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  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">rKNrnhRwNb7kgHyWFSxLX5J</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025000700306</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00306</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240825</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Artigo Original</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Triagem de Defici&#234;ncia de Lipase &#193;cida Lisoss&#244;mica em uma Unidade Cl&#237;nica de Dislipidemias</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7338-1180</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brasil</surname>
            <given-names>Zenia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Antonio H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2383-1793</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Curiati</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kyosen</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra Obikawa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Vanessa Gon&#231;alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8317-297X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fonzar</surname>
            <given-names>Waleria Toledo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pesquero</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Bosco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Patr&#237;cio</surname>
            <given-names>Francy Reis da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-0178-2168</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Yamamoto</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Hideki</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yamamoto</surname>
            <given-names>Joyce Umbelino</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>D&#8217;Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Vania</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Concep&#231;&#227;o e desenho da pesquisa</role>
          <role>Reda&#231;&#227;o do manuscrito</role>
          <role>Revis&#227;o cr&#237;tica do manuscrito quanto ao conte&#250;do</role>
          <role>Obten&#231;&#227;o de dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise e interpreta&#231;&#227;o dos dados</role>
          <role>An&#225;lise estat&#237;stica e Obten&#231;&#227;o de financiamento</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1">
        <label>1</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Medicina</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Disciplina de Cardiologia, Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2">
        <label>2</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Hypertri Brazil Network</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Casa dos Raros</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">Porto Alegre,</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">RS</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Brazilian Network of Collaboration and Knowledge Advancement on Severe Hypertriglyceridemia &#8211; Hypertri Brazil Network, Casa dos Raros, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3">
        <label>3</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv2">Centro de Refer&#234;ncia em Erros Inatos do Metabolismo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Pediatria</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Refer&#234;ncia em Erros Inatos do Metabolismo (CREIM), Departamento de Pediatria, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4">
        <label>4</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Laborat&#243;rio de Erros Inatos do Metabolismo</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Erros Inatos do Metabolismo, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5">
        <label>5</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Biof&#237;sica</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Biof&#237;sica, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6">
        <label>6</label>
        <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Departamento de Patologia</institution>
        <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo</institution>
        <addr-line>
          <named-content content-type="city">S&#227;o Paulo</named-content>
          <named-content content-type="state">SP</named-content>
        </addr-line>
        <country country="BR">Brasil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia</label>: Maria Cristina Izar &#8226; Rua Jos&#233; de Magalh&#227;es, 340, Vila Clementino, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brasil E-mail: <email>mcoizar@terra.com.br</email>; <email>mcoizar@cardiol.br</email> </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor respons&#225;vel pela revis&#227;o:</label>
          <p> Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potencial conflito de interesse:</label>
          <p> N&#227;o h&#225; conflito com o presente artigo</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>15</day>
        <month>08</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <month>07</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>7</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250825</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>10</day>
          <month>12</month>
          <year>2024</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>05</day>
          <month>04</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>07</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>Este &#233; um artigo de acesso aberto distribu&#237;do sob os termos da licen&#231;a de atribui&#231;&#227;o pelo Creative Commons</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <abstract>
        <title>Resumo</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Fundamento</title>
          <p> A defici&#234;ncia da lipase &#225;cida lisoss&#244;mica (D-LAL) &#233; uma doen&#231;a autoss&#244;mica recessiva rara, caracterizada pelo ac&#250;mulo maci&#231;o de &#233;steres de colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos em v&#225;rios &#243;rg&#227;os, levando &#224; hepatosplenomegalia, esteatose microvesicular, cirrose e morte prematura. O reconhecimento precoce &#233; crucial para a realiza&#231;&#227;o da terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica em tempo h&#225;bil.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objetivos</title>
          <p> Rastrear a D-LAL em indiv&#237;duos com dislipidemias e/ou doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica em uma unidade cl&#237;nica de dislipidemias.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>M&#233;todos</title>
          <p> Avaliamos retrospectivamente registros de 2018 adultos e crian&#231;as utilizando um algoritmo de rastreamento que inclu&#237;a eleva&#231;&#227;o de ALT/AST &gt;1,5x o limite superior da normalidade, LDL-C &gt;160 mg/dL, HDL-C &lt;40 mg/dL (homens) ou &lt;50 mg/dL (mulheres) em adultos, e LDL-C &gt;130 mg/dL, HDL-C &lt;45 mg/dL em crian&#231;as. Pacientes de alto risco para D-LAL foram selecionados para ensaio de atividade enzim&#225;tica da LAL em amostras de sangue seco, utilizando o inibidor de LAL, Lalistat-2.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Resultados</title>
          <p> Entre 2018 pacientes rastreados, 21 (0,92%) foram selecionados para avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade de LAL, mas apenas oito apresentaram resultados normais no teste [atividade m&#233;dia de LAL 0,077 &#177; 0,03 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h (valor de refer&#234;ncia &gt;0,024 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h)]. Uma crian&#231;a cuja m&#227;e n&#227;o realizou o teste teve atividade de LAL indetect&#225;vel em exame <italic>post-mortem.</italic> Posteriormente, a m&#227;e e tr&#234;s meio-irm&#227;os tiveram a confirma&#231;&#227;o de D-LAL. O sequenciamento gen&#233;tico (NGS) do gene LIPA n&#227;o identificou variantes patog&#234;nicas, o que n&#227;o permite descartar altera&#231;&#245;es na regi&#227;o n&#227;o codificante do gene analisado.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclus&#245;es</title>
          <p> A identifica&#231;&#227;o da D-LAL continua sendo um desafio, e um algoritmo baseado em crit&#233;rios cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais pode auxiliar na sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes para rastreamento da D-LAL. Dada a sua raridade e caracter&#237;sticas comuns a outras dislipidemias gen&#233;ticas, a D-LAL &#233;, principalmente, um diagn&#243;stico de exclus&#227;o, frequentemente considerado quando outras condi&#231;&#245;es tenham sido descartadas.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01">
            <label>Figura Central:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Triagem de Defici&#234;ncia de Lipase &#193;cida Lisoss&#244;mica em uma Unidade Cl&#237;nica de Dislipidemias</title>
              <p>Algoritmo proposto para triagem de D-LAL utilizando atividade enzim&#225;tica, de acordo com anormalidades hep&#225;ticas e/ou lip&#237;dicas, adicionando a trajet&#243;ria do paciente at&#233; o diagn&#243;stico. Crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o: i) Adulto, n&#227;o obeso (IMC &lt;30 kg/m<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup>), com LDL-C &gt;160 mg/dL, colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C) &lt;40 mg/dL em homens e &lt;50 mg/dL em mulheres, e com n&#237;veis persistentemente elevados de Alanina Aminotransferase (ALT) e/ou Aspartato Aminotransferase (AST), &gt;1,5 vezes o limite superior da normalidade, com ou sem hepatomegalia; ii) Pacientes com esteatose detectada por ultrassonografia ou esteatose mista ou microvesicular observada em bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica; iii) Pacientes com suspeita de HF utilizando os crit&#233;rios da Dutch Lipid Clinic Network, sem confirma&#231;&#227;o de variantes causadoras de HF no sequenciamento, ou com variantes no gene LIPA, com ALT e/ou AST &gt;1,5 vezes o limite superior da normalidade; iv) pacientes pedi&#225;tricos (&lt;18 anos) com hepatomegalia detectada por exame f&#237;sico ou exames de imagem (com ou sem esplenomegalia), LDL-C elevado (&gt;130 mg/dL), HDL-C baixo (&lt;40 mg/dL), ou n&#237;veis persistentemente elevados de ALT e/ou AST (&gt;1,5x o limite superior da normalidade), e/ou sinais de fibrose, cirrose ou evid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a de armazenamento em bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica; v) Pacientes com suspeita de Doen&#231;a de Wilson sem envolvimento neurol&#243;gico; HFC: hiperlipidemia familiar combinada; HF: hipercolesterolemia familiar; EHNA: esteatose hep&#225;tica n&#227;o alco&#243;lica; DHGNA: doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica gordurosa n&#227;o alco&#243;lica.</p>
            </caption>
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              <graphic xlink:href="https://minio.scielo.br/documentstore/1678-4170/rKNrnhRwNb7kgHyWFSxLX5J/44938006fd3d47673c540bd77469c18b46f01e1a.tif"/>
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            </alternatives>
          </fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <kwd>Lipase</kwd>
        <kwd>Dislipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Hepatomegalia</kwd>
        <kwd>Esplenomegalia</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="4"/>
        <table-count count="8"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="32"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec sec-type="intro">
      <title>Introdu&#231;&#227;o</title>
      <p>A lipase &#225;cida lisoss&#244;mica (LAL) &#233; a enzima respons&#225;vel pela hidr&#243;lise intracelular de &#233;steres de colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> A defici&#234;ncia da LAL (D-LAL) &#233; caracterizada pelo ac&#250;mulo de &#233;steres de colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos, mas tamb&#233;m leva ao aumento da s&#237;ntese de colesterol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A D-LAL (OMIM #278000) &#233; uma doen&#231;a rara de armazenamento lisoss&#244;mico autoss&#244;mica recessiva, decorrente de variantes no gene LIPA (OMIM 613497), mapeado no cromossomo 10q23.2, com 10 &#233;xons e aproximadamente 45 kb de comprimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Os indiv&#237;duos afetados s&#227;o normalmente homozigotos ou heterozigotos compostos para variantes do gene LIPA.</p>
      <p>A D-LAL manifesta-se em duas formas distintas. A doen&#231;a de Wolman,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> em lactentes, apresenta sintomas e sinais agressivos, como ac&#250;mulo maci&#231;o de &#233;steres de colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos no f&#237;gado, ba&#231;o, medula &#243;ssea, gl&#226;ndulas suprarrenais, linfonodos, vilosidades intestinais, al&#233;m de infiltra&#231;&#227;o no endot&#233;lio vascular e no m&#250;sculo esquel&#233;tico. A calcifica&#231;&#227;o nas gl&#226;ndulas suprarrenais &#233; uma caracter&#237;stica comum da LAL-D e pode ocorrer em 50% dos lactentes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Falha no crescimento decorrente de m&#225; absor&#231;&#227;o, hepatomegalia e esplenomegalia, al&#233;m da insufici&#234;ncia hep&#225;tica devido a fibrose e cirrose, podem estar presentes. Sem tratamento, essas complica&#231;&#245;es contribuem para o &#243;bito no primeiro ano de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup> Estudos de preval&#234;ncia que avaliam esse fen&#243;tipo grave s&#227;o escassos e variam de acordo com etnia e localiza&#231;&#227;o geogr&#225;fica, indo de 1:350.000 a 1:528.000 em crian&#231;as, com atividade LAL ausente ou inferior a 1%, sendo geralmente indiv&#237;duos homozigotos para variantes patog&#234;nicas do gene LIPA.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outro fen&#243;tipo da LAL-D &#233; a Doen&#231;a de Dep&#243;sito de &#201;steres de Colesterol (CESD, do ingl&#234;s <italic>cholesteryl ester storage disease</italic>),<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> que apresenta uma varia&#231;&#227;o na manifesta&#231;&#227;o cl&#237;nica, dependendo da atividade da LAL, variando de 1 a 12% do valor normal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> Esse subtipo &#233; menos reconhecido, com progress&#227;o lenta, e pode ser confundido com outras doen&#231;as que apresentam achados cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais semelhantes, como hipercolesterolemia familiar (HF), hiperlipidemia familiar combinada (HFC), Esteato-Hepatite Associada &#224; Disfun&#231;&#227;o Metab&#243;lica (MASH, do ingl&#234;s <italic>metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis</italic>), doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica gordurosa associada ao metabolismo (DHGAM) ou cirrose criptog&#234;nica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> Esse fen&#243;tipo geralmente ocorre devido a variantes patog&#234;nicas homozig&#243;ticas ou heterozig&#243;ticas compostas, ou pode ser atribu&#237;do a um alto escore polig&#234;nico; os indiv&#237;duos afetados n&#227;o apresentam sinais de CESD at&#233; a inf&#226;ncia ou idade adulta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> As principais caracter&#237;sticas da CESD incluem distens&#227;o abdominal, varizes esof&#225;gicas, hepatosplenomegalia, doen&#231;a arterial coronariana, diarreia, acidente vascular cerebral, desnutri&#231;&#227;o e falha no crescimento.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Bernstein et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> descobriram que a disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica e a dislipidemia foram os sinais mais frequentes em todas as idades na CESD, sendo a hepatomegalia e a hepatosplenomegalia os sinais mais comuns da doen&#231;a.</p>
      <p>Em rela&#231;&#227;o ao tratamento, a terapia de redu&#231;&#227;o de lip&#237;dios com estatinas parece ineficaz para pacientes com dist&#250;rbios hep&#225;ticos, pois aumenta o fornecimento de &#233;steres de colesterol para os hepat&#243;citos,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> agravando, assim, a doen&#231;a.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> No entanto, trata-se d melhor op&#231;&#227;o para reduzir as concentra&#231;&#245;es de colesterol de Lipoprote&#237;na de Baixa Densidade (LDL-C), a s&#237;ntese de colesterol e o risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, na LAL-D, h&#225; uma regula&#231;&#227;o deficiente do gene ABCA1, levando &#224; redu&#231;&#227;o nas concentra&#231;&#245;es de HDL-C.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> A terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica com sebelipase alfa permite que os pacientes atinjam n&#237;veis fisiol&#243;gicos de LAL e pode prevenir o ac&#250;mulo de &#233;steres de colesterol e triglicer&#237;deos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Alguns pa&#237;ses desenvolveram diretrizes para aumentar a conscientiza&#231;&#227;o e o diagn&#243;stico da D-LAL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> Em nosso pa&#237;s,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> a D-LAL foi inclu&#237;da como uma doen&#231;a lisoss&#244;mica, e n&#243;s seguimos um algoritmo de diagn&#243;stico (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>), previamente utilizado como ferramenta de rastreio.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Neste artigo, descrevemos os m&#233;todos de rastreamento para detectar D-LAL em crian&#231;as e adultos em uma cl&#237;nica terci&#225;ria para tratamento de dislipidemias. Buscamos sinais de doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica, disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica associada &#224; dislipidemia ou altera&#231;&#245;es lip&#237;dicas isoladas. Esse m&#233;todo de rastreamento foi baseado em diagn&#243;sticos anteriores de pacientes com D-LAL confirmada, selecionados a partir de um caso &#237;ndice p&#243;s-morte com familiares afetados no Centro de Refer&#234;ncia em Erros Inatos do Metabolismo (CREIM), da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O objetivo deste estudo foi investigar a preval&#234;ncia de D-LAL em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dislipidemias, disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica, ou ambos, em tratamento ambulatorial, com base em casos pr&#233;vios confirmados pelo mesmo m&#233;todo de rastreamento.</p>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="methods">
      <title>M&#233;todos</title>
      <sec>
        <title>Delineamento do estudo</title>
        <p>Este &#233; um estudo retrospectivo transversal, com dados obtidos a partir de registros m&#233;dicos (em papel e/ou eletr&#244;nicos) de pacientes adultos e pedi&#225;tricos das unidades cl&#237;nicas de dislipidemias, Aterosclerose e Biologia Vascular, Divis&#227;o de Cardiologia, da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo. O protocolo do estudo foi aprovado pelo nosso comit&#234; de &#233;tica local (Comit&#234; de &#201;tica em Pesquisa da UNIFESP, CAAE: 51989915.2.00005505), e os dados foram coletados ao longo de 18 meses.</p>
        <p>Revisamos 2000 registros m&#233;dicos consecutivos de pacientes adultos e 18 pacientes pedi&#225;tricos entre agosto de 2017 e fevereiro de 2019. Entre eles, havia 92 pacientes com diagn&#243;stico definitivo/prov&#225;vel de HF (Dutch Lipid Clinic Network), mas com resultados negativos para um painel de genes relacionados &#224; HF (LDLR, APOB, PCSK9, LDLRAP-1), al&#233;m do gene LIPA,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> e 168 pacientes com doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica. Dados cl&#237;nicos e laboratoriais desses pacientes foram obtidos para rastreamento seletivo de D-LAL.</p>
        <p>Crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o</p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>Adultos, n&#227;o obesos (&#205;ndice de Massa Corporal, IMC &lt;30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>), com LDL-C &gt;160 mg/dL, lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C) &lt;40 mg/dL em homens e &lt;50 mg/dL em mulheres, e com n&#237;veis de alanina aminotransferase (ALT) e/ou aspartato aminotransferase (AST) persistentemente elevados (&gt;1,5 vezes o limite superior da normalidade), com ou sem hepatomegalia.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Pacientes com esteatose detectada por ultrassonografia ou esteatose mista ou microvesicular observada em bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Pacientes com suspeita de HF usando os crit&#233;rios da Dutch Lipid Clinic Network,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> sem confirma&#231;&#227;o de variantes causadoras de HF na an&#225;lise gen&#233;tica, ou com variantes no gene LIPA, e n&#237;veis de ALT e/ou AST &gt;1,5 vezes o limite superior da normalidade.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Pacientes pedi&#225;tricos (&lt;18 anos) com hepatomegalia detectada no exame f&#237;sico ou por exames de imagem (com ou sem esplenomegalia), LDL-C elevado (&gt;130 mg/dL), HDL-C baixo (&lt;40 mg/dL), ou n&#237;veis persistentemente elevados de ALT e/ou AST (&gt;1,5 vezes o limite superior da normalidade), e/ou sinais de fibrose, cirrose ou evid&#234;ncia de doen&#231;a de armazenamento em bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica.</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Pacientes com suspeita de doen&#231;a de Wilson sem envolvimento neurol&#243;gico.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
        <p>Crit&#233;rios de exclus&#227;o</p>
        <list list-type="alpha-lower">
          <list-item>
            <p>Pacientes adultos com esteatose ou cirrose de etiologia conhecida;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Pacientes com hepatite viral e/ou doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica alco&#243;lica;</p>
          </list-item>
          <list-item>
            <p>Pacientes com toxicidade conhecida por medicamentos.</p>
          </list-item>
        </list>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Organiza&#231;&#227;o do banco de dados</title>
        <p>Os dados coletados inclu&#237;ram identifica&#231;&#227;o dos pacientes, dados demogr&#225;ficos, presen&#231;a de fatores de risco cardiovascular, incluindo dislipidemia, h&#225;bitos, hist&#243;ria de doen&#231;a cardiovascular, doen&#231;as hep&#225;ticas, s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica e outras comorbidades. Foram registrados par&#226;metros cl&#237;nicos e antropom&#233;tricos. As vari&#225;veis laboratoriais inclu&#237;ram colesterol total, HDL-C, LDL-C, n&#227;o-HDL-C, Triglicer&#237;deos (TG), ALT, AST, glicemia, Horm&#244;nio Estimulante da Tireoide (TSH) e Tiroxina Livre (T4L). Nos indiv&#237;duos em uso de estatinas, o LDL-C foi corrigido conforme a intensidade da estatina, conforme descrito abaixo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Ultrassonografias de f&#237;gado e ba&#231;o, assim como bi&#243;psias hep&#225;ticas, foram registradas para identifica&#231;&#227;o de anormalidades, quando dispon&#237;veis. Testes laboratoriais pr&#233;vios ou confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica de LAL-D tamb&#233;m foram registrados, quando dispon&#237;veis. Para pacientes pedi&#225;tricos, foi criado um banco de dados separado.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Tratamento com estatinas</title>
        <p>Os valores de colesterol total e LDL-C dos pacientes adultos foram corrigidos de acordo com a intensidade do tratamento com estatinas, multiplicando-se os valores de colesterol total e LDL-C por um fator: alta intensidade, redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C &gt;50% (x 2,00); intensidade moderada, redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C entre 30-50% (x 1,65); e baixa intensidade, redu&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C ~30% (x1,43).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup>O tratamento de alta intensidade foi definido como atorvastatina 40/80 mg, rosuvastatina 20/40 mg, sinvastatina 20/40 mg mais ezetimiba. O tratamento de intensidade moderada como atorvastatina 10/20 mg, rosuvastatina 5/10 mg, sinvastatina 10/40 mg, e o tratamento de baixa intensidade definido como outras estatinas ou doses menores.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Diagn&#243;stico bioqu&#237;mico</title>
        <p>Os indiv&#237;duos que preencheram os crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o/exclus&#227;o foram convidados a coletar amostras de sangue para determina&#231;&#227;o da atividade da LAL (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>). Esses pacientes assinaram o termo de consentimento informado por escrito antes da coleta de sangue.</p>
        <p>
          <fig id="f02">
            <label>Figura 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Perfil de pacientes com dislipidemia a partir de prontu&#225;rios m&#233;dicos, de acordo com a intensidade do tratamento com estatinas (a) e aqueles com crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o para LAL-D (b). Alta intensidade: atorvastatina 40/80 mg, rosuvastatina 20/40 mg, sinvastatina 20/40 mg + ezetimiba 10 mg; intensidade moderada: atorvastatina 10/20 mg, rosuvastatina 5/10 mg, sinvastatina 10/40 mg; baixa intensidade: outras estatinas ou doses menores.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-07-e20250825-40825-gf01.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
        <p>O ensaio de atividade enzim&#225;tica da LAL foi realizado a partir de amostras de sangue seco, seguindo-se a t&#233;cnica fluorim&#233;trica descrita por Hamilton et al.,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> no Laborat&#243;rio de Erros Inatos do Metabolismo (LEIM) &#8211; UNIFESP. Foi utilizado o intervalo de refer&#234;ncia de &gt;0,024 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h. O ensaio foi realizado em duplicata, com controles positivos e negativos.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Estudo gen&#233;tico para detec&#231;&#227;o de hipercolesterolemia familiar</title>
        <p>A extra&#231;&#227;o do DNA, o sequenciamento de nova gera&#231;&#227;o (NGS, do ingl&#234;s <italic>next generation sequencing</italic>) e as an&#225;lises de detec&#231;&#227;o de variantes foram realizados de acordo com Fonzar et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise dos dados</title>
        <p>Neste estudo, utilizou-se a estat&#237;stica descritiva. As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas foram descritas como frequ&#234;ncias e percentuais; os dados num&#233;ricos foram apresentados como m&#233;dias &#177; desvio padr&#227;o (DP) ou mediana e intervalo interquartil (IQR), conforme apropriado. A normalidade foi testada pelo teste de Kolmogorov-Smirnov. A signific&#226;ncia foi estabelecida com um valor de p &lt; 0,05. Todas as an&#225;lises estat&#237;sticas foram realizadas utilizando o <italic>Statistical Package for the Social Sciences</italic> (SPSS, Chicago, IL), vers&#227;o 22.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="results">
      <title>Resultados</title>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise descritiva da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta</title>
        <p>As caracter&#237;sticas da popula&#231;&#227;o adulta est&#227;o apresentadas na <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1">Tabela 1</xref> e inclu&#237;ram a coorte de adultos com HF. Dos 2000 registros de pacientes avaliados, 893 indiv&#237;duos (44,6%) estavam recebendo tratamento de alta intensidade, 529 (26,4%) tratamento de intensidade moderada, quatro (0,2%) tratamento de baixa intensidade, e 574 (28,8%) n&#227;o estavam tomando estatinas. Desses, 21 pacientes atenderam aos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o para a avalia&#231;&#227;o da atividade de LAL (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02">Figura 1</xref>), sendo 14 em tratamento de alta intensidade, quatro em tratamento de intensidade moderada e tr&#234;s sem uso de estatinas.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t1">
            <label>Tabela 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais dos pacientes adultos</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Caracter&#237;sticas</th>
                  <th>N=2000</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idade, anos</td>
                  <td align="center">67 (60-74)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sexo masculino/feminino, %</td>
                  <td align="center">613 (30,65) / 1387 (69,35)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ra&#231;a, %</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Caucasiana</td>
                  <td align="center">1022 (51,10)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Preta</td>
                  <td align="center">197 (9,85)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mista</td>
                  <td align="center">781 (39,05)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hipertens&#227;o, %</td>
                  <td align="center">1528 (76,4)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Dislipidemia, %</td>
                  <td align="center">1615 (80,75)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Diabetes, %</td>
                  <td align="center">778 (38,9)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>S&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica, %</td>
                  <td align="center">595 (29,75)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intensidade da estatina, %</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Alta intensidade</td>
                  <td align="center">893 (44,6)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intensidade moderada</td>
                  <td align="center">529 (26,4)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baixa intensidade</td>
                  <td align="center">4 (0,2)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sem estatina</td>
                  <td align="center">574 (28,8)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Infarto do mioc&#225;rdio</td>
                  <td align="center">215 (10,75)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Tabagismo, %</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Atual</td>
                  <td align="center">110 (5,50)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Pr&#233;vio</td>
                  <td align="center">467 (23,25)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IMC, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">30,88 (24,65-40,00)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Colesterol total, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">227 (152-279)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">49 (40-59)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">156 (115-204)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>N&#227;o HDL-c, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">121 (96-155)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Triglicer&#237;deos, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">124 (99-177)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>AST, U/L</td>
                  <td align="center">48 (48-60)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ALT, U/L</td>
                  <td align="center">49 (49-61)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Glicose, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">102 (94-118)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HbA1c, %</td>
                  <td align="center">6,10 (5,70-6,70)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TSH, mUI/L</td>
                  <td align="center">2,65 (1,76-4,21)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>T4, ng/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">1,30 (1,14-1,51)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN1">
                <p>As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas s&#227;o expressas como frequ&#234;ncias (%); as vari&#225;veis num&#233;ricas s&#227;o expressas como mediana (IQR); a corre&#231;&#227;o para a intensidade do tratamento foi feita multiplicando o colesterol total ou LDL-C por 1,43 (baixa intensidade), 1,65 (intensidade moderada) e 2,00 (alta intensidade); HDL-C: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; LDL-C: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; ALT: alanina aminotransferase; AST: aspartato aminotransferase; IQR: intervalo interquartil; TSH: horm&#244;nio estimulante da tireoide; T4L: tiroxina livre; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A coorte de 92 pacientes com diagn&#243;stico definitivo ou prov&#225;vel de HF (Dutch Lipid Clinic Network) tamb&#233;m foi selecionada.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Entre esses, encontramos dois pacientes com variantes de significado incerto no gene LIPA, enzimas hep&#225;ticas normais e sem sinais de esteatose hep&#225;tica. Esses pacientes n&#227;o foram rastreados quanto a atividade de LAL.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise descritiva dos pacientes pedi&#225;tricos com crit&#233;rios para D-LAL</title>
        <p>Dezoito pacientes foram identificados nos prontu&#225;rios m&#233;dicos da nossa unidade cl&#237;nica de dislipidemias e do CREIM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2">Tabela 2</xref>). Desses, oito (44%) tinham LDL-C acima do alvo, e tr&#234;s (17%) apresentavam HDL-C &lt;40 mg/dL; nove pacientes apresentaram n&#237;veis elevados de AST e/ou ALT. Todos os crit&#233;rios estavam presentes em cinco (28%) pacientes. Um desses pacientes teve confirma&#231;&#227;o gen&#233;tica para a doen&#231;a de Niemann-Pick, outro possu&#237;a uma doen&#231;a mitocondrial heredit&#225;ria e n&#227;o foram selecionados para o rastreamento de D-LAL.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t2">
            <label>Tabela 2</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Caracter&#237;sticas das crian&#231;as rastreadas para defici&#234;ncia de lipase &#225;cida lisoss&#244;mica</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                  <th>Total (N=18)</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Idade, anos</td>
                  <td align="center">12 (7-18)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Masculino/feminino, %</td>
                  <td align="center">12 (67)/6 (33)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Ra&#231;a, %</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Caucasiana</td>
                  <td align="center">10 (55)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Preta</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (6)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Mista</td>
                  <td align="center">7 (39)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Terapia hipoglicemiante, %</td>
                  <td> </td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Alta intensidade</td>
                  <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Intensidade moderada</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Baixa intensidade / nenhuma terapia</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (5)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Sem estatina</td>
                  <td align="center">16 (90)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Peso corporal, kg</td>
                  <td align="center">38 (26-48)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>IMC, Kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                  <td align="center">18 (17-19)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Frequ&#234;ncia card&#237;aca, bpm</td>
                  <td align="center">70 (67-76)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Colesterol total, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">213 (135-329)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">44 (21-64)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>LDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">152 (67-250)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>N&#227;o HDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">170 (82-265)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Triglicer&#237;deos, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">91 (52-167)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Glicemia de jejum, mg/dL</td>
                  <td align="center">88 (77-103)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>HbA1c, %</td>
                  <td align="center">5,5 (4,8-6,3)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>AST (U/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">27 (18-66)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>ALT (U/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">19 (10-62)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>CK (U/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">135 (110-241)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>TSH (&#181;IU/L)</td>
                  <td align="center">3,30 (1,24-6,12)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN2">
                <p>As vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas s&#227;o expressas como frequ&#234;ncias (%); as vari&#225;veis num&#233;ricas s&#227;o expressas como mediana (IQR); ALT: alanina aminotransferase; AST: aspartato aminotransferase; IMC: &#237;ndice de massa corporal; HDL: lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade; IQR: intervalo interquartil; LDL: lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade; DP: desvio padr&#227;o; TSH: horm&#244;nio estimulante da tireoide; CK: creatinofosfoquinase.</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>An&#225;lise descritiva dos pacientes com esteatose hep&#225;tica</title>
        <p>A <xref ref-type="table" rid="t3">Tabela 3</xref> apresenta as caracter&#237;sticas de 168 pacientes com esteatose hep&#225;tica, detectada por ultrassonografia ou bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica. Cento e cinquenta e cinco (92,26%) pacientes apresentaram esteatose na ultrassonografia, hepatopatia parenquimatosa foi encontrada em 12 (7,14%), e n&#243;dulo hep&#225;tico em 1 (0,59%). A partir desses achados, selecionamos pacientes com LDL-C corrigido &gt;160 mg/dL e HDL-C &lt;40 mg/dL em homens ou &lt;50 mg/dL em mulheres, AST ou ALT &gt;1,5x o limite superior da normalidade ou esteatose hep&#225;tica detectada por m&#233;todos de imagem.</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t3">
            <label>Tabela 3</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Distribui&#231;&#227;o dos achados da ultrassonografia e/ou da bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica nos participantes do estudo</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th align="left">Vari&#225;vel</th>
                  <th>N=168</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td>Esteatose (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">155 (92,26)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>Hepatopatia parenquimatosa (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">12 (7,14)</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td>N&#243;dulo hep&#225;tico (%)</td>
                  <td align="center">1 (0,59)</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN3">
                <p>Vari&#225;veis categ&#243;ricas expressas em frequ&#234;ncias (%).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>A an&#225;lise de pacientes com doen&#231;a de Wilson sem envolvimento neurol&#243;gico n&#227;o foi realizada, pois n&#227;o havia indiv&#237;duos com esse crit&#233;rio.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Atividade da LAL</title>
        <p>Dos bancos de dados selecionados, 21 (0,92%) pacientes atenderam aos crit&#233;rios de inclus&#227;o para o rastreamento de D-LAL com atividade de LAL (tr&#234;s crian&#231;as e 18 adultos); as m&#233;dias de ALT/AST foram, respectivamente, 83,7 e 96,7 U/L; a m&#233;dia do colesterol total foi 248 mg/dL, do LDL-C 222 mg/dL, e quatro apresentaram esteatose hep&#225;tica documentada. Desses, dois indiv&#237;duos n&#227;o concordaram em participar, tr&#234;s foram a &#243;bito, e n&#227;o foi poss&#237;vel contatar oito pacientes, incluindo as crian&#231;as. Oito pacientes assinaram o termo de consentimento informado e coletaram sangue para o ensaio. Seis eram mulheres e dois homens com idades entre 58-82 anos; em 100% dos casos, os n&#237;veis de ALT estavam acima de 1,5 vezes o limite superior da normalidade, dois apresentavam esteatose hep&#225;tica e todos estavam em tratamento com estatinas de alta intensidade. N&#227;o foram encontradas diferen&#231;as significativas entre os pacientes selecionados e triados para LAL-D (Tabela Suplementar S1).</p>
        <p>O ensaio da atividade de LAL foi realizado em duplicata, al&#233;m de dois controles positivos e dois controles negativos. A atividade m&#233;dia de LAL foi normal [0,077 (&#177; 0,03) nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h, valor de refer&#234;ncia &gt;0,024 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h]. Os controles negativos apresentaram 0,096 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h e os controles positivos mostraram atividade de LAL indetect&#225;vel (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4">Tabela 4</xref>).</p>
        <p>
          <table-wrap id="t4">
            <label>Tabela 4</label>
            <caption>
              <title>&#8211; Resultados da atividade da lipase &#225;cida lisoss&#244;mica no teste enzim&#225;tico utilizando o inibidor Lalistat-2</title>
            </caption>
            <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
              <colgroup>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
                <col/>
              </colgroup>
              <thead>
                <tr>
                  <th>Amostra</th>
                  <th>Po&#231;o</th>
                  <th>Valores</th>
                  <th>M&#233;dia</th>
                  <th>DP</th>
                  <th>V%</th>
                  <th>Sem - Com</th>
                  <th>pmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/L</th>
                  <th>Linha reta 4/11</th>
                </tr>
              </thead>
              <tbody>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">01</td>
                  <td align="center">C2 D2</td>
                  <td align="center">2698,469 2714,956</td>
                  <td align="center">2706,713</td>
                  <td align="center">11,658</td>
                  <td align="center">0,4</td>
                  <td align="center">332,211</td>
                  <td align="center">40,991</td>
                  <td align="center">45,558</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">02</td>
                  <td align="center">C3 D3</td>
                  <td align="center">2794,832 2643,668</td>
                  <td align="center">2719,250</td>
                  <td align="center">106,889</td>
                  <td align="center">3,9</td>
                  <td align="center">488,673</td>
                  <td align="center">62,988</td>
                  <td align="center">73,908</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">03</td>
                  <td align="center">C4 D4</td>
                  <td align="center">2835,840 2881,884</td>
                  <td align="center">2858,862</td>
                  <td align="center">32,558</td>
                  <td align="center">1,1</td>
                  <td align="center">702,193</td>
                  <td align="center">92,940</td>
                  <td align="center">112,511</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">04</td>
                  <td align="center">C5 D5</td>
                  <td align="center">2867,881 2931,860</td>
                  <td align="center">2899,871</td>
                  <td align="center">45,240</td>
                  <td align="center">1,6</td>
                  <td align="center">651,496</td>
                  <td align="center">85,885</td>
                  <td align="center">103,418</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">05</td>
                  <td align="center">C6 D6</td>
                  <td align="center">2707,930 2725,490</td>
                  <td align="center">2716,710</td>
                  <td align="center">12,417</td>
                  <td align="center">0,5</td>
                  <td align="center">546,769</td>
                  <td align="center">71,117</td>
                  <td align="center">84,385</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">06</td>
                  <td align="center">C7 D7</td>
                  <td align="center">2781,802 2832,713</td>
                  <td align="center">2807,258</td>
                  <td align="center">36,000</td>
                  <td align="center">1,3</td>
                  <td align="center">602,909</td>
                  <td align="center">78,958</td>
                  <td align="center">94,490</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">07</td>
                  <td align="center">C8 D8</td>
                  <td align="center">2782,242 2791,745</td>
                  <td align="center">2786,994</td>
                  <td align="center">6,720</td>
                  <td align="center">0,2</td>
                  <td align="center">608,951</td>
                  <td align="center">79,848</td>
                  <td align="center">95,638</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">08</td>
                  <td align="center">C9 D9</td>
                  <td align="center">2824,358 2847,077</td>
                  <td align="center">2835,718</td>
                  <td align="center">16,065</td>
                  <td align="center">0,6</td>
                  <td align="center">776,723</td>
                  <td align="center">103,405</td>
                  <td align="center">125,998</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">+ Controle</td>
                  <td align="center">G10 H10</td>
                  <td align="center">2693,484 2824,164</td>
                  <td align="center">2758,824</td>
                  <td align="center">92,405</td>
                  <td align="center">3,3</td>
                  <td align="center">-40,715</td>
                  <td align="center">-11,371</td>
                  <td align="center">-21,928</td>
                </tr>
                <tr>
                  <td align="center">- Controle</td>
                  <td align="center">G9 H9</td>
                  <td align="center">2806,659 2734,641</td>
                  <td align="center">2770,650</td>
                  <td align="center">50,924</td>
                  <td align="center">1,8</td>
                  <td align="center">729,464</td>
                  <td align="center">96,769</td>
                  <td align="center">117,446</td>
                </tr>
              </tbody>
            </table>
            <table-wrap-foot>
              <fn id="TFN4">
                <p>Os testes foram realizados em duplicata para cada paciente, incluindo um controle positivo (+ Controle) e um controle negativo (- Controle); a atividade de lipase &#225;cida lisoss&#244;mica foi avaliada com o inibidor Lalistat-2, e os resultados foram expressos em nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h (valor de refer&#234;ncia &gt;0,024 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h).</p>
              </fn>
            </table-wrap-foot>
          </table-wrap>
        </p>
        <p>Tentamos obter mais detalhes sobre esses pacientes, e uma mulher de 41 anos, cuja atividade de LAL era previamente normal, repetiu o teste de atividade de LAL ap&#243;s a morte de um de seus filhos. A atividade de LAL era 0,00 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h em dois testes posteriores. A paciente apresentou hepatomegalia e esteatose hep&#225;tica, confirmando o diagn&#243;stico de D-LAL. Sua filha de nove anos tinha hepatosplenomegalia e esteatose hep&#225;tica, com n&#237;veis de AST de 55 e ALT 35 U/L, colesterol total e LDL-C de 212 mg/dL e 148 mg/dL, respectivamente; HDL-C de 12 mg/dL, n&#227;o-HDL-C de 200 mg/dL e triglicer&#237;deos de 256 mg/dL. Os sintomas come&#231;aram aos tr&#234;s anos de idade, com epis&#243;dios intermitentes de diarreia e falha no crescimento. Aos quatro anos, seu peso corporal era de 16 kg (z score de &#8722;0,56) e sua altura era de 93 cm (z score de &#8722;3,0). A bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica mostrou esteatose difusa macro e microvesicular de grau 3 em 60% dos hepat&#243;citos, aumento dos espa&#231;os portais com macr&#243;fagos microvacuolizados aumentados e hepat&#243;citos. Aos nove anos, ela desenvolveu hepatosplenomegalia progressiva e piora dos epis&#243;dios de diarreia. Foi hospitalizada v&#225;rias vezes devido a insufici&#234;ncia respirat&#243;ria secund&#225;ria &#224; hepatosplenomegalia grave e faleceu aos nove anos devido a pneumonia e choque s&#233;ptico.</p>
        <p>O diagn&#243;stico diferencial de D-LAL da crian&#231;a incluiu a an&#225;lise de amostras de sangue e bi&#243;psias hep&#225;ticas. Tr&#234;s bi&#243;psias hep&#225;ticas realizadas em diferentes hospitais mostraram esteatose macro e microvesicular, com um padr&#227;o semelhante ao da doen&#231;a de Niemann-Pick tipo C.</p>
        <p>Amostras de sangue foram coletadas, mas analisadas post-mortem. Os testes foram desenvolvidos para avaliar a atividade enzim&#225;tica associada a diversas doen&#231;as de armazenamento lisoss&#244;mico. A atividade da quitotriosidase foi medida no plasma utilizando um ensaio imunoenzim&#225;tico (ELISA); a atividade da esfingomielinase foi avaliada em leuc&#243;citos para excluir a doen&#231;a de Niemann-Pick; a atividade da beta-glicosidase foi medida em leuc&#243;citos para avaliar a doen&#231;a de Gaucher; um painel abrangente obtido a partir de amostras de sangue seco testou quitotriosidase, esfingomielinase, beta-glicosidase e LAL, fornecendo uma avalia&#231;&#227;o mais ampla para doen&#231;as de armazenamento lisoss&#244;mico. Todos os testes, exceto para D-LAL, estavam dentro da faixa de normalidade. Foi observada atividade enzim&#225;tica indetect&#225;vel (0 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h) (faixa de refer&#234;ncia &gt;0,024 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h), confirmando o diagn&#243;stico de defici&#234;ncia de LAL. Esses ensaios enzim&#225;ticos foram essenciais para diferenciar LAL-D de outras doen&#231;as de armazenamento lisoss&#244;mico com caracter&#237;sticas cl&#237;nicas sobrepostas.</p>
        <p>A aut&#243;psia revelou ac&#250;mulo disseminado de lip&#237;dios e cristais de colesterol no f&#237;gado, ba&#231;o, medula &#243;ssea e trato gastrointestinal, al&#233;m de esteatose grave com histi&#243;citos preenchidos por lip&#237;dios. N&#227;o foi observada calcifica&#231;&#227;o adrenal. Este foi o caso &#237;ndice de sua fam&#237;lia, sendo a segunda de cinco irm&#227;os da mesma m&#227;e, que teve um filho (n&#227;o afetado) e uma filha (essa paciente) de seu primeiro casamento, e tr&#234;s outros filhos (todos afetados) de seu segundo casamento. Ambos os casamentos foram uni&#245;es n&#227;o consangu&#237;neas, e os pais n&#227;o possuem parentesco entre si.</p>
        <p>Os tr&#234;s meio-irm&#227;os do sexo masculino foram avaliados, e eles apresentaram atividade de LAL de 0,0087 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h, 0,00 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h e 0,00 nmol/pun&#231;&#227;o/h, confirmando o diagn&#243;stico de D-LAL. Seus relatos de caso foram publicados anteriormente.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>Al&#233;m disso, realizamos testes gen&#233;ticos da m&#227;e e dos tr&#234;s meio-irm&#227;os do caso &#237;ndice, obtendo DNA extra&#237;do da saliva. O sequenciamento gen&#233;tico (NGS), utilizando um painel que inclu&#237;a o gene LIPA, n&#227;o encontrou variantes patog&#234;nicas, o que n&#227;o permitiu descartar altera&#231;&#245;es na regi&#227;o n&#227;o codificante dos genes analisados, como regi&#245;es regulat&#243;rias, sequ&#234;ncias interg&#234;nicas e intr&#244;nicas distantes dos &#233;xons.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="discussion">
      <title>Discuss&#227;o</title>
      <p>Neste estudo, investigamos a preval&#234;ncia de D-LAL em uma popula&#231;&#227;o de pacientes com dislipidemias em seguimento ambulatorial, e utilizamos um algoritmo baseado em casos cl&#237;nicos previamente confirmados, diagnosticados por meio do ensaio enzim&#225;tico para atividade da LAL.</p>
      <p>A doen&#231;a &#233; considerada muito rara, com ac&#250;mulo de &#233;steres de colesterol em tecidos como f&#237;gado, ba&#231;o, medula &#243;ssea, gl&#226;ndulas suprarrenais, linfonodos, vilosidades intestinais, parede vascular e m&#250;sculos esquel&#233;ticos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Uma forma mais grave &#233; reconhecida em crian&#231;as, e manifesta&#231;&#245;es menos pronunciadas podem ser observadas em adultos, dependendo da atividade enzim&#225;tica da LAL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup>Em nosso estudo, na cl&#237;nica de l&#237;pides, entre 2.018 indiv&#237;duos, identificamos 21 (0,92%) com alto risco para LAL-D. Dos oito inicialmente testados para atividade da LAL, nenhum caso foi confirmado. No entanto, um teste post-mortem positivo em uma crian&#231;a (caso &#237;ndice) permitiu confirmar a m&#227;e e tr&#234;s meio-irm&#227;os afetados.</p>
      <p>A Atualiza&#231;&#227;o das Diretrizes Brasileiras para Dislipidemia e Preven&#231;&#227;o da Aterosclerose<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> reconhece a lacuna no diagn&#243;stico da doen&#231;a e sugere um algoritmo para triagem da D-LAL (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01">Figura Central</xref>). Indiv&#237;duos com D-LAL enfrentam uma grande carga da doen&#231;a e, segundo seus relatos, os sintomas s&#227;o constantes, incluindo dor abdominal, hepatosplenomegalia, cefaleia, fraqueza, prurido e les&#245;es cut&#226;neas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Em crian&#231;as, o fen&#243;tipo pode estar presente nos primeiros meses de vida, com aumento abdominal, falha no crescimento, hepatomegalia ou hepatosplenomegalia, esteatose hep&#225;tica e calcifica&#231;&#227;o adrenal.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Existe um amplo espectro de manifesta&#231;&#245;es da doen&#231;a de in&#237;cio tardio. Os sintomas podem ser leves e n&#227;o percebidos, levando ao subdiagn&#243;stico. Por outro lado, nos casos mais graves, as altera&#231;&#245;es hep&#225;ticas podem resultar em cirrose hep&#225;tica e morte.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, pode existir um risco cardiovascular aumentado, com hist&#243;rico de doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica ou acidente vascular cerebral isqu&#234;mico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
      <p>As anormalidades lip&#237;dicas s&#227;o uma caracter&#237;stica comum nas dislipidemias de diferentes etiologias, sejam gen&#233;ticas ou secund&#225;rias ao uso de medicamentos ou a comorbidades, como diabetes, obesidade e s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup>A hipercolesterolemia que n&#227;o responde &#224; terapia hipolipemiante convencional, acompanhada de uma leve eleva&#231;&#227;o das enzimas hep&#225;ticas, pode levantar suspeita de D-LAL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>Na HF, com crit&#233;rios definitivos ou prov&#225;veis, nos quais variantes patog&#234;nicas ou provavelmente patog&#234;nicas s&#227;o detectadas, fenoc&#243;pias, como D-LAL, devem ser descartadas, uma vez que um diagn&#243;stico adequado e um tratamento oportuno podem restaurar ou prevenir altera&#231;&#245;es hep&#225;ticas. Chora et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> descreveram casos de D-LAL em uma coorte de pacientes com suspeita de HF (n=492), apresentando dislipidemia grave, com diagn&#243;stico gen&#233;tico negativo para genes de HF ou com variantes de significado incerto. As an&#225;lises de suas fam&#237;lias tamb&#233;m foram realizadas. Nesse estudo, os autores identificaram quatro crian&#231;as com D-LAL.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Outra forma de triagem para D-LAL &#233; pela presen&#231;a de s&#237;ndrome metab&#243;lica com anormalidades hep&#225;ticas detectadas por bi&#243;psia hep&#225;tica<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> ou ultrassonografia sugestiva de MASH ou DHGAM e, raramente, na doen&#231;a de Wilson sem sinais neurol&#243;gicos.</p>
      <p>Neste estudo, buscamos D-LAL em pacientes adultos (2000 indiv&#237;duos) atendidos em um centro de refer&#234;ncia para dislipidemias, incluindo pacientes com suspeita de HF (N=92), aqueles com doen&#231;a hep&#225;tica (N=168) e em 18 crian&#231;as.</p>
      <p>O diagn&#243;stico precoce e preciso de D-LAL &#233; crucial para instituir um tratamento adequado e em tempo h&#225;bil. Ensaios espec&#237;ficos para D-LAL devem estar dispon&#237;veis n&#227;o apenas para pesquisa, mas tamb&#233;m no sistema p&#250;blico de sa&#250;de.</p>
      <p>Alguns pa&#237;ses da Am&#233;rica Latina desenvolveram algoritmos para diagnosticar D-LAL,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> e o Brasil incluiu a pesquisa por D-LAL na Atualiza&#231;&#227;o das Diretrizes Brasileiras para Dislipidemia e Preven&#231;&#227;o da Aterosclerose.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> No entanto, a implementa&#231;&#227;o dessa medida ainda &#233; ausente.</p>
      <p>O mapeamento dos genes humanos abriu novas perspectivas para o diagn&#243;stico de doen&#231;as heredit&#225;rias e permitiu o desenvolvimento de estrat&#233;gias preventivas e terap&#234;uticas.</p>
      <p>Ainda h&#225; muitas quest&#245;es a serem respondidas sobre o diagn&#243;stico de D-LAL. A conscientiza&#231;&#227;o sobre a doen&#231;a, o diagn&#243;stico precoce e o tratamento adequado podem impedir a progress&#227;o da aterosclerose e da disfun&#231;&#227;o hep&#225;tica. Em relatos de casos de indiv&#237;duos afetados, a experi&#234;ncia com a terapia de reposi&#231;&#227;o enzim&#225;tica demonstrou uma melhora consider&#225;vel nos sintomas e na qualidade de vida, com poucos eventos adversos e um impacto positivo para os pacientes e cuidadores. O maior benef&#237;cio, por&#233;m, foi o aumento da expectativa de vida.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
      <p>At&#233; o momento, n&#227;o h&#225; estudos suficientes sobre a preval&#234;ncia da D-LAL no Brasil, e a doen&#231;a continua subdiagnosticada. A D-LAL apresenta sinais e sintomas que s&#227;o comuns a de outras doen&#231;as que afetam o f&#237;gado, ba&#231;o e perfil lip&#237;dico. A atividade da LAL &#233; vari&#225;vel, e os diferentes fen&#243;tipos, doen&#231;a de Wolman e CESD, possuem apresenta&#231;&#245;es distintas, progress&#227;o da doen&#231;a e mortalidade.</p>
      <sec>
        <title>Pontos fortes e limita&#231;&#245;es do estudo</title>
        <p>Pontos fortes: este estudo foi conduzido em um centro de refer&#234;ncia para dislipidemias, utilizou um algoritmo de triagem previamente descrito, e incluiu 2018 pacientes. A D-LAL &#233; uma doen&#231;a rara, mas apresenta manifesta&#231;&#245;es comuns, como LDL-C elevado, HDL-C baixo, n&#237;veis aumentados de AST/ALT e esteatose hep&#225;tica, caracter&#237;sticas frequentemente observadas em centros de tratamento de dislipidemias.</p>
        <p>Limita&#231;&#245;es: O estudo foi retrospectivo, as enzimas hep&#225;ticas foram obtidas sob tratamento com estatinas e a atividade da LAL n&#227;o foi avaliada em leuc&#243;citos. N&#227;o testamos a discrimina&#231;&#227;o ou precis&#227;o do algoritmo. Na verdade, a D-LAL &#233; muito mais um diagn&#243;stico de exclus&#227;o, na investiga&#231;&#227;o de HF ou outras dislipidemias gen&#233;ticas.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
    <sec sec-type="conclusions">
      <title>Conclus&#227;o</title>
      <p>A triagem de D-LAL em um centro de refer&#234;ncia para dislipidemias, utilizando um algoritmo que inclui medidas cl&#237;nicas e laboratoriais, selecionou 21 pacientes de alto risco. No entanto, a atividade enzim&#225;tica da LAL n&#227;o confirmou a doen&#231;a em oito indiv&#237;duos testados. A partir de uma m&#227;e suspeita, uma crian&#231;a teve a confirma&#231;&#227;o post-mortem de D-LAL, o que possibilitou o diagn&#243;stico da m&#227;e e de tr&#234;s meio-irm&#227;os afetados.</p>
      <p>Identificar a LAL-D continua sendo um desafio, e esse algoritmo pode auxiliar na sele&#231;&#227;o de pacientes de alto risco para triagem da doen&#231;a. No entanto, esse algoritmo n&#227;o foi validado quanto &#224; precis&#227;o ou capacidade discriminat&#243;ria. Dada sua raridade e caracter&#237;sticas sobrepostas com outras dislipidemias gen&#233;ticas, a LAL-D &#233;, principalmente, um diagn&#243;stico de exclus&#227;o, frequentemente considerado quando outras condi&#231;&#245;es tenham sido descartadas.</p>
    </sec>
  </body>
  <back>
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    <fn-group>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Vincula&#231;&#227;o acad&#234;mica:</label>
        <p> Este artigo &#233; parte de disserta&#231;&#227;o de mestrado de Zenia Brasil pela Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Aprova&#231;&#227;o &#233;tica e consentimento informado:</label>
        <p> Este estudo foi aprovado pelo Comit&#234; de &#201;tica da Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo sob o n&#250;mero de protocolo 58743616.8.0000.5505. Todos os procedimentos envolvidos nesse estudo est&#227;o de acordo com a Declara&#231;&#227;o de Helsinki de 1975, atualizada em 2013.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="other">
        <label>Uso de Intelig&#234;ncia Artificial:</label>
        <p> Os autores n&#227;o utilizaram ferramentas de intelig&#234;ncia artificial no desenvolvimento deste trabalho.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
        <label>Disponibilidade de Dados:</label>
        <p> Os dados poder&#227;o ser disponibilizados mediante solicita&#231;&#227;o.</p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="suppl01">
        <label>*Material suplementar</label>
        <p> Para informa&#231;&#227;o adicional, por favor, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2025/12208/2024-0825_AO_Supplemental_Table_S1.pdf">clique aqui</ext-link> </p>
      </fn>
      <fn fn-type="supported-by">
        <label>Fontes de financiamento:</label>
        <p> O presente estudo foi parcialmente financiado por Alexion Pharmaceuticals.</p>
      </fn>
    </fn-group>
  </back>
  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="TRen" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20240825i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Original Article</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Screening for Lysosomal Acid Lipase Deficiency in a Lipid Clinic</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-7338-1180</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Brasil</surname>
            <given-names>Zenia</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Fonseca</surname>
            <given-names>Francisco Antonio H.</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-2383-1793</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Curiati</surname>
            <given-names>Marco Antonio</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Kyosen</surname>
            <given-names>Sandra Obikawa</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pereira</surname>
            <given-names>Vanessa Gon&#231;alves</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-8317-297X</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Fonzar</surname>
            <given-names>Waleria Toledo</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Pesquero</surname>
            <given-names>Jo&#227;o Bosco</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5001">
            <sup>5</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Patr&#237;cio</surname>
            <given-names>Francy Reis da Silva</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6001">
            <sup>6</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0009-0005-0178-2168</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Yamamoto</surname>
            <given-names>Marcelo Hideki</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Yamamoto</surname>
            <given-names>Joyce Umbelino</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4001">
            <sup>4</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>D&#8217;Almeida</surname>
            <given-names>Vania</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <name>
            <surname>Martins</surname>
            <given-names>Ana Maria</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3001">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-5738-2623</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Izar</surname>
            <given-names>Maria Cristina</given-names>
          </name>
          <role>Conception and design of the research</role>
          <role>Writing of the manuscript</role>
          <role>Critical revision of the manuscript for content</role>
          <role>Acquisition of data</role>
          <role>Analysis and interpretation of the data</role>
          <role>Statistical analysis and Obtaining financing</role>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1001">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2001">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
      </contrib-group>
      <aff id="aff1001">
        <label>1</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Disciplina de Cardiologia, Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff2001">
        <label>2</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Brazilian Network of Collaboration and Knowledge Advancement on Severe Hypertriglyceridemia &#8211; Hypertri Brazil Network, Casa dos Raros, Porto Alegre, RS &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff3001">
        <label>3</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Centro de Refer&#234;ncia em Erros Inatos do Metabolismo (CREIM), Departamento de Pediatria, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff4001">
        <label>4</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Laborat&#243;rio de Erros Inatos do Metabolismo, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff5001">
        <label>5</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Biof&#237;sica, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <aff id="aff6001">
        <label>6</label>
        <country country="BR">Brazil</country>
        <institution content-type="original">Departamento de Patologia, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo (UNIFESP), S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil</institution>
      </aff>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c01001"><label>Mailing Address:</label> Maria Cristina Izar &#8226;: Rua Jos&#233; de Magalh&#227;es, 340, Vila Clementino, S&#227;o Paulo, SP &#8211; Brazil E-mail: mcoizar@terra.com.br; mcoizar@cardiol.br </corresp>
        <fn fn-type="conflict">
          <label>Potential conflict of interest:</label>
          <p>No potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="edited-by">
          <label>Editor responsible for the review:</label>
          <p> Gl&#225;ucia Maria Moraes de Oliveira</p>
        </fn>
      </author-notes>
      <abstract>
        <title>Abstract</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Background</title>
          <p> Lysosomal acid lipase deficiency (LAL-D) is a rare autosomal recessive disease, with massive accumulation of cholesteryl esters and triglycerides in many organs, leading to hepatosplenomegaly, microvesicular steatosis, cirrhosis and premature death. Early recognition is crucial for timely enzyme replacement therapy.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Objectives</title>
          <p> To screen for LAL-D in subjects with dyslipidemias and/or liver disease at an outpatient lipid clinic.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Methods</title>
          <p> We retrospectively assessed records from 2,018 adults and children using a screening algorithm including ALT/AST elevation &gt;1.5 x upper limit of normality, LDL-C&gt;160 mg/dL, HDL-C&lt;40 (males) or &lt;50 mg/dL (females) in adults, and LDL-C&gt;130 mg/dL, HDL-C&lt;45 mg/dL, in children. High-risk patients for LAL-D were selected for LAL enzymatic activity assay in dried blood spots using LAL inhibitor, Lalistat-2.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Results</title>
          <p> Among 2,018 screened patients, 21 (0.92%) were selected for LAL activity test, but only eight performed the test with normal results [mean LAL activity 0.077 &#177; 0.03 nmol/punch/h (reference value &gt;0.024 nmol/punch/h)]. A child whose mother did not perform the test, had a post-mortem undetectable LAL activity. Further, the mother and three half-brothers confirmed LAL-D. Sequencing (NGS) of LIPA gene did not find pathogenic variants, not allowing to discard changes in non-coding region of the gene analyzed.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Conclusions</title>
          <p> Identifying LAL-D remains a challenge, and an algorithm based on clinical and laboratory criteria may assist in selecting patients for LAL-D screening. Given its rarity and overlapping features with other genetic dyslipidemias, LAL-D is primarily a diagnosis of exclusion, often considered when other conditions have been ruled out.</p>
        </sec>
      </abstract>
      <abstract abstract-type="graphical">
        <p>
          <fig id="f01001">
            <label>Central Illustration:</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Screening for Lysosomal Acid Lipase Deficiency in a Lipid Clinic</title>
              <p>Algorhithm proposed for LAL-D screening using enzyme activity, according to hepatic and/or lipid abnormalities, adding the patient&#8217;s journey until diagnosis. Inclusion criteria: i) Adult, non-obese (BMI&lt;30 kg/m2), with LDL-C &gt;160mg/dL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) &lt;40 mg/dL in men and &lt;50 mg/dL in women, and with persistently high alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and/or aspartate aminotransferase (AST), &gt;1,5 x the upper limit of normality, with or without hepatomegaly; ii) Patients with steatosis by ultrasound or mixed or microvesicular steatosis, observed on liver biopsy; iii) Patients with suspected familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) using the Dutch Lipid Clinic Network criteria without confirmation of FH causing variants on sequencing, or with variants in LIPA gene, with ALT and/or AST &gt;1.5x ULN; iv) pediatric patients (&lt;18 years-old) with hepatomegaly on physical examination or imaging tests (with or without splenomegaly), high LDL-C (&gt;130 mg/dL), low HDL-C (&lt;40 mg/dL), or persistently elevated ALT and/or AST (&gt;1.5x ULN), and/or signs of fibrosis, cirrhosis, or evidence of storage disease on liver biopsy; v) Patients with suspicion of Wilson Disease without neurological involvement. ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; FCH: familial combined hyperlipidemia; FH: familial hypercholesterolemia; ULN: upper limit of normality; NAFLD: nonalcoholic fatty liver disease; NASH non-alcoholic steatohepatitis.</p>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-07-e20250825-40825-gf01-en.tif"/></fig>
        </p>
      </abstract>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <kwd>Lipase</kwd>
        <kwd>Dyslipidemias</kwd>
        <kwd>Hepatomegaly</kwd>
        <kwd>Splenomegaly</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec sec-type="intro">
        <title>Introduction</title>
        <p>Lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) is the enzyme responsible for intracelular hydrolysis of cholesteryl esters and triglycerides. Deficiency of LAL (LAL-D)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> is characterized by accumulation of cholesteryl esters and triglycerides, but it also leads to increase in cholesterol synthesis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> LAL-D (OMIM # 278000) is a rare autosomal recessive lysosomal storage disease, arising from variants in the <italic>LIPA</italic> gene (OMIM 613497), mapped to chromosome 10q23.2, with 10 exons and approximately 45 kb in length.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup> Affected individuals are typically either homozygous or compound heterozygous for <italic>LIPA</italic> variants.</p>
        <p>The disease manifests in two different forms. Wolman disease,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> in infants, evolves with aggressive symptoms and signs, such as massive accumulation of cholesteryl esters and triglycerides in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, adrenal glands, lymph nodes, intestinal villi, and infiltration of the vascular endothelial, and skeletal muscle. Calcification in the adrenal glands is a common feature of LAL-D and can occur in 50% of infants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Failure to thrive, due to malabsorption, hepatosplenomegaly, and hepatic failure, due to fibrosis and cirrhosis can be present. Untreated, these complications contribute to the death in the first year of life.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup>Prevalence studies evaluating this severe phenotype are scarce and vary according to ethnicity and geographic localization from 1:350,000 to 1:528,000 in children, with absent or &lt;1% LAL activity, and usually the individuals are homozygous for pathogenic <italic>LIPA</italic> variants.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Another phenotype of LAL-D is the cholesteryl ester storage disease (CESD)<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> with a varying presentation, depending on LAL activity, ranging from 1-12% of the normal value.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup> This subtype is less recognized, with a slow progression and can be confounded with other disorders with similar clinical and laboratory findings, such as familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), familial combined hyperlipidemia (FCH), metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH), metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), or cryptogenic cirrhosis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref></sup> This phenotype is usually due to double or compound heterozygous pathogenic variants, or attributed to a high polygenic score; affected individuals do not present signs of CESD until childhood or adulthood.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Main features of CESD are abdominal distension, esophageal varices, hepatosplenomegaly, coronary artery disease, diarrhea, stroke, malnutrition, and failure to thrive.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup>Bernstein et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> found that hepatic dysfunction and dyslipidemia were the most frequent signs at all ages in CESD, and hepatomegaly and hepatosplenomegaly are the most frequent signs of disease.</p>
        <p>Regarding treatment, lipid-lowering therapy with statins seems ineffective for patients with hepatic disorder, as it increases the cholesteryl ester supply to hepatocytes,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> thus worsening the disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup> However, it is the best option to reduce low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) concentrations, cholesterol synthesis and cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref></sup> In addition, in LAL-D there is an impaired regulation of ABCA1 gene, thus leading to low concentrations of HDL-C.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Enzyme replacement therapy with sebelipase alpha enables patients to achieve physiological levels of LAL and can prevent cholesteryl ester and triglycerides accumulation.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Some countries developed guidelines to increase awareness and diagnosis of LAL-D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> In our country,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> LAL-D was included as lysosomal disease and we follow a diagnostic algorithm (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>), previously used as a screening tool.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> In this article, we describe the screening methods to detect LAL-D in children and adults in a tertiary lipid clinic. We searched for liver disease, hepatic dysfunction plus dyslipidemia, or lipid changes alone. This screening method was based on previous diagnosis of patients with confirmed LAL-D, selected from a postmortem index case with affected family members at the Reference Center for Inborn Errors of Metabolism (CREIM), Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup></p>
        <p>The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of LAL-D in an outpatient population of patients with dyslipidemias, hepatic dysfunction or both based on previous confirmed cases that used this screening method.</p>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="methods">
        <title>Methods</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Study design</title>
          <p>This is a retrospective cross-sectional study, with data obtained from medical records (paper and/or electronic records) of adult and pediatric patients from the outpatient clinics of the Lipids, Atherosclerosis and Vascular Biology Section, Cardiology Division, Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo. The study protocol was approved by our local ethics committee (research ethics committee of UNIFESP, CAAE: 51989915.2.00005505), and data were collected for 18 months.</p>
          <p>We reviewed 2,000 consecutive medical records from adult patients and 18 pediatric patients between August 2017 and February 2019. Among those, there were 92 patients with definite/probable diagnosis of familial hypercholesterolemia (Dutch Lipid Clinic Network), but with negative results for a panel of genes for FH (<italic>LDLR</italic>, <italic>APOB</italic>, <italic>PCSK9</italic>, <italic>LDLRAP-1</italic>) plus the <italic>LIPA</italic> gene,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> and 168 patients with liver disease. Clinical and laboratory data from these patients were obtained to selectively screen for LAL-D.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Inclusion criteria</title>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Adult, non-obese (body mass index, BMI&lt;30 Kg/m<sup>2</sup>), with LDL-C &gt;160mg/dL, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) &lt;40 mg/dL in men and &lt;50 mg/dL in women, and with persistently high alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and/or aspartate aminotransferase (AST) (&gt;1.5 x the upper limit of normality), with or without hepatomegaly.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Patients with steatosis by ultrasound or mixed or microvesicular steatosis observed on liver biopsy.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Patients with suspected familial hypercholesterolemia (FH) using the Dutch Lipid Clinic Network criteria<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> without confirmation of FH causing variants on sequencing, or with variants in <italic>LIPA</italic> gene, with ALT and/or AST &gt;1.5x ULN.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Pediatric patients (&lt;18 years-old) with hepatomegaly on physical examination or imaging tests (with or without splenomegaly), high LDL-C (&gt;130 mg/dL), low HDL-C (&lt;40 mg/dL), or persistently elevated ALT and/or AST (&gt;1.5x upper limit of normality), and/or signs of fibrosis, cirrhosis, or evidence of storage disease on liver biopsy.</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Patients with suspicion of Wilson Disease without neurological involvement.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
          <p>Exclusion criteria</p>
          <list list-type="alpha-lower">
            <list-item>
              <p>Adult patients with steatosis or cirrhosis of known etiology;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Patients with viral hepatitis and/or alcoholic liver disease;</p>
            </list-item>
            <list-item>
              <p>Patients with known drug toxicity.</p>
            </list-item>
          </list>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Database organization</title>
          <p>The data collected included patient identification, demography, presence of cardiovascular risk factors, including dyslipidemia, habits, history of cardiovascular disease, liver diseases, metabolic syndrome, and other comorbidities. Clinical and anthropometric parameters were recorded. Laboratory variables included total cholesterol, HDL-C, LDL-C, non-HDL-C, triglycerides (TG), ALT, AST, blood glucose, thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), and free thyroxin (T4). In subjects taking statins, LDL-C was corrected by the statin intensity, as described below.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Liver and spleen ultrasounds, as well as hepatic biopsies were recorded for abnormalities, when available. Previous laboratory tests or genetic confirmation for LAL-D were also recorded when available. For pediatric patients a separate database was made.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Treatment with statins</title>
          <p>The values of total- and LDL-C of adult patients were corrected by the intensity of statin treatment, multiplying the total- and LDL-C value by a factor: high-intensity, LDL-C reduction &gt;50% (x 2.00); moderate-intensity, LDL-C reduction between 30-50% (x 1.65), and low-intensity, LDL-C reduction ~ 30% (x1.43).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> High intensity treatment was defined as atorvastatin 40/80 mg, rosuvastatin 20/40mg, simvastatin 20/40 mg plus ezetimibe; moderate intensity, atorvastatin 10/20 mg, rosuvastatin 5/10 mg, simvastatin 10/40 mg; low-intensity as other statins or lower doses.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Biochemical diagnosis</title>
          <p>Subjects who met the inclusion/exclusion criteria were invited to collect blood samples for determination of LAL activity (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>). These patients signed the written informed consent form prior to blood collection.</p>
          <p>
            <fig id="f02001">
              <label>Figure 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Profile of patients with dyslipidemia from medical records according to intensity of statin treatment (a) and those with inclusion criteria for LAL-D (b). High intensity: atorvastatin 40/80 mg, rosuvastatin 20/40mg, simvastatin 20/40 mg + ezetimibe 10 mg; moderate intensity: atorvastatin 10/20 mg, rosuvastatin 5/10 mg, simvastatin 10/40 mg; low-intensity: other statins or lower doses.</title>
              </caption>
              <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-07-e20250825-40825-gf02-en.tif"/></fig>
          </p>
          <p>LAL enzymatic activity assay was obtained from dried blood spot (DBS) samples according to the fluorimetric technique described by Hamilton et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup> and performed at <italic>Laborat&#243;rio de Erros Inatos do Metabolismo</italic> (LEIM) &#8211; UNIFESP, which used the reference range of &gt;0.024 nmol/punch/h. The assay was performed in duplicates, with positive and negative controls.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Genetic study for detection of familial hypercholesterolemia</title>
          <p>DNA extraction, next-generation sequencing and variant detection analyses were performed according to Fonzar et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Data analysis</title>
          <p>Descriptive statistics were used in this research. Categorical variables were described as frequencies and percentages; numerical data were presented as means &#177; standard deviation (SD) or median and interquartile range (IQR) as appropriate. Normality was tested by Kolmogorov-Smirnov test. Significance was established at a P-value &lt; 0.05. All statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS, Chicago, IL) version 22.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="results">
        <title>Results</title>
        <sec>
          <title>Descriptive analysis of the adult population</title>
          <p>Characteristics of the adult population are presented in <xref ref-type="table" rid="t1001">Table 1</xref> and included the FH adult cohort. Of the 2,000 patient records evaluated, 893 individuals (44.6%) were receiving high-intensity treatment, 529 (26.4%), moderate intensity, four (0.2%), low-intensity, and 574 (28.8%) were not taking statins. Of those, 21 patients had the inclusion criteria for LAL activity screening (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f02001">Figure 1</xref>), 14 in high-intensity treatment, four in moderate-intensity, and three not taking statins.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t1001">
              <label>Table 1</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Clinical and laboratory characteristics of the adult population</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Characteristic</th>
                    <th>N=2,000</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age, years</td>
                    <td align="center">67 (60-74)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Sex Male/Female, %</td>
                    <td align="center">613 (30.65) / 1387 (69.35)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Race, %</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Caucasian</td>
                    <td align="center">1022 (51.10)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Black</td>
                    <td align="center">197 (9.85)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Mixed</td>
                    <td align="center">781 (39.05)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hypertension, %</td>
                    <td align="center">1528 (76.4)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Dyslipidemia, %</td>
                    <td align="center">1615 (80.75)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Diabetes, %</td>
                    <td align="center">778 (38.9)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Metabolic syndrome, %</td>
                    <td align="center">595 (29.75)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Statin intensity, %</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>High-intensity</td>
                    <td align="center">893 (44.6)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Moderate-intensity</td>
                    <td align="center">529 (26.4)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Low-intensity</td>
                    <td align="center">4 (0.2)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>No statin</td>
                    <td align="center">574 (28.8)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Myocardial infarction</td>
                    <td align="center">215 (10.75)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Smoking, %</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Current</td>
                    <td align="center">110 (5.50)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Former</td>
                    <td align="center">467 (23.25)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>BMI, kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">30.88 (24.65-40.00)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Total cholesterol, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">227 (152-279)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">49 (40-59)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>LDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">156 (115-204)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Non-HDL-c, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">121 (96-155)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Triglycerides, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">124 (99-177)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>AST, U/L</td>
                    <td align="center">48 (48-60)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>ALT, U/L</td>
                    <td align="center">49 (49-61)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Glucose, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">102 (94-118)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HbA1c, %</td>
                    <td align="center">6.10 (5.70-6.70)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TSH, mUI/L</td>
                    <td align="center">2.65 (1.76-4.21)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>T4, ng/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">1.30 (1.14-1.51)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN1001">
                  <p>Categorical variables are expressed as frequencies (%); numerical variables expressed as median (IQR); correction for intensity of treatment was made multiplying total cholesterol or LDL-C by 1.43 (low-intensity), 1.65 (moderate intensity) and 2.00 (high intensity). HDL-c: high-density lipoprotein cholesterol; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol; ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; IQR: interquartile range; BMI: body mass index; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone; T4: free thyroxin.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>The cohort of 92 patients with definite or probable diagnosis of FH (Dutch Lipid Clinic Network) was also selected.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup> Among those, we found two patients with variants of uncertain significance (VUS) on <italic>LIPA</italic> gene, normal liver enzymes and no signs of hepatic steatosis. These patients were not screened for LAL activity.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Descriptive analysis of pediatric patients with criteria for LAL-D</title>
          <p>Eighteen patients were retrieved from the medical records of our lipid outpatient clinic and the CREIM (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t2001">Table 2</xref>). Of those, eight (44%) had LDL-C above target, and three (17%) had HDL-C &lt;40 mg/dL; in nine patients, AST and/or ALT were high. All criteria were present in five (28%) patients. One of these patients had genetic confirmation for Niemann-Pick disease, another had an inherited mitochondrial disease and were not selected for LAL-D screening.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t2001">
              <label>Table 2</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Characteristics of children screened for lysosomal acid lipase deficiency</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Variable</th>
                    <th>Total (N=18)</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Age, years</td>
                    <td align="center">12 (7-18)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Male/female, %</td>
                    <td align="center">12 (67)/6 (33)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Race, %</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Caucasian</td>
                    <td align="center">10 (55)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Black</td>
                    <td align="center">1 (6)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Mixed</td>
                    <td align="center">7 (39)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Lipid-lowering therapy, %</td>
                    <td> </td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>High-intensity</td>
                    <td align="center">0 (0)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Moderate-intensity</td>
                    <td align="center">1 (5)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Low-intensity / no therapy</td>
                    <td align="center">1 (5)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>No statins</td>
                    <td align="center">16 (90)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Body weight, Kg</td>
                    <td align="center">38 (26-48)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>BMI, Kg/m<sup>2</sup></td>
                    <td align="center">18 (17-19)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Heart rate, bpm</td>
                    <td align="center">70 (67-76)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Total cholesterol, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">213 (135-329)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">44 (21-64)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>LDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">152 (67-250)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Non-HDL-C, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">170 (82-265)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Triglycerides, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">91 (52-167)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Fasting glucose, mg/dL</td>
                    <td align="center">88 (77-103)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>HbA1c, %</td>
                    <td align="center">5.5 (4.8-6.3)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>AST (U/L)</td>
                    <td align="center">27 (18-66)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>ALT (U/L)</td>
                    <td align="center">19 (10-62)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>CK (U/L)</td>
                    <td align="center">135 (110-241)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>TSH (&#181;IU/L)</td>
                    <td align="center">3.30 (1.24-6.12)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN2001">
                  <p>Categorical variables are expressed as frequencies (%); numerical variables expressed as median (IQR). ALT: alanine aminotransferase; AST: aspartate aminotransferase; BMI: body mass index; HDL: high-density lipoprotein; IQR: interquartile range; LDL: low-density lipoprotein; SD: standard deviation; CK: creatine phosphokinase; TSH: thyroid-stimulating hormone.</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Descriptive analysis of patients with hepatic steatosis</title>
          <p><xref ref-type="table" rid="t3001">Table 3</xref> presents the characteristics of 168 patients with hepatic steatosis, either by ultrasound or hepatic biopsy. One-hundred and fifty-five (92.26%) patients presented steatosis at ultrasound, parenchymal hepatopathy was found in 12 (7.14%), and hepatic nodule in 1 (0.59%). From these findings we selected patients with corrected LDL-C &gt;160 mg/dL and HDL-C &lt;40 mg/dL in males or &lt;50 mg/dL in females, AST or ALT &gt;1.5x the ULN or hepatic steatosis by imaging methods.</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t3001">
              <label>Table 3</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Distribution of ultrasound findings and/or hepatic biopsy in the participants of the study</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th align="left">Variable</th>
                    <th>N=168</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Steatosis (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">155 (92.26)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Parenchimal hepatopathy (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">12 (7.14)</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td>Hepatic nodule (%)</td>
                    <td align="center">1 (0.59)</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN3001">
                  <p>Categorical variables are expressed as frequencies (%).</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>Analysis of patients with Wilson Disease without neurological involvement was not performed because there were no subjects with this criterion.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>LAL-activity</title>
          <p>From the selected databases, 21 (0.92%) patients had the inclusion criteria for LAL-D screening with LAL activity (three children and 18 adults); mean ALT/AST were, respectively, 83.7 and 96.7 U/L, mean total cholesterol was 248 mg/dL, LDL-C 222 mg/dL, and four had documented hepatic steatosis. Of those, two subjects did not agree to participate, three died, and it was not possible to contact eight patients, including the children. Eight patients signed the written informed consent and collected blood for the assay. Six were women, and two men aging 58-82 years; in 100% ALT was above 1.5 x upper limit of normality, two had hepatic steatosis, and all were taking high-intensity statins. No significant differences were found for patients selected and screened for LAL-D (Supplemental Table S1).</p>
          <p>The assay for LAL activity was performed in duplicates plus two positive and two negative controls. Mean LAL activity was normal (0.077 [&#177; 0.03] nmol/punch/h, reference value &gt;0.024 nmol/punch/h). Negative controls presented 0.096 nmol/punch/h and positive controls showed undetectable LAL activity (<xref ref-type="table" rid="t4001">Table 4</xref>).</p>
          <p>
            <table-wrap id="t4001">
              <label>Table 4</label>
              <caption>
                <title>&#8211; Results of lysosomal acid lipase (LAL) activity in enzimatic assay with the Lalistat-2 inhibitor</title>
              </caption>
              <table frame="hsides" rules="groups">
                <colgroup>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                  <col/>
                </colgroup>
                <thead>
                  <tr>
                    <th>Sample</th>
                    <th>Well</th>
                    <th>Values</th>
                    <th>Mean</th>
                    <th>SD</th>
                    <th>V%</th>
                    <th>Without - with</th>
                    <th>pmol/punch/L</th>
                    <th>Straight Line 4/11</th>
                  </tr>
                </thead>
                <tbody>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">01</td>
                    <td align="center">C2 D2</td>
                    <td align="center">2698.469 2714.956</td>
                    <td align="center">2706.713</td>
                    <td align="center">11.658</td>
                    <td align="center">0.4</td>
                    <td align="center">332.211</td>
                    <td align="center">40.991</td>
                    <td align="center">45.558</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">02</td>
                    <td align="center">C3 D3</td>
                    <td align="center">2794.832 2643.668</td>
                    <td align="center">2719.250</td>
                    <td align="center">106.889</td>
                    <td align="center">3.9</td>
                    <td align="center">488.673</td>
                    <td align="center">62.988</td>
                    <td align="center">73.908</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">03</td>
                    <td align="center">C4 D4</td>
                    <td align="center">2835.840 2881.884</td>
                    <td align="center">2858.862</td>
                    <td align="center">32.558</td>
                    <td align="center">1.1</td>
                    <td align="center">702.193</td>
                    <td align="center">92.940</td>
                    <td align="center">112.511</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">04</td>
                    <td align="center">C5 D5</td>
                    <td align="center">2867.881 2931.860</td>
                    <td align="center">2899.871</td>
                    <td align="center">45.240</td>
                    <td align="center">1.6</td>
                    <td align="center">651.496</td>
                    <td align="center">85.885</td>
                    <td align="center">103.418</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">05</td>
                    <td align="center">C6 D6</td>
                    <td align="center">2707.930 2725.490</td>
                    <td align="center">2716.710</td>
                    <td align="center">12.417</td>
                    <td align="center">0.5</td>
                    <td align="center">546.769</td>
                    <td align="center">71.117</td>
                    <td align="center">84.385</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">06</td>
                    <td align="center">C7 D7</td>
                    <td align="center">2781.802 2832.713</td>
                    <td align="center">2807.258</td>
                    <td align="center">36.000</td>
                    <td align="center">1.3</td>
                    <td align="center">602.909</td>
                    <td align="center">78.958</td>
                    <td align="center">94.490</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">07</td>
                    <td align="center">C8 D8</td>
                    <td align="center">2782.242 2791.745</td>
                    <td align="center">2786.994</td>
                    <td align="center">6.720</td>
                    <td align="center">0.2</td>
                    <td align="center">608.951</td>
                    <td align="center">79.848</td>
                    <td align="center">95.638</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">08</td>
                    <td align="center">C9 D9</td>
                    <td align="center">2824.358 2847.077</td>
                    <td align="center">2835.718</td>
                    <td align="center">16.065</td>
                    <td align="center">0.6</td>
                    <td align="center">776.723</td>
                    <td align="center">103.405</td>
                    <td align="center">125.998</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">+ Control</td>
                    <td align="center">G10 H10</td>
                    <td align="center">2693.484 2824.164</td>
                    <td align="center">2758.824</td>
                    <td align="center">92.405</td>
                    <td align="center">3.3</td>
                    <td align="center">-40.715</td>
                    <td align="center">-11.371</td>
                    <td align="center">-21.928</td>
                  </tr>
                  <tr>
                    <td align="center">- Control</td>
                    <td align="center">G9 H9</td>
                    <td align="center">2806.659 2734.641</td>
                    <td align="center">2770.650</td>
                    <td align="center">50.924</td>
                    <td align="center">1.8</td>
                    <td align="center">729.464</td>
                    <td align="center">96.769</td>
                    <td align="center">117.446</td>
                  </tr>
                </tbody>
              </table>
              <table-wrap-foot>
                <fn id="TFN4001">
                  <p>Tests were performed in duplicates for each patient and a positive (+ Control) and negative controls (- Control); LAL-activity performed with the inhibitor lalistat-2; Results shown in nmol/punch/h (reference value &gt;0.024 nmol/punch/h).</p>
                </fn>
              </table-wrap-foot>
            </table-wrap>
          </p>
          <p>We tried to find more details of these patients, and a 41-year-old woman, whose LAL activity was previously normal, repeated the test for LAL activity after one of her children had died. LAL activity was 0.00 nmol/punch/h in two further tests. She presented hepatomegaly, hepatic steatosis, confirming LAL-D. Her nine-year-old daughter had hepatosplenomegaly and hepatic steatosis, AST and ALT levels of 55 and 35 U/L, respectively, total cholesterol and LDL-C of 212 mg/dL and 148 mg/dL, respectively; HDL-C 12 mg/dL, non-HDL-C 200 mg/dL, and TG 256 mg/dL. The onset of symptoms occurred at three years old; she presented with intermittent diarrhea, and failure to thrive. At the age of four, her body weight was 16 Kg (z score of &#8722;0.56), and her height was 93 cm (z score of &#8722;3.0). Liver biopsy showed grade 3 macro- and micro- vesicular diffuse steatosis in 60% of the hepatocytes, enlargement of portal spaces with enlarged micro vacuolized macrophages and hepatocytes. By age nine, she developed progressive hepatosplenomegaly and worsening of diarrheic episodes. She underwent several hospitalizations due to respiratory distress secondary to severe hepatosplenomegaly and died at age nine due to pneumonia and septic shock.</p>
          <p>Differential diagnosis of LAL-D for the deceased child included analyzing blood samples and liver biopsies. Three liver biopsies at different hospitals showed macro- and micro-vesicular steatosis, with a pattern similar to that of Niemann-Pick C disease.</p>
          <p>Blood samples were collected but were analyzed post-mortem. The tests were designed to assess enzyme activity associated with various lysosomal storage disorders. Chitotriosidase activity was measured in plasma, using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA); sphingomyelinase activity was assessed in leukocytes to rule out Niemann-Pick disease; beta-glucosidase activity was measured in leukocytes to evaluate for Gaucher disease; a comprehensive panel obtained by dried blood spots tested for chitotriosidase, sphingomyelinase, beta-glucosidase, and lysosomal acid lipase activity, providing a broader assessment for lysosomal storage diseases. All the tests, except for LAL-D were within the normal range. Undetectable enzymatic activity (0 nmol/punch/h) was observed (reference range &gt;0.024 nmol/punch/h), confirming the diagnosis of LAL deficiency. These enzyme assays were essential in differentiating LAL-D from other lysosomal storage disorders with overlapping clinical features.</p>
          <p>Her autopsy revealed disseminated lipid and cholesterol crystal accumulation in the liver, spleen, bone marrow, and gastrointestinal tract, and severe steatosis with lipid-filled histiocytes. No adrenal calcification was observed. This girl was the index case of her family, second of five siblings from the same mother, who has a son (unaffected) and a daughter (this patient) from her first marriage, and three other sons (all affected), from her second marriage. Both marriages were nonconsanguineous unions, and both fathers are not related.</p>
          <p>Screening of the three male half-brothers was performed, and they presented LAL activity of 0.0087 nmol/punch/h, 0.00 nmol/punch/h, and 0.00 nmol/punch/h, confirming the diagnosis of LAL-D. Their case reports have been previously published.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> We further performed genetic tests of the mother and three half-brothers of the index case obtaining DNA extracted from saliva. Genetic sequencing (NGS) using a panel that included the <italic>LIPA</italic> gene did not find any pathogenic variants, not allowing to discard changes in the non-coding region of the genes analyzed, such as regulatory regions, intergenic and intronic sequences distant from the exons.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="discussion">
        <title>Discussion</title>
        <p>In this study we investigated the prevalence of LAL-D in an outpatient population of subjects with dyslipidemias, and used an algorithm based on previously confirmed clinical cases that were diagnosed using the enzymatic assay for LAL activity.</p>
        <p>The disease is reported to be very rare, with cholesteryl ester accumulation in tissues like liver, spleen, bone marrow, adrenal glands, lymph nodes, intestinal villi, vascular wall, and skeletal muscles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> A more severe form is recognized in children, and less pronounced manifestations can be seen in adults, depending on LAL enzymatic activity.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup> In our study, in the lipid clinic, in 2,018 individuals we found 21 (0.92%) at high-risk for LAL-D, and among the eight that were initially tested for LAL activity, we could not confirm any case. However, a post-mortem positive test in a child (index case) confirmed the mother and three affected half-brothers.</p>
        <p>The Update of Brazilian Guidelines for Dyslipidemia and Atherosclerosis Prevention<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> recognize the gap in the diagnosis of the disease and suggests an algorithm to screen for LAL-D (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f01001">Central Illustration</xref>). Individuals with LAL-D experience great burden of disease, and according to their reports, symptoms are constant, including abdominal pain, hepatosplenomegaly, headache, weakness, pruritus, skin lesions.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup>In children, the phenotype can be present in the first months of life, with abdominal enlargement, failure to thrive, hepatomegaly or hepatosplenomegaly, hepatic steatosis, and adrenal calcification.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>There is a huge spectrum of manifestations of the disease of late onset. Symptoms can be mild and not be perceived, leading to underdiagnosis. On the other hand, in the most severe cases, liver alterations can lead to hepatic cirrhosis and death.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> A higher cardiovascular risk, with history of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease or ischemic stroke can be present.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Lipid abnormalities are a common feature in dyslipidemias of different etiologies, either genetic or secondary to certain drugs or comorbidities, such as diabetes, obesity, metabolic syndrome.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Hypercholesterolemia that does not respond to conventional lipid-lowering therapy, with mild elevation of liver function enzymes, can raise suspicion of LAL-D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup>In FH, with definite or probable criteria, in whom pathogenic or probably pathogenic variants are detected, phenocopies, such as LAL-D must be ruled out, because appropriate diagnosis and timely treatment can restore or prevent liver alterations. Chora et al.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup> described cases of LAL-D in a cohort of patients with suspected FH (n=492), presenting severe dyslipidemia, with negative genetic diagnosis for FH genes, or with VUS. The analyses of their families were also performed. In that study the authors identified four children with LAL-D.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Another way to screen LAL-D is by the presence of metabolic syndrome with liver abnormalities in hepatic biopsy<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup> or ultrasound suggestive of MASH or MAFLD and, rarely, in Wilson&#8217;s disease without neurological signs.</p>
        <p>In this study we searched for LAL-D in adult patients (2,000 subjects) assisted in a reference center for dyslipidemias, including patients with suspected FH (N=92), those with hepatic disease (N=168), and in 18 children.</p>
        <p>Early and accurate diagnosis of LAL-D is crucial to institute appropriate and timely treatment. Specific assays for LAL-D should be available not only for research, but also in the public health system.</p>
        <p>Some countries in Latin America developed algorithms to diagnose LAL-D,<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B29">29</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B30">30</xref></sup> and Brazil has included the search for LAL-D in the Update of Brazilian Guidelines for Dyslipidemia and Atherosclerosis Prevention.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup> However, implementation of this measure is lacking.</p>
        <sec>
          <title>Mapping human genes opened new perspectives for the diagnosis of inherited diseases and allowed preventive and therapeutic strategies.</title>
          <p>There remain many questions to be answered regarding diagnosis of LAL-D. Disease awareness, early diagnosis and treatment can refrain atherosclerosis and hepatic dysfunction progression. In case reports of affected individuals, the experience with enzyme replacement therapy has shown considerable improvement in symptoms and quality of life, with few adverse events and a positive effect for patients and care givers. The greatest achievement was the increase in life expectancy.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B31">31</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B32">32</xref></sup></p>
          <p>To date there are not sufficient studies on prevalence of LAL-D in Brazil, and the disease remains underdiagnosed. LAL-D has signs and symptoms that are seen in other diseases that affect the liver, spleen, and the lipid profile. LAL activity is variable and the different phenotypes, Wolman disease and CESD, have distinct presentation, disease progression and mortality.</p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Study strengths and limitations</title>
          <p>Strenghts: this study was performed in a reference center for dyslipidemias, used a previously described screening algorithm, and included 2,018 patients. LAL-D is a rare disease, but presents common manifestations, such as high LDL-C, low HDL-C, increased leves of AST/ALT, and hepatic steatosis, which are common features in a lipid clinic.</p>
          <p>Limitations: the study was retrospective, liver enzymes were obtained under statin treatment, and LAL activity was not performed in leukocytes. We did not test discrimination or accuracy of the algorithm. In fact, LAL-D is much more an exclusionary diagnosis, when testing for FH or other genetic dyslipidemias.</p>
        </sec>
      </sec>
      <sec sec-type="conclusions">
        <title>Conclusion</title>
        <p>Screening for LAL-D in a reference center for dyslipidemias using an algorithm including clinical and laboratory measures, selected 21 high-risk patients. However, enzymatic LAL activity did not confirm the disease in eight tested subjects. From a suspected mother, a child had a post-mortem confirmation of LAL-D, that further enabled the diagnosis of the mother and three affected half-brothers.</p>
        <p>Identifying LAL-D remains a challenge, and this algorithm may assist in selecting high-risk patients for LAL-D screening. Nevertheless, this algorithm has not been validated for accuracy or discriminatory ability. Given its rarity and overlapping features with other genetic dyslipidemias, LAL-D is primarily a diagnosis of exclusion, often considered when other conditions have been ruled out.</p>
      </sec>
    </body>
    <back>
      <fn-group>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Study association:</label>
          <p> This article is part of the thesis of master submitted by Zenia Brasil, from Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Ethics approval and consent to participate:</label>
          <p> This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Federal de S&#227;o Paulo under the protocol number 58743616.8.0000.5505. All the procedures in this study were in accordance with the 1975 Helsinki Declaration, updated in 2013.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="other">
          <label>Use of Artificial Intelligence:</label>
          <p> The authors did not use any artificial intelligence tools in the development of this work.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="data-availability" specific-use="data-available-upon-request">
          <label>Data Availability:</label>
          <p> Data can be available upon request.</p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supplementary-material" id="suppl01001">
          <label>*Supplemental Materials</label>
          <p> For additional information, <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="http://abccardiol.org/supplementary-material/2025/12208/2024-0825_AO_Supplemental_Table_S1.pdf">please click here</ext-link> </p>
        </fn>
        <fn fn-type="supported-by">
          <label>Sources of funding:</label>
          <p> This study was partially funded by Alexion Pharmaceuticals.</p>
        </fn>
      </fn-group>
    </back>
  </sub-article>
</article>
