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<article xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" article-type="editorial" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="pt">
  <front>
    <journal-meta>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="nlm-ta">Arq Bras Cardiol</journal-id>
      <journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">abc</journal-id>
      <journal-title-group>
        <journal-title>Arquivos Brasileiros de Cardiologia</journal-title>
        <abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">Arq. Bras. Cardiol.</abbrev-journal-title>
      </journal-title-group>
      <issn pub-type="ppub">0066-782X</issn>
      <issn pub-type="epub">1678-4170</issn>
      <publisher>
        <publisher-name>Sociedade Brasileira de Cardiologia - SBC</publisher-name>
      </publisher>
    </journal-meta>
    <article-meta>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v3" pub-id-type="publisher-id">hXBpw6P7zgHz3QyFgXZgsSQ</article-id>
      <article-id specific-use="scielo-v2" pub-id-type="publisher-id">S0066-782X2025000700101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="other">00101</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250386</article-id>
      <article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">abc.20250386</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>Do Metabolismo do Colesterol &#224; Lipidologia Abrangente e &#224; Intera&#231;&#227;o com a Inflama&#231;&#227;o: Expandindo as Fronteiras da Preven&#231;&#227;o Cardiovascular</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1886-6641</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9582-7881</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bettencourt</surname>
            <given-names>Nuno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff3">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff1">
          <label>1</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vila Nova de Gaia</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho, Vila Nova de Gaia &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff2">
          <label>2</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Porto</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff3">
          <label>3</label>
          <institution content-type="orgname">Universidade do Porto</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv1">Faculdade de Medicina</institution>
          <institution content-type="orgdiv2">UniC@RISE</institution>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">UniC@RISE, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c1"><label>Correspond&#234;ncia:</label><bold>Eduardo Vilela</bold> &#8226; Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho &#8211; Rua Concei&#231;&#227;o Fernandes, Vila Nova de Gaia, <postal-code>4434-502</postal-code> &#8211; Portugal E-mail: <email>eduardomvilela@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <pub-date date-type="pub" publication-format="electronic">
        <day>26</day>
        <month>09</month>
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <pub-date date-type="collection" publication-format="electronic">
        <year>2025</year>
      </pub-date>
      <volume>122</volume>
      <issue>7</issue>
      <elocation-id>e20250386</elocation-id>
      <history>
        <date date-type="received">
          <day>27</day>
          <month>05</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="rev-recd">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
        <date date-type="accepted">
          <day>04</day>
          <month>06</month>
          <year>2025</year>
        </date>
      </history>
      <permissions>
        <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
          <license-p>This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License</license-p>
        </license>
      </permissions>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="pt">
        <title>Palavras-chave</title>
        <kwd>Colesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflama&#231;&#227;o</kwd>
        <kwd>Fatores de Risco de Doen&#231;as Card&#237;acas</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
      <counts>
        <fig-count count="2"/>
        <table-count count="0"/>
        <equation-count count="0"/>
        <ref-count count="28"/>
      </counts>
    </article-meta>
  </front>
  <body>
    <sec>
      <title>Lip&#237;dios e doen&#231;a cardiovascular (DCV)</title>
      <p>O metabolismo lip&#237;dico envolve uma ampla variedade de vias complexas que desempenham pap&#233;is fundamentais tanto na fisiologia normal quanto na patologia.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Os lip&#237;dios s&#227;o essenciais para manter a integridade das membranas celulares, al&#233;m de sustentarem o equil&#237;brio energ&#233;tico e a homeostase metab&#243;lica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Entre esses compostos, o colesterol tem recebido aten&#231;&#227;o especial devido &#224; sua forte associa&#231;&#227;o com a DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
      <p>Embora o colesterol seja vital para diversas fun&#231;&#245;es fisiol&#243;gicas &#8212; como a forma&#231;&#227;o da estrutura do sistema nervoso e a produ&#231;&#227;o de horm&#244;nios esteroides &#8212; seu papel no desenvolvimento da DCV tem sido amplamente investigado.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> A DCV, especialmente a DCV ateroscler&#243;tica (DCVA), continua sendo um dos principais problemas de sa&#250;de p&#250;blica no mundo. Os avan&#231;os no entendimento do metabolismo lip&#237;dico t&#234;m contribu&#237;do significativamente para moldar estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o ao longo das &#250;ltimas d&#233;cadas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
      <p>O progresso nessa &#225;rea tem sido impulsionado por pesquisas interdisciplinares, que abrangem desde a ci&#234;ncia b&#225;sica at&#233; estudos cl&#237;nicos. As contribui&#231;&#245;es da epidemiologia e da gen&#233;tica forneceram uma base s&#243;lida para o desenvolvimento de terapias eficazes.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
      <sec>
        <title>Do metabolismo do colesterol &#224; terapia baseada em estatinas</title>
        <p>O colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade (LDL-C) foi associado de forma causal &#224; DCVA, tornando-se um alvo prim&#225;rio nas estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o &#8212; posi&#231;&#227;o amplamente respaldada pelas diretrizes cl&#237;nicas atuais.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Por outro lado, o potencial efeito protetor do colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de alta densidade (HDL-C) tamb&#233;m tem despertado grande interesse, embora as tentativas de modificar o HDL-C por meio de interven&#231;&#245;es farmacol&#243;gicas tenham, em sua maioria, sido malsucedidas.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Embora uma discuss&#227;o aprofundada sobre a biologia lip&#237;dica esteja al&#233;m do escopo deste artigo, vale lembrar que o LDL-C exerce um papel central como transportador de colesterol para a parede arterial, desencadeando uma s&#233;rie de respostas desadaptativas associadas ao desenvolvimento e &#224; progress&#227;o da placa ateroscler&#243;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Al&#233;m do LDL-C, outras lipoprote&#237;nas contendo apolipoprote&#237;na B tamb&#233;m participam desses mecanismos aterog&#234;nicos.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A associa&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de colesterol e a DCVA vem recebendo respaldo cient&#237;fico h&#225; mais de um s&#233;culo, a partir de trabalhos pioneiros como os de Windaus e Anitschkow.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Dados iniciais sobre a hipercolesterolemia familiar (HF), publicados h&#225; mais de 80 anos, refor&#231;aram ainda mais esse conceito ao estabelecerem uma rela&#231;&#227;o entre colesterol, DCV e gen&#233;tica &#8212; muito antes do surgimento de muitas das t&#233;cnicas atualmente consideradas padr&#227;o nessa &#225;rea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Essas descobertas fundamentais influenciaram profundamente a compreens&#227;o da aterosclerose e contribu&#237;ram para a identifica&#231;&#227;o de novos alvos terap&#234;uticos, como exemplificado pelo desenvolvimento dos inibidores da pr&#243;-prote&#237;na convertase subtilisina/quexina tipo 9 (PCSK9).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Nas d&#233;cadas seguintes, houve avan&#231;os cont&#237;nuos, com destaque para o trabalho de Goldstein e Brown &#8212; figuras centrais nesse per&#237;odo transformador, como ser&#225; discutido mais adiante. Marcos importantes incluem a elucida&#231;&#227;o da via biossint&#233;tica do colesterol &#8212; reconhecida com o Pr&#234;mio Nobel concedido a Bloch e Lynen &#8212; e o estabelecimento da rela&#231;&#227;o entre os n&#237;veis de colesterol e a doen&#231;a card&#237;aca isqu&#234;mica, inicialmente demonstrada por Gofman na d&#233;cada de 1950 e posteriormente ampliada por estudos cl&#225;ssicos, como o Seven Countries Study e o Framingham Heart Study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Esse campo em r&#225;pida evolu&#231;&#227;o deu um salto significativo na d&#233;cada de 1970 com a descoberta do receptor de LDL. Esse feito marcante na pesquisa sobre lip&#237;dios rendeu aos seus descobridores o Pr&#234;mio Nobel em 1985.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Mais uma vez, os conhecimentos oriundos da HF desempenharam um papel fundamental no desenvolvimento dos estudos que culminaram nessa descoberta.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Os laureados com o Nobel, Michael Brown e Joseph Goldstein, continuaram a realizar contribui&#231;&#245;es importantes nas d&#233;cadas seguintes &#8212; especialmente por meio de seus trabalhos sobre a prote&#237;na de liga&#231;&#227;o ao elemento regulador do esterol, que aprofundaram ainda mais o entendimento sobre o metabolismo do colesterol.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Ao refletirmos sobre o 40&#186; anivers&#225;rio de seu Pr&#234;mio Nobel, a duradoura e influente parceria entre Brown e Goldstein exemplifica o longo e rigoroso caminho que levou aos padr&#245;es cl&#237;nicos atuais, al&#233;m de destacar o profundo impacto dos avan&#231;os na biologia lip&#237;dica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Seus trabalhos figuram ao lado de outras contribui&#231;&#245;es hist&#243;ricas da medicina cardiovascular que ajudaram a moldar a pr&#225;tica cl&#237;nica contempor&#226;nea.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A modula&#231;&#227;o do LDL-C passou por uma transforma&#231;&#227;o significativa com a introdu&#231;&#227;o da terapia com estatinas, que aumentou consideravelmente a efic&#225;cia do tratamento em compara&#231;&#227;o a agentes anteriores, como o &#225;cido nicot&#237;nico e a colestiramina.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> As estatinas, que inibem a enzima hidroximetilglutaril-coenzima A (HMG-CoA) redutase, foram desenvolvidas inicialmente por Akira Endo, ap&#243;s a triagem de milhares de esp&#233;cies de fungos. Seu trabalho foi parcialmente inspirado por sua inf&#226;ncia no Jap&#227;o rural do s&#233;culo XX e pelo exemplo da descoberta da penicilina por Alexander Fleming.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
        <p>A conex&#227;o entre estatinas e penicilina vai al&#233;m da inspira&#231;&#227;o de Fleming: apesar da grande quantidade de fungos estudados por Endo, ambos os compostos foram, em &#250;ltima an&#225;lise, derivados de fungos do mesmo g&#234;nero.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Endo tamb&#233;m atribuiu &#224; sua experi&#234;ncia formativa de pesquisa nos Estados Unidos &#8212; onde teve contato com a carga da DCV &#8212; um papel crucial na defini&#231;&#227;o de seu percurso cient&#237;fico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Mais uma vez, a HF teve papel central nesses avan&#231;os, j&#225; que os testes cl&#237;nicos iniciais com estatinas foram realizados nessa popula&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Embora o perfil de seguran&#231;a das estatinas exija aten&#231;&#227;o &#8212; nomeadamente diante do poss&#237;vel efeito nocebo relacionado a efeitos adversos percebidos &#8212;, esses f&#225;rmacos trouxeram benef&#237;cios substanciais na redu&#231;&#227;o do risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Desde o desenvolvimento da compactina (a primeira estatina) e da lovastatina (a primeira estatina aprovada pela Food and Drug Administration dos Estados Unidos, em 1987), seguidas por agentes mais potentes, como a atorvastatina e a rosuvastatina, novos desafios t&#234;m surgido.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Entre eles, destaca-se o reconhecimento crescente de que redu&#231;&#245;es mais intensas dos n&#237;veis de LDL-C podem estar associadas a melhores desfechos. Al&#233;m disso, h&#225; evid&#234;ncias de que a dura&#231;&#227;o da exposi&#231;&#227;o ao LDL-C elevado &#8212; &#224;s vezes referida como "anos de colesterol" &#8212; e a carga ateroscler&#243;tica podem influenciar substancialmente o risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Associadamente, embora os benef&#237;cios das estatinas na DCVA estejam bem estabelecidos, a quest&#227;o do risco residual permanece como um desafio importante e complexo (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f1">Figura 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
        <fig id="f1">
          <label>Figura 1</label>
          <caption>
            <title>Dislipidemia como elemento central na doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica. DCVA: doen&#231;a cardiovascular ateroscler&#243;tica; LDL-C: colesterol de lipoprote&#237;na de baixa densidade.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> As limita&#231;&#245;es da terapia baseada em estatinas (lista n&#227;o exaustiva) incluem a obten&#231;&#227;o sub&#243;tima das metas de LDL-C, efeitos adversos associados &#224;s estatinas que podem comprometer a ades&#227;o ao tratamento e poss&#237;veis intera&#231;&#245;es medicamentosas. O risco residual reflete o envolvimento de m&#250;ltiplas vias subjacentes.</title>
          </caption>
          <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-07-e20250386-50386-gf01.jpg"/></fig>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Intera&#231;&#227;o inflamat&#243;ria e modula&#231;&#227;o lip&#237;dica abrangente</title>
        <p>A inflama&#231;&#227;o &#233; atualmente reconhecida como um importante fator contribuinte para a DCV.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Embora essa rela&#231;&#227;o tenha sido j&#225; sugerida nos trabalhos seminais de Virchow, sua relev&#226;ncia cl&#237;nica tem ganhado crescente destaque ao longo do tempo.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Pesquisas em andamento continuam a refor&#231;ar a import&#226;ncia dessa intera&#231;&#227;o, com evid&#234;ncias demonstrando que, em determinados contextos, o direcionamento terap&#234;utico da inflama&#231;&#227;o pode reduzir ainda mais os eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Al&#233;m das terapias anti-inflamat&#243;rias espec&#237;ficas, estudos demonstraram que agentes como as estatinas tamb&#233;m podem apresentar efeitos anti-inflamat&#243;rios, o que refor&#231;a a relev&#226;ncia dessa conex&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> No entanto, dados emergentes sugerem que os mecanismos subjacentes &#224; inflama&#231;&#227;o e ao metabolismo lip&#237;dico podem envolver vias distintas e parcialmente independentes. Isso ampliou a compreens&#227;o sobre o risco cardiovascular residual e ressalta o potencial valor de estrat&#233;gias personalizadas, ajustadas ao perfil de risco individual.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Apesar desses avan&#231;os, &#233; not&#225;vel que, mais de um s&#233;culo ap&#243;s as primeiras observa&#231;&#245;es de Virchow, muitos aspectos da intera&#231;&#227;o entre inflama&#231;&#227;o e risco relacionado aos lip&#237;dios ainda permanecem pouco compreendidos. Esfor&#231;os cont&#237;nuos s&#227;o necess&#225;rios para preencher essas lacunas de conhecimento e aprimorar as estrat&#233;gias de manejo ideal do risco cardiovascular.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Para al&#233;m do LDL-C, outras part&#237;culas lip&#237;dicas, como a lipoprote&#237;na(a) [Lp(a)], v&#234;m ganhando aten&#231;&#227;o crescente, &#224; medida que evid&#234;ncias acumuladas as associam a eventos cardiovasculares.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Al&#233;m disso, lip&#237;dios como os esfingolip&#237;dios &#8212; cujo nome faz refer&#234;ncia &#224; enigm&#225;tica Esfinge da mitologia antiga, refletindo seu papel biol&#243;gico outrora misterioso &#8212; tamb&#233;m t&#234;m emergido como potenciais marcadores de risco.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
        <p>O desenvolvimento de terapias n&#227;o baseadas em estatinas tem sido descrito como o in&#237;cio de uma nova era no manejo lip&#237;dico.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Inova&#231;&#245;es como anticorpos monoclonais, terapias baseadas em RNA e o direcionamento de vias moleculares in&#233;ditas &#8212; com destaque para a modula&#231;&#227;o da PCSK9 &#8212; est&#227;o na vanguarda dessa evolu&#231;&#227;o.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Quando combinadas com avan&#231;os em tecnologias de imagem e procedimentos invasivos, especialmente os baseados em t&#233;cnicas percut&#226;neas, essas novas terapias sustentam uma transi&#231;&#227;o para abordagens mais individualizadas, com foco na carga ateroscler&#243;tica.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
      </sec>
      <sec>
        <title>Mudan&#231;a de paradigmas e perspectivas futuras</title>
        <p>O metabolismo lip&#237;dico e sua modula&#231;&#227;o continuam sendo pilares da medicina cardiovascular, desempenhando um papel fundamental ao longo de todo o espectro da DCV. Desde as investiga&#231;&#245;es iniciais sobre a biologia dos lip&#237;dios at&#233; o estabelecimento do LDL-C como alvo terap&#234;utico central &#8212; somado ao reconhecimento crescente de outras part&#237;culas lip&#237;dicas e sua intera&#231;&#227;o com vias inflamat&#243;rias &#8212;, as estrat&#233;gias de preven&#231;&#227;o passaram por uma transforma&#231;&#227;o profunda.</p>
        <p>As inova&#231;&#245;es passadas nessa &#225;rea e os valiosos conhecimentos que proporcionaram devem ser reconhecidos &#224; medida que continuamos a expandir as fronteiras do conhecimento e a avan&#231;ar rumo a uma era de estrat&#233;gias cada vez mais personalizadas para reduzir a carga da DCVA.</p>
      </sec>
    </sec>
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  <sub-article article-type="translation" id="S1" xml:lang="en">
    <front-stub>
      <article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.36660/abc.20250386i</article-id>
      <article-categories>
        <subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
          <subject>Editorial</subject>
        </subj-group>
      </article-categories>
      <title-group>
        <article-title>From Cholesterol Metabolism to Comprehensive Lipid Management and Crosstalk of Inflammation: Expanding the Frontiers of Cardiovascular Prevention</article-title>
      </title-group>
      <contrib-group>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-1886-6641</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Vilela</surname>
            <given-names>Eduardo</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff4">
            <sup>1</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff5">
            <sup>2</sup>
          </xref>
          <xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
        </contrib>
        <contrib contrib-type="author">
          <contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9582-7881</contrib-id>
          <name>
            <surname>Bettencourt</surname>
            <given-names>Nuno</given-names>
          </name>
          <xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff6">
            <sup>3</sup>
          </xref>
        </contrib>
        <aff id="aff4">
          <label>1</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Vila Nova de Gaia</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho, Vila Nova de Gaia &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff5">
          <label>2</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
        <aff id="aff6">
          <label>3</label>
          <addr-line>
            <named-content content-type="city">Porto</named-content>
          </addr-line>
          <country country="PT">Portugal</country>
          <institution content-type="original">UniC@RISE, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade do Porto, Porto &#8211; Portugal</institution>
        </aff>
      </contrib-group>
      <author-notes>
        <corresp id="c2"><label>Mailing Address:</label><bold>Eduardo Vilela</bold> &#8226; Servi&#231;o de Cardiologia, Unidade Local de Sa&#250;de de Gaia e Espinho &#8211; Rua Concei&#231;&#227;o Fernandes, Vila Nova de Gaia, <postal-code>4434-502</postal-code> &#8211; Portugal E-mail: <email>eduardomvilela@gmail.com</email> </corresp>
      </author-notes>
      <kwd-group xml:lang="en">
        <title>Keywords</title>
        <kwd>Cholesterol</kwd>
        <kwd>Inflammation</kwd>
        <kwd>Heart Disease Risk Factors</kwd>
      </kwd-group>
    </front-stub>
    <body>
      <sec>
        <title>Lipids and cardiovascular disease (CVD)</title>
        <p>Lipid metabolism involves a wide range of complex pathways that play key roles in both normal physiology and disease.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Lipids are essential for maintaining cell membrane integrity and supporting energy balance and metabolic homeostasis.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref></sup> Among them, cholesterol has drawn particular attention for its strong association with CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref></sup></p>
        <p>While cholesterol is vital for several physiological functions &#8212; such as those related to nervous system structure and steroid hormone production &#8212; its role in the development of CVD has also been extensively studied.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B1">1</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref></sup> CVD, and particularly atherosclerotic CVD (ASCVD), remains a leading global health burden, and advances in our understanding of lipid metabolism have significantly shaped prevention strategies over the past decades.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup></p>
        <p>Progress in this field has been driven by interdisciplinary research, spanning from basic science to clinical studies. Contributions from epidemiology and genetics have provided a solid foundation for developing effective therapies.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
        <sec>
          <title>From cholesterol metabolism to statin-based therapy</title>
          <p>Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) has been causally linked to ASCVD, making it a primary target in prevention strategies &#8212; a position strongly supported by current clinical guidelines.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> Conversely, the potential protective role of high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) has also attracted significant interest, although efforts to modify HDL-C pharmacologically have largely been elusive.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Although an extensive discussion concerning lipid biology is beyond the scope of this article, it should be recalled that LDL-C has a pivotal role as a carrier of cholesterol to the artery's wall, with an ensuing plethora of maladaptive responses linked to atherosclerotic plaque development and progression.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup> In addition to LDL-C, other apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins are also involved in these atherogenic mechanisms.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B7">7</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The association between cholesterol levels and ASCVD has been gaining support for over a century, spearheaded by pioneering works such as those by Windaus and Anitschkow.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> Early data on familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), published more than 80 years ago, further reinforced this concept by linking cholesterol, CVD, and genetics &#8212; well before the advent of many of the techniques now standard in this field.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup> These foundational findings profoundly influenced our understanding of atherosclerosis and helped pave the way for identifying new therapeutic targets, as exemplified by the development of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 (PCSK9) inhibitors.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The following decades brought steady advances, as highlighted by the work of Goldstein and Brown &#8212; key figures in this transformative period, discussed further below. Major milestones included the elucidation of the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway &#8212; recognized with the Nobel Prize awarded to Bloch and Lynen &#8212; and the establishment of a link between cholesterol levels and ischemic heart disease, initially demonstrated by Gofman in the 1950s and later expanded through landmark studies such as the Seven Countries Study and the Framingham Heart Study.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>This fast-advancing field made significant strides in the 1970s with the discovery of the LDL receptor. This landmark achievement in lipid research earned its discoverers the Nobel Prize in 1985.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Once again, insights from FH played a crucial role in driving the studies that led to this breakthrough.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The Nobel laureates, Michael Brown and Joseph Goldstein, continued to make major contributions to the field in the decades that followed &#8212; particularly through their work on sterol regulatory element-binding proteins, which further advanced our understanding of cholesterol metabolism.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref></sup></p>
          <p>As we reflect on the 40th anniversary of their Nobel Prize, their enduring and influential partnership exemplifies the long and rigorous path toward today's clinical standards and highlights the profound impact of advances in lipid biology.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B3">3</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B6">6</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref></sup> Their work stands alongside other landmark contributions in cardiovascular medicine that have helped shape current practice.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B10">10</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B11">11</xref></sup></p>
          <p>LDL-C modulation underwent a major transformation with the introduction of statin therapy, which significantly enhanced therapeutic outlooks compared to earlier agents such as nicotinic acid and cholestyramine.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B12">12</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Statins, which inhibit hydroxymethylglutaryl-coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, were first developed by Akira Endo after extensive screening of thousands of fungi. His work was partly inspired by his upbringing in rural 20th-century Japan and by the example of Alexander Fleming's discovery of penicillin.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Interestingly, the connection between statins and penicillin extends beyond Fleming's influence: despite the large number of fungi studied by Endo, both compounds were ultimately derived from fungi of the same genus.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B14">14</xref></sup> Endo also credited his formative research experience in the United States &#8212; where he was exposed to the burden of CVD &#8212; as pivotal in shaping his scientific path.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B15">15</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Once again, FH played a key role in these advances, as early clinical testing of statins was conducted in this population.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B9">9</xref></sup> Although the safety profile of statins warrants attention &#8212; namely in light of the possible nocebo effect related to perceived side effects &#8212; these drugs have brought substantial benefits in reducing cardiovascular risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Since the development of compactin (the first statin) and lovastatin (the first statin approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1987), followed by more potent agents such as atorvastatin and rosuvastatin, new challenges have emerged.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B13">13</xref></sup> Among them is the evolving recognition that greater reductions in LDL-C levels can be associated with improved outcomes. Additionally, evidence suggests that the duration of exposure to elevated LDL-C &#8212; sometimes referred to as "cholesterol-years" &#8212; and atherosclerotic burden may substantially influence risk.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B16">16</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref></sup> Moreover, while the benefits of statins in ASCVD are well established, the issue of residual risk remains a significant and complex challenge (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="f2">Figure 1</xref>).<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref></sup></p>
          <fig id="f2">
            <label>Figure 1</label>
            <caption>
              <title>Dyslipidemia as a central element in atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease. ASCVD: atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease; LDL-C: low-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Limitations of statin-based therapy (non-exhaustive) include suboptimal LDL-C goal attainment, statin-associated adverse effects that may affect adherence, and potential drug interactions. Residual risk reflects the involvement of multiple underlying pathways.</title>
            </caption>
            <graphic xlink:href="1678-4170-abc-122-07-e20250386-50386-gf01-en.jpg"/></fig>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Inflammatory crosstalk and comprehensive lipid modulation</title>
          <p>Inflammation is now recognized an important contributor of CVD.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref></sup> Although this link was already suggested in the seminal work of Virchow, its clinical significance has gained increasing attention over time.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B21">21</xref></sup> Ongoing research continues to underscore the importance of this interplay, with evidence showing that in certain contexts, targeting inflammation can further reduce cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>-<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Beyond dedicated anti-inflammatory therapies, studies have shown that agents like statins may also exert anti-inflammatory effects, reinforcing the relevance of this connection.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B20">20</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B23">23</xref></sup> Nevertheless, emerging data suggest that the underlying mechanisms of inflammation and lipid metabolism may involve distinct, partially independent pathways. This has expanded the perspective on residual cardiovascular risk and highlights the potential value of personalized strategies tailored to individual risk profiles.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B24">24</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Despite these advances, it is striking that more than a century after Virchow's initial insights, many aspects of the interaction between inflammation and lipid-related risk remain poorly understood. Ongoing efforts are needed to close these knowledge gaps and refine strategies for optimal cardiovascular risk management.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B2">2</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B22">22</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B25">25</xref></sup></p>
          <p>Beyond LDL-C, other lipid-related particles such as lipoprotein(a) (Lp[a]) are gaining increasing attention, as growing evidence links them to cardiovascular events.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B18">18</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B26">26</xref></sup> Additionally, lipids such as sphingolipids &#8212; named after the enigmatic Sphinx of ancient mythology, reflecting their once-mysterious biological role &#8212; have also emerged as potential risk markers.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B27">27</xref></sup></p>
          <p>The development of non-statin therapies has been described as ushering in a new era of lipid management.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref></sup> Innovations such as monoclonal antibodies, RNA-based therapies, and the targeting of novel pathways &#8212; most notably PCSK9 modulation &#8212; are at the forefront of this evolution.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B8">8</xref></sup></p>
          <p>When combined with advancements in imaging technologies and invasive procedures, particularly those based on percutaneous techniques, these novel therapies support a shift toward more individualized, burden-focused approaches.<sup><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B4">4</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B5">5</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B17">17</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B19">19</xref>,<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="B28">28</xref></sup></p>
        </sec>
        <sec>
          <title>Shifting paradigms and the road ahead</title>
          <p>Lipid metabolism and its modulation remain foundational to cardiovascular medicine, playing a critical role across the entire cardiovascular continuum. From the early investigations into lipid biology to the establishment of LDL-C as a central therapeutic target &#8212; and the growing recognition of other lipid particles and their interplay with inflammatory pathways &#8212; prevention strategies have undergone a profound transformation.</p>
          <p>Past innovations in this field and the valuable insights they have provided should be recognized as we continue to push the boundaries of knowledge and advance toward an era of increasingly personalized strategies to reduce the burden of ASCVD.</p>
        </sec>
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