<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "http://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="pt">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">PcQ7mnQCTkvzzKgw88HcR6C</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025000800101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250478</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20250478</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Avan&#231;os em Estresse Oxidativo nas Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tonon</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7728-4505</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina P.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Estadual Paulista</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Marina P. Okoshi</bold> &#8226; Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Av. Prof. M&#225;rio Rubens Guimar&#227;es Montenegro, S/N. CEP <postal-code>18618-687</postal-code>, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>marina.okoshi@unesp.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>29</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>8</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250478</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>16</day>
          <month>07</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Esp&#233;cies Reativas de Oxig&#234;nio</kwd>
        <kwd>Doen&#231;as Cardiovasculares</kwd>
        <kwd>Fisiologia</kwd>
        <kwd>Antioxidantes</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="0"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="15"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <p>As doen&#231;as cardiovasculares constituem as principais causas de morbimortalidade no mundo. O estresse oxidativo desempenha papel importante na patog&#234;nese e progress&#227;o de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares como a aterosclerose, isquemia mioc&#225;rdica, insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca e hipertens&#227;o arterial sist&#234;mica e pulmonar.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
    <p>O estresse oxidativo &#233; caracterizado pelo desequil&#237;brio entre a produ&#231;&#227;o de radicais livres e as defesas antioxidantes. Radicais livres s&#227;o mol&#233;culas com um el&#233;tron desemparelhado, que as torna altamente reativas e capazes de causar danos celulares. Os radicais livres mais comuns s&#227;o as esp&#233;cies reativas de oxig&#234;nio (ROS) e as esp&#233;cies reativas de nitrog&#234;nio (RNS). As ROS incluem o &#226;nion super&#243;xido, o radical hidroxila e o per&#243;xido de hidrog&#234;nio, enquanto as RNS incluem o &#243;xido n&#237;trico, o peroxinitrito e o di&#243;xido de nitrog&#234;nio. Os radicais livres podem ser produzidos em diversos compartimentos celulares, como o citoplasma, membrana celular, ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico, mitoc&#244;ndrias e peroxissomos, principalmente como resultado de rea&#231;&#245;es enzim&#225;ticas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Em condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, as ROS s&#227;o essenciais em v&#225;rias fun&#231;&#245;es celulares, incluindo sinaliza&#231;&#227;o intracelular e defesa contra pat&#243;genos. Por exemplo, a nicotinamida adenina dinucleot&#237;deo fosfato reduzido (NADPH) oxidase, presente nas membranas de c&#233;lulas fagoc&#237;ticas, desempenha papel cr&#237;tico na resposta imune. Quando ativada, a enzima transfere el&#233;trons do NADPH para gerar o &#226;nion super&#243;xido e promover a destrui&#231;&#227;o de pat&#243;genos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> No entanto, excesso de ROS e RNS leva &#224; modifica&#231;&#227;o estrutural e funcional de prote&#237;nas, interrup&#231;&#227;o de vias de sinaliza&#231;&#227;o, danos oxidativos e nitrativos ao DNA (causando muta&#231;&#245;es e quebras de fita), peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica comprometendo a integridade da membrana e dano celular. Dessa forma, o estresse oxidativo pode induzir inflama&#231;&#227;o, apoptose, autofagia desregulada e disfun&#231;&#227;o mitocondrial.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Estresse oxidativo e inflama&#231;&#227;o s&#227;o processos estreitamente relacionados, ambos implicados no desenvolvimento e progress&#227;o das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. As ROS e RNS estimulam o fator nuclear kappa B (NF-&#954;B), fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o que regula positivamente marcadores inflamat&#243;rios como o fator de necrose tumoral alfa (TNF-&#945;), interleucina-1 beta (IL-1&#946;), interleucina-6 (IL-6) e interferon-gama (IFN-&#947;). Essas citocinas promovem apoptose de mi&#243;citos e c&#233;lulas endoteliais, desregula&#231;&#227;o do tr&#226;nsito intracelular de c&#225;lcio, ativa&#231;&#227;o de fibroblastos card&#237;acos em miofibroblastos, redu&#231;&#227;o da produ&#231;&#227;o de &#243;xido n&#237;trico, recrutamento de mon&#243;citos para a parede vascular, ac&#250;mulo de LDL em macr&#243;fagos, migra&#231;&#227;o de c&#233;lulas musculares lisas para a &#237;ntima arterial e aumento da express&#227;o de mol&#233;culas de ades&#227;o em c&#233;lulas endoteliais ativadas. Todos esses fatores contribuem para fibrose, vasoconstri&#231;&#227;o e forma&#231;&#227;o de placas, mecanismos b&#225;sicos das doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Enzimas antioxidantes como a glutationa peroxidase, super&#243;xido dismutase e catalase atuam em conjunto com antioxidantes n&#227;o enzim&#225;ticos como &#225;cido &#250;rico, melatonina, glutationa e poliaminas para neutralizar as ROS e RNS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> A suplementa&#231;&#227;o de antioxidantes ex&#243;genos, como polifen&#243;is, flavonoides e carotenoides, subst&#226;ncias abundantemente presentes em plantas, apresentaram potentes efeitos antioxidantes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Recentemente, efeitos antioxidantes do ch&#225; branco e de uma combina&#231;&#227;o de ch&#225; preto e verde, ambos ricos em compostos bioativos como flavonoides e xantinas, foram avaliados em camundongos tratados com angiotensina II. A suplementa&#231;&#227;o com esses extratos atenuou a disfun&#231;&#227;o endotelial da aorta, a hipertrofia card&#237;aca, e o estresse oxidativo e apoptose induzidos por isquemia e reperfus&#227;o no tecido mioc&#225;rdico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Modula&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo tamb&#233;m &#233; um dos mecanismos de a&#231;&#227;o de diversos f&#225;rmacos utilizados em doen&#231;as cardiovasculares. Por exemplo, os efeitos ben&#233;ficos dos inibidores do cotransportador de s&#243;dio-glicose tipo 2 (iSGLT2) &#8212; em pacientes diab&#233;ticos e n&#227;o diab&#233;ticos &#8212; s&#227;o atribu&#237;dos, pelo menos em parte, &#224; sua capacidade em reduzir o estresse oxidativo card&#237;aco e sist&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Em decorr&#234;ncia da forte associa&#231;&#227;o entre estresse oxidativo e doen&#231;as cardiovasculares, realizamos revis&#227;o de artigos publicados recentemente sobre o tema nos <italic>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</italic>. Neste editorial, comentamos cinco artigos publicados que abordam o estresse oxidativo em modelos cl&#237;nicos e experimentais de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares.</p>
    <p>Pederiva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> mostraram que o horm&#244;nio tireoidiano triiodotironina (T3) exerce efeito vasorrelaxante e atividade antioxidante em an&#233;is a&#243;rticos isolados de ratos e previamente contra&#237;dos por a&#231;&#227;o da fenilefrina. O horm&#244;nio reduziu a atividade da NADPH oxidase e aumentou a atividade da super&#243;xido dismutase, indicando efeitos ben&#233;ficos no equil&#237;brio redox vascular e no t&#244;nus vasomotor.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Efeitos do horm&#244;nio tireoidiano no estado oxidativo tamb&#233;m foram avaliados em ratos com hipertens&#227;o arterial pulmonar induzida por monocrotalina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> A monocrotalina causa remodela&#231;&#227;o adversa de vasos pulmonares, aumentando a p&#243;s-carga do ventr&#237;culo direito, induzindo hipertrofia e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca. Suplementa&#231;&#227;o com horm&#244;nio tireoidiano e suco de uva, isoladamente ou em combina&#231;&#227;o, modulou o estresse oxidativo por aumento da atividade da xantina oxidase, normalizou prote&#237;nas envolvidas no tr&#226;nsito intracelular de c&#225;lcio, e reduziu a remodela&#231;&#227;o card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Infarto do mioc&#225;rdio em ratos &#233; um modelo amplamente utilizado para investigar remodela&#231;&#227;o e insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> No entanto, os pulm&#245;es raramente s&#227;o analisados nesses animais. Tasca et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> investigaram os efeitos do pterostilbeno nos pulm&#245;es de ratos infartados. O pterostilbeno &#233; um composto antioxidante encontrado em uvas e mirtilos. Sua suplementa&#231;&#227;o aumentou a atividade da super&#243;xido dismutase e catalase e reduziu a peroxida&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica, um marcador de estresse oxidativo. O composto tamb&#233;m aumentou a express&#227;o do fator nuclear relacionado ao eritroide 2 (Nrf2), prote&#237;na que atua como fator de transcri&#231;&#227;o com papel importante na s&#237;ntese de enzimas antioxidantes end&#243;genas. Em condi&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas, o Nrf2 est&#225; ancorado &#224; prote&#237;na associada ao Keap1. Quando h&#225; altera&#231;&#227;o da homeostase redox, o complexo Nrf2-Keap1 se dissocia, liberando o Nrf2, que se desloca para o n&#250;cleo e induz a transcri&#231;&#227;o de mol&#233;culas antioxidantes. Estudos adicionais s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para verificar o potencial de transla&#231;&#227;o desses resultados para outras condi&#231;&#245;es experimentais e cl&#237;nicas.</p>
    <p>O fator de diferencia&#231;&#227;o de crescimento 15 (GDF-15) &#233; uma citocina associada ao estresse oxidativo e &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o. Sua concentra&#231;&#227;o foi negativamente correlacionada &#224; disfun&#231;&#227;o renal em pacientes com insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Esse achado permite levantar a hip&#243;tese que o GDF-15 pode ser n&#227;o apenas um fator determinante do progn&#243;stico, mas tamb&#233;m modulador da fisiopatologia da insufici&#234;ncia card&#237;aca.</p>
    <p>Finalmente, revis&#227;o sistem&#225;tica avaliou os benef&#237;cios de quatro semanas de treinamento resistido no cora&#231;&#227;o de roedores alimentados com dieta hipercal&#243;rica, em compara&#231;&#227;o a controles n&#227;o treinados. A revis&#227;o incluiu estudos originais de dezembro de 2007 a dezembro de 2022. Os resultados mostraram que o treinamento atenua o estresse oxidativo, a inflama&#231;&#227;o e o estresse do ret&#237;culo endoplasm&#225;tico. No entanto, atenua&#231;&#227;o do estresse oxidativo n&#227;o foi acompanhada por altera&#231;&#245;es histomorfom&#233;tricas ou funcionais dos cardiomi&#243;citos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
    <p>Em conclus&#227;o, a investiga&#231;&#227;o de vias indutoras de estresse oxidativo como marcadores progn&#243;sticos ou alvos terap&#234;uticos no tratamento de doen&#231;as cardiovasculares parece ser promissora. No entanto, mais estudos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para viabilizar a transla&#231;&#227;o desses achados para a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica.</p>
  </body>
  <back>
    <ref-list>
      <title>Refer&#234;ncias</title>
      <ref id="B1">
        <label>1</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Zhang</surname>
              <given-names>Z</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Guo</surname>
              <given-names>J</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Deciphering Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Disease Progression: A Blueprint for Mechanistic Understanding and Therapeutic Innovation</article-title>
          <source>Antioxidants</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>14</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>38</fpage>
          <lpage>38</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/antiox14010038</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>1 Zhang Z, Guo J. Deciphering Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Disease Progression: A Blueprint for Mechanistic Understanding and Therapeutic Innovation. Antioxidants. 2024;14(1):38. doi: 10.3390/antiox14010038.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B2">
        <label>2</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Ojopi</surname>
              <given-names>EPB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Tonon</surname>
              <given-names>CR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Okoshi</surname>
              <given-names>K</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Okoshi</surname>
              <given-names>MP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Cardioprotective Interventions</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>121</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <elocation-id>e20240445</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240445</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>2 Ojopi EPB, Tonon CR, Okoshi K, Okoshi MP. Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension and Cardioprotective Interventions. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2024;121(7):e20240445. doi: 10.36660/abc.20240445.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B3">
        <label>3</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Chandimali</surname>
              <given-names>N</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bak</surname>
              <given-names>SG</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Park</surname>
              <given-names>EH</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lim</surname>
              <given-names>HJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Won</surname>
              <given-names>YS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kim</surname>
              <given-names>EK</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Free Radicals and Their Impact on Health and Antioxidant Defenses: A Review</article-title>
          <source>Cell Death Discov</source>
          <year>2025</year>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>19</fpage>
          <lpage>19</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1038/s41420-024-02278-8</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>3 Chandimali N, Bak SG, Park EH, Lim HJ, Won YS, Kim EK, et al. Free Radicals and Their Impact on Health and Antioxidant Defenses: A Review. Cell Death Discov. 2025;11(1):19. doi: 10.1038/s41420-024-02278-8.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B4">
        <label>4</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Yan</surname>
              <given-names>Q</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Liu</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Sun</surname>
              <given-names>Y</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Chen</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Yang</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lin</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Targeting Oxidative Stress as a Preventive and Therapeutic Approach for Cardiovascular Disease</article-title>
          <source>J Transl Med</source>
          <year>2023</year>
          <volume>21</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>519</fpage>
          <lpage>519</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1186/s12967-023-04361-7</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>4 Yan Q, Liu S, Sun Y, Chen C, Yang S, Lin M, et al. Targeting Oxidative Stress as a Preventive and Therapeutic Approach for Cardiovascular Disease. J Transl Med. 2023;21(1):519. doi: 10.1186/s12967-023-04361-7.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B5">
        <label>5</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Pooja</surname>
              <given-names>G</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Shweta</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Patel</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Oxidative Stress and Free Radicals in Disease Pathogenesis: A Review</article-title>
          <source>Discov Med</source>
          <year>2025</year>
          <volume>2</volume>
          <fpage>104</fpage>
          <lpage>104</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s44337-025-00303-y</pub-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1007/s44337-025-00303-y</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>5 Pooja G, Shweta S, Patel P. Oxidative Stress and Free Radicals in Disease Pathogenesis: A Review. Discov Med. 2025;2:104. doi:10.1007/s44337-025-00303-y. doi: 10.1007/s44337-025-00303-y.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B6">
        <label>6</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Zhang</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Dhalla</surname>
              <given-names>NS</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>The Role of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in the Pathogenesis of Cardiovascular Disease</article-title>
          <source>Int J Mol Sci</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>25</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>1082</fpage>
          <lpage>1082</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/ijms25021082</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>6 Zhang H, Dhalla NS. The Role of Pro-Inflammatory Cytokines in the Pathogenesis of Cardiovascular Disease. Int J Mol Sci. 2024;25(2):1082. doi: 10.3390/ijms25021082.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B7">
        <label>7</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Gomes</surname>
              <given-names>MJ</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pagan</surname>
              <given-names>LU</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lima</surname>
              <given-names>ARR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Reyes</surname>
              <given-names>DRA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martinez</surname>
              <given-names>PF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Damatto</surname>
              <given-names>FC</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effects of Aerobic and Resistance Exercise on Cardiac Remodelling and Skeletal Muscle Oxidative Stress of Infarcted Rats</article-title>
          <source>J Cell Mol Med</source>
          <year>2020</year>
          <volume>24</volume>
          <issue>9</issue>
          <fpage>5352</fpage>
          <lpage>5362</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1111/jcmm.15191</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>7 Gomes MJ, Pagan LU, Lima ARR, Reyes DRA, Martinez PF, Damatto FC, et al. Effects of Aerobic and Resistance Exercise on Cardiac Remodelling and Skeletal Muscle Oxidative Stress of Infarcted Rats. J Cell Mol Med. 2020;24(9):5352-62. doi: 10.1111/jcmm.15191.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B8">
        <label>8</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>de la Fuente-Mu&#241;oz</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Rom&#225;n-Carmena</surname>
              <given-names>M</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Amor</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Iglesias-de la Cruz</surname>
              <given-names>MC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Martorell</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Guilera-Bermell</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Supplementation with Standardized Green/Black or White Tea Extracts Attenuates Hypertension and Ischemia-Reperfusion-Induced Myocardial Damage in Mice Infused with Angiotensin II</article-title>
          <source>Antioxidants</source>
          <year>2025</year>
          <volume>14</volume>
          <issue>1</issue>
          <fpage>47</fpage>
          <lpage>47</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/antiox14010047</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>8 de la Fuente-Mu&#241;oz M, Rom&#225;n-Carmena M, Amor S, Iglesias-de la Cruz MC, Martorell P, Guilera-Bermell S, et al. Supplementation with Standardized Green/Black or White Tea Extracts Attenuates Hypertension and Ischemia-Reperfusion-Induced Myocardial Damage in Mice Infused with Angiotensin II. Antioxidants. 2025;14(1):47. doi: 10.3390/antiox14010047.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B9">
        <label>9</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Patel</surname>
              <given-names>TA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Zheng</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Patel</surname>
              <given-names>KP</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors as Potential Antioxidant Therapeutic Agents in Cardiovascular and Renal Diseases</article-title>
          <source>Antioxidants</source>
          <year>2025</year>
          <volume>14</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <fpage>336</fpage>
          <lpage>336</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/antiox14030336</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>9 Patel TA, Zheng H, Patel KP. Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitors as Potential Antioxidant Therapeutic Agents in Cardiovascular and Renal Diseases. Antioxidants. 2025;14(3):336. doi: 10.3390/antiox14030336.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B10">
        <label>10</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Rosa</surname>
              <given-names>CM</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Campos</surname>
              <given-names>DHS</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Reyes</surname>
              <given-names>DRA</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Damatto</surname>
              <given-names>FC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Kurosaki</surname>
              <given-names>LY</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Pagan</surname>
              <given-names>LU</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Effects of the SGLT2 Inhibition on Cardiac Remodeling in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats, a Model of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus</article-title>
          <source>Antioxidants</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>11</volume>
          <issue>5</issue>
          <fpage>982</fpage>
          <lpage>982</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.3390/antiox11050982</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>10 Rosa CM, Campos DHS, Reyes DRA, Damatto FC, Kurosaki LY, Pagan LU, et al. Effects of the SGLT2 Inhibition on Cardiac Remodeling in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rats, a Model of Type 1 Diabetes Mellitus. Antioxidants. 2022;11(5):982. doi: 10.3390/antiox11050982.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B11">
        <label>11</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Pederiva</surname>
              <given-names>VC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Castro</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bell&#243;-Klein</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Araujo</surname>
              <given-names>ASDR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Turck</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Vascular Response of Triiodothyronine on Isolated Aortic Rings: Contribution of Redox Mechanisms</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>121</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <elocation-id>e20230236</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230236</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>11 Pederiva VC, Castro A, Bell&#243;-Klein A, Araujo ASDR, Turck P. Vascular Response of Triiodothyronine on Isolated Aortic Rings: Contribution of Redox Mechanisms. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2024;121(4):e20230236. doi: 10.36660/abc.20230236.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B12">
        <label>12</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Proen&#231;a</surname>
              <given-names>I</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Turck</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ortiz</surname>
              <given-names>V</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Campos-Carraro</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Klein</surname>
              <given-names>AB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Castro</surname>
              <given-names>A</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Right Ventricular Function and Oxidative Stress Improve with the Administration of Thyroid Hormones and Grape Juice in a Pulmonary Hypertension Model</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>121</volume>
          <issue>7</issue>
          <elocation-id>e20230602</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230602</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>12 Proen&#231;a I, Turck P, Ortiz V, Campos-Carraro C, Klein AB, Castro A, et al. Right Ventricular Function and Oxidative Stress Improve with the Administration of Thyroid Hormones and Grape Juice in a Pulmonary Hypertension Model. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2024;121(7):e20230602. doi: 10.36660/abc.20230602.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B13">
        <label>13</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Tasca</surname>
              <given-names>S</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Campos</surname>
              <given-names>C</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lacerda</surname>
              <given-names>D</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Ortiz</surname>
              <given-names>VD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Turck</surname>
              <given-names>P</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Bianchi</surname>
              <given-names>SE</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Pterostilbene Reduces Experimental Myocardial Infarction-Induced Oxidative Stress in Lung and Right Ventricle</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2022</year>
          <volume>118</volume>
          <issue>2</issue>
          <fpage>435</fpage>
          <lpage>445</lpage>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20201155</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>13 Tasca S, Campos C, Lacerda D, Ortiz VD, Turck P, Bianchi SE, et al. Pterostilbene Reduces Experimental Myocardial Infarction-Induced Oxidative Stress in Lung and Right Ventricle. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2022;118(2):435-45. doi: 10.36660/abc.20201155.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B14">
        <label>14</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Moreira</surname>
              <given-names>GR</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>&#193;vila</surname>
              <given-names>DX</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Candia</surname>
              <given-names>AMD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Scaramussa</surname>
              <given-names>VD</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Villacorta</surname>
              <given-names>H</given-names>
            </name>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Growth Differentiation Factor 15 is Correlated With Urinary Markers in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2025</year>
          <volume>122</volume>
          <issue>3</issue>
          <elocation-id>e20240153</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240153</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>14 Moreira GR, &#193;vila DX, Candia AMD, Scaramussa VD, Villacorta H. Growth Differentiation Factor 15 is Correlated With Urinary Markers in Patients with Chronic Heart Failure. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2025;122(3):e20240153. doi: 10.36660/abc.20240153.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
      <ref id="B15">
        <label>15</label>
        <element-citation publication-type="journal">
          <person-group person-group-type="author">
            <name>
              <surname>Portes</surname>
              <given-names>AMO</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Costa</surname>
              <given-names>SFF</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Leite</surname>
              <given-names>LB</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Lavorato</surname>
              <given-names>VN</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Miranda</surname>
              <given-names>DC</given-names>
            </name>
            <name>
              <surname>Moura</surname>
              <given-names>AG</given-names>
            </name>
            <etal/>
          </person-group>
          <article-title>Resistance Exercise Training Mitigates Cardiac Remodeling Induced by a High-Fat Diet in Rodents: A Systematic Review</article-title>
          <source>Arq Bras Cardiol</source>
          <year>2024</year>
          <volume>121</volume>
          <issue>4</issue>
          <elocation-id>e20230490</elocation-id>
          <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20230490</pub-id>
        </element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>15 Portes AMO, Costa SFF, Leite LB, Lavorato VN, Miranda DC, Moura AG, et al. Resistance Exercise Training Mitigates Cardiac Remodeling Induced by a High-Fat Diet in Rodents: A Systematic Review. Arq Bras Cardiol. 2024;121(4):e20230490. doi: 10.36660/abc.20230490.</mixed-citation>
      </ref>
    </ref-list>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250478i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Recent Advances in Oxidative Stress and Cardiovascular Diseases</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Brand&#227;o</surname>
            <given-names>Gabriela</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Tonon</surname>
            <given-names>Carolina R.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7728-4505</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Okoshi</surname>
            <given-names>Marina P.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Botucatu</named-content>
            <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Marina P. Okoshi</bold> &#8226; Departamento de Cl&#237;nica M&#233;dica &#8211; Faculdade de Medicina de Botucatu &#8211; Av. Prof. M&#225;rio Rubens Guimar&#227;es Montenegro, S/N. Postal Code <postal-code>18618-687</postal-code>, Botucatu, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: <email>marina.okoshi@unesp.br</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Reactive Oxygen Species</kwd>
        <kwd>Cardiovascular Diseases</kwd>
        <kwd>Physiology</kwd>
        <kwd>Antioxidants</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <p>Cardiovascular diseases are the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis and progression of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, myocardial ischemia, heart failure, and systemic and pulmonary arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Oxidative stress is characterized by an imbalance between free radical production and antioxidant defenses. Free radicals are molecules with an unpaired electron, making them highly reactive and capable of causing cellular damage. The most common free radicals are reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS). ROS include superoxide, hydroxyl radical, and hydrogen peroxide, whereas RNS comprise nitric oxide, peroxynitrite, and nitrogen dioxide. Free radicals can be produced in various cellular compartments, such as the cytoplasm, cell membrane, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, and peroxisomes, mainly resulting from enzymatic reactions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Under physiological conditions, ROS are essential in several cell functions, including intracellular signaling and pathogen defense. For example, the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced (NADPH) oxidase, present in the membranes of phagocytic cells, plays a critical role in immune response. Once activated, it transfers electrons from NADPH, generating superoxide and enhancing pathogen destruction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> However, ROS and NOS in excess lead to structural and functional protein modification, disruption of signaling pathways, oxidative and nitrative DNA damage, causing mutations and strand breaks, lipid peroxidation, compromising membrane integrity, and cell damage. Therefore, oxidative stress can induce inflammation, apoptosis, dysregulated autophagy, and mitochondrial dysfunction.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Oxidative stress and inflammation are two closely interconnected processes, both implicated in the development and progression of cardiovascular diseases. ROS and RNS stimulate the nuclear factor kappa B (NF-&#954;B), a transcriptional factor that upregulates inflammatory markers such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-&#945;), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1&#946;), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interferon-gamma (IFN-&#947;). These cytokines promote apoptosis of myocytes and endothelial cells, dysregulation of calcium transient, activation of cardiac fibroblasts into myofibroblasts, reduction in nitrous oxide production, recruitment of monocytes into the vessel wall, accumulation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in macrophages, migration of smooth muscle cells to the arterial intima, and increased expression of adhesion molecules on activated endothelial cells. All these factors contribute to fibrosis, vasoconstriction, and plaque formation, which are basic mechanisms of cardiovascular diseases.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Antioxidant enzymes such as glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and catalase work in concert with non-enzymatic antioxidants like uric acid, melatonin, glutathione, and polyamines to neutralize ROS and RNS.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Among exogenous antioxidants, polyphenols, flavonoids, and carotenoids&#8212;abundantly found in natural plant sources&#8212;have shown potent antioxidant effects when supplemented.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> Recently, the antioxidant effects of white tea and a combination of black and green tea&#8212;both rich in bioactive compounds such as flavan-3-ols and xanthines&#8212;were evaluated in angiotensin II-treated mice. Supplementation with both tea extracts attenuated aortic endothelial dysfunction, cardiac hypertrophy, and ischemia&#8211;reperfusion-induced oxidative stress and apoptosis in myocardial tissue.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Modulation of oxidative stress is also a mechanism of different drugs used in cardiovascular diseases. For example, the beneficial effects of sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors (SGLT2i)&#8212;in both diabetic and non-diabetic patients&#8212;are at least partly attributed to their ability to reduce cardiac and systemic oxidative stress.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Given the link between oxidative stress and cardiovascular diseases, we conducted a review of recently published articles on this topic in the <italic>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</italic>. In this editorial, we comment on five articles that are related to oxidative stress and cardiovascular diseases in both clinical and experimental models.</p>
      <p>Pederiva et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> showed that triiodothyronine (T3) exerts a vasorelaxant effect and antioxidant activity in rat isolated aortic rings precontracted with phenylephrine. T3 reduced NADPH oxidase activity and increased superoxide dismutase activity, indicating beneficial effects on vascular redox balance and vasomotor tone.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
      <p>The effect of thyroid hormone on oxidative status was also evaluated in rats with monocrotaline-induced pulmonary arterial hypertension.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Monocrotaline causes adverse remodeling of lung vessels, increasing right ventricular afterload, and inducing right ventricular hypertrophy and heart failure. Supplementation of thyroid hormone and grape juice, either alone or in combination, modulated oxidative stress by increasing xanthine oxidase activity, normalized calcium-handling proteins, and reduced cardiac remodeling.</p>
      <p>Myocardial infarction in rats is a widely used model to investigate cardiac remodeling and heart failure.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> However, lungs have not been often analyzed in infarcted rats. Tasca et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> investigated the effects of pterostilbene on the lungs of infarcted rats. Pterostilbene is an antioxidant compound found in grapes and blueberries. Its supplementation increased superoxide dismutase and catalase activities and reduced lipid peroxidation levels, a marker of oxidative stress. It also upregulated the expression of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), a protein that acts as a transcription factor, with an important role in the synthesis of endogenous antioxidant enzymes. Under physiological redox status, Nrf2 is anchored to Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1 (Keap1). When redox homeostasis is disrupted, the Nrf2-Keap1 complex dissociates and releases Nrf2, which translocates to the nucleus and induces the transcription of antioxidant molecules. Additional studies are needed to verify the potential for translating these results to other conditions.</p>
      <p>The growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF-15) is a cytokine associated with oxidative stress and inflammation. Their levels were negatively correlated with renal dysfunction in heart failure patients.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> This fact allows us to hypothesize that GDF-15 may not only be a prognostic factor, but also a modulator of heart failure pathophysiology.</p>
      <p>Finally, a systematic review evaluated the benefits of four weeks of resistance training on the hearts of rodents fed a high-calorie diet compared with non-exercised controls. The review included original studies from December 2007 to December 2022. Results showed that training attenuated oxidative stress, inflammation, and endoplasmic reticulum stress. However, attenuation in oxidative stress was not accompanied by changes in histomorphometric features or cardiomyocyte contractile function.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
      <p>In conclusion, exploring oxidative stress pathways both as markers for cardiac prognosis and as therapeutic targets for treating cardiovascular diseases appears promising. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to support their translation into clinical practice.</p>
    </body>
  </sub-article>
</article>
