meet high-sensitivity criteria, it is necessary to wait 6 to 12 hours (depends on the cutoff point of the conventional troponin assay kit). A negative result after this interval from the last episode of symptoms can rule out acute MI, although it does not exclude other high-risk diagnoses.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.1.6. What is the Algorithm of Choice?</title>
              <p>Several high-sensitivity troponin algorithms have been proposed with the aim of reducing the time to rule-in and rule-out of acute MI. Regardless of algorithm, it is recommended that the first troponin measurement be collected upon patient intake. In cases without sufficient time and biomarker levels to allow for rule-out, the biomarker measurement should be repeated.</p>
              <p>The 0/3-hour algorithm, in which 2 troponin values below the 99th percentile obtained at these time points are sufficient to rule out MI, was evaluated in several studies (including a meta-analysis) and was shown to be inferior to earlier algorithms such as the 0/1-hour and 0/2-hour algorithms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B123">123</xref></sup>Use of either the 0/1-hour or 0/2-hour algorithm should be preferred, respecting the cutoff and absolute variation values predefined for whichever assay or kit is used ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t66">Tables 24</xref> , <xref ref-type="table" rid="t67">25</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="t68">26</xref> . <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f36a">Figures 11A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f36b">11B</xref> ).</p>
              <table-wrap id="t66">
                <label>Table 24</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>High-sensitivity troponin clinical decision algorithms</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="25%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Algorithm</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Rule-out criteria</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Advantages</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Disadvantages</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">
                        <bold>0/3h (should only be considered if the 0/1-h or 0/2-h algorithms cannot be used)</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">- If symptom duration &gt; 6 hours (currently asymptomatic), single measurement &lt; 99th percentile OR <break/> - If symptom duration &lt; 6 hours, with serial measurements (every 3 hours) &lt; 99th percentile</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Uses 99th percentile as decision threshold (similar to the use of the reference value of conventional troponin, with greater physician familiarity)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Fewer patients meet the rule-out criteria and, when they do, this happens later (lower sensitivity)</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">
                        <bold>0h (single measurement)</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Measurement below the threshold or detection or a validated cutoff if symptom duration &gt; 3h</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Immediate decision (no need for a second measurement)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">It is recommended that the patient seek medical care early (late presentation is undesirable from a public health standpoint)</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">
                        <bold>0-1h (preferred algorithm)</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Uses admission troponin (0h) and change (delta) at 1h to define disposition: discharge (rule out), observe, or admit (rule in)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Bypasses issues inherent to use of the 99th percentile and is able to rule out more cases, earlier <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN58">1</xref> *</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">The timing of collection is crucial to interpretation of this algorithm, and its values are difficult to memorize <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN59">2</xref> *</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">
                        <bold>0-2h (alternative when the 0/1-h algorithm cannot be performed)</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Identical to 0-1h algorithm, except the change (delta) is evaluated at 2 hours rather than at 1 hour</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Advantages similar to those of 0-1h algorithm <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN58">1</xref> * and it is more feasible at centers that cannot implement 0-1h</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Disadvantages similar to those of 0-1h plus less validation and fact that definition occurs with a 1-hour "delay" <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN59">2</xref> *</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">
                        <bold>High-STEACS</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">- If symptom duration &gt; 3 hours (currently asymptomatic), single measurement &lt; 5 or 6 ng/L <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN60">3</xref> * OR <break/> - If change (delta) between 0h and 3h is &lt; 3 ng/L, with troponin remaining &lt; 99th percentile (adjusted for sex)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Also takes advantage of the sensitivity and accuracy of hs-cTn and uses a sex-adjusted percentile</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">Fewer patients are categorized in the rule-out group than by the 0-1h and 0-2h algorithms (in addition to a lower rule-out cutoff, rule-out occurs with a longer delay)</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN58">
                    <label>1</label>
                    <p>Both (0-1h and 0-2h) take advantage of the improved sensitivity and accuracy of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn).</p>
                  </fn>
                  <fn id="TFN59">
                    <label>2</label>
                    <p>Both require caution in cases of elevated troponin without dynamic change (delta) at 1 or 2 hours as this could be the plateau phase of an acute MI (when troponin levels are quite high; this issue would be mitigated as a high 1-hour level would already "rule in" MI regardless of the delta).</p>
                  </fn>
                  <fn id="TFN60">
                    <label>3</label>
                    <p>&lt; 5 ng/L for high-sensitivity troponin I or 6 ng/L for high-sensitivity troponin T</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
              <table-wrap id="t67">
                <label>Table 25</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Myocardial injury biomarker algorithms and their use</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">High-sensitivity cardiac troponin is the biomarker of choice for investigation of acute MI.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">If high-sensitivity cardiac troponin is not available, measure an alternative available biomarker <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN61">*</xref> every 3 hours until enough time has elapsed to rule in or rule out the diagnosis of acute MI (this depends on the biomarker used).</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">The 0/1h and 0/2h high-sensitivity cardiac troponin algorithms are preferable to 0/3h algorithms.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">In patients with chest pain of more than 3 hours&#8217; duration, a single high-sensitivity cardiac troponin measurement below the limit of detection of the assay may be sufficient to rule out AMI if clinical scores have stratified the patient as low risk, there are no ischemic changes on ECG, and there is no recurrent or persistent pain.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">If quantitative troponin is available, CK-MB should not be part of the MI workup.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN61">
                    <label>*</label>
                    <p>In the absence of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin, conventional troponin may be used or, if not available, CK-MB mass. AMI: acute myocardial infarction.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
              <table-wrap id="t68">
                <label>Tabela 26</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Troponin values to be used with the 0-1h/2h algorithm</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="17%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">Assay</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Very low</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Low</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">No 1 h &#916;</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">High</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">1 h &#916;</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnT (Elecsys; Roche)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;12</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=52</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=5</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Architect; Abbott)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;2</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=64</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=6</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Centaur; Siemens)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;6</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=120</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=12</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Access; Beckman Coulter)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=50</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=15</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Clarity; Singulex)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;2</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=30</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=6</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Vitros; Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;2</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=40</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=4</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Pathfast; LSI Medience)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=90</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=20</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (TriageTrue; Quidel)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=60</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=8</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Dimension EXL; Siemens)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;9</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;9</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=160</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=100</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                        <bold>Assay</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                        <bold>Very low</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                        <bold>Low</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                        <bold>No 2 h &#916;</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                        <bold>High</bold>
                      </td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="border-top: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                        <bold>2 h &#916;</bold>
                      </td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnT (Elecsys; Roche)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;14</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=52</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=10</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Architect; Abbott)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;6</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;2</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=64</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=15</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Centaur; Siemens)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;8</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;7</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=120</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=20</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Access; Beckman Coulter)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;5</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=50</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=20</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Clarity; Singulex)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=30</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Vitros; Ortho-Clinical Diagnostics)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;1</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;2</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=40</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=5</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (Pathfast; LSI Medience)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;3</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=90</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=55</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">hs-cTnI (TriageTrue; Quidel)</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&lt;4</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">&gt;=60</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle">TBD</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN62">
                    <p>The cut-offs apply irrespective of age, sex, and renal function. Optimized cut-offs for patients above 75 years of age and patients with renal dysfunction have been evaluated, but not consistently shown to provide better balance between safety and efficacy as compared with these universal cut-offs. The physician should always check with their laboratory which assay kit is being used and the recommended cutoff values (as new tests and assays are under development and cutoff values may change). TBD: to be determined.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
              <p>If high-sensitivity troponin is not available, conventional quantitative troponin measurement can be used ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t25">Table 25</xref> ). The standard approach consists of an initial measurement (0 h) followed by repeat collections every 3 hours until a sample is obtained more than 6 to 12 hours after symptom onset (the required interval depends on the cutoff value of the troponin assay). In cases of recurrent pain or high clinical suspicion, additional troponin measurements may be obtained. A value above the cutoff will serve as the reference to classify cases as "positive" for myocardial injury (and probable acute MI) or "negative" (not meeting criteria for myocardial injury and, consequently, for acute MI &#8211; although some of these could be infarctions if high-sensitivity assays were used).</p>
              <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f36a">Figures 11-A</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f36b">11-B</xref> show presents the recommended algorithms for high-sensitivity cardiac troponin.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.2. Routing According to Classification in the Algorithm</title>
            <p>Chest pain protocols and pathways in the emergency department setting seek to quickly diagnose any life-threatening conditions while also identifying patients who can be discharged from the facility without the need for hospital admission. This strategy prevents unnecessary investigations in the emergency department, ward, or CCU for patients with a very low probability or risk of ACS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>For this purpose, the combined use of clinical prediction scores, ECG, troponin measurement, and clinical judgment, allows stratification of patients with chest pain who present to the emergency department into three "zones": ACS ruled out, ACS ruled in, and the so-called intermediate zone (observation)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup>( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f37">Figure 12</xref> ).</p>
            <fig id="f37">
              <label>Figure 12</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Patient stratification according to high-sensitivity troponin algorithms (0/1h, 0/2h, 0/3h).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup>ECG: electrocardiogram; AMI: acute myocardial infarction. * Except for patients with a history of CAD, whose probability of acute MI is &gt; 1% even if the 0/1-h algorithm places them in the "rule-out" group (also consider further evaluation if HEART &gt; 3). **If troponin is ordered indiscriminately (i.e., even in patients with low clinical suspicion), its positive predictive value may be &lt; 50%.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.1. ACS Ruled out</title>
              <p>Patients without a definite diagnosis after appropriate investigation who have been stratified as low risk on clinical prediction scores<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B126">126</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B127">127</xref> </sup>(e.g., HEART &#8804; 3 or EDACS &lt; 16), have no ischemic changes on ECG, and have negative troponins within an appropriate time frame are considered to have very low risk/probability of ACS ("rule-out" criteria).</p>
              <p>High-sensitivity troponins allow for an earlier and more accurate diagnosis of MI compared to conventional troponins. As with conventional troponin, however, the initial collection must be performed upon the patient's arrival, regardless of the time elapsed since onset of symptoms. In patients whose initial high-sensitivity troponin measurement is very low (i.e., generally below the limit of detection). A single high-sensitivity troponin measurement may be sufficient to rule out acute MI when the ECG is normal and, especially, when clinical scores indicate low risk or low probability of ACS (HEART &#8804; 3 or EDACS &lt; 16), provided that the time elapsed between the onset of symptoms and collection of high-sensitivity troponin is greater than or equal to 3 hours.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B128">128</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B129">129</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>In other cases (symptoms &lt; 3 hours and/or detectable troponin in the first measurement), repeat collection should be performed 1 or 2 hours after the first (if using a high-sensitivity troponin assay validated for 0/1-hour and/or 0/2-hour algorithms). Absence of significant change in high-sensitivity troponin levels after 1 or 2 hours are consistent with a very low probability of ACS. It bears stressing that the cutoff values considered to define a change in hs-cTn as significant vary according to the assay used, as does the 99th percentile ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t25">Table 25</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B130">130</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B133">133</xref> </sup></p>
              <table-wrap id="t84">
                <table frame="box" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="100%">
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle">What should be done when high-sensitivity troponin is not available?</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">In situations where hs-cTn are not available, conventional troponin can be used as a biomarker for the diagnosis of AMI. Due to the longer time required for conventional troponin levels to rise, it is considered appropriate to perform two or more collections at a longer interval, the first upon the patient's arrival and the second between 3 and 6 hours later (most conventional kits require more than 6 hours and a third measurement is common).</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">If there is an elevation of conventional troponin in a compatible clinical and/or electrocardiographic context, the diagnosis of AMI is made.</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Despite the lower sensitivity for diagnosing AMI, if at the end of the observation period (generally ranging from 6 to 12 hours according to the conventional troponin kit), patients present with negative troponin and meet (for example, HEART score &#8804; 3) with ECG without ischemic alterations, these patients could be discharged from the emergency room, according to the clinical judgment of the medical team (exclusion of high-risk diagnoses).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B124">124</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B125">125</xref> </sup></td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">CKMB measurement should only be considered in the absence of troponin and preference should be given to CKMB mass.</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
              <p>When there is no significant change in troponin levels at 1 or 2 hours, ruling out other diagnoses, hemodynamically stable patients with no recurrent pain and no ischemic changes on ECG can be discharged from the ED for further investigation in an early outpatient setting, especially if clinical prediction scores are consistent with low risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B134">134</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B137">137</xref> </sup>(These 0- and 1-hour algorithms were validated without necessarily adding clinical prediction scores.) However, there is evidence that the troponin algorithm alone is not sufficient for patients with a known history of coronary artery disease; in these cases, a more conservative approach involving additional use of clinical prediction scores may provide an added measure of safety when discharging the patient from the ED after assessment with a high-sensitivity troponin algorithm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B136">136</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref> </sup>In any case, with or without the support of a clinical prediction score, the physician's judgment and clinical examination are essential at all stages of the decision-making process, as hs-cTn values within normal range rule out MI but do not rule out other diagnoses (e.g., unstable angina).</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.2.2. Admission Confirmed (ACS Ruled in)</title>
              <p>After clinical assessment and initial ECG, patients meeting diagnostic ECG criteria are classified as having confirmed ACS and should be managed thereafter as per specific ACS guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>However, such patients represent the minority of cases. In most patients investigated for chest pain, the ECG is nondiagnostic and the diagnostic pathway must be followed. The cornerstone of this pathway is serial measurement of troponins to establish a possible diagnosis of acute MI.</p>
              <p>A high-sensitivity troponin level above the 99th percentile and/or significant change in troponin levels between measurements, within the criteria of each assay (even if below the 99th percentile), is usually considered to "rule in" myocardial injury ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f37">Figure 12</xref> ). It is then important to evaluate whether the injury is chronic or acute and, in cases of the latter, apply criteria for diagnosis of ACS. If the diagnosis of ACS is confirmed, these patients should then be treated according to ACS guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B89">89</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B139">139</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B140">140</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>As illustrated in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f37">Figure 12</xref> , the preferred high-sensitivity troponin algorithms (0/1h and 0/2h) stratify patients into 3 groups and guide subsequent management, always in conjunction with clinical assessment ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t69">Table 27</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B141">141</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B142">142</xref> </sup></p>
              <table-wrap id="t69">
                <label>Table 27</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Case disposition according to the troponin algorithm</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">In the absence of other high-risk diagnostic hypotheses (e.g., unstable angina, aortic dissection), patients with a "non-diagnostic" clinical-electrocardiographic assessment and who are stratified into the "rule-out" zone by a 0/1h or 0/2h high-sensitivity troponin algorithm may be considered for discharge to further outpatient investigation, especially in the absence of known CAD and presence of low-risk clinical prediction scores (HEART &#8804; 3).</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients stratified into the "rule-in" zone by a 0/1h or 0/2h high-sensitivity troponin algorithm should be admitted and actively examined for diagnostic criteria of spontaneous AMI and other causes of myocardial injury, initially as inpatients.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Patients who do not fit into the "rule-in" or "rule-out" groups ("grey-zone" troponin) and/or whose clinical assessment does not meet low-risk criteria (e.g., a high HEART score, persistent suspicion of life-threatening diagnoses) should be considered as having intermediate probability and evaluated on an individual basis, with consideration of additional noninvasive testing (observation group).</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN63">
                    <p>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; CAD: coronary artery disease; ECG: electrocardiogram; AMI: acute myocardial infarction.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.3. Initial Disposition of Intermediate ("Grey-Zone") Cases (Observation)</title>
            <p>In the intermediate zone of diagnostic algorithms (i.e., those patients that cannot be classified as "rule-in" or "rule-out"), the probability of acute MI is generally 5 to 20%. These patients are not safe to be discharged home, and additional tools to guide the differential diagnosis are necessary, with careful re-checking of the criteria for spontaneous (type 1 or type 2) acute MI being especially advisable.</p>
            <p>In the absence of diagnostic criteria for MI (common for patients in the intermediate zones of hs-cTn algorithms), there is no formal indication for invasive stratification; therefore, further investigation should initially proceed as follows:</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Additional serial troponin measurements (any additional elevations after the second troponin measurement could increase the likelihood of acute MI);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Echocardiogram to actively search for differential diagnoses;</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Noninvasive tests to evaluate coronary artery disease/myocardial ischemia may be considered in non-low-risk patients without a clear diagnosis. The choice of noninvasive test should be based primarily on the availability and experience of each center. Other factors may help in this decision, such as a history of previous CAD. In patients without known CAD, a history of prior invasive or noninvasive testing may influence the physician's decision to continue or terminate the investigation ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">Figure 13</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup>In patients with known CAD, the presence or absence of obstructive disease (&#8805; 50% or history of PCI or CABG) may also influence the choice of noninvasive method ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f39">Figure 14</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
            <fig id="f38">
              <label>Figure 13</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Flow diagram for noninvasive investigation in a patient without known CAD. ACS: acute coronary syndrome; CAD: coronary artery disease; CT: computed tomography.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <fig id="f39">
              <label>Figure 14</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Flow diagram for noninvasive investigation in a patient with known CAD. CAD: coronary artery disease; CATH: cardiac catheterization; PCI: percutaneous coronary intervention; CABG: coronary artery bypass grafting; LMCA: left main coronary artery; FFR-CT: computed tomography-derived fractional flow reserve.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
            <p>These flow diagrams for test selection ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">Figures 13</xref> and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f39">14</xref> ) can also be used if there is strong clinical suspicion of cardiac ischemia in a stable patient with chest pain who does not meet criteria for ACS (e.g., patient classified as "rule-out" by an hs-cTn algorithm but with additional risk criteria or higher probability of ACS).</p>
            <p>In cases where further investigation has ruled out acute MI and other high-risk differential diagnoses but suspicion of ACS persists and access to imaging is more limited, performing an exercise test (in the absence of contraindications) can help refine the diagnostic probability and direct the patient to the best resource.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>If the diagnosis remains unclear at the end of the noninvasive investigation algorithm, coronary angiography may be considered in patients with high clinical suspicion of acute MI (especially if tests are inconclusive after investigation or the patient develops hemodynamic instability while under observation). The main recommendations for this intermediate-probability group are given in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t70">Table 28</xref> .</p>
            <table-wrap id="t70">
              <label>Table 28</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Initial investigations in cases of intermediate probability</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Order at least one additional troponin measurement (third measurement) and a repeat electrocardiogram (with additional leads).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Review possible differential diagnoses (with support from clinical prediction scores) and order further testing according to diagnostic probability (e.g., D-dimer testing in suspected PE with low pretest probability).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">If troponin is &gt; 99th percentile, systematically check for acute myocardial infarction criteria as well as for alternate causes of myocardial injury.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Order an echocardiogram to support diagnostic elucidation if the diagnosis remains unclear after initial investigation of patients with an intermediate probability of ACS.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Investigate coronary artery disease and/or ischemia (preferably with noninvasive modalities) if the diagnosis remains unclear after initial investigation of patients with an intermediate probability of ACS.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">The choice of noninvasive test should be based primarily on the availability and experience of each center and on the patient's known history of coronary artery disease or lack thereof.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">In patients who have had a completely normal CT coronary angiography in the last 2 years or an appropriate stress test with no evidence of ischemia (negative) in the last year, consider forgoing noninvasive testing if symptoms are stable.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">C</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN64">
                  <p>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; PE: pulmonary embolism.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.3.4. Approach to the Patient with Myocardial Injury and Nonobstructive Coronary Arteries</title>
            <p>All patients with abnormal troponin values ("rule-in" and "gray zone") in whom coronary angiography is indicated (including patients meeting MI criteria) must receive a definite diagnosis, even if no obstructions are found on angiography. Therefore, patients presenting with elevated troponin but no coronary obstruction on angiography may be classified initially as TINOCA (troponin-positive nonobstructive coronary arteries), an umbrella classification which can be further divided into three major subgroups:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>MINOCA (myocardial infarction with nonobstructive coronary arteries);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Other cardiac causes (e.g., myocarditis, Takotsubo cardiomyopathy);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Extracardiac causes.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <sec>
              <title>4.3.4.1 Investigation of cases of elevated troponin without coronary obstruction (troponin-positive nonobstructive coronary arteries &#8211; TINOCA or TpNOCA)</title>
              <p>Approximately 5 to 15% of patients diagnosed with acute MI who undergo coronary angiography are found not to have with obstruction &#8805; 50% stenosis on angiographic assessment.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup>Often, a patient who is referred for angiography does not have an established diagnosis of MI; this larger group that presents with myocardial injury but no obstructive CAD (i.e., with obstruction &#8805; 50% stenosis) on angiography, regardless of etiology, is classified TINOCA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup>which encompasses the MINOCA group when there is a confirmed diagnosis of acute MI. Recommendations for investigation of TINOCA are given in a flowchart ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f40">Figure 15</xref> ) and table of recommendations ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t71">Table 29</xref> ) below.</p>
              <fig id="f40">
                <label>Figure 15</label>
                <caption>
                  <title>Diagnostic pathway for patients with acute MI and normal coronary angiography. PE: pulmonary embolism; CAD: coronary artery disease; IVUS: v; OCT: optical coherence tomography; MR: Magnetic Resonance.</title>
                </caption>
                <graphic xlink:href=""/>
              </fig>
              <table-wrap id="t71">
                <label>Table 29</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Further investigation of patients with myocardial injury and normal or nonobstructive (&lt; 50% stenosis) coronary angiography</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Confirm whether classification as TINOCA is indeed appropriate (review angiography images in search of obstruction, dissection, embolism, coronary thrombus; check other tests for differential diagnoses such as Takotsubo).</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Request cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and other additional tests (intracoronary imaging and/or tests for coronary spasm or microvascular disease) according to clinical suspicion.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>4.4. Rational Use of Noninvasive Tests</title>
          <p>The rational selection of noninvasive methods for investigation of ACS is essential, given that the differential diagnosis of chest pain is broad and requires a structured approach for adequate, rapid distinction between cardiac and noncardiac causes, due to the mortality and morbidity associated with cardiovascular diseases. These tests can be performed while the patient is under observation in hospital or in an early outpatient setting, depending on patient risk and availability of resources.</p>
          <p>During in-hospital observation, stress tests (exercise or pharmacological) should only be performed on stable patients in whom MI has been safely ruled out (the time needed to rule out MI varies depending on the time elapsed since onset of chest pain and the type of biomarker used, as described in sections 3.3, 4.1, 4.2, and 4.3).</p>
          <p>In eligible patients with acute chest pain (or chest pain equivalents), noninvasive techniques are useful to rule out obstructive coronary artery disease, to stratify the risk of adverse outcomes, and to distinguish life-threatening cardiovascular diseases from low-risk conditions.</p>
          <p>Several factors are important in deciding which modality to pursue, such as availability, local experience, type of clinical presentation, and, most importantly, the patient's characteristics and choices. In challenging cases, more than one method may be necessary; multimodality investigation is essential in these situations. In addition to general guidance on selection of noninvasive methods ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f38">Figures 13</xref> , <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f39">14</xref> , and <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f15">15</xref> ), aspects specific to each of these methods will be discussed in detail in this section to inform optimal decision-making for each clinical scenario (patient-centered recommendations). Finally, when mentioning diagnostic methods, reasoning should always be integrated with Bayes&#8217; theorem, in which the post-test probability of an event or disease is conditional on its pretest probability.</p>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.1. The Role of Exercise Electrocardiogram Testing</title>
            <p>Exercise testing (ET) is a widely used functional method for diagnosis and risk stratification in various clinical scenarios, having accumulated a robust body of evidence over several decades. It has the advantages of being readily accessible, somewhat inexpensive, and not exposing the patient to ionizing radiation or contrast.</p>
            <p>In the approach to acute chest pain in the emergency department, ET has been used since the early 1990s, both as an ancillary method to help rule out ACS as well as to stratify short- and medium-term risk of death, which increases the safety of hospital discharge.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B144">144</xref></sup>Much of the evidence for this indication is based on observational studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B146">146</xref> </sup>What few randomized clinical trials have been performed have mostly been single-center with small sample sizes, lacking adequate statistical power to discriminate risk of death or nonfatal MI between groups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B147">147</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>The process of stratifying patients into low-, intermediate-, or high-risk groups has sometimes been subjective, with failure to use established clinical prediction scores, which can hinder broader application of the findings of these studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B149">149</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Their various methodological issues notwithstanding, these studies were all limited to patients with acute chest pain clinically suspected to be of ischemic origin. Non-ischemic etiologies of acute chest pain, as well as other conditions in which ET is contraindicated, are described in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t72">Table 30</xref> .</p>
            <table-wrap id="t72">
              <label>Table 30</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Clinical conditions in which exercise testing in the emergency department is not indicated</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">ET is contraindicated in:</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest pain of clearly traumatic etiology</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Acute aortic dissection</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Acute pulmonary embolism</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Pericarditis and myocarditis</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest pain in the acutely febrile patient</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Symptomatic severe aortic stenosis</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Evidence of acute decompensated heart failure</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Signs of poor peripheral perfusion</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Uncontrolled arrhythmias and hypertension</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN65">
                  <p>HTN: hypertension; BP: blood pressure; ET: exercise test.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Serial electrocardiograms and biomarkers of myocardial injury must be normal or nondiagnostic of ACS. Baseline ECG changes that affect the diagnostic accuracy of ET for detection of myocardial ischemia are listed in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t73">Table 31</xref> .</p>
            <table-wrap id="t73">
              <label>Table 31</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Baseline electrocardiogram changes that limit the diagnostic accuracy of exercise testing for detection of myocardial ischemia</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="100%">
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Limit the accuracy of ET:</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Left bundle branch block</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Left ventricular strain</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Right ventricular strain</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Artificial cardiac pacing</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Ventricular pre-excitation</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Atrial fibrillation and flutter</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Baseline ST-segment depression &#8805; 1 mm</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN66">
                  <p>ET: exercise testing.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>Few studies have included a significant proportion of individuals over 65 years of age,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B145">145</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B151">151</xref> </sup>with the average age generally ranging between 50 and 60 years. Men have predominated in most samples, with proportions ranging from 40% to 75%.</p>
            <p>The greatest advantages of ET in the emergency department are its excellent safety and its ability to rule out presence of critical coronary obstruction. However, its overall discriminatory capacity is low, considering the potential to test positive, negative, or inconclusive for myocardial ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B150">150</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B158">158</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Very few studies have addressed specific subgroups. In a study that included only low-risk women with normal ECG and troponins, stress testing or coronary imaging did not improve prediction of acute myocardial infarction or revascularization within 30 days.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B159">159</xref></sup>Individuals with known CAD and/or prior myocardial revascularization have not been analyzed in specific studies. However, it bears stressing that the indications for conventional ET are extremely limited in this group, which is affected by multiple comorbidities, baseline ECG changes, and widespread use of antianginal medication.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B160">160</xref></sup>No compelling studies were found to support the indication of ET in acute chest pain associated with the use of stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamines.</p>
            <p>A recent systematic review with meta-analysis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B161">161</xref></sup>aimed to analyze the occurrence of major adverse cardiovascular events within 1 year after a negative cardiac examination, including stress testing. The authors concluded that patients with low- to intermediate-risk chest pain do not require repeat advanced testing if they present to the emergency department with chest pain, given the very low risk of events during this period. Given the diagnostic limitations of cardiac stress testing, this method has been used more to refine prognostic assessment and diagnostic probability than to rule in our rule out CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B143">143</xref></sup>Nonetheless, the information it provides can be very useful, especially in resource-limited settings ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t74">Table 32</xref> ).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t74">
              <label>Table 32</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Indications for exercise testing in acute chest pain</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">Indications for exercise testing in acute chest pain</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Exercise stress testing can be recommended for individuals with acute chest pain who have clinical suspicion of myocardial ischemia, an intermediate probability of CAD (i.e., who have not been classified as having low or high probability of CAD), a normal ECG and negative biomarkers of myocardial injury, and who are eligible to perform physical exertion (ideally with concomitant imaging).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Enough time must have elapsed to safely rule out acute MI (this varies depending on the time since onset of chest pain and the type of biomarker used) before exercise testing is performed.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">In patients presenting with acute chest pain of presumed ischemic origin and intermediate probability, admitted to the emergency department with a maximal exercise test negative for ischemia performed within the last 12 months, another test should be prioritized according to clinical suspicion (do not repeat exercise testing <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN68">*</xref> ).</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN67">
                  <p>CAD: coronary artery disease; ECG: electrocardiogram.</p>
                </fn>
                <fn id="TFN68">
                  <label>*</label>
                  <p>As long as there has been no relevant change in relation to the previous clinical picture.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.2. Role of Echocardiography in Assessment of the Patent with Chest Pain</title>
            <p>A role for resting echocardiography in the assessment of patients with chest pain in the emergency department is supported by several published studies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref> </sup>Early studies demonstrated the value of observing transient left ventricular regional wall motion abnormalities as accurate markers of myocardial ischemia, while more recent studies using myocardial contrast echocardiography have demonstrated that assessment of myocardial perfusion is useful in establishing the diagnosis and prognosis of chest pain of cardiac origin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Kalvaitis et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup>evaluated 957 patients who presented to the emergency room with chest pain of &lt; 12 hours&#8217; duration, an inconclusive ECG, and normal or slightly elevated troponin levels. Their pathophysiological rationale was the observation that most of the regional wall motion observed at rest derives from thickening of the most endocardial portion of the myocardium, and that ischemic events that affect the myocardium always begin in the subendocardial layer and progress toward the subepicardium, which is known as the wavefront phenomenon of myocardial necrosis. Thus, ischemic areas affecting as little as 20% to 30% of myocardial thickness are enough to cause significant changes in regional wall motion,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B163">163</xref></sup>which persist for several hours after the original ischemic injury; indeed, wall motion abnormalities were demonstrated in 97% of patients with MI in this study. In this Kalvaitis study, among the 500 patients without regional wall thickening abnormalities, small infarctions that had gone undetected were confirmed in only 2 cases. Thus, at the end of 12 hours after onset of first precordial pain, the negative predictive value for the presence of MI in this population was 94%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B162">162</xref></sup></p>
            <p>On the other hand, wall motion abnormalities do not always denote infarction; they may reflect, for example, the effects of transient ischemia on the myocardium. Prolonged changes in ventricular wall motion have clearer prognostic repercussions. Rinkevich et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B164">164</xref></sup>studied left ventricular regional function and perfusion in 1,017 patients with chest pain, a nondiagnostic ECG, and normal or slightly elevated troponins. Of these, 292 (28.7%) had events at a median follow-up of 7.7 months; MI occurred in 13.1%, unstable angina in 6.7%, heart failure in 3.7%, and death in 1.9%. Overall, 2% of those experiencing events required percutaneous coronary intervention and 1.3% required CABG. Among the 43 patients with no changes in regional function who had events, only 10 had MIs. When both regional function and perfusion were normal, the 1- and 2-year cardiac event rates were 9.8% and 12.6%. Most events were "soft" in nature (i.e., neither MI nor cardiac death); these rates increased, respectively, to 18.9% and 21% when regional function was normal but perfusion was abnormal, and to 40.1% and 48.8% when regional function was abnormal but perfusion was normal. Finally, these rates increased further to 64.7% (1 year) and 74.4% (2 years) when both regional wall motion and perfusion were abnormal.</p>
            <p>When also seeking a diagnosis of unstable angina (in addition to MI) in patients with chest pain and nondiagnostic ECG, the sensitivity of echocardiography ranges from 40 to 90%, and its negative predictive value from 50 to 99%. In these patients, a normal echocardiogram does not appear to add significant diagnostic information beyond that already provided by the history and ECG.</p>
            <p>There have been extensive studies on the use of dobutamine stress echocardiography for evaluation of a heterogeneous population with chest pain. Its sensitivity for the diagnosis of CAD or myocardial ischemia detected by other methods is 90%, with specificity ranging from 80 to 90% and a negative predictive value of 98% (the latter varying with pretest probability). It is a very useful method for defining prognosis and provides a measure of safety before discharging patients who require noninvasive risk stratification.</p>
            <p>In addition to myocardial examination, echocardiography is very useful in analyzing the pericardium. Remember that the pericardium is made up of a visceral layer (composed of mesothelial cells adhered to the epicardium) and a parietal layer (a fibrous structure composed of collagen and elastin, with a thickness &lt; 2 mm), separated by a space that normally contains 15 to 35 mL of serous fluid. In this scenario, transthoracic echocardiography is particularly important, first because it rules out the presence of regional wall motion abnormalities and second because it allows visualization of pericardial effusion, thickening, and the presence of inflammatory signs such as fibrinous strands or debris within the pericardial sac.</p>
            <p>In suspected acute aortic syndrome (AAS), transthoracic echocardiography (TTE) can identify complications (e.g., aortic regurgitation, tamponade), but its diagnostic accuracy for AAS itself is limited (sensitivity: 78%&#8211;100% for type A, 31%-55% for type B). Transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) has &gt; 90% accuracy and can be performed conveniently at bedside.</p>
            <p>In pulmonary embolism (PE), echocardiography (especially TEE) allows identification of mobile thrombi in the right chambers of the heart and in the trunk and/or main branches of the pulmonary artery; however, these findings are only present in a minority of cases. Functional echocardiographic assessment and measurement of right ventricular dimensions are limited, which has led to variation in the literature on echocardiogram performance. In any event, abnormalities can only be identified in more severe cases (leading to right heart strain), while right ventricular overload can also be identified in the absence of pulmonary embolism (concomitant heart or lung disease). Given these aspects, echocardiography is of great value in risk stratification after a diagnosis of PE. From a diagnostic standpoint, echocardiography has different value in stable and unstable patients with suspected PE:</p>
            <list list-type="order">
              <list-item>
                <p>Hemodynamically stable patients: echocardiography can assist in the differential diagnosis of dyspnea and chest pain and can occasionally detect right heart strain in a patient who appears stable on clinical examination. The "60/60" sign (combination of a pulmonary artery acceleration time of &lt; 60 ms and a peak systolic tricuspid valve gradient of &lt; 60 mmHg) and McConnell sign (RV free wall hypokinesis with sparing of the RV "echocardiographic apex") also have diagnostic value, although they are uncommon in unselected cases of PE (10 to 20% of cases);</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Hemodynamically unstable patients: echocardiography has higher diagnostic value in these cases, since the absence of signs of RV overload or dysfunction essentially rules out PE as the cause of hemodynamic instability (especially if Doppler ultrasonography of the lower limbs shows no evidence of deep vein thrombosis). In addition to being very useful in ruling out PE in the unstable patient, echocardiography may justify emergency reperfusion therapy in hemodynamically compromised patients with a high probability of PE who present with unequivocal signs of RV pressure overload, especially if there are more specific echocardiographic findings (60/60 sign, McConnell sign, or visible thrombus), when immediate CT angiography is not feasible and there is no other obvious cause for RV pressure overload. In this line, echocardiography can also be very useful in ruling out other causes of shock (such as tamponade, acute valve dysfunction, left ventricular dysfunction, aortic dissection, hypovolemia).</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Thus, there are several recommendations for the use of echocardiography in the investigation of chest pain in the emergency department ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t75">Table 33</xref> ), especially for the diagnostic assessment of life-threatening cardiovascular diseases (ACS, pericarditis/tamponade, aortic dissection, and pulmonary embolism).</p>
            <table-wrap id="t75">
              <label>Table 33</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Indications for echocardiography in acute chest pain</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="33%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">In patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain, in whom ECG and troponin are inconclusive and suspicion persists, a resting transthoracic echocardiogram with or without myocardial contrast should be performed within 12 hours of chest pain onset to evaluate potential ischemic changes.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">In patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain in whom the possibility of myocardial necrosis and ischemia at rest has already been ruled out due to the absence of echocardiographic or electrocardiographic evidence of ischemia, cardiac stress testing (pharmacologic or exercise) to induce myocardial ischemia may be performed before hospital discharge if outpatient investigation would be considered unsafe.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Transthoracic echocardiography may be used for the diagnosis of acute pericarditis in patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain and other suggestive findings, such as acute febrile illness (with or without a decline in general condition) and pleuritic chest pain, regardless of whether characteristic ST/T segment changes are present on resting ECG.</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.3. Myocardial Perfusion Scintigraphy with Single-Photon Emission Computed Tomography (SPECT) and Positron Emission Tomography (PET-CT)</title>
            <p>Among the functional tests that can be administered to patients with acute chest pain, two myocardial perfusion imaging modalities ("nuclear stress tests") stand out: myocardial perfusion scintigraphy with single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), which uses<sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi as the radiotracer, and positron emission tomography (PET) with<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B82">82</xref></sup>Ru (rubidium) or<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup>N-ammonia (still limited in Brazil). These myocardial perfusion tests, performed at rest alone or both at rest and after stress ("nuclear stress testing"), have been used safely and effectively in the evaluation of patients with chest pain in the emergency department, having been tested in multicenter randomized trials for this purpose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B165">165</xref> </sup>The main characteristics of nuclear medicine studies in this setting are their high sensitivity for detection of myocardial ischemia and their excellent prognostic ability.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>4.4.3.1. Indications for the Use of Nuclear Medicine Tests</title>
              <p>After the standard initial assessment of patients presenting to the emergency department with chest pain (history, physical examination, ECG, biomarkers of myocardial injury), a percentage of these individuals will still have substantial risk of coronary disease. These patients must undergo imaging to identify those with acute coronary syndrome and those at higher risk of adverse events. Like CT coronary angiography (CTA) for anatomical evaluation, imaging methods for functional evaluation are especially useful in identifying this group of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>One of the most consistent indications for myocardial perfusion scintigraphy in acute chest pain is in patients without a known history of CAD and who are stratified as being at intermediate risk of CAD. In these cases, the use of stress and resting myocardial perfusion scintigraphy is well established as a useful, effective technique.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup>In a single-center study, myocardial perfusion scintigraphy in patients with acute chest pain had the same safety and effectiveness as CTA, with no differences in adverse outcomes over 40 months follow-up.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B166">166</xref></sup>Other head-to-head comparisons of CTA and myocardial perfusion scintigraphy have also shown that the two techniques are comparable, and that anatomical assessment has the potential to increase invasive angiography and revascularization rates. Similarly, in the outpatient setting, there is also evidence supporting nuclear medicine as a good option.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref> </sup>In the CE-MARC 2 study (Clinical Evaluation of Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Coronary Heart Disease 2), functional testing with myocardial perfusion scintigraphy or cardiac MRI resulted in lower rates of unnecessary angiography, without a significant increase in major adverse coronary events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B167">167</xref></sup>In the PROMISE study, which included 10,000 symptomatic patients with suspected CAD, a CTA-first strategy did not improve clinical outcomes over a median follow-up of 2 years compared with functional testing.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B168">168</xref></sup></p>
              <p>One technique which has been evaluated in a randomized trial, and which is quite useful when available, is to obtain a resting<sup>99m</sup>Tc-sestamibi scan during the episode of acute chest pain. Normal imaging improves emergency triage decision-making for patients with symptoms suggestive of acute cardiac ischemia with no abnormalities on initial ECG and reduces unnecessary admission of patients without acute ischemia, without reducing the rate of appropriate admission of patients with acute ischemia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B169">169</xref></sup>Use of this technique was able to rule out acute MI in 98% of patients presenting to an emergency department with chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B170">170</xref></sup>Although it assesses ischemia rather than necrosis (infarction), the indication for this test tends to decrease with the broader use of early rule-out algorithms with high-sensitivity cardiac troponin.</p>
              <p>Another robust clinical indication for stress myocardial perfusion imaging in patients with intermediate-risk chest pain in the emergency department is for those in whom initial anatomical stratification by CTA or invasive angiography was inconclusive. In these cases, stress myocardial perfusion scintigraphy or stress perfusion PET-CT is able to assess the functionality of the territory subtended by the coronary lesion and determine whether it is causing myocardial ischemia and symptoms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>Another important indication for stress and rest myocardial perfusion scintigraphy with SPECT (single photon emission computed tomography) is the assessment of ischemia in patients with known CAD or in those already known to have a high coronary calcium load, whether demonstrated on a previous chest CT or by an elevated calcium score.</p>
              <p>PET-CT, although still in its infancy in Brazil, has the great advantages of being able to measure coronary flow reserve, increasing sensitivity in relation to SPECT, and providing the additional possibility of evaluating microvascular coronary disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup>Recent studies have suggested that assessment of microvascular disease with cadmium-zinc-telluride (CZT)-SPECT detectors has prognostic value in ischemia with non-obstructive coronary artery disease (INOCA), potentially allowing stratification of these patients for prevention and early intervention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref> </sup>This technique may be an alternative in scenarios where there is no access to PET-CT, allowing assessment of myocardial flow reserve and risk stratification of patients with chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B171">171</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B172">172</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>In summary, nuclear medicine studies are an important part of the workup of acute chest pain in the emergency room, allowing assessment of myocardial ischemia with or without obstructive epicardial disease ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t76">Table 34</xref> ).</p>
              <table-wrap id="t76">
                <label>Table 34</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Recommendations for the use of nuclear medicine cardiac imaging techniques in patients presenting to the emergency department with acute chest pain</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">For intermediate-risk patients with acute chest pain and no known CAD, stress PET/SPECT imaging is useful for the diagnosis of myocardial ischemia.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">For intermediate-risk patients with acute chest pain, either ongoing or within 2 hours of pain resolution, and with negative initial biomarkers of myocardial injury, administration of the radiotracer during chest pain is useful to rule out myocardial ischemia.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">For intermediate-risk patients with acute chest pain and known CAD who present with new or worsening symptoms, stress PET/SPECT imaging may be considered to evaluate for myocardial ischemia.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">For intermediate-risk patients with acute chest pain and no known CAD with inconclusive invasive or noninvasive angiography findings, stress PET/SPECT imaging may be useful for the diagnosis of myocardial ischemia.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN69">
                    <p>CAD: coronary artery disease.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
              <p>High-risk findings on myocardial perfusion imaging in patients with acute chest pain generally indicate a high likelihood of significant coronary artery disease or an impending major adverse cardiovascular event. Findings associated with worse prognosis include:</p>
              <list list-type="order">
                <list-item>
                  <p>Extensive myocardial ischemia: perfusion defects affecting more than 10% of total myocardium or involving multiple coronary territories;</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>A decrease in left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) after stress by at least 10% compared to rest; and</p>
                </list-item>
                <list-item>
                  <p>Transient left ventricular dilation.</p>
                </list-item>
              </list>
              <p>Any one of these findings generally suggests the presence of high-risk anatomical lesions and potential benefit from myocardial revascularization; angiographic evaluation of coronary anatomy is indicated.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B79">79</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B80">80</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>A novel and rapidly advancing development is the addition of coronary flow reserve assessment to functional nuclear cardiology studies. Coronary flow reserve (CFR) measured by perfusion PET-CT can play an important role in risk stratification of patients with chest pain in the emergency department. CFR is a measure of the ability of coronary arteries to dilate and increase blood flow in response to increased demand, such as during stress or exercise. It provides valuable information about the functional status of the coronary circulation and can help assess the severity and prognosis of CAD, as well as evaluate microvascular dysfunction. Importantly, reduced CFR is associated with a higher risk of future cardiovascular events, including myocardial infarction, heart failure, and cardiac death. It serves as an independent predictor of adverse outcomes, even in patients with normal coronary arteries or nonobstructive CAD. CFR may help identify higher-risk individuals who may benefit from more aggressive treatment strategies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B173">173</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B175">175</xref> </sup>There is evidence that the availability of PET-MPI (myocardial perfusion imaging) for examination of emergency room patients was associated with an increase in the number of referrals for evaluation of patients with acute chest pain, as well as with a shorter length of hospital stay. Furthermore, the use of PET-CT was associated with a 40% reduction in additional testing compared with the use of SPECT in patients presenting to the emergency department with acute chest pain.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B176">176</xref></sup></p>
              <p><xref ref-type="fig" rid="f50">Figure S8</xref> illustrates the case of a patient with acute chest pain with a normal ECG and myocardial injury biomarkers on admission. An exercise myocardial perfusion scan demonstrated reversible myocardial perfusion defects in the right coronary artery territory corresponding to 20% of the myocardium. Coronary angiography subsequently demonstrated a 90% obstruction in the right coronary artery, which was treated with a drug-eluting stent.</p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.4.3.2. Special Considerations in Women with Acute Chest Pain</title>
              <p>An additional point should be emphasized regarding functional investigation of CAD: women are more likely than men to have nonobstructive CAD. This should be taken into account so that the use of anatomical methods to assess the coronary arteries does not lead to inappropriate diagnoses. Nonobstructive CAD is associated with a higher risk of myocardial infarction and mortality compared with the absence of CAD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B177">177</xref></sup>For evaluation of patients with persistent chest pain and nonobstructive CAD, myocardial perfusion PET with CFR assessment can be used to diagnose microvascular dysfunction and improve risk stratification. Studies with CZT-SPECT detectors suggest that this technique may be a feasible alternative for settings in which PET-CT is unavailable or unattainable.</p>
              <p>Regarding noncardiac diagnoses of chest pain, ventilation/perfusion (V/Q) scanning is a noninvasive method classically used to stratify the risk of pulmonary embolism by analyzing the number of affected lung segments, allowing the probability of PE to be classified as none (normal), low, moderate, or high. V/Q scan findings should be interpreted on the basis of pretest probability (Wells and Geneva scores). It is a very useful alternative modality for investigation of PE, especially when there are limitations to performing or analyzing CT angiography.</p>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.4. Computed Tomography Angiography (CTA)</title>
            <p>The use of CTA for noninvasive assessment of the lumen of the coronary arteries is well established in the literature. As demonstrated by several studies, CTA of the coronary arteries has excellent accuracy compared to conventional angiography for the diagnosis of stenosis in patients at low to moderate cardiovascular risk, with particular emphasis on its high negative predictive value ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t77">Table 35</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B178">178</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref> </sup></p>
            <table-wrap id="t77">
              <label>Table 35</label>
              <caption>
                <p>Summary of multicenter trials on the accuracy of CTA in detecting coronary stenosis (&#8805; 50% luminal narrowing) in low- to intermediate-risk patients without a previous diagnosis of coronary artery disease</p>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup width="20%">
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                    <th align="left" valign="middle">TRIAL</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Sensitivity (%)</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">NPV (%)</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">Specificity (%)</th>
                    <th align="center" valign="middle">PPV (%)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">CATSCAN (Garcia et al., 2006). 7 countries, 11 centers<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B182">182</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">94 (89-100)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">98 (94-100)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">51 (43-59)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">28 (19-36)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">NIMISCAD (Marano et al., 2009). 20 centers in Italy<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B183">183</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">94 (89-97)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">91 (85-95)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">88 (81-93)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">91 (86-95)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">ACCURACY (Budoff et al., 2008). 16 centers in the USA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B179">179</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">95 (85-99)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">99 (96-100)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">83 (76-88)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">64 (53-75)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">CORE64 (Miller et al., 2008). 7 countries, 9 centers<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B184">184</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">85 (79-90)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">83 (75-89)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">90 (83-94)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">91 (86-95)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="left" valign="middle">Meijboom et al. (2008). 3 centers in the Netherlands<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B180">180</xref></sup></td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">99 (98-100)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">97 (94-100)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">64 (55-73)</td>
                    <td align="center" valign="middle">86 (82-90)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
            </table-wrap>
            <p>The use of CTA in the assessment of acute chest pain has been evaluated in several studies regarding safety, risk stratification, and reductions in cost and length of hospital stay. Prospective, controlled, randomized trials have evaluated its use in the context of low- to intermediate-risk patients presenting with chest pain to the emergency department when combined with a negative conventional troponin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B185">185</xref></sup>Three of these studies are worth highlighting:</p>
            <p>The first is the multicenter Coronary Computed Tomographic Angiography for Systematic Triage of Acute Chest Pain Patients to Treatment (CT-STAT) trial, which randomized 699 patients with low-risk chest pain to stratification strategies using CTA or rest-stress myocardial perfusion imaging.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B186">186</xref></sup>The strategy with CTA reduced the time to diagnosis by 54% and hospitalization costs by 38%, with no difference in the rate of adverse events, compared to the myocardial perfusion imaging strategy.</p>
            <p>The second study was the multicenter Angiography for Safe Discharge of Patients with Possible Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACRIN-PA) trial, which had the primary objective of evaluating the safety of using CTA in the workup of patients with low- to intermediate-risk chest pain (TIMI RISK 0 to 2) compared with the traditional approach.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B187">187</xref></sup>None of the patients with a normal CTA had a primary endpoint event (cardiac death or MI within the first 30 days after admission). Furthermore, patients in the CTA group had a higher rate of discharge from the emergency department (49.6% vs. 22.7%) and shorter hospital stay (18 hours vs. 24.8 hours; p &lt; 0.0001), with no difference in the number of revascularizations or catheterizations.</p>
            <p>The third study was ROMICAT II (Rule Out Myocardial Ischemia/Infarction using Computer Assisted Tomography), which evaluated the length of ED stay and hospital costs in similar groups of patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref></sup>This study included 1000 patients with a mean age of 54 years, and found that length of hospital stay was significantly shorter in patients stratified for CTA when compared to the conventional workup group (23.2 &#177; 37.0 hours vs. 30.8 &#177; 28.0 hours; p = 0.0002). The time to rule out diagnosis of ACS was also shorter in the CTA group (17.2 &#177; 24.6 hours vs. 27.2 &#177; 19.5 hours; p &lt; 0.0001). There was no between-group difference in safety endpoints. The CTA group had a significantly higher percentage of patients who were discharged directly from the emergency department (46.7% vs. 12.4%, p = 0.001). Use of other diagnostic tests was significantly higher in the CTA group (97% vs. 82%, p &lt; 0.001). Nevertheless, despite the higher expenditure associated with a greater number of catheterizations and revascularizations, overall costs were very similar between the two groups due to shorter hospital stays in the CTA group (p = 0.65).</p>
            <p>In summary, CTA is a safe strategy for assessment of patients with low- to intermediate-risk acute chest pain and a <bold>negative conventional (non-high-sensitivity) troponin,</bold> reducing the rate of admission, the length of hospital stay and, probably, costs as well. The impact on the number of invasive procedures and revascularization rate is still conflicting, although it certainly does not increase mortality.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B189">189</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>The HEART score for stratifying chest pain in the emergency department has gained widespread use and support in current guidelines. Some trials have evaluated a combination of the HEART score with CTA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref> </sup>In an analysis of the major studies that used this tool for prediction of cardiovascular events at 30 days, when patients with a HEART score of 3 to 6 were directed to CTA, the latter had a sensitivity of 97.8%, specificity of 84.1%, and negative predictive value of 99.6% for diagnosing coronary stenosis &gt; 50%.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B193">193</xref></sup>Thus, combined use of the HEART score with CTA has been validated mainly for low- to intermediate-risk patients, with a high negative predictive value for cardiovascular events, especially in those stratified with a HEART score between 3 and 6.</p>
            <p>There is a Class I recommendation (Level of Evidence: A) for CTA in the assessment of patients with low- to intermediate-risk acute chest pain, a nondiagnostic ECG, and conventional biomarkers of myocardial injury (i.e., not hs-cTn) below the 99th percentile ("negative").</p>
            <p>CTA in the emergency department for patients with chest pain, elevated conventional troponin levels, and at least one clinical cardiovascular risk factor was evaluated in the VEREDICT-TRIAL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B194">194</xref></sup>This study assessed the ability of CTA to identify coronary stenosis &#8805; 50% as compared to a conventional invasive angiography strategy, both in the early stage (within 12 hours of hospitalization) and later in the course (after 48-72 hours). The negative predictive value to identify lesions &#8805; 50% was similar in both strategies (NPV 90.9% at 12h), and there was a high positive predictive value for multivessel disease. Therefore, the use of CTA in patients with elevated troponin levels had high accuracy to rule out significant coronary disease and was thus useful in the early clinical management of such patients in this study.</p>
            <p>However, the adoption of this strategy has not been tested for clinical prognostic impact after discharge. The RAPID-CTCA TRIAL<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref></sup>tested a strategy of CTA vs. conventional management in patients with a diagnosis of NSTE-ACS (elevated conventional troponin). The data from this study show that the CTA strategy did not reduce the proposed primary outcome (all-cause mortality or type 1 or 4b AMI within 1 year), with an incidence of 5.8% for CTA vs. 6.1% for conventional treatment (p = 0.65), nor did it reduce the number of revascularizations (odds ratio 1.03, CI 0.87-1.21). However, it did reduce the number of cardiac catheterizations (odds ratio 0.81, CI 0.72-0.92), at the expense of a slight increase in length of stay from 2.0 to 2.2 days.</p>
            <p>The use of hs-cTn in the emergency department is becoming increasingly popular, as they provide a measure of safety to discharge the patient when negative.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup>Few studies have evaluated the use of CTA in this context. The BEACON TRIAL,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B191">191</xref></sup>a randomized multicenter study, evaluated the use of CTA in the ED in low- to intermediate-risk patients who, after a negative high-sensitivity troponin, were randomized to undergo CTA or receive the standard of care, with the primary outcome being the number of revascularizations at 30 days. In this scenario, CTA did not result in any differences in the number of revascularizations or undetected ACS, rate of discharge from the emergency department (65% vs 59%; p = 0.16), or length of hospital stay (6.3 hours in both groups). However, CTA did manage to reduce the costs of care (337 vs 511 euros, p &lt; 0.01) and the percentage of patients requiring additional tests after discharge (4% vs 10%, p &lt; 0.01).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B174">174</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B188">188</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B195">195</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Therefore, when performed early in the workup of suspected ACS in the emergency department, CTA is safe and associated with fewer additional tests and lower costs, due to a reduced need for additional investigations in the outpatient setting after discharge. However, in patients with negative hs-cTn levels, coronary CT angiography did not identify more patients with significant CAD requiring CABG, nor did it shorten hospital stay or allow a higher proportion of patients to be discharged from the ED, when compared to a conventional strategy. On the other hand, the PRECISE-CCTA<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B196">196</xref></sup>randomized trial evaluated patients presenting to the ED with chest pain who had detectable levels of high-sensitivity troponin in the 5 ng/L to 14 ng/L range (considered borderline, but still within normal range and nondiagnostic for NSTEMI). These cases underwent CTA after discharge and were found to have a higher prevalence of both nonobstructive CAD (71.9% vs 43.4%; odds ratio 3.33) and obstructive CAD (29.9% vs 19.3%; odds ratio 1.79), regardless of their chest pain characteristics. Therefore, patients with chest pain (especially those with borderline hs-cTn) levels without a diagnosis of AMI may benefit from CTA after hospital discharge, as this provides them with the opportunity to receive effective treatment to prevent future CAD-related events in an outpatient setting. The TARGET-CCTA trial (NCT03952351) is ongoing to evaluate whether early treatment of CT-identified CAD in patients with intermediate elevations of high-sensitivity troponin has any impact on preventing future events 36 months after discharge.</p>
            <p>Some studies have evaluated the use of coronary CT angiography in the context of frankly elevated high-sensitivity troponin levels. The CARMENTA trial<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B197">197</xref></sup>evaluated whether CTA or cardiac MR would be safe to better select those with patients positive high-sensitivity troponin who would benefit from cardiac catheterization for diagnosis of critical lesions compared to a conservative approach. It bears stressing that the study had some significant exclusion criteria, such as age over 85 years and dynamic St-segment changes. The study demonstrated that, in this context, use of CTA or cardiac MR to select patients with positive hs-cTn (low to moderate elevation) for invasive angiography was safe, with no increase in cardiovascular events when compared to a routine conservative approach. Therefore, the use of CTA in patients with elevation of high-sensitivity troponin to intermediate levels (study mean of 78 ng/ml) and no high-risk criteria safely reduced the need for cardiac catheterization when compared to the standard strategy (odds ratio 0.66, p &lt; 0.001), with no increase in cardiovascular events after 1 year of follow-up (p = 0.265).</p>
            <p>Studies have attempted to evaluate the use of calcium scoring as a way to predict coronary stenosis in the emergency department. Subgroup analyses of CORE 64<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B198">198</xref></sup>showed a low negative predictive value (NPV 0.62), with up to 39% of high-risk patients with ACS having a calcium score of zero and 46% having values below 100 Agatston units. Therefore, considering the current evidence, calcium scoring should not be used in the emergency department to predict significant coronary lesions.</p>
            <sec>
              <title>4.4.4.1. Triple Rule-out</title>
              <p>CTA can also be used in the emergency department to support the differential diagnosis of ACS, especially in cases of suspected pulmonary embolism and acute aortic syndrome.</p>
              <p>CT angiography with a "pulmonary embolism protocol" is the most widely used noninvasive imaging method for cases with an intermediate or high pretest probability of PE. It bears stressing that CTA has limitations in cases of embolism that affect only the smaller (subsegmental) pulmonary vessels.</p>
              <p>When there is clinical suspicion of AAS, speed and accuracy in diagnostic confirmation are of the essence, since this condition has a high immediate mortality rate and definitive treatment is usually surgical. The decision to use a particular imaging method in AAS should be based not only on its diagnostic accuracy but also on its immediate availability and the experience of local emergency physicians and echocardiographers/radiologists with the method(s).</p>
              <p>In addition to specific protocols for suspected pulmonary embolism, acute aortic syndrome, or acute coronary syndrome, some acquisition protocols can provide information related to the coronary circulation, aorta, and pulmonary arteries, allowing not only assessment of AAS and PE but also checking for other abnormalities in the chest cavity (pneumonia, trauma, etc.).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B199">199</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B203">203</xref> </sup>This approach is known as <italic>triple rule-out</italic> . However, even with optimized techniques, the triple rule-out acquisition protocol is less efficient than individual protocols for evaluating the coronary arteries, aorta, and pulmonary arteries. Therefore, triple-rule out protocols should be used only in specific situations in which clinical assessment is unable to direct the diagnostic workup.</p>
              <p>In summary, CT angiography of the coronary arteries allows for the noninvasive assessment of epicardial obstructions and identification of atherosclerotic plaque with high accuracy, leading to a high negative predictive value for clinical investigation of patients without an established diagnosis of AMI ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t78">Table 36</xref> ).</p>
              <table-wrap id="t78">
                <label>Table 36</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Indications for CT angiography of the coronary arteries in suspected acute coronary syndrome</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Assessment of low- or intermediate-risk patients with suspected ACS with a normal or nondiagnostic ECG, normal biomarkers or myocardial injury, or abnormal biomarkers not meeting criteria for myocardial infarction <xref ref-type="table-fn" rid="TFN71">*</xref> .</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Assessment of patients with acute chest pain by the "triple rule-out" technique</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Assessment of high-risk patients with suspected ACS.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">C</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Assessment of patients with an established definitive diagnosis of myocardial infarction.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN70">
                    <p>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; ECG: electrocardiogram.</p>
                  </fn>
                  <fn id="TFN71">
                    <label>*</label>
                    <p>If only a conventional (i.e., not high-sensitivity) troponin assay is available, CTA of negative cases reduces the rate of hospital admission and length of hospital stay. If high-sensitivity troponin is available, CTA helps elucidate cases with no definitive diagnosis, including those with "gray-zone" troponin levels (reducing the need for cardiac catheterization without increasing the rate of cardiovascular events at 1-year follow-up).</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>4.4.5. Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance Imaging</title>
            <sec>
              <title>4.4.5.1. Detection of Myocardial Ischemia</title>
              <p>Currently, the presence of myocardial ischemia can be detected by cardiovascular magnetic resonance (CMR) using first-pass perfusion imaging with pharmacological stress or at rest, or by evaluation of contractility after induction of ischemia with dobutamine; the former is more sensitive and is preferred in the setting of chest pain, while the latter has greater specificity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>Considering only the assessment of myocardial perfusion, some recent studies have given CMR pride of place in this scenario, both for diagnostic purposes and for prognostic prediction. The MR-INFORM study, published in 2019, compared different investigation strategies in 918 symptomatic patients and found that the CMR strategy was noninferior to a strategy using invasive CFR measurement (3.7% for CFR vs 3.6% for MRI), with no difference in primary outcomes at 12 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B207">207</xref></sup>The SPINS study, also published in 2019, evaluated 2,349 patients with chest pain and found that absence of ischemia or late enhancement is associated with a low incidence of cardiovascular events within 5 years after CMR.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B208">208</xref></sup></p>
              <p>CMR can also be used in patients with chest pain who have normal biomarkers and a nondiagnostic ECG, demonstrating 100% sensitivity and 93% specificity for detection of future cardiovascular events in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref> </sup></p>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.4.5.2. Differential Diagnosis of Positive Troponin with Normal Coronary Arteries (TINOCA / MINOCA)</title>
              <p>Although the diagnosis of acute MI is usually associated with the presence of coronary obstruction, we know that a substantial number of patients with ACS (between 6-8%) have angiographically normal coronary arteries.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B190">190</xref></sup>The diagnosis of MINOCA requires documentation of an acute MI and invasive coronary angiography or CTA without significant obstruction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>Just as for any other type of MI, the diagnosis of MINOCA requires that the myocardial injury be explained by an ischemic mechanism, and that nonischemic causes such as myocarditis or Takotsubo syndrome be ruled out.</p>
              <p>Three characteristics need to be present for a diagnosis of MINOCA to be confirmed:<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup>1) The same diagnostic criteria as for acute MI (consistent clinical picture with abnormal biomarkers of myocardial injury); 2) normal angiography or lesion; and 3) no other clinical cause may have been identified that could explain the findings consistent with myocardial injury (e.g., myocarditis or pulmonary embolism). Many researchers consider MINOCA, like "heart failure," to be a working diagnosis, as oftentimes it is difficult to identify the precise etiology for proper therapeutic disposition.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup>Therefore, some differential diagnoses may actually be potential etiologies, as they meet the characteristic criteria for type I or II MI. These include ischemic diseases resulting from coronary plaque (erosion, rupture, or ulceration), coronary dissection, thromboembolism, microvascular coronary spasm, coronary embolism, as well as inflammatory cardiomyopathies (myocarditis of any etiology), Takotsubo cardiomyopathy, and even pulmonary embolism. Therefore, accurate diagnosis of MINOCA is essential to allow selection of the optimal therapeutic option for ischemic and nonischemic patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B56">56</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref> </sup>Due to their diagnostic complexity, it has been suggested that these diagnoses be grouped under the term TINOCA (troponin-positive nonobstructive coronary arteries), as they all share elevated troponin levels as a common marker.</p>
              <p>This umbrella term would then be subcategorized into ischemic causes (MINOCA), myocardial causes (e.g., myocarditis), and extracardiac causes (e.g., pulmonary embolism).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B88">88</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Cardiac MRI is one of the most important tools for determining the etiology of TINOCA cases, and can define the cause in up to 74% of them.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup>Late enhancement, when present, allows localization of the area of myocardial injury, in addition to providing evidence of the mechanisms involved. Furthermore, MR allows identification of patients with a worse prognosis, and, when performed, changes management in approximately half of MINOCA cases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B204">204</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Thus, the use of a diagnostic resource so precise that it can detect infarctions with less than 1 gram of myocardial necrosis<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B205">205</xref></sup>allows true personalization of medical therapy (including secondary prevention), which can prevent new ischemic events and avoid unnecessary prescription of drugs with their respective side effects, such as bleeding (in the case of use of antiplatelet agents).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B209">209</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Approximately 23% of cases diagnosed as MINOCA are due to coronary atherosclerosis in its nonobstructive form, resulting from erosion or ulceration of plaques with consequent transient thrombosis and recanalization of the compromised vessel, resulting from prolonged vasospasm.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup>Cardiac MR can confirm the diagnosis of infarction using the late enhancement technique, and discern ischemic causes by visualizing involvement of the subendocardium (a hallmark of ischemic etiology). Additionally, it allows differentiation from other lesions using techniques that present with edema (as in myocarditis), either through traditional T2-weighted techniques or through new parametric T1 and T2 mapping.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Another relevant cause of TINOCA that is commonly confused with MINOCA is myocarditis. It corresponds to approximately 29% of such cases,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup>is most commonly of viral etiology, and has gained greater prominence in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic, with approximately 50% of recovered cases exhibiting myocardial changes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B211">211</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B213">213</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>Approximately 16% of MINOCA cases will present as Takotsubo cardiomyopathy<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref></sup>("broken heart syndrome"). Although initially recognized as "benign" due to the reversibility of dyskinetic areas, monitoring of the natural history of this syndrome over time has shown that its prognosis may be unfavorable.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B214">214</xref></sup>Cardiac MR is an excellent diagnostic tool, as it allows identification of dyskinetic areas in any segment of the LV (although transient apical dyskinesia is the most frequent manifestation in Takotsubo syndrome). Furthermore, it allows characterization of areas of myocardial edema with T2-weighted techniques or, more recently, parametric T1 and T2 mapping, and was considered the method of choice in a recently published consensus statement.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B215">215</xref></sup>The inflammatory phase, in which myocardial edema can be detected, usually disappears within 3 months.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup>In these cases, a control MRI may be ordered to verify reversal of the dyskinetic area and resolution of myocardial edema, which confirm the diagnosis. Late enhancement is not usually observed in this syndrome; however, in the acute phase, small islands of late enhancement can be seen in dyskinetic areas, due to the increased interstitial space in areas of inflammation.</p>
              <p>Other possible diagnoses that may be encountered during investigation of TINOCA are less frequent, such as hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (approximately 3% of cases), nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy (2% of cases), and amyloidosis (less than 5% of cases).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B206">206</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B210">210</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B217">217</xref> </sup></p>
              <p>Thus, its excellent performance in making an accurate diagnosis of infarcted areas related to MINOCA leads to a Class 1 recommendation (Level of Evidence: B) for cardiac magnetic resonance in this setting<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B200">200</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B202">202</xref> </sup>( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t79">Table 37</xref> ).</p>
              <table-wrap id="t79">
                <label>Table 37</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Indications for assessment of myocardial ischemia by cardiac magnetic resonance imaging</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Investigation of ischemic heart disease in patients with acute chest pain and intermediate pretest probability of CAD.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Investigation of myocardial ischemia in patients who have undergone surgical or percutaneous revascularization and present with symptoms suggestive of obstructive CAD.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Differential diagnosis of syndromes of troponin elevation with nonobstructive coronary arteries (TINOCA).</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Assessment of patients with known nonobstructive CAD and no troponin elevation, but with suspected INOCA.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
                <table-wrap-foot>
                  <fn id="TFN72">
                    <p>CAD: coronary artery disease.</p>
                  </fn>
                  <fn id="TFN73">
                    <label>*</label>
                    <p>Defined as LMCA stenosis &#8805; 50% or triple-vessel disease with proximal coronary involvement.</p>
                  </fn>
                </table-wrap-foot>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
            <sec>
              <title>4.4.5.3. Myocarditis</title>
              <p>Myocarditis is a disease of inflammation of the heart muscle, which can occur as a result of infection, exposure to toxic substances, or activation of the immune system.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup>Viral infectious etiology is most prevalent. The clinical picture is highly variable clinical picture (ranging from completely asymptomatic to sudden death), but patients generally present with precordial pain, dyspnea, fatigue, palpitations, and syncope.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B219">219</xref></sup>Various electrocardiographic changes are present in 85% of cases (e.g., ST-segment elevation, QRS widening, or arrhythmias), associated with elevated biomarkers of myocardial injury (hs-cTn).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B218">218</xref></sup></p>
              <p>The diagnosis of myocarditis requires integration of clinical presentation, physical examination findings, laboratory tests, and imaging. Cardiac MR is helpful in diagnosis, as it is highly sensitive for tissue changes that occur due to myocardial inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B221">221</xref> </sup>The Lake Louise criteria were updated in 2018 to combine parametric mapping techniques and extracellular volume, increasing diagnostic accuracy. Acute myocardial inflammation can be detected if at least 1 criterion from each category is present.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup>One category is myocardial edema by T2-weighted imaging or T2 mapping; the other is myocardial injury by late enhancement, native T1 augmentation, or increased extracellular volume.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B222">222</xref> </sup>T2 values are higher in the acute phase of myocarditis and tend to normalize over a period of months, making T2 mapping a useful resource both for diagnosis and in monitoring treatment response.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref></sup>The T1 relaxation time is prolonged by intracellular or extracellular edema, hyperemia, and presence of areas of fibrosis, and the extracellular volume may increase due to expansion of the extracellular medium by inflammation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B223">223</xref> </sup>If criteria from both categories are positive, this increases the diagnostic specificity. On the other hand, if only one category is present in a patient with clinical suspicion, it only aids in the diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B220">220</xref></sup>In the absence of late enhancement and a clinical picture consistent with myocarditis, the presence of changes in native T1 mapping and extracellular volume may be indicative of myocardial injury. In this scenario, native T1 augmentation in areas without late enhancement was found to increase sensitivity without increasing the number of false positives.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
              <p>In addition to its diagnostic utility, cardiac MR can also be used for prognostic purposes. In this context, biventricular dysfunction resulting from significant myocardial involvement is the greatest predictor of mortality. The presence of late enhancement is also predictive of mortality, being associated with risk of sudden death and progression to left ventricular enlargement and decline in LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup>Patients with EF &#8804; 40% associated with late enhancement have a 10% year-on-year increase in their risk of an adverse cardiovascular event.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B216">216</xref></sup></p>
              <p>SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, has been frequently associated with myocardial injury. Troponin elevation above the 99th percentile is present in 62% of patients with COVID-19. During follow-up of these patients, the most common finding is diastolic dysfunction (55%); only 2.8% had reduced LVEF.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup>In the acute phase of COVID-19, the most common cardiac MR findings are changes in T1 and T2 mapping, pericardial changes (myopericarditis), and non-coronary late enhancement patterns. Mild or asymptomatic cases do not show significant changes compared to controls.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B224">224</xref></sup></p>
              <p>Currently, there is a Class I recommendation for CMR to be performed in suspected myocarditis, both in international guidelines and in the Brazilian SBC guideline;<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B92">92</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B225">225</xref> </sup>the present document corroborates this recommendation ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t80">Table 38</xref> ). The recent incorporation of parametric T1 and T2 mapping and extracellular volume data increases the sensitivity of CMR.</p>
              <table-wrap id="t80">
                <label>Table 38</label>
                <caption>
                  <p>Indications for CMR in myocarditis</p>
                </caption>
                <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                  <colgroup width="33%">
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                    <col/>
                  </colgroup>
                  <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                      <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                      <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                    </tr>
                  </thead>
                  <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">Assessment of ventricular function, geometry, and morphology in suspected acute, subacute, and chronic myocarditis.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Diagnostic and prognostic investigation of acute, chronic, and/or suspected previous myocarditis.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle">At 4-week to 12-week follow-up of an acute episode of myocarditis, to distinguish complicated from uncomplicated disease.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                    <tr>
                      <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">In fulminant myocarditis with hemodynamic instability.</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">III</td>
                      <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#ff0000; color:#FFFFFF;">B</td>
                    </tr>
                  </tbody>
                </table>
              </table-wrap>
            </sec>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>5. A Model for Implementation of Chest Pain Units</title>
        <sec>
          <title>5.1. Investigation of Acute Coronary Syndrome in the Prehospital Care Setting</title>
          <p>According to the Fourth Universal Definition of Acute Myocardial Infarction, there are no conceptual differences in diagnosis between the hospital and prehospital settings.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B77">77</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Major challenges in the prehospital setting include agility in diagnosis and institution of therapy and the unavailability of some helpful diagnostic tests, since in Brazil such patients are mainly treated in freestanding emergency departments (FSEDs) or Advanced Life Support (ALS) ambulances operated by emergency medical services (EMS) (e.g., SAMU ambulance). Accuracy and speed of diagnosis are priority goals of prehospital assessment, in order to optimize distribution of EMS resources and ensure more assertive transport/transfer of patients to definitive care ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t81">Table 39</xref> ).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t81">
            <label>Table 39</label>
            <caption>
              <p>Investigation of acute coronary syndrome in the prehospital care setting</p>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Diagnostic criteria are the same in the prehospital setting (e.g., ambulance) as in the in.hospital setting (e.g., emergency department).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Prehospital care systems must have protocols in place to identify cases meeting suspected ACS criteria and deploy specialized mobile units (with ECG capabilities, a physician, and Advanced Life Support resources).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">An electrocardiogram must be performed within 10 minutes of first medical contact, whether at a hospital or in the prehospital setting.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Clinical prediction scores such as the preHEART score may be useful additional tools for prehospital risk stratification.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">B</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Prehospital point-of-care troponin testing may be considered when available for cases presenting with a nondiagnostic ECG, especially those with a low clinical probability of ACS and within the adequate time window for biomarker measurement.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">IIb</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFC000;">B</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN74">
                <p>ACS: acute coronary syndrome; ECG: electrocardiogram.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>5.1.1. Patient Perceptions and Organization of the Prehospital Care Network</title>
            <p>The aphorism "time is muscle" remains relevant in the treatment of acute MI.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B226">226</xref></sup>Since the first trials of thrombolysis showing that the shorter the time to reperfusion, the greater the mortality benefit, agility has been sought from the patient's perception of symptoms to the reperfusion strategy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B227">227</xref></sup>Public campaigns increase patient awareness of MI symptoms and increase emergency care-seeking by AMI patients (including increased calls to EMS), which ultimately reduces prehospital wait times ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f41">Figure 16</xref> ).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B228">228</xref></sup>It is worth noting that women tend to experience longer times between first perception of symptoms and prehospital activation as compared to men, with higher in-hospital mortality rates, highlighting the importance of this specific population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B229">229</xref></sup>Implementing an EMS system to care for such patients has led to reductions in the overall and in-hospital mortality rates in the regions covered.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B230">230</xref></sup>Also worth noting are the <italic>Acute Myocardial Infarction Care Pathways,</italic> which have been incorporated into the Brazilian Unified Health System and had ordinances passed encouraging their use.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B231">231</xref></sup></p>
            <fig id="f41">
              <label>Figure 16</label>
              <caption>
                <title>Chest pain: early care saves lives. (Public awareness material to improve patient perception of symptoms).</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.1.2. Role of ECG in the Prehospital Setting</title>
            <p>Just as in the hospital environment, ECG must be performed within 10 minutes of first medical contact in the prehospital setting as well. Every 30-min delay in reperfusion is associated with a 7.5% increase in mortality in these patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B91">91</xref></sup>A meta-analysis of more than 80 publications found that the use of prehospital ECG resulted in a lower number of deaths, shorter time to reperfusion, shorter hospital stay, and higher proportion of patients who achieved a door-to-FMC-to-reperfusion time &lt; 90 min.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref></sup>It is worth noting there is evidence from several studies that telemedicine tools (e.g., remote ECG) are beneficial to the care of these patients, including a reduction in cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B232">232</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B236">236</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.1.3. Role of Troponin in the Prehospital Setting</title>
            <p>Troponin measurement is essential for diagnosis and risk stratification of patients who do not meet ECG criteria for NSTE-ACS. In-hospital troponin testing is well-established practice, but more robust evidence is needed to support its use in the prehospital setting.</p>
            <p>Several studies have evaluated its use by ambulance crews to screen patients before transfer to designated heart attack centers. Overall, these were small studies that included patients with chest pain and used point-of-care troponin testing (POC cTn) in conjunction with the modified HEART score to rule out ACS in low-risk patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B237">237</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B239">239</xref> </sup>In 2023, Camaro et al. published the ARTICA study,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B240">240</xref></sup>demonstrating that a prehospital POC cTn strategy resulted in lower healthcare costs (primary endpoint) with a comparable rate of major adverse cardiovascular events (secondary endpoint) as compared to a strategy of direct transfer to the ED without prehospital troponin measurement.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.1.4. Role of Risk Stratification Scores</title>
            <p>Clinical history, physical examination, and ECG essentially constitute the standard of care of the chest pain patient in the prehospital setting, seeking to identify cases of STEMI and trigger reperfusion strategies. However, in the absence of ST elevation (or STEMI equivalents), there is no validated risk stratification strategy to screen patients for direct transfer to primary PCI centers versus transport to lower-complexity facilities. Sagel et al., in a recent publication assessing use of the HEART score and POC cTn for stratification of these patients, proposed a new <italic>preHEART score</italic> as a tool for risk stratification specifically in the prehospital setting, with good accuracy compared to the other methods (NPV 99.3% [98.1-99.8], PPV 49.9% [42-56.9], AUC 0.82 [0.82-0.88]).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B241">241</xref></sup>Mirroring hospital practice, it is generally advocated that a combination of tests be used for prehospital risk stratification; in this setting, the preHEART score has emerged as a promising alternative.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B242">242</xref></sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.1.5. Other Diagnostic Tools</title>
            <p>Few studies have used transthoracic echocardiogram or POCUS as a diagnostic aid for ACS in the prehospital setting. One study which suggested its potential utility has been criticized for its methodological flaws, mainly regarding the accuracy of the method and the limited training of examiners.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B244">244</xref> </sup>The European Society for Cardiovascular Imaging nevertheless recommends the use of emergency echocardiography in patients with acute chest pain suggestive of ACS, but robust studies and standardization of methods for its use in the prehospital setting are needed before it can be incorporated into practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B243">243</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref> </sup>It should be remembered that, in addition to ACS, other diagnoses such as aortic dissection and PE should also be considered (scores, point-of-care D-dimer testing, and POCUS itself can help guide referral to the facility with the most appropriate resources according to the diagnostic suspicion).</p>
          </sec>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>5.2. A Model for Implementation of Chest Pain Units: Evidence for Best Practice</title>
          <p>The approach to the patient with chest pain places emphasis not only on recognizing the diagnosis, but rather on identifying and promptly managing the most serious and potentially life-threatening conditions. This challenging task falls to the emergency physician and emergency department staff, who are invariably overburdened and often have scarce resources at their disposal. In this context, in recent decades, emphasis has focused on strategies to assist in the rapid, accurate discrimination of patients at high risk of developing complications from those at low risk who do not need to stay in what is considered the cornerstone of management of acute chest pain: the chest pain unit (CPU).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B246">246</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>The initial assessment of every patient with chest pain should allow for three key questions to be answered: (1) How likely are the signs and symptoms to be due to ACS? (2) What are the patient's odds of developing a major adverse cardiac event, such as myocardial infarction, stroke, heart failure, recurrent symptoms of ischemia, or serious arrhythmias? and (3) How can additional resources be optimized to support diagnostic and patient disposition decisions? The clinical history, electrocardiogram, and biomarkers of myocardial injury are usually sufficient to answer these questions in most cases. However, studies have shown that the accuracy, efficiency, and agility of this model in the absence of structured protocols and routines are associated with a non-negligible risk of mismanagement, misdiagnosis, and high costs.</p>
          <p>CPUs became widespread in the early 2000s, with the aim of providing high-quality, rapid care for patients with chest pain with a low likelihood of ACS, but not low enough to allow hospital discharge. CPUs are defined as short-stay units organized so as to facilitate and optimize care through diagnostic protocols.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> </sup></p>
          <p>Several observational studies and randomized clinical trials have reported that CPU care provides greater adherence to guidelines and evidence-based practices, with clinical outcomes similar to those of admission to conventional wards, but with shorter lengths of stay and reduced costs. Data from Australia, the United States, and Germany suggest that process improvements resulting from the adoption of CPUs have led to reduced length of stay, fewer hospital admissions, and greater use of noninvasive tests, resulting in 20&#8211;25% cost savings for healthcare systems. Several international and Brazilian centers have implemented CPUs with shared organizational and logistic characteristics, which have evolved over the years.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref> </sup> <xref ref-type="table" rid="t82">Table 40</xref> provides recommendations for the implementation of dedicated units for the assessment of patients with acute chest pain (or chest pain equivalents).</p>
          <table-wrap id="t82">
            <label>Table 40</label>
            <caption>
              <p>Recommendations for the implementation of Chest Pain Units</p>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup width="33%">
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead style="border-top: thin solid; border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr style="background-color:#76B4CF;">
                  <th align="left" valign="middle"/>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Class of recommendation</th>
                  <th align="center" valign="middle">Level of evidence</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody style="border-bottom: thin solid; border-color: #000000">
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest pain units should be implemented in high-volume emergency departments and/or cardiovascular referral centers.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Chest pain units should systematically collect quality indicators and conduct continuous assessment of improvement based on the metrics identified.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest pain units must be staffed by physicians and support providers trained to follow protocols and interpret ECGs.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Chest pain units must be capable of performing ECG and measuring biomarkers of myocardial injury (preferably high-sensitivity cardiac troponin).</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">A</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest pain units must have access to STAT echocardiography.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Chest pain units must have access to a 24/7 catheterization laboratory, whether at the same facility or as part of an integrated emergency referral system.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle">Chest pain units must have diagnostic and treatment pathways in place for all major life-threatening acute chest pain syndromes.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">I</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#00B050;">C</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="left" valign="middle" style="background-color:#C7DFEC;">Chest pain units must have access to noninvasive methods for investigation of coronary artery disease and/or ischemia.</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">IIa</td>
                  <td align="center" valign="middle" style="background-color:#FFFF00;">C</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN75">
                <p>ECG: electrocardiogram.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.1. Patient Assessment</title>
            <p>Obtaining a brief, focused clinical history is essential in the initial assessment of patients with chest pain. Pain characteristics, presence of comorbidities, aggravating factors, and abnormalities on physical examination allow identification of immediate clinical risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> </sup>The HEART score has proved to be easy, useful, and effective for risk stratification of patients with no established diagnosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B101">101</xref> </sup>Based on the patient's history, ECG, age, cardiovascular risk factors, and troponin values, a score between 0 and 10 is calculated, representing the patient's risk of developing a major adverse cardiac event within 6 weeks of initial presentation. A meta-analysis of 16 prospective cohort studies obtained a sensitivity and specificity of the HEART score for predicting major cardiac events of 0.96 (95% CI: 0.91-0.98; I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>= 94.87%) and 0.50 (95% CI: 0.41-0.60; I<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>= 98.84%), respectively. However, the high heterogeneity among the included studies was a limiting factor for the interpretability and validity of this meta-analysis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B247">247</xref></sup>The combination of a HEART score &lt; 4 and normal troponins has a high negative predictive value (99%), suggesting these patients can be safely discharged. Several studies have shown that the use of clinical pathways such as the Heart Pathway, ADAPT, and EDACS reduced the need for hospitalization by 20-45% in patients with suspected ACS. Other well-known scores, such as TIMI and GRACE, may also be useful for risk stratification of patients undergoing diagnostic assessment for suspected ACS, although they were developed and validated as prognostic instruments for the population already diagnosed with ACS and have inferior performance compared to HEART in patients still on the diagnostic pathway.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B97">97</xref> &#8211; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B107">107</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B247">247</xref> </sup></p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.2. Organizational Structure and Human Resources</title>
            <p>Traditionally, CPUs are designated areas near or within hospital-based or freestanding emergency departments, with integration between emergency physicians, cardiologists, and dedicated multidisciplinary teams.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B248">248</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref> </sup>In an ideal scenario, CPUs are supervised by cardiologists, while routine care is provided by internists and/or emergency physicians. From a management perspective, the number of beds in a CPU should be calculated based on the size of the hospital to which it is attached and the number of ED visits per year. It is estimated that, of every 10,000 monthly ED visits, 250-500 will be for chest pain (depending on whether the hospital is a designated referral center) and half of these would be eligible for CPU admission, i.e., 2 to 4 beds would be required.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref></sup>European recommendations suggest one physician per unit and one nurse for every 4 to 6 beds; Brazil legislation calls for similar staffing levels, depending on the level of care provided and using a 1:3 ratio of nurses to nursing technicians. In general, CPUs have 2 to 6 dedicated beds, all of which may be monitored. Access to a cardiac catheterization suite and invasive procedures is important for cases in which the diagnosis of ACS is ultimately confirmed. For facilities lacking a 24/7 cath lab, cooperation agreements with other centers and protocols for transfer thereto must be in place for critical cases.</p>
            <p>When establishing a CPU, one critical aspect is the availability of written and validated clinical protocols for all providers who will be involved in the care of these patients. These protocols must be updated periodically and management mechanisms must be implemented to ensure their effective use, as well as monitoring of indicators to inform continuous improvement. A continuing education program should be offered to providers, including validation and review of institutional protocols and training in ECG interpretation, biomarkers, and noninvasive methods.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.3. Technical Requirements</title>
            <p>All CPUs must have a 12-lead ECG available for prompt performance and repetition whenever necessary. Ideally, the ECG should be obtained within the first 10 minutes after the patient's arrival at the hospital, starting from the moment the triage team identifies a suspected ACS case. Units must be equipped with a noninvasive blood pressure monitoring device for each patient, continuous ECG monitoring, a defibrillator, and cardiopulmonary resuscitation equipment. A telemetry monitoring center or central station is not absolutely essential, although it is desirable. Continuous cardiac rhythm monitoring is indicated for patients with suspected ACS or at high risk of cardiovascular events. Continuous ST-segment monitoring allows identification of patients with dynamic ischemia; however, studies have not shown significant additional value in lower-risk patients, and this method is currently considered optional in CPUs. Measurement of vital signs every 15-30 minutes is recommended for this patient profile.</p>
            <p>Measurement of cardiac troponin (T or I) for detection of myocardial injury is recommended for all patients with suspected ACS. Some studies tested assessment protocols with sample collection at 0 and 3 hours, while others used 0/1-hour and 0/2-hour intervals. Serial troponin testing is contingent on a 24-hour clinical laboratory being available in the emergency department, ideally one capable of a &lt; 60-minute turnaround for test results. For facilities without an on-site laboratory, rapid point-of-care testing can be considered as an alternative so as not to delay patient assessment and disposition.</p>
            <p>In addition to these tests, a CPU must be capable of performing additional blood chemistry tests, plain chest radiography, and alternative imaging methods to refine the differential diagnosis of chest pain. CTA has been shown to be an excellent method to rule out obstructive coronary disease, especially in intermediate- or low-risk groups.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B251">251</xref></sup></p>
            <p>Multislice CT should be available for further investigation of relevant differential diagnoses (such as PE and AAS) once ACS has been ruled out, or to rule out CAD in patients with low or intermediate probability.</p>
            <p>For patients with intermediate or low risk of coronary complications, stress testing has become accepted practice and is available at most centers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B252">252</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B253">253</xref> </sup>This recommendation is based on the value of this test for refining diagnostic probability and on the corresponding prognostic information it provides. However, considering the low prevalence of CAD in this group of low- and intermediate-risk patients, the likelihood of false-positive results is high. Therefore, current protocols no longer consider this an essential component of the chest pain workup. Supplemental noninvasive methods for diagnosis of ischemia &#8211; myocardial perfusion imaging, stress echocardiography, and CMR &#8211; provide additional information and help identify patients with CAD, and can be performed in the CPU or on an outpatient basis after discharge.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.4. Specific Therapies</title>
            <p>Patients with suspected ACS but no established diagnosis should initially be treated with aspirin alone (in the absence of contraindications or risk of bleeding) until the case is elucidated. If PE is suspected, preemptive anticoagulation should be considered in patients with a high pretest probability as determined by the Wells and/or Geneva score. Medications may also be administered as needed for symptom relief and hemodynamic stabilization.</p>
            <p>Once a diagnosis is identified (e.g., STEMI, NSTE-ACS, AAS, PE, etc.), the specific protocol for its management should be followed. Low-risk patients with negative results on all tests and no definitive diagnosis may be discharged from the CPU to early outpatient investigation.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.5. Management Indicators</title>
            <p>CPU participation in local and national registries should be encouraged to allow prospective collection of indicators of care quality, adherence to evidence-based practices, and performance.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B249">249</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B250">250</xref> </sup>Some internationally accepted indicators are usually employed to monitor the performance of these units; however, each institution should implement its own set of indicators as dictated by the availability of information or opportunities for improvement. Common indicators include (for both chest pain and confirmed ACS):</p>
            <list list-type="bullet">
              <list-item>
                <p>Time domain:</p>
                <list list-type="simple">
                  <list-item>
                    <label>&#10146;</label>
                    <p>Door-to-ECG time (ideally within 10 minutes);</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <label>&#10146;</label>
                    <p>Door-to-needle or door-to-balloon time (for STEMI);</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <label>&#10146;</label>
                    <p>CPU length of stay;</p>
                  </list-item>
                  <list-item>
                    <label>&#10146;</label>
                    <p>CPU boarding time until transfer to intensive care or inpatient ward.</p>
                  </list-item>
                </list>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Dual antiplatelet therapy prescribed at discharge and aspirin prescribed on arrival;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>High-intensity statins prescribed at hospital discharge;</p>
              </list-item>
              <list-item>
                <p>Patient perception of care received.</p>
              </list-item>
            </list>
            <p>Other indicators may be added in specific situations; e.g., a patient who develops heart failure (HF) must be discharged on HF therapy.</p>
            <p>It is considered good practice to issue reports at regular intervals (e.g., quarterly), the results of which should be documented in team meetings and case conferences. Feedback mechanisms should also be implemented to reflect the results and the quality of patient care in the CPU.</p>
          </sec>
          <sec>
            <title>5.2.6. Technological Advances</title>
            <p>Many studies have shown that the care and risk stratification of patients with chest pain can be further improved, so that patients are stratified earlier, with greater safety, and with faster access to therapy for those who need it. Use of wearable ECG devices, point-of-care troponin measurement, and prehospital use of the HEART score are examples of interventions that can direct low-risk patients to further outpatient investigation or send high-risk patients directly to cardiology referral centers with cardiac catheterization and intensive care capabilities. Systematized algorithms are increasingly being integrated with patient records to reduce errors and speed up patient care processes, often with the support of artificial intelligence.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B254">254</xref> , <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B255">255</xref> </sup></p>
            <p>Finally, the entire content of this guideline ( <xref ref-type="fig" rid="f42">Figure 17</xref> ) will only be fully implemented, and continuous improvement will only be possible, if local protocols are established with appropriate metrics and monitoring by the care team ( <xref ref-type="table" rid="t82">Table 40</xref> ).</p>
            <fig id="f42">
              <label>Figure 17</label>
              <caption>
                <title>10 Key Messages from the Chest Pain Care Guideline in the Emergency Department.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href=""/>
            </fig>
          </sec>
        </sec>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn6">
          <label>Development:</label>
          <p>Study Groups in Coronary Artery Disease, Emergencies, and Intensive Care (In Portuguese: Grupos de Estudos em Coronariopatias, Emerg&#234;ncias e Terapia Intensiva &#8211; GECETI) of the Department of Clinical Cardiology of the Brazilian Society of Cardiology ((In Portuguese: Departamento de Cardiologia Cl&#237;nica &#8211; DCC, Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia &#8211; SBC), Latin American Federation of Emergency Medicine ((In Spanish: Federaci&#243;n Latinoamericana de Medicina de Emergencias &#8211; FLAME)</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn7">
          <label>Coordinators:</label>
          <p>Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva, Alexandre de Matos Soeiro</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn8">
          <label>SBC Clinical Practice Guidelines Committee:</label>
          <p>Pedro Gabriel Melo de Barros e Silva (Chair), Helena Cramer Veiga Rey, Humberto Graner Moreira, Jos&#233; Augusto Soares Barreto Filho, Nadine Oliveira Clausell &#8211; Period 2025-2027.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn9">
          <label>How to cite this Guideline:</label>
          <p>de Barros e Silva, et al. Brazilian Guideline for the Evaluation and Diagnosis of Chest Pain in the Emergency Department - 2025. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2025; 122(9):e20250620.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other" id="fn10">
          <label>Note:</label>
          <p>These guidelines are for information purposes and should not replace the clinical judgment of aphysician, who must ultimately determine the appropriate treatment for each patient.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
